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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


n 


3 


A 


HISTORY 


OF   TILtt 


CHRISTIAN   CHURGII. 

BY 

Dr.  CHARLES  HASE, 

PROFESSOR   OF   THEOLOGY   IN   TUE   UNIVERSITY    OF   JENA. 

^raiislattb  tot  t^e  3tk\\i\  u)i  mtl}  im^r^btij  German  (^Viim, 

BY 

CHARLES  E.  BLUMENTHAL, 

PROFESSOR   OF  HKBREW    AND    OF   MODERN   LANGUAGES   IN    DICKINSON   COLLEGE, 


CONWAY  P.  WING, 

PASTOR  OF  THE  FIRST  PRISBYTERIAN  Cia'RCU  IN  CARLISLE,  PENNSYLVANIA- 


NEW  YORK: 
D.    APPLETON    AND    COMPANY, 

5  4  9    &    5  5  1    BROADWAY. 
1875. 


Entered,  according'  to  Act  of  Congress,  In  tlic  year  IStÄ,  fc» 

D.  APPLETON  A  COMPANY. 

In  tho  (  !erk".s  Ollico  of  ilio  District  Court  for  tlio  Southern  District  of  Xew  YorK. 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE. 


This  translation  was  undertaken  because  its  authors  knew  of  no 
work  in  English  which  precisely  corresponded  with  it.  The  his- 
tories of  Milner,  Waddington,  Milman,  Stebbing,  Hardwicke 
and  Robertson,  and  the  translations  of  Mosheim,  Neander,  Dol- 
linger,  Thiersch  and  Schaft',  have  severally  specific  merits  with 
reference  to  the  objects  of  their  composition  ;  but  many  of  them 
are  incomplete  as  general  histories,  most  of  them  were  written 
so  as  to  give  undue  prominence  to  some  single  aspect  of  the 
characters  and  events  of  which  they  treat,  and  all  of  them  are  too 
large  to  be  used  either  as  manuals  for  the  scholar,  as  text-books 
for  the  instructor,  or  as  compendiums  for  the  general  reader. 
Some  attempts  to  supply  the  deficiency  by  Palmer,  Timpson, 
Foulkes,  Hinds,  Goodrich  and  Ruter,  have  met  with  no  very 
general  acceptance,  A  miniature  representation  of  a  vast  mass 
of  facts,  in  which  each  personage  and  event  shall  appear  in  their 
individual  freshness  and  relative  proportions,  requires  for  its  exe- 
cution peculiar  talents  and  rare  opportunities.  The  Germans 
appear  to  possess  these  in  a  greater  degree  than  any  other  people. 
Their  learned  men  highly  appreciate  the  value  of  such  manuals, 
and  their  literature  abounds  in  them.  One  of  these,  by  Dr. 
Gieseler,  has  been  translated,  and  is  almost  invaluable.  But  its 
text  is  a  mere  epitome  of  results,  and  bears  no  proportion  to  the 
vast  materials  in  the  notes  ,  and  the  narrative  awakens  no  in- 
terest.    It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  graphic  picture,  or  an  ex- 


IV  TUaNSLATORS    PKKrACi:. 

prcssioii  of  ll'cliii^  in  tho  whole  work.  Even  the  postliuinou.s 
voliimc  wliith  has  been  promised,  will  leave  the  history  incomplete. 
The  (U'liiy  which  hus  taken  i)lacc  in  the  appearance  of  this 
work  has  aUbrJod  many  opportunities  of  learning  how  nmcli  this 
deficiency  was  appreciated  by  competent  scholars  in  England  and 
America.  From  the  letters  we  have  received,  and  from  public 
journals,  we  might  present  many  testimonies,  not  only  that  such 
a  work  was  needed,  but  that  nothing  in  the  literature  of  the 
present  day  was  so  likely  to  supply  the  deficiency  as  a  transla- 
tion of  the  work  we  had  announced.  Tlie  style  of  our  author  is 
especially  adapted  to  the  Anglo-Saxon  mind ;  his  astonishing 
power  of  condensed  expression, — his  aesthetic,  if  not  religious  sym- 
pathies, with  every  variety  of  intellectual  and  moral  greatness, — 
his  skilful  daguerreotypes  of  characters  by  means  of  the  trans- 
mitted light  of  contemporary  language, — the  delicate  irony  and 
genial  humor  which  pervade  his  descriptions, — the  picturesque 
liveliness  with  which  a  single  character  or  incident  brings  out 
the  manners  and  spirit  of  an  age, — the  precision  with  which 
his  scientific  arrangement  is  preserved,  the  critical  judgment 
with  which  the  minutest  results  of  recent  investigations  are  in- 
troduced,— and  the  graceful  proportion  and  animation  with  which 
the  whole  stands  out  before  us,  render  his  history  attractive  to 
all  kinds  of  readers.  He  throws  away  every  name  or  event  which 
has  no  historical  utility  or  organic  life  ;  he  appreciates  an  heroic 
spirit  wherever  it  a])pears,  and  each  period  is  estimated  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  its  own  light.  His  is  not  merely  a  history  of  the 
hierarchy,  of  the  nobility,  or  of  great  men,  but  of  the  Church. 
His  descriptions,  therefore,  embrace  especially  traits  of  common 
life,  the  progress  of  the  arts,  and  indications  of  advancement  in 
social  freedom.  If  his  theological  opinions  do  not  quite  coincide 
with  our  own,  he  seldom,  at  least  in  this  work,  obtrudes  them 
upon  our  attention.  His  object  seems  to  have  been  to  maintain 
historical  accuracy,  rather  than  to  exhibit  his  own  opinions  ;  and 
if  sometimes  our  favorite  characters,  or  views,  do  not  appear  in 
the  light  in  which  we  have  usually  contemplated  them,  his  uni- 
form impartiality  and  intelligence  make  us  suspect  our  earlier 
judgments.  None  but  those  who  observe  the  structure  rather 
than  the  particular  dogmatic  expressions  of  this  work,  will  be 


TRANSLATORS    PREFACE.  V 

likely  to  detect  the  author's  i^eculiar  views,  and  such  readers  can 
afford  to  give  them  whatever  consideration  they  deserve.  A  strik- 
ing comparison  has  been  drawn  between  him  and  a  living  English 
historian  and  essayist,  but  the  reference  can  be  only  to  the  live- 
liness and  brilliancy  of  his  historical  scenes,  and  not  to  the  mi- 
nute space  in  which  the  picture  of  more  than  eighteen  centuries 
is  presented. 

As  soon  as  we  had  determined  to  translate  the  work,  the 
author  was  informed  of  our  intention,  and  we  publish  his  re])ly 
to  our  communication.  Unforeseen  difficulties,  however,  delayed 
the  publication  of  our  work,  and  when  more  than  a  hundred 
pages  had  been  stereotyped,  we  received  a  copy  of  the  seventh 
edition,  with  numerous  corrections  and  additions.  We  have  cer- 
tainly no  reason  to  regret  such  an  occurrence,  although  it  im- 
posed on  us  the  necessity  of  recalling  and  rewriting  a  large 
portion  of  our  manuscript.  We  submitted,  however,  with  cheer- 
fulness to  the  necessity,  since  we  are  now  able  to  present  an 
edition  in  which  some  errors  have  been  corrected,  the  results  of 
recent  research,  especially  with  respect  to  the  second  and  third 
centuries,  have  been  incorporated,  and  the  eventful  history  of  the 
last  seven  years  has  been  added.  In  an  Appendix,  we  present 
every  thing  of  importance  added  by  the  author  in  the  part  which 
had  been  already  struck  off.  But  as  we  were  obliged  in  this  first 
part  to  retain  the  numbers  of  the  sections  used  in  the  sixth 
edition,  and  subsequently  to  adopt  those  used  in  the  seventh, 
some  confusion  has  necessarily  been  created.  Should  a  new 
edition  be  called  for,  we  hope  not  only  to  remove  this  defect,  but 
to  adapt  the  work  to  an  American  position.  The  section  on 
America  (§  462)  has  been  already,  with  the  author's  concur- 
rence, rewritten  and  enlarged.  Considerable  pains  have  also 
been  taken  to  adapt  the  references  and  authorities  to  the  present 
state  of  English  literature,  and  some  references  to  German  trans- 
lations of  English  and  French  works  have  been  omitted,  but 
eveiy  addition  is  indicated  by  brackets.  We  arc  well  aware  that 
our  work  has  many  faults  after  all  our  revisions  and  efforts  to 
correct  them,  but,  like  the  author,  we  see  no  end  to  the  labor 
which  might  be  bestowed  on  that  which  is,  by  its  nature,  neces- 
sarily imperfect.     Dr.  Hase  has  given  a  large  part  of  his  attcn- 


VI  TRANSLATOIi  S    PIU^.FACE. 

tion  to  the  originul  history  Ibr  iiioie  than  twenty  years.  He  was 
born  in  the  year  1800  at  Steinbach.  In  1823,  he  was  a  private 
instructor  in  Theology  at  Tubingen  ;  in  1829,  lie  was  elected  a 
Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Lei2)sic  ;  and  in  1830,  he  became  a 
Professor  of  Theology  in  Jena,  where  he  still  continues.  His 
other  works  arc  :  The  Old  Pastor's  Testament,  Tub.  1824  ;  The 
Murder  of  Justice,  a  Vow  of  the  Church,  Lps.  182G  ;  A  Manual 
of  Evang.  Dogmatik,  Lps.  1826,  4th  and  much  enlarged  edit., 
Lps.  1850 ;  Gnosis,  Li:)s.  1827-29,  3  vols.  ;  Hutterus  Kedivivus, 
or  Dogmatik  of  the  Evang.  Luth.  Church,  Lps.  1829,  7  cd.  in 
1848  (a  work  whose  purely  historical  account  involved  him  in 
a  controversy  with  Rohr,  the  great  champion  of  Rationalism, 
and  led  to  a  series  of  i>olemical  works  on  that  subject)  ;  The 
Life  of  Christ,  Lps.  1829,  4th  imp.  edit.  1854  ;  Libri  Symbolici 
Ecclesiae  Evangelicae  sive  Concordia,  of  which  the  3d  ed.  ap- 
peared in  Lps.  1846  ;  The  Two  Archbishops,  (referring  to  the 
difficulties  in  the  dioceses  of  Cologne  and  Posen,)  Lps.  1839  ; 
The  Good  Old  Law  of  the  Church,  two  academical  discourses, 
2d  ed.  Lps.  1847  ;  The  Evang.  Prot.  Church  of  the  German 
Empire,  on  Ecclesiastical  Law,  2d  ed.  Lps.  1852  ;  The  Modern 
Prophets,  three  Lectures  on  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  Savonarola, 
and  the  Kingdom  of  the  Anabaptists,  Lps.  1851.  He  has  also 
recently  been  engaged  in  the  publication  of  Didot's  new  edition 
of  Stephanus'  Thesaurus  Grecae  Linguae,  of  which  the  seventh 
part  has  just  appeared. 


..AUTHOR'S  LETPER  TO  THE  TRANSLATORS. 


To  Prof.  C.  E.  Blumenthal  and  Rev.  C.  P.  Witig  :— 

Dear  Sirs  : — Between  him  who  incorporates  in  a  book  the  results 
of  his  Tno>st  serious  and  profound  mental  labors,  and  those  who  from  a 
cordial  preference  endeavor  to  introduce  and  interpret  it  to  a  foreign 
nation,  must  naturally  spring  up  such  an  intimate  intellectual  sympathy, 
that  it  would  seem  surprising  for  them,  if  contemporaries,  to  remain 
strangers  to  each  other.  I,  therefore,  hail  with  grateful  feelings  the 
kind  letter  you  have  sent  me  across  the  ocean,  and  in  imagination  grasp 
the  hand  of  fraternal  fellowship  extended  to  me  from  the  land  of 
William  Penn. 

You  have  doubtless  already  discovered  that  no  ordinary  obstacles 
were  to  be  surmounted  before  a  good  translation  of  my  Church  History 
could  be  made,  as  my  object  was  to  compress  the  most  perfect  picture 
of  the  religious  life  developed  in  the  Church  into  the  smallest  frame ; 
and  hence  I  was  compelled  to  be  very  parsimonious  in  the  use  of  words, 
and  to  refer  to  the  original  authorities  for  many  things  plain  to  the 
learned,  but  obscure  to  the  learner.  A  French  translation,  once  at- 
tempted, split  upon  this  rock.  I  hope,  however,  that  in  a  sister  lan- 
guage, so  essentially  Germanic  as  the  English,  these  difficulties  may  be 
more  easily  overcome,  and  such  a  confidence  is  encouraged  by  the  fact, 
that  in  a  Danish  translation  they  have  been  completely  vanquished. 

If  I  remember  correctly,  an  attempt  to  translate  my  work  was  once 
made  in  England,  but  was  abandoned  on  account  of  its  supposed  incon- 
sistency with  tlie  views  of  the  Established  Church.  You  have  doubtless 
considered  how  far  this  objection  should  prevail  with  reference  to  the 
Church  of  your  country,  if  the  numerous  and  varied  communities  which 
have  pitched  their  tents  under  the  banner  of  the  stars  and  stripes  may 

B 


viii  autiiou'h  lkttkk  to  tiii;   i  uanslatous. 

l.p  truly  Hpokon  of  as  a  single  Church.  I  trust,  however,  that  omonj? 
those  who  study  history  froni  a  lii;^her  position  than  that  of  a  party,  an 
assimilation  of  views  will  gradually  prevail  respecting  the  silent  opii;- 
ions  and  facts  which  lie  behind  us  in  the  past.  I  have  at  least  honestly 
aimed  to  recognize  in  its  proper  light  every  clement  in  any  way  dra^vn 
around  our  common  Lord.  I  have  thus  endeavored  to  approach  ay. 
nearly  as  ])ossil»le  that  exalted  position  from  which  the  history  of  Tivs 
Church  will  be  regardeil  by  Christ  himself,  not  merely  as  the  Judge  oC  ' 
juick  and  dead,  but  as  the  faithful  Shepherd  seeking  the  lost  Tainb. 

^lay  my  poor  book,  therefore,  be  dressed  once  more  in  a  langu^.ge 
spoken  on  every  ocean  and  coast,  and  so  come  back  to  me  from  a  wr^rld 
to  which,  as  to  another  holy  land,  hosts  of  peaceful  crusaders  are  an- 
nually jiouring  to  plant  anew  their  hopes,  and  to  realize  thcii:  Inng- 
cliorishcd  ideals  in  subsc(iuent  generations.  The  brief  notice  oi*  the 
Church  in  the  United  States  you  propose  to  substitute  for  my  srctJon 
on  that  subject,  will  doubtless  better  adapt  the  work  to  your  country. 
Whenever  the  universal  interest  of  the  Church  was  the  topic,  .1  have 
myself  given  more  space  to  the  Church  of  my  fathers.  I  lif\ve  no 
doubt  that  the  alliance  commenced  between  German  and  American  the- 
ology will  prove  a  blessing  to  both.  Both  nations  have  l-^irtainly  a 
"vcat  mission  assigned  them  in  ecclesiastical  history,  wIul-Ii  each  must 
accomplish  in  its  own  peculiar  manner. 

The  sixth  edition  made  its  appearance  just  before  the  storm  which 
has  since  broken  over  central  Europe.  Pius  IX.,  hK-ing  been  driven 
from  his  beautiful  Babylon  by  an  insurrection  whieh./ic  could  not  allay 
by  kindness,  has  been  restored  by  republican  France,  to  substitute  a 
government  of  priests  and  Jesuits  for  a  Roman  Republic.  The  French 
clergy  have  also  hastily  concluded  to  send  up  the  petition  "  Dominc, 
salvam  fac  rempublicam,"  as  long  as  a  dcmof/i'iitic  republic  can  be  main- 
tained in  France.  In  Germany,  our  national  Assembly  at  Frankfort 
not  only  proclaimed  the  gospel  of  liberty  for  the  Church,  and  the  fun- 
damental rights  of  the  German  nation,  but  going  beyond  the  people 
whom  they  professed  to  regard  as  their  model,  they  threatened  to  di- 
vest the  state  of  all  Christian  or  religious  character.  The  more  con- 
siderate of  our  nation  sent  forth  their  warnings  against  such  a  rupture 
with  all  historical  traditions,  and  painful  political  events  have  since 
shown  that  the  immediate  object  of  the  Protestant  German  Church 
should  be  much  more  cautious  and  consonant  with  the  national  spirit 
This  object  unijuestionably  is,  to  give  to  the  Church  the  administration 
of  its  own  aflfuirs,  in  alliance  with  a  state  under  which  the  right  of 
citizenship  shall  depend  upon  no  creed,  and  the  gospel  of  Christ  shall 
be  proclaimed  as  the  highest  principle  of  right. 


author's  letter  to  the  translators.  ix 

In  the  Catholic  Church,  the  independence  of  the  state  secured  tc 
the  hierarchy  by  the  revolution,  was  made  subservient  to  such  an  enor- 
mous increase  of  its  powers,  that  the  freedom  of  the  inferior  clergy  and 
of  the  congregations  is  seriously  endangered.  What  was  called  Ger- 
man Catholicism,  has  shown,  as  the  more  sagacious  perceived  from  the 
commencement,  that  it  lacked  the  religious  energy  necessary  to  effect  a 
reform  in  the  Christian  Church.  Since  it  has  ceased  to  be  harassed  by 
political  obstructions  it  has  dwindled  into  an  insignificant  sect.  But  in 
the  contest  between  a  merely  prescriptive  Christianity,  and  the  pro- 
gressive spirit  of  modern  improvement,  many  a  severe  conflict  must 
doubtless  yet  take  place,  before  Christ  in  this  respect  also  will  manifest 
himself  as  the  Mediator. 

Karl  Hask. 

Je.-ta,  May  7th,  1830. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

In-  composing  the  following  work,  my  intention  was  to  present  a  text- 
book to  the  public,  and  to  accomplish  this,  I  resolved  to  devote  to  it  all 
the  severe  labor  and  concentration  of  effort  which  such  an  object  requires. 
But  I  was  aware  that  however  the  general  outline  might  be  condensed,  the 
living  freshness  which  we  find  in  the  original  monuments  and  documents 
of  each  historical  period,  should  be  preserved  unimpaired.  Instead, 
therefore,  of  endeavoring,  like  most  of  those  who  have  prepared  such 
works,  to  present  only  that  which  is  general  aud  indefinite,  I  have  con- 
tinually aimed  to  hold  up  that  which  in  each  age  possessed  most  of  in- 
dividual and  distinct  character;  and  when  it  became  indispensable  that 
some  general  grand  features  should  be  rendered  prominent,  I  have 
sought  to  make  these  so  suggestive  of  the  particular  facts,  that  recollec- 
tions of  the  most  minute  circumstances  should  throng  the  mind  of  the 
instructor.  In  this  way,  the  attention  will  be  aroused  while  in  the  pro- 
cess of  preparation,  and  the  memory  will  be  strengthened  in  its  recollec- 
tions, since  whatever  is  characteristic  awakens  sympathy,  and  fastens 
itself  in  the  memory.  In  this  respect,  it  may  be  said  that  what  belongs 
to  a  good  text-book,  is  also  an  essential  part  of  every  historical  repre- 
sentation. In  every  century  many  noble  spirits  have  found  their  prin- 
cipal delight,  and  expended  all  their  energies,  in  investigating  subjects 
connected  with  ecclesiastical  history.  And  yet  for  a  long  time  the  com- 
position of  ecclesiastical  history  seems  by  no  means  to  have  retained  the 
eminent  relative  position  which  it  held  in  former  days.  Without  refer- 
ring to  historians  of  an  earlier  period,  where  have  we  any  works  upon 
Church  History  whose  excellence  as  historical  compositions  can  be  com- 
pared with  those  of  Machiavel,  Hume,  and  John  Müller  ?  Even 
among  the  most  recent  ecclesiastical  histories,  that  of  Spittler  is  the 
only  work  which  can  stand  the  test  of  a  critical  examination  by  the  con- 
temporary literary  world ;  but  its  Christian  character  is  so  obviously 
one-sided,  that  every  one  perceives  that  in  this  respect  it  is  far  inferior 


PKEFACE    TO    THE   FIRST    EDITION.  XI 

to  that  of  Neander.  la  thus  expressing  my  general  design,  my  object 
is  to  show  what  has  been  my  aim,  however  far  I  have  come  short  of  at- 
taining it.  In  these  remarks,  however,  I  have  had  very  little  reference 
to  the  mere  literary  style  ;  for,  with  respect  to  this,  we  in  Germany 
generally  need,  and  actually  receive,  much  allowance  for  the  dry  form 
of  a  compendium.  I  rather  refer  to  such  a  careful  study  of  original 
authorities  that  the  objects  and  events  assume  the  living  freshness  of 
reality,  and  to  a  complete  intellectual  apprehension  of  the  facts.  I  have 
also  bestowed  some  attention  upon  a  f  eculiar  department  of  history, 
which,  though  it  has  in  former  times  been  noticed  by  all  genuine  eccle- 
siastical historians,  never  became  prominent  until  the  appearance  of  the 
venerable  Neander's  History  of  the  Christian  Religion.  I  do  not,  how- 
ever, b}'  any  means  expect  that  my  present  work  will  receive  very  de- 
cided favor  from  those  who,  in  a  peculiar  sense,  belong  to  the  school  of 
Neander,  since  it  was  certainly  not  so  much  my  special  object  to  search 
out  what  was  spiritual  and  devotional  among  the  people,  as  it  was  al- 
ways to  seize  upon  what  was  characteristic  of  the  popular  religion.  In 
the  greatness  and  completeness  of  such  a  representation,  there  must  of 
course  always  be  much  adapted  to  inspire  devotional  feelings,  and,  ac- 
cordingly, I  have  constantly  felt  that  I  was  writing  the  history  of  the 
actual  kingdom  of  God  on  earth.  But  as  men  have  often  turned 
that  which  was  reall}'  sublime  into  a  caricature,  many  individual  points 
must  necessarily  be  far  enough  from  edifying. 

There  are  some  subjects  not  usually  introduced  into  an  ecclesiastical 
history,  to  which  I  have  awarded  a  right  to  a  position  there,  because 
they  had  their  origin  in  the  Church.  Indeed,  in  most  of  the  larger 
Church  Histories,  nearly  all  of  them  have  had  a  certain  kind  of  con- 
sideration already  bestowed  upon  them.  Such  is,  e.  g.,  the  treatment 
which  Schroeckh  has  given  to  the  subject  of  Christian  art,  although  the 
style  in  which  he  has  written  must  be  confessed  to  have  been  singularly 
awkward.  In  his  Encyclopedia,  Koseukranz  has  also  assigned  a  due 
degree  of  importance  to  the  subject  of  ecclesiastical  architecture.  On 
the  other  hand.  I  have  omitted  many  things  ordinarily  mentioned  even 
in  the  smallest  compendiuras.  I  have,  however,  so  little  disposition  to 
offer  an  apology  for  this,  that  I  am  rather  inclined  to  reproach  myself 
that,  especially  on  the  subject  of  Patristics,  I  so  far  yielded  to  usage 
that  I  allowed  many  topics  to  retain  their  ordinary  position,  which 
certainly  have  no  right  to  a  place  in  history.  On  various  occasions  it 
has  recently  been  asserted  that  ecclesiastical  history  ought,  at  least  in 
a  course  of  academical  instruction,  to  throw  out  a  portion  of  its  ballast. 
And  yet  we  can  hardly  think  that  a  proper  remedy  for  our  difficulties 
would  be  found  in  the  plan  proposed  by  Tittmann,  according  to  which 


xii  PREFACK    TO    THE    FIUKT    EDITION. 

our  future  historicH  must  be  conflned  to  an  account  of  the  proraul/ration 
of  Christianity,  and  of  the  internal  constitution  of  the  Church.  For,  it 
must  readily  be  perceived,  that  no  true  representation  of  the  actual 
condition  of  the  Church  could  ever  be  made  by  one  who  confined  him- 
self to  such  arbitrary  restrictions.  If,  indeed,  an  ecclesiastical  history 
ehould  attempt  merely  to  present  a  connected  account  of  all  theological 
.iteraturo,  it  would  go  beyond  its  peculiar  province,  and  become  an  en- 
cyclopedia of  theological  knowledge.  No  particular  event  connected 
with  theological  science  ever  needs  to  be  noticed,  except  when  it  becomes 
important  as  a  prominent  circumstance  belonging  to  the  age,  and  may 
properly  be  regarded  as  characteristic  of  the  times.  AVc  cannot,  how- 
ever, entirely  dispense  with  some  account  of  the  received  doctrines  of 
the  Church.  Although  a  separate  history  of  these  is  of  the  highest  im- 
portance to  the  interests  of  theological  science,  the  ecclesiastical  his- 
torian cannot  on  that  account  omit  all  reference  to  the  subject ;  for  how 
could  the  ecclesiastical  movements  of  the  fourth,  fifth  and  sixth  centuries 
be  adequately  described  without  noticing  the  various  forms  and  processes 
through  which  the  doctrinal  views  of  the  Church,  and  its  difierent  sects, 
then  passed,  and  by  which  the  character  of  those  great  movements  was 
determined  1  Indeed,  bow  could  a  clear  representation  be  given  of  any 
period  of  the  Church,  unless  it  included  some  account  of  the  system  of 
faith  which  animates  and  sustains  the  whole.  There  is,  in  reality,  only 
a  formal  distinction  between  the  history  of  doctrines  as  a  special  science, 
and  as  an  element  in  the  general  history  of  the  Church ;  for,  aside  from 
the  difference  in  the  outward  extent  with  which  the  subject  is  necessarily 
treated,  they  only  refer  to  the  difierent  poles  of  the  same  axis, — the 
former  presenting  the  doctrine  rather  as  an  idea  unfolding  its  own  self, 
and  the  latter  exhibiting  it  in  its  relation  to  surrounding  events.  Eut 
the  principal  method  by  which  ecclesiastical  history  was  to  be  simplified, 
was  by  discarding  a  mass  of  useless  material.  Nothing  is  a  part  of 
history  which  has  not  at  some  period  possessed  actual  life,  and  con- 
sequently become  immortal,  by  exhibiting  in  itself  a  true  refraction  of 
the  Christian  spirit ;  for,  as  God  is  only  the  God  of  the  living,  so  history 
is  not  a  record  of  that  which  is  lifeless  and  dead,  but  of  that  which  has 
a  perpetual  lifo.  "\Ye  have,  however,  hitherto  dragged  along  a  vast 
multitude  of  these  still-born  trifles.  Of  what  benefit  can  it  be,  at  least 
for  students,  to  have  it  in  their  power  to  repeat  the  names  of  all  those 
persons  who  have  been  only  remotely  connected  with  the  different  events 
mentioned  in  history, — of  Synods  which  decided  upon  nothing,  of  popes 
who  never  governed,  and  of  authors  who  wrote  nothing  of  importance. 
A  veneration  for  the  names  of  these  silent  personages,  of  whom  nothing 
is  recorded  but  the  year  of  their  death,  has  induced  many  even  of  our 


PREFACE   TO    THE   FIRST    EDITIOl?.  3011 

greatest  ecclesiastical  historians  to  fill  whole  pages  of  their  works  with 
the  useless  catalogue.  Should  any  one  think  that  it  is  the  business  of 
the  instructor  to  quicken  these  dry  bones  by  giving  an  account  of  their 
works,  he  certainly  has  very  little  idea  of  the  range  of  topics  embraced 
in  the  academic  lecture ;  and  I  appeal  to  the  CKpericnce  of  any  one  who 
has  ever  gone  through  with  the  text-book  of  Staudlin  or  of  Muenseher, 
and  inquire  whether  he  has  found  it  possible  to  animate  the  masses 
found  in  them ;  or  if  he  has  been  successful  in  this,  whether  he  has 
found  any  advantages  worth  the  trouble?  I  have  endeavored,  as  far  as 
possible,  to  avoid  such  useless  verbiage  in  the  text,  for,  although  a  man- 
ual should  be  expected  to  require  much  explanation  from  the  living 
teacher,  it  should  also  possess  some  character  of  its  own.  By  adopting 
this  plan,  opportunity  has  been  acquired  for  a  more  extensive  notice  of 
those  matters  which  were  really  important,  and  it  will  sometimes  be 
found  that  I  have  given  to  such  topics  as  much  space  as  they  ordinarily 
receive  in  larger  works.  It  is  possible,  indeed,  that  a  degree  of  dispro- 
portion may  be  discovered  between  the  attention  bestowed  upon  different 
individual  subjects ;  but  it  was  never  intended  that  the  most  diffuse  por- 
tions should  take  the  place  of  the  oral  lecture,  but  rather  excite  the 
reader  to  examine  more  thoroughly  into  the  minutest  particulars.  The 
principle  on  which  this  has  been  done  may  be  found  expressed  in  the 
third  section  of  the  work.  The  academic  instruction  will  at  least  assist 
the  student  in  gaining  a  complete  view  of  an  age,  if  it  only  presents  that 
age  most  thoroughly  in  the  lives  of  its  individual  men ;  and  it  is  pre- 
cisely by  such  a  concrete  representation  of  exalted  particular  agents 
that  the  most  distinct  impression  is  produced  upon  the  memory. 
Shakspeare  says,  in  one  of  his  prologues,  "  I  pray  you,  look  upon  the 
broil  of  a  few  players  as  if  it  were  a  real  battle  ! "  In  like  manner,  the 
historian  may  request  his  readers  to  regard  the  intellectual  chiefs  and 
representatives  of  a  particular  period  as  the  age  itself  Such  a  course 
is  not  one  which  I  have  myself  originally  discovered,  but  it  is  the 
necessary  result  of  the  multiplication  of  those  admirable  biographies  of 
which  Neandcr  has  given  us  such  eminent  specimens,  and  to  the  compo- 
sition of  which  his  example  has  so  much  contributed. 

The  reader  will  sometimes  meet  with  very  peculiar  expressions,  such 
as  no  one  would  reasonably  have  expected  from  my  own  pen.  The  ex- 
perienced reader  of  history  will  readily  perceive  that  these  are  quotations 
which  I  have  taken  as  a  kind  of  catch-words  from  the  original  authori- 
ties. I  might  frequently  have  designated  them  as  such  by  some  mark, 
but  they  are  generally  so  interwoven  and  imperceptibly  blended  with 
my  own  words,  that  if  I  had  attempted  to  distinguish  the  words  of  othw 


Xiv  rUKKACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

uuthors  from  my  own,  my  history  would  lia  re  had  almost  the  aspect  of 
mosaic  work. 

Although  I  have  never  concealed  my  own  opinions,  I  have  generally 
preferred  to  lot  the  facts  of  tlie  narrative  speak  for  themselves.  I  was 
also  far  more  anxious  to  show  why  any  particular  event  came  to  pass, 
and  how  it  was  regarded  when  it  took  place,  than  to  indulge  in  those 
pedantic  reflections,  in  which  men  every  where  attempt  to  act  as  judges. 
And  yet  even  with  respect  to  secular  matters,  I  have  never  shrunk  from 
calling  every  thing  by  its  right  name.  In  the  very  darkest  times,  thoso 
who  occupied  positions  purely  ecclesiastical,  were  allowed  freely  to  call 
that  unchristian  which  was  really  so.  But  probably  most  persons  will 
think  that  when  judging  of  things  inconsistent  with  true  religion,  I  have 
used  the  full  liberty  whicli  naturally  belongs  to  my  position  and  my 
character  more  frequently  on  the  side  of  leniency  than  of  severity.  I 
have  no  doubt,  however,  that  in  both  respects  I  have  given  ample 
grounds  for  offence  to  those  who  apply  to  other  ages  the  standard  of  intelli- 
gence and  improvement  to  which  their  own  has  attained,  or  who  judge 
them  by  the  contracted  rules  of  piety  which  they  have  adopted ;  in 
whose  eyes  Catharine  of  Siena  was  merely  "  a  silly  kind  of  woman,"  and 
Julius  II.  "  il  novum  moustrum  ;  "  and  who  say  of  Cardinal  Ilildebrand, 
that,  "  the  scoundrel  even  pretended  to  work  miracles  ;  "  or  who,  on  the 
other  side,  relate  that  the  word  of  the  cross  was  ecclesiastically  abolished 
in  Weimar  in  the  year  1833.  But  judicious  men  will  not  fail  to  recog- 
nize the  same  disposition  in  all  the  apparent  changes  of  opinion  which 
have  taken  place.  They  can  regard  the  same  words  as  seasonable,  and 
indicative  of  an  exalted  mind,  Avhen  used  by  Gregory  VII.,  which  are 
nothing  but  the  helpless  lamentations  of  a  feeble  old  age  when  they  ap- 
pear in  a  Bull  of  Gregory  XVI.  With  regard  to  the  bright  side  of  the 
mediaeval  hierarchy,  and  the  dark  side  of  the  Reformation,  I  do  not 
suppose  I  need,  in  a  purely  theological  circle  of  readers,  to  guard  against 
misconstructions  with  a  solicitude  like  that  which  Van  Räumer  recently 
exhibited,  when  writing  for  the  more  general  body  of  the  people.  I 
might,  indeed,  allege  that  the  Reformation  was  so  pure,  and  so  exalted 
in  its  nature,  that  it  needs  no  concealment  of  its  darker  passages ;  but 
even  if  this  were  untrue,  I  should  nevertheless  withhold  nothing  from 
the  light.  Something  may  be  exacted  from  those  for  whom  the  present 
work  is  intended  ;  for,  though  they  may  be  young,  they  should  be  trained 
to  take  independent  and  comprehensive  views  of  history.  I  have,  there- 
fore, in  every  instance  expressed  the  whole  truth  so  far  as  I  have  myself 
known  it.  The  only  sections  in  which  I  have  allowed  any  restrictions 
were  those  which  contain  notices  of  doctrinal  history.  Among  students 
with  whom  I  am  aci][uainted,  it  is  always  a  rule  to  attend  lectures  upon 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION.  "  XV 

Ecclesiastical  History  before  those  upon  Didactic  Theology;  and  it  ap- 
pears to  nie  right  that  this  should  always  be  the  case.  I  have,  there- 
fore, in  some  instances  sacrificed  something  of  the  profundity  of  a 
scientific  investigation,  that  I  might  address  myself  more  intelligibly  to 
the  popular  mind. 

I  have  also  taken  some  liberty  in  the  general  arrangement.  No  one 
conversant  with  the  subject  would  require  that  each  historical  period 
should  be  accommodated  to  the  same  immutable  framework.  Who 
would  think  of  bringing  the  apostolic  Church  into  the  same  frame  which 
has  been  found  so  appropriate  to  the  age  of  the  Reformation  ?  And  if 
some  exceptions  must  be  conceded  by  those  who  are  most  zealous  in  be- 
half of  an  invariable  system,  we  shall  not  hesitate  to  abandon  tliis  phan- 
tom of  uniform  periods.  Neither  have  I  thought  it  necessary  when  no 
change  had  taken  place  in  some  particular  state  of  affairs,  in  all  instances 
to  announce  in  a  formal  manner,  that  such  was  the  fact,  or  to  introduce 
the  most  unimportant  details  as  I  should  have  felt  obliged  to  do,  if  I 
had  had  just  so  many  spaces  to  fill  in  each  period.  If  an  event  appcajs  not 
to  have  possessed  much  influence  until  a  period  after  that  in  which  it 
had  its  commencement,  it  will  be  mentioned  only  in  that  in  which  it  be- 
came fully  developed.  In  all  cases,  I  have  recognized  no  other  law  than 
that  which  requires  that  each  age  should  be  so  presented  that  the  clear- 
est view  of  it  may  be  obtained,  and  most  firmly  fixed  in  the  memory. 
In  some  instances,  especially  in  modern  history,  I  was  doubtful  what 
arrangement  would  be  best  adapted  to  my  purpose.  In  such  cases,  my 
final  decision  was  determined  by  a  very  slight  preponderance  of  reasons 
in  its  favor,  and  I  shall  not,  therefore,  be  surprised  if  others  should  come 
to  a  different  conclusion.  If,  however,  they  actually  consider  all  the  ad- 
vantages and  results  of  each  method,  they  will  at  least  appreciate  the 
motives  by  which  I  was  directed  in  my  selection. 

A  selected  literature  is  the  only  thing,  in  itself  of  no  importance, 
which  is  3'et  essential  to  a  text-book.  Where  it  has  been  possible,  I 
have  distinguished  between  original  authorities  and  revised  editions. 
I  have  referred  to  particular  passages  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  not 
often  as  proof-passages,  but  merely  as  significant  and  distinct  expres- 
sions of  the  age  in  which  they  were  written,  and  to  be  communicated 
verbally  by  the  lecturer  himself.  The  small  number  of  them  will  cer- 
tainly not  be  imputed  to  my  indolence  by  those  who  arc  aware  how 
easily  such  citations  are  now  to  be  obtained,  and  how  trifling  an  evidence 
they  are  of  genuine  study.  They  will  be  found  most  a])undant  in  the 
present  work  with  reference  to  recent  times  (though  without  regard  to 
the  views  of  the  contemporary  writers),  because  it  was  then  more  difii- 
cult  to  refer  to  general  original  authorities,  or  to  revised  editions  of  them. 


Xvi  PREFACE    TO    THE    THIUT)    EDITION. 

It  is,  indeed,  pohsible,  that  if  I  had  waited  ten  years  longer,  I  could 
have  ostahlished  some  of  my  positions  with  more  circumspection.  But 
if  I  had  done  so,  I  might  at  that  time  have  had  neither  the  opportunity 
nor  the  inclination  to  write  such  a  work  as  is  needed  for  a  textbook; 
and  as  I  shall  be  just  as  able  then  to  make  any  improvements  within  my 
power  upon  the  present  work,  I  hope  my  friends  will  kindly  accept 
what  I  now  have  to  present  them,  although  from  the  nature  of  such  a 
work  the  writer  is  likely  to  console  himself  at  its  close  with  the  hopo 
that  he  will  at  some  future  day  be  able  to  improve  and  perfect  it. 

Jexa,  Ascension  Day^  1834. 


PKEFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

This  Church  History  has  been  every  where  so  kindly  appreciated  and 
noticed,  that  I  have  nothing  but  my  thanks  to  offer,  as  I  present  to  the 
public  another  edition.  With  regard  to  the  division  into  periods,  and 
some  minor  details,  I  have  recently  had  occasion  to  explain  my  views 
to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  second  number  of  my  polemic  treatises. 

Jena,  March  9«A,  1836. 


PBEFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 

I  CERTAINLY  havc  rcason  to  rejoice  in  the  reception  with  which  this 
book  has  been  favored,  as  it  has  been  circulated  far  beyond  the  sphere 
for  which  it  was  originally  intended.  Such  a  result  is  especially  pleas- 
ing, as  it  indicates  that  the  interest  recently  awakened  in  ecclesiastical 
and  kindred  subjects  is  not  confined  to  matters  pertaining  exclusively 
to  the  present  generation,  but  that  men  are  anxious  to  become  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  condition  of  things  in  earlier  times,  and  to  become 
animated  by  the  rich  life  of  the  Church  during  its  whole  past  existence. 
But  while  this  is  true,  literature  itself  certainly  gains  but  little  by  this 
rapid  succession  of  new  editions,  and  it  has  really  been  a  source  of  vex- 
ation to  me  that  I  was  obliged  to  allow  so  fine  an  opportunity  to  pass 
without  contributing  more  to  the  perfection  of  this  work.  The  improve- 
ments introduced  have  generally  been  in  matters  of  no  great  importance, 
and  even  where  some  considerable  changes  have  been  made,  they  have 
not  been  the  result  of  any  comprehensive  investigations  of  my  own,  but 


PREFACE    TO    THE    THIRD    EDITION.  TVÜ 

rather  of  the  labors  of  others.  Thus,  the  section  which  relates  to 
Savonarola  has  received  some  accession  to  its  materials  from  the  re- 
searches pursued  for  a  while  in  Florence,  by  my  former  beloved  col- 
league Meier,  and  the  historj-  of  the  Popes  since  the  Reformation  has 
gained  something  from  the  ingenious  examinations  and  careful  extracts 
from  original  documents  lately  made  by  Ranke.  Although  the  brevity 
of  a  text-book  has  not  allowed  frequent  references  to  the  German 
Mythology  of  Grimm,  this  work  has  afforded  me  much  valuable  assist- 
ance when  attempting  to  gain  a  complete  view  of  the  history  of  the 
Germanic  Church. 

Prof.  Krabbe,  in  the  Literary  Advertiser  (1837.  N.  10-12.),  besides 
giving  a  detail  of  individual  facts,  which  is  instructive  to  any  one,  and 
is  especially  worthy  of  my  particular  thanks,  has  passed  a  judgment 
upon  the  spirit  of  my  book,  by  comparing  it  with  Neander's  Church 
History  as  a  standard.  In  this  respect,  we  Germans  are  a  very  strange 
people.  If  any  one  has  succeeded  in  accomplishing  any  thing  excellent 
in  his  own  peculiar  waj-,  we  always  think  that  if  another  attempts  any 
thing  in  the  same  department,  he  must  set  about  it  in  precisely  the 
same  style.  But  the  very  fact  that  this  particular  kind  of  historical 
writing  has  had  for  its  representative  and  cultivator  one  so  eminently 
endowed  as  Neander  confessedly  is,  renders  it  comparatively  needless 
that  others  should  enter  the  same  field,  and  unlikely  that  any  should 
equal  him.  We  can  only  hope  that  he  may  have  health  sufficient,  and 
life  long  enough,  to  complete  his  great  work.  If,  however,  it  is  thought 
that  a  textbook  in  his  style  is  desirable.  Dr.  Guerike  has  certainly 
made  the  most  diligent  use  of  his  pages,  and  should  it  be  objected  that 
Guerike's  orthodoxy  is  extreme,  Neander  himself  has  trained  up  a  num- 
ber of  clever  pupils,  of  whom  more  than  one  is  competent  to  write  a 
text-book.  I  have  received  in  my  own  way  much  advantage  from 
Neander,  but  my  original  constitution  is  so  different  from  his,  and  my 
mind  has  passed  through  a  process  of  development  so  very  different, 
that  I  should  have  gained  but  little,  whatever  efforts  I  had  made  to 
imitate  him.  No  one  should  expect  to  gather  grapes  of  thorns,  though 
possibly  roses  might  be  found  upon  them. 

The  judgment  of  the  Hegelian  school  has  been  expressed  in  a  review 
by  Prof.  Hasse,  in  the  Annual  Kegistcr  of  Scientific  Criticism 
(1836.  N.  66-68.).  The  liberal  spirit  of  true  science,  and  the  friendly 
disposition  of  the  writer  cannot  be  mistaken  in  the  piece,  in  spite  of 
the  severe  terms  in  which  that  judgment  is  expressed.  He  has,  how 
ever,  done  me  some  injustice  when  he  asserts  that  I  attempted  in  my 
remarks  respecting  general  and  indefinite  expressions  in  my  first  preface, 
to  escape  from  the  universal   principles  of  philosophical  thought.      I 


Xviii  PREFACK    TO    THE    THIRD    EDITION 

Duly  iiil.iiilcd  there  to  speak  against  those  indefinite  phrases  which  ara 
Ro  coiniiuin  in  our  ordinary  text-books,  as,  c.  g.,  the  very  example  which 
I  tlien  adduced,  whore  whole  pages  arc  filled  with  names  distinguished 
(tnly  Ity  a  cross  and  a  date,  wliich  give  to  them  the  appearance  of  a 
Moravian  cemetery,  rather  than  of  an  abundant  and  varied  individual 
life.  Against  tiie  objection  that  I  indulged  too  much  in  the  description 
of  minute  details,  which  might  be  urged  more  correctly  against  liistorical 
representations,  I  will  not  reply  that  it  certainly  requires  more  labor 
to  collect  such  minor  particulars  from  the  original  authorities  than  it 
docs  to  make  general  reflections  upon  the  events,  for  I  am  well  aware 
that  my  worthy  opponent  would  contend  for  the  former  as  a  part  of  his 
own  plan,  and  that  he  really  would  require  such  an  earnest  investigation 
of  facts,  as  cannot  be  performed  without  a  severe  exercise  of  thought. 
But  this  earnest  inquiry  into  the  origin  and  nature  of  things,  I  have  in 
no  instance  avoided.  With  regard  to  the  general  principles  contained 
in  the  facts  of  history,  it  will  be  found  that  the  summaries  prefixed  to 
the  periods  contain  nothing  else,  and  that  the  subsequent  details  of 
particular  and  distinct  events  may  really  be  regarded  as  a  more  ex- 
tended illustration  of  them.  But  his  account  of  my  method  of  procedure 
in  this  matter  is  not  altogether  correct.  He  says;  "The  author,  e.  g., 
instead  of  giving  us  the  true  origin  of  monasticism,  presents  us  with  a 
description  of  St.  Anthony ;  and  even  of  him,  we  have  merely  a  series 
of  peculiar  traits  of  character  expressed  in  the  most  pithy  style."  And 
yet  just  before  the  section  alluded  to,  a  complete  general  view  of  the 
origin  and  spirit  of  that  whole  theory  of  religious  life  cut  of  which 
necessarily  proceeded  a  style  of  living,  of  which  that  of  the  anchorets 
was  an  extreme  form,  had  been  presented  (now  ^  64.),  and  in  the  next 
period,  when  that  which  properly  may  be  called  the  monastic  life  came 
before  us,  a  similar  general  representation  of  the  true  object  and  spirit 
of  this  style  of  life  is  given  (now  ^  134.).  The  reviewer  proceeds: 
"  We  are  then  presented  in  a  similar  style  with  a  portraiture  of  Cyprian 
(now  ^  84.),  as  the  representative  of  the  whole  ecclesiastical  life  of  his 
age,  and  a  characteristic  incident  in  the  life  of  Leo  the  Great  is  given 
as  a  specimen  of  the  mode  in  which  the  Koman  bishops  drew  into  their 
own  hands  the  administration  of  the  government  of  the  whole  Church  " 
But  in  the  first  instance  here  mentioned,  the  account  of  Cyprian  was 
preceded  by  a  history  of  the  process  by  which  the  legal  relations  of  the 
Church  had  been  formed,  and  by  some  notice  of  the  general  character- 
istics of  the  ecclesiastical  life  ;  and  in  the  other  case,  all  the  antecedent 
principles  had  already  been  mentioned  by  means  of  which  the  Roman 
see  had  gained  a  consciousness  of  its  future  destiny.  Cyprian  and  Leo 
are  described  to  a  greater  extent  than  others,  because  they  were  re- 


PREFACE    TO   THE   THIRD    EDITION,  XlX 

garded  as  the  natural  representatives  of  this  peculiar  phase  of  the  eccle- 
siastical life.  My  object  was  in  this  way  to  bring  the  abstract  principles 
which  I  had  laid  down  into  a  concrete  representation  by  means  of  these 
important  individual  characters,  inasmuch  as  I  had  certainly  supposed 
this  to  be  the  proper  method  in  which  history  should  be  written.  I 
suppose  I  must  submit  when  our  critic  condescends  to  impute  every 
thing  which  he  approves  in  this  history  to  what  he  calls  '•  the  happy 
tact  of  the  writer,  which  enables  him  to  discover  things  as  it  were  by 
instinct  or  divination,"  because  he  did  not  find  ihem  proceeding  from 
Hegelian  principles,  and  they  were  not  embellished  with  the  well-known 
formulae  of  his  own  school.  I  am  not,  indeed,  one  of  those  who  strive 
to  affect  ignorance  of  those  results  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy  which 
have  had  so  general  an  influence  upon  the  history  of  our  world.  But 
with  respect  to  historical  writing,  Marheineke's  History  of  the  Reforma- 
tion has  put  the  question  beyond  all  doubt,  that  a  man  can  be  an  emi- 
nent historian,  and  at  the  same  time  a  friend  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy ; 
and  yet  there  are  already  some  symptoms  that  a  zealous  Hegelian  may 
pretty  thoroughly  ruin  the  history  which  he  attempts  to  write.  Indeed, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  if  a  history  of  the  Church  were  written,  even 
by  a  writer  as  profound  as  Daub  himself,  on  the  principles  and  method 
lately  recommended  by  him  in  the  Jouinial  for  Speculative  Theology,  it 
would  turn  out  to  be  utterly  unreadable  to  most  of  our  race.  At  any 
rate,  we  may  console  ourselves  with  the  recollection,  that  since  the  time 
of  Thucydides  there  have  been  some  writers  who,  by  a  happy  tact,  or 
by  divination,  have  been  able  to  produce  something  like  tolerable  his- 
tories, although  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were  guided  by  Hegelian 
principles,  or  used  Hegelian  formulae. 

It  has  been  pleasant  to  me  to  find  that  some  learned  men  of  the 
Catholic  Church  have  recognized  my  honest  intention  to  be  uniformly 
just  toward  their  Churcli,  and  to  declare  the  whole  truth  in  every  case. 
It  would  hardly  be  candid  in  the  different  parties  generally  to  expect 
from  each  other  more  than  such  acknowledgments  of  good  will,  since  it 
must  necessarily  be  a  condition  of  their  different  ecclesiastical  positions 
that  the  same  events  should  have  a  different  aspect  in  the  view  of  each, 
and  that  one  should  always  find  something  of  which  it  disapproves  in 
the  accounts  of  the  other.  But  it  is  no  small  gain  when  both  are  con- 
vinced of  each  other's  good  will.  I  refer  particularly  to  a  criticism  by 
Prof  Ilrfck,  in  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Tubingen,  (1836,  N.  4.)  He 
is  entirely  correct  when  he  says,  that  what  I  have  written  in  ^  333, 
where  it  is  said,  "  the  idols  were  burned,"  was  not  intended  to  express 
my  own  view.  Nor  is  it  precisely  meant  as  an  expression  of  what 
Zwingle  himself  believed  on  the  subject.    It  is  rather  the  view  and  the 


XX  PREFACK    TO    THK    TFIII'J)    KlUTION. 

lanj»uago  of  tho  whole  generation  in  that  viciuity  from  which  this  de 
8tr\ictioii  of  th*'  iinajje»  proceeik-il ;  and  although  the  expression  is  rather 
rmlr,  it  was  sedi-ctctl  as  the  briefest  by  whieh  the  motives  of  the  actora 
could  be  made  known.  In  the  passage  in  whieh  Amsdorf's  installation 
as  Hishop  of  Naumburg  (now  i^S  337),  is  mentioned,  I  am  bettor  agreed 
with  the  honored  Kevi(!wer  than  he  seems  to  have  suspected.  For  when 
it  is  there  said,  "  The  elector  eould  not  resist  the  temptation  to  provide 
an  apostolic  bishop  for  that  see,"  it  is  not  merely  intended  that  such 
was  the  purpose  of  tlio  elector  and  his  counsellors,  and  such  the  reason 
by  which  they  satisfied  their  own  consciences  in  this  proceeding,  but  a 
slight  touch  of  irony  is  blended  with  the  whole,  and  is  indicated  iu  the 
expression,  that  tho  elector  could  not  resist  such  a  temptation,  since  the 
apostolic  character  of  this  bisliop,  in  the  opinion  of  the  court,  consisted 
principally  iu  the  fact,  that  the  new  incumbent  would  draw  but  a  small 
salary,  and  consequently  the  electoral  treasury  would  be  enriched  by 
the  ample  revenues  of  the  bishopric.  I  confess,  too,  that  I  can  see  very 
little  of  a  more  apostolic  character  in  our  Lutheran  zealot  Amsdorf 
than  in  the  mild  and  learned  Julius  von  Pflug.  But  whatever  one  may 
think  with  regard  to  these  points,  the  whole  proceeding  was  in  violation 
of  long  established  rights.  Although  a  little  surprised  that  he  should 
have  called  the  style  of  my  work  enigmatical^  I  was  happy  to  find  that 
this  Reviewer  fully  appreciated  the  view  whieh  I  had  expressed  with 
regard  to  the  relation  of  a  text-book  to  the  oral  lecture.  It  would 
seem,  however,  from  the  historical  examples  which  he  adduces,  that  he 
at  least  succeeded  in  completely  understanding  my  meaning  when  I  re 
marked,  that  the  subjects  whieh  are  more  generally  treated,  and  barely 
hinted  at,  in  the  text-book,  are  founded  upon  distinct  historical  views, 
and  are  so  presented  as  to  invite  the  instructor,  who  is  well  informed 
on  the  minute  details,  to  communicate  and  enlarge  upon  them.  The 
style  re<|uired  for  this  I  should  not  call  enigmatic,  merely  because 
those  who  have  not  become  familar  with  the  original  authorities  of  the 
history  may  find  something  not  properly  obscure,  but  to  be  passed  over 
more  superficially  than  other  subjects,  and  without  a  complete  exhaus- 
tion of  its  contents.  A  germ,  or  a  bud,  cannot,  indeed,  be  fully  seen 
until  it  has  become  expanded  in  the  flower ;  but  whoever  sees  the  bud, 
has  before  him  not  merely  an  enigma,  but  what  is  already  an  intelligible 
reality.  This  is  very  much  like  the  comparison  whieh  the  Reviewer 
made  between  the  Florentine  and  the  Roman  schools  of  painting,  to 
illustrate  the  distinction  between  Catholic  history  and  my  own,  or  the 
ordinary  orthodox  histories  of  the  Church.  Every  well-educated  persoD 
will  readily  perceive  the  import,  and  the  striking  nature  of  this  com 
parison.     But  any  one  familar  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  two  schools. 


PREFACE    TO    THE    FIFTH    EDITION.  XXI 

and  has  a  vivid  conception  of  their  productions,  will  appreciate  the 
profound  truth,  and  the  extensive  applicability  of  this  ingenious  com- 
parison. 

Jexa,  June  4:th,  1837. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FOURTH  EDITION. 

During  the  years  which  have  elapsed  while  the  previous  editions  have 
been  given  to  the  public,  I  have  had  time  and  inclination  enough  not 
only  more  thoroughly  to  investigate  many  particulars  (though  I  must 
not  withhold  my  heartiest  thanks  from  those  who  have  assisted  me),  but 
also  to  revise  the  whole,  without,  however,  changing  the  essential  char- 
acter of  the  book.  The  object  for  which  it  was  originally  intended 
would  allow  of  no  augmentation  of  its  size.  The  vastuess  of  its  subject 
rendered  all  attempts  to  render  the  contents  themselves  more  perfect  in 
their  relations  and  in  their  distinctness  an  absolutely  interminable 
task.  But  on  this  anniversary  of  the  morning  on  which,  seven  years 
ago,  the  first  preface  of  this  work  was  written,  I  am  painfully  oppressed 
by  the  recollection,  that  a  large  part  of  the  most  vigorous  and  most 
tranquil  portion  of  my  life  has  been  spent  in  eflforts  to  improve  a  work 
of  such  a  limited  extent ;  and  I  cannot  venture  upon  any  further  prom- 
ises with  regard  to  future  efforts  in  this  matter. 

Jena,  Ascension  Day,  1841. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIFTH  EDITION. 

The  ten  years  to  which  I  alluded  at  the  close  of  the  preface  to  tho 
first  edition  have  now  passed,  and  it  is  certain  that  in  an  animated  in- 
tercourse with  the  age  in  which  I  live,  many  of  the  positions  I  first  as- 
sumed have  either  been  more  carefully  verified,  or  have  been  changed. 
Either  in  the  German,  or  in  a  foreign  language,  this  work  has  found  its 
way  through  the  hands  of  the  youth  into  the  quiet  residences  of  many 
pastors,  and  even  into  palaces.  Thus,  under  the  divine  blessing,  may 
it  proceed  onward  in  its  course,  producing  in  the  Church  a  sound 
consciousness  of  her  historical  development  until  it  shall  have  fulfilled 
its  mission. 

Jexa,  Jan.  Uf,  18-i4. 


xxii  riu:i"ACK  to  tiik  sixth  kditiox. 


rREFACE  TO  THE  SIXTH  EDITION. 

Wiiati:vi;r  is  new  in  this  edition  will  be  found  principally  in  those 
portions  relating  to  the  most  ancient  and  the  most  modern  times. 
Most  of  what  I  have  added  to  the  former  has  been  occasioned  by  tho 
researches  of  the  new  school  of  Tubingen.  ■  These  were  not  altogether 
unknown  to  mc  during  the  composition  of  the  original  work,  but  in  con 
se(|uence  of  the  works  of  Baur,  Paulus  and  Schwegler,  with  reference  to 
the  period  immediately  after  the  apostles,  they  now  appear  in  more  per- 
fect relations.  I  was  in  no  danger  of  maintaining  an  obstinate  resistance 
to  the  fundamental  principles  of  their  historical  scheme,  to  avoid  the 
necessity  of  taking  back  my  former  assertions  on  the  same  subject,  for, 
in  the  first  edition,  I  had  maintained  that  a  primary  form  of  ecclesi- 
astical orthodoxy  was  Ebionism,  although  afterwards,  in  consequence  of 
the  progress  of  other  views,  this  was  regarded  as  a  heresy.  The  very 
earliest  theological  treatise  which  I  published,  as  long  ago  as  1824,  and 
which  was  quoted  by  Dr.  Schwegler  himself,  was  written  to  show  that 
the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  belonged  to  an  Ebionite  party.  And  yet  I 
have  never  been  convinced  that  the  struggle  between  the  Jewish  and  the 
Pauline  parties  continued  as  late  as  a  century  after  the  death  of  the 
apostles,  and  in  countries  beyond  the  limits  of  Palestine,  and  constituted 
the  great  moving  principle  of  the  history  and  literature  of  that  century. 
It  did  not  belong  to  a  mere  text-book  to  discuss  the  ingenious  arguments 
which  Dr.  von  Baur  lias  brought  forward,  but  my  present  revision  has 
certainly  gone  quite  far  enough  into  this  matter,  and  my  history  of  this 
oldest  period  of  Church  history  seems  almost  every  where  like  a  quiet 
conference  with  the  Tubingen  school,  by  adopting  or  controverting  whose 
positions  it  has  been  much  benefited.  I  was,  of  course,  unable  to  make 
use  at  that  time  of  the  new  edition  (1  ed.  1817.)  of  Neander's  history 
of  the  apostolic  Church.  The  abundant  materials  which  the  last  four 
years  have  aflorded,  were  easily  added,  like  new  annual  rings  and  shoots, 
to  the  old  trunk  of  the  most  modern  history. 

I  have,  for  this  once,  spared  myself  the  disagreeable  task  of  reading 
the  proof  sheets  for  the  correction  of  typographical  errors,  but  an  un- 
pleasant mistake  has  caught  my  eye  in  note  Z»,  under  i^  8,  where  my 
diligent  proof-reader,  even  in  opposition  to  grammatical  propriety,  has 
allowed  ab  orhc  condita  to  stand  as  in  the  preceding  edition. 

In  quoting  from  the  Fathers,  and  from  some  other  authors,  I  was 
sometimes  obliged  to  give  the  page,  and  I  therefore  here  mention  the 
editions  to  which  I  referred  :  Athauasii  0pp.  Par.  1627.  Clementia 
Alex.  0pp.  ed.  Potter.   Oxon.   1715.     Cypriani  0pp.  ed.  Fell.  Amst. 


PREFACE    TO   THE   SEVENTH   EDITION.  XXIU 

1713.  Epiphanii  0pp.  ed.  Petav.  Par.  1622.  Hieronymi  0pp.  ed. 
Martianay,  when  that  of  Vallarsi  is  not  expressly  mentioned.  Justini 
0pp.  ed.  Otto.  Jen.  1842s.  Leon  M.  0pp.  edd.  Ballerini.  Origenis 
0pp.  ed.  Delarue. — Grerson.  ed.  Du  Pin.  Antu.  1706.  Guicciardini. 
Ven.  1583-4.  Mattheus  Paris.  Par.  1644.  Melancth.  Epp.  in  the 
Corpus  Reformatorum  ed.  Bretschneider.  Platina.  1664.  Butch  edition. 
Trithemi  Annales  Hirsang.  S.  Gralli.  1690. 

In  the  notes  to  the  latest  modern  history,  the  abbreviations  A.  K. 
Z.  mean  the  (Darmstadt)  Allegemeine  Kirchen-Zeitung;  Ev.  K.  Z. 
mean  Evangelische  Kirchen-Zeitung ;  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  mean  Berliner 
Allgemeine  Kirchen- Zeitung;  A.  Z.  mean  Augsburger  Allgemeine 
Zeitung ;  L.  A.  Z.,  or  D.  A.  Z.,  mean  Leipziger,  afterwards  Deutsche 
Allgemeine  Zeitung.  It  may  be  that  some  public  documents  which  had 
been  published  in  the  religious,  are  quoted  from  the  political  journals, 
because  I  had  first  met  with  them  in  the  latter,  but  it  is  certainly  very 
desirable  for  future  historical  purposes,  that  our  religious  periodicals 
should  collect  in  a  more  perfect  manner  than  they  have  done  the  original 
documents,  especially  of  foreign  Churches.  This  will  become  especially 
important,  if  the  Acta  historico-ecclesiastica,  which  poor  Rheinwald  com 
raenced,  should  never  be  continued. 

Jexa,  First  Sunday  in  Advent,  184T. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SEVENTH  EDITION. 

Although  I  had  supposed  that  I  had  before  neglected  nothing,  the  re- 
vision of  this  work  for  a  new  impression  has  given  occasion  for  so  many 
improvements,  or  at  least  alterations,  that  the  immensity  of  the  affair 
has  once  more  forced  itself  upon  my  attention.  Hence  the  necessity, 
to  my  present  annoyance,  of  a  much  enlarged  edition.  I  might  very 
properly  excuse  myself  by  saying,  as  Pascal  did,  in  one  of  his  Provin- 
cial Letters,  that  I  have  no  time  to  make  it  briefer.  An  author  ought, 
indeed,  always  to  take  time  for  a  book,  since  generally  he  is  under  no 
necessity  of  publishing  prematurely.  But  the  publication  of  a  new 
edition  is  sometimes  beyond  his  control.  When,  last  Spring,  I  re-com- 
menced my  lectures  upon  Church  History,  a  suflScient  number  of  copies 
of  this  text-book  were  not  to  be  obtained ;  I  was  therefore  obliged  to 
supply  my  pupils  with  the  separate  sheets  as  they  came  from  the  press, 
and  to  finish  the  preparation  within  a  limited  time. 
c 


XXIV  PREFACE   TO    THE    SEVENTH    EDITION. 

I  have  been  accustomed  generally  to  correct  the  last  proof-sbccta 
with  my  own  hands,  hut  on  the  present  occasion  I  spared  myself  the  un- 
pleasant task  of  reading  to  find  typographical  errors  ;  and  I  committed 
to  my  students  the  work  of  diligently  watching  for  these  marks  of 
human  frailty.  Their  keen  young  eyes  have  discovered  some  mistakes 
of  this  kind;  and  not  to  mention  those  which  arc  unimportant,  and  are 
easily  seen  and  corrected,  I  will  only  notice  that  instead  of  Eugeniu$ 
VI.,  on  p.  279,  Eugenius  IV.,  should  be  inserted;  and  instead  of  1835, 
in  the  third  line  from  the  bottom  of  p.   405,  1853  should  be  printed. 

Where  quotations  are  made  from  the  Fathers,  and  some  other 
writers,  and  frequently  the  precise  number  of  the  page  must  be  men- 
tioned, I  have  referred  to  the  following  editions  :  Cypriani  0pp.  cd. 
Fell.  Amst.  1713.  Epiphanii  0pp.  ed.  Petav.  Par.  1G22.  Hieronymi 
0pp.  ed.  Martianay,  where  Villarsi  is  not  expressly  mentioned.  Justini 
0pp.  ed.  Otto,  Jen.  1847s.  Leon.  M.  0pp.  ed.  Ballerina.  Origenis 
0pp.  ed.  Dolarue. — Gerson,  ed.  Du  Pin.  Antu.  1706.  Guicciardini ; 
Ven.  1583-4.  Mattheus  Paris;  Par.  1644.  Melancth.  Epp.  in  the 
Corpus  Reformatorum.  Platina  1664.  Dutch  edit.  Trethemii  Annales 
Hirsaug.  S.  Galli.  1690.  Sleidan.  Argent.  1555.  Sarpi  1699-4. 
Seckendorf  Francof.  1688.     Rauke,  deutsche  Gesch.  3.  ed. 

While  the  work  was  passing  through  the  press,  and  after  those 
sections  to  which  they  referred  had  been  printed,  many  important  works 
have  appeared,  which  might  have  had  an  influence  upon  my  statements. 
I  will  not  mention  them  here,  for  after  a  few  months  such  a  list  would 

I  be  as  imperfect  as  before.  The  author  of  a  monograph  must  be  ex- 
pected, of  course,  to  understand  his  subject  better  than  others ;  but  he 
who  writes  a  general  history,  must  learn  from  many,  and  be  corrected 

^  by  almost  all. 

Jena,  Fei.  27th,  1864. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION. 


CIIAP.  I.— PLAN 

SCT. 

1.  Tlie  Church  and  the  World, 

2.  Idea  of  Church  History, 

3.  Proper  Province  of  Church  History, 

4.  Relation  to  the  General  History  of  Religion, 

5.  Mode  of  Treating  Church  History, 

6.  Value  of  Church  History, 

7.  Sources,       ..... 

8.  Auxiliary  Sciences,       .  .  . 

9.  Division       ..... 


CHAP,  n.— GENERAL  LITERATURR 

10.  Polemical  Church  History,       .... 

11.  French  Ecclesiastical  Historians,    .... 
I'l.  Protestant  Scientific  Church  History, 

13.  Writers  of  the  German  Catholic  Church, . 


1 

8 

8 

11 


ANCIENT    CHURCH    HISTORY. 


PERIOD  I. 

FROM    CHRIST   TO    CONSTANTINE. 
14.  General  View  and  Original  Authorities,    . 


IS 


DIVISION   I.— ESTABLISHMENT    OF   THE    CHURCH. 

CIL\.P.  L— INTRODUCTORY  HISTORY. 
L  Classic  Heatitexism. 


15.  Popular  Life  among  the  Greeks,     . 

16.  Limits  of  Grecian  Refinement, 

17.  The  Religion  of  the  Greeks, 

18.  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Poi>ular  Religion, 


15 
15 
16 

16 


XXVI 


CONTENTS. 


19.  Rome  ns  ft  1101)111)110, 

20.  l)opliiie  of  (irceco, 

21.  Klovntiori  niid  Decline  of  Rome, 

22.  Decline  of  the  Popular  Religion, 


IL  Judaism. 


23.  Tlie  Religious  Life  of  the  People, 

24.  The  Dispersed  Jews,     . 

25.  Hellenism,  . 

26.  The  Three  Sects, 

27.  The  Samaritans, 

28.  Proselytes, 


FAOa 

17 
18 
18 
19 


20 
21 
21 
22 
23 
23 


CHAP.  If— THE  APOSTOLIC  CIIURCR 


29.  The  First  Pentecost, 

30.  Fortune  of  the  Church  of  Jerusalem, 

31.  Jewish  Christianity, 

32.  Samaritan  Christians  and  Sects, 

33.  Paul,  .... 

34.  Peter,    ..... 

35.  Position  of  Parties  in  the  time  of  Paul, 
86.  John,     ..... 

37.  Parties  in  the  Time  of  John, 

38.  Traditions  Respecting  the  Apostles,     . 

39.  Apostolical  Fathers  of  the  First  Century, 

40.  Political  Overthrow  of  Judaism, 

41.  The  Roman  Civil  Power,    . 

42.  Constitution  of  the  Local  Churches,    . 

43.  Ecclesiastical  Life, 

44.  Mode  of  "Worship, 

45.  Doctrines  of  the  Church,    . 


24 
25 
26 
26 
27 
30 
31 
83 
34 
85 
36 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 


DIVISION  IL— FORMATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC 
CHURCH. 


CHAP.    L— STRUGGLE   OF  THE   CHURCH   FOR  ITS   OWX   EXISTEXCR 

46.  The  Jews,    .........       42 

47.  The  Roman  People  and  Empire,  .  ,  .  .  .  43 

48.  Conduct  of  the  Individual  Emperors  of  the  Second  and  Third  Centuries,     44 

49.  Internal  History  of  Paganism,       .  .  .  .  .  .46 

50.  New-Platonism,  .......  47 

51.  Literary  Controversies  of  Christianity,     .  .  .  .  .49 

52.  The  Christian  Apologists,  ......  50 

53.  Religion  of  Barbarous  Nations,      .  .  .  .  .  .53 

64.  Spread  of  Christianity,  ......  53 

55.  The  Last  Persecution,         .......       54 

56.  The  Martyi-s,     ........  55 

CILVP.  IL— SOCLVL  CONSTTHTTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

57.  Original  Documents  on  Ecclesiastical  Law,  .  .  .  .56 

58.  Tlie  Clergy  and  the  Laity,        ......  57 

69.  Bishops,    '  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .59 

60.  Synods,  ........  60 

61.  Äletrojwlitans,  ........       60 

62.  The  Three  Great  Bishops,         .  .  .  .  .  .  61 

63.  The  Catholic  Church  and  its  Branches,    .  .  .  .  .62 


CONTENTS. 


XXVll 


CHAP,  HL— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

64  Christian  Morals,     ...... 

65.  St.  Anthony,     ...... 

66.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline,     .  .  ,  .  . 

67.  The  Montanists,  .... 

68.  The  Noratians,       ...... 

69.  Holy  Seasons,  and  the  Controversy  about  Easter, 
To.  Sacred  Places,  and  their  Decoration,         , 

71.  Sacred  Services,  ..... 


63 
64 
65 
66 
67 
67 
69 
69 


CHAP.   IV.- 


■  DOCTRINES   OF  THE  CHURCH,  AND   OPINIONS   OPPOSED 
TO  THEM. 


72.  Sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  System  of  Faith, 

73.  Apostolic  Fathers  of  the  Second  Century.     Cont.  from  §  39, 

74.  Ecclesiastical  Literature  and  Heresy, 

75.  Ebionism.     Cont.  from  §  35,    . 

76.  I.  Gnosticism, 

77.  n.  Syrian  Gnostics,     . 

78.  HI.  Hellenistic  Gnostics,    . 

79.  IV.  Gnostics,  in  an  especial  sense  Christian, 

80.  V.  Judaizing  Gnostics, 

81.  VI.  Intiuence  of  Gnosticism  upon  the  Church, 

82.  Manichaeism, 

83.  Historico-Ecclesiastical  Theology, 

84.  Thascius  Caecilianus  Cyprianus, 

85.  I.   The  School  of  Alexandria,  . 

86.  II.    Characteristics  of  the  Alexandrian  Theology, 

87.  III.    Influence  of  Origen, 

88.  Appendix  to  the  Literary  History, 

89.  Apocryphal  Literature, 

90.  Subordinationists  and  Monarchians, 


71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
77 
78 
81 
83 
85 
86 
88 
89 
91 
93 
94 
95 
96 


PERIOD   II. 


FROM  OONSTANTINE  TO  CHAELES  THE  GKEAT. 
91.  General  View,        ...... 


101 


DIVISION  I— THE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH. 

C2.  Original  Authorities,    ....... 

CHAP.  L— \^CTORY  AND  DEFEAT  OF  CHRISTLANITT. 

93.  Constantine  and  his  Sons,  .  .                          ... 

94.  Julianus  Apostata,        ...  .             .              , 

95.  The  Fall  of  Paganism,         .  .                                      .             . 

96.  Massalians  and  Ilypsistarians,  ..... 

97.  Christianity  under  the  Persians,  ..... 

98.  Abyssinia  and  the  Diaspora,  .... 

99.  Mohammed,             .  .... 
100.  Victories  of  Islam,        .  ..... 


101 


103 
104 
105 
107 
107 
108 
108 
110 


CHAR   IL— THEOLOGY  AND  SCIENCE. 
101.  Conflicts  and  Sources  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Life,    . 


iia 


XXVUl 


CONTENTS. 


I.   The  Aiuan  CoNXKovEiisy. 

102.  The  Synod  of  Nicaon.     Cont.  from  §  90, 
lu:s.  Atliiiiiu»iiii8  and  Ariii»,         .... 
104.  Minor  Controversies,     .... 
106.  The  Synod  of  Constantinople  and  the  Holy  Trinity, 

106.  Ecclesiastical  Literature, 

II.  The  Origenistic  Controversy. 

107.  SynesiuB,  Epiphanius,  and  Ilieronymus,    . 

108.  Cürysostom,      ..... 

III.  The  Pelagian  Controvebst, 

109.  Pelagianism  and  Augustinism, 

110.  Augustinus,       ..... 

111.  Victory  of  Augustinism,     .... 

112.  Semipelagianism,  .... 

IV.    Controversies  respecting  the  two  Naturks  of  Cbbist. 

113.  Tlie  Nestorian  Controversy, 

114.  The  Eutychian  Controversy,    . 

115.  The  Monophysites,  .... 

116.  Justinian,  ..... 

117.  Tlie  Edict  of  Peace  and  the  Monophysite  Church, 

118.  The  Monothelite  Controversy, 

119.  Ecclesiastical  Literature,    .... 


CRAP.  III.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE 


120.  Legislation  and  Books  of  Law, 

121.  The  Roman  Empire,     . 

122.  Power  of  the  Emperor  over  the  Church, . 

123.  Power  of  the  Church  over  the  State, 

124.  Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction, 

125.  Church  Property, 

126.  The  Congregation  and  the  Clersv, 

127.  The  Patriarchs,  .  .^'         . 

128.  The  Roman  Bishopric  before  Leo, 

129.  Leo  the  Great, 

130.  The  Papacy  after  Leo.     Gregory  the  Great, 

131.  General  Councils  and  the  Catholic  Church, 


CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

132.  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People  and  Ecclesiastical  Piscipli 

133.  Celibacy  and  Moral  Condition  of  the  Clergy, 

134.  Monastic  Life  in  the  East,  .... 

135.  Hermits.    Simeon  Stylites, 

136.  Monasticism  in  the  West     Benedictines,  . 

137.  Veneration  for  Saints,  . 

138.  Public  "Worship,     ..... 

139.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  and  "Works  of  Art, 

140.  Iconoclastic  Controversy,   .... 


CHAP,  v.— OPPONENTS  OF  THE  ORDINARY  ECCLESIASTICAL  SYSTEM 

141.  General  View, 

142.  The  Donatists,  . 

143.  Audians.  Massalians, 

144.  Priscilianus,       ...... 

145.  Protesting  Ecclesinstienl  Teachers, 

146.  History  of  the  Pauliciaus,  §  1,  .  .  . 


CHURCH 


ne, 


112 
113 
114 
115 
116 


119 
120 


122 
122 
124 
124 


126 
127 
128 
129 
130 
131 
132 


134 
136 
1.37 
137 
138 
139 
140 
141 
142 
143 
144 
146 


147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
151 
153 
155 
156 


157 
157 
158 
158 
159 
159 


CONTENTS, 


XXIX 


DIVISION  IL— THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

147.  Original  Authorities,  ...  .  . 

CHAP.  I.— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  CnHISTIANITY. 

14S.  Religion  of  the  Germans, 

149.  Religion  of  the  Northern  German  Nations, 

150.  Arianism,  .... 

151.  Victory  of  Catholicism, 

1 52.  British  and  Anglo-Saxon  Church, 

153.  Irruption  of  Islam  in  the  West,     . 

154.  Germany,  Bonifacius,  . 

155.  The  Saxons,  .... 

156.  Overthrow  of  German  Paganism, 

CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH, 

157.  Original  Records  of  the  Canon  Law, 

158.  Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State,  . 

159.  Property  of  the  Church  and  the  Clergy,  . 

160.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Pope, 

161.  Secular  Power  of  the  Pope, 
lü2.  Charles  the  Great, 


160 


162 
163 
165 
166 
166 
168 
168 
169 
169 


170 
171 
171 
172 

173 
173 


CHAP.  III.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 


163.  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People, 

164.  Ecclesiastical  Discipline, 

165.  Morals  of  the  Clergy  and  Canonical  Life, 

166.  Public  Worship, 


174 
175 
176 

177 


CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  SCIENCE. 

167.  Preservation  of  Literature,  .... 

168.  Scientific  Education  under  the  Carolingians, . 

169.  Adoptionists,  ...... 


178 
179 
180 


MEDIAEVAL   CHURCH   HISTORY. 


PEEIOD  III. 

FROM  CHARLES  TO  INNOCENT  III. 
170.  General  View  and  Authorities, 


181 


CHAP.  I.— GENERAL  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  PAPACY. 

171.  General  View,        ........  183 

172.  Donation  of  Constantino  in  tlie  Ninth  Century,          .             .             .  183 

173.  Pseudo-Isidore,        ........  184 

174.  The  Female  Pope  Joanna,         ......  186 

175.  Nicholas  L,  858-867,  and  Hadrian  II.,  867-872,  .  ,  .187 

176.  Formosus,  891-896.     Stephen  VL,  897,            ....  188 

177.  Pornocracy,             ........  189 

178.  The  Popes  under  the  Othrta.     ......  189 

179.  The  Papacy  until  the  Synod  of  Siitri,        .....  191 

180.  The  Popes  under  Ilildebrand,  1048-1073,       ...  191 


xzx 


CONTENTS. 


MCT. 

181.  r.rof,'.iry  VII.,  April  22,  107.VMBy  25,  1085, 

182.  rJrctior'y'rt  SuccesMDi-H,  l()85-10;»'.t, 

183.  'I'lic  Cnixailos.     ( 'oiiqucst  of  Jfi-u.sttlcm,    . 

184.  rasi'lml  II.,  1009-1118, 

18.5.  Ciili.vtus  II.,  1 111)-1124.     Concordat  of  Worms, 

186.  Arnold  of  IJre.-iciii,  niid  Bernard  of  Clairvaux, 

187.  Tlio  ('ni.'<n<lo  of  St.  Jieniard, 

188.  Frcileric  I.  Harbarossa,  1152-1190,      . 
189  Tiioiiia.s  Bcckct,      .... 

190.  Tiie  ('ru«a<le  against  Salalieddin, 

191.  Henry  VI.  . 

192.  Innocent  III.,  Jan.  8,  llOS-July  16,  121C, 


194 
197 
198 
199 
200 
201 
202 
203 
205 
206 
206 
207 


CIIAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


193.  Gratian  and  his  Predeoeseora, 

194.  The  Church  and  the  State, 

195.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy, 

196.  The  Cardinals, .  .  .      '      . 

197.  The  Bishops,  and  the  Bishops'  Chapters, 

198.  Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction, 

199.  Property  of  the  Church,     . 


211 

212 
214 
215 
216 
217 
216 


CIIAP.   m.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 


200.  The  Religious  Spirit  of  the  People, 

201.  Manners  of  the  Clergj-, 

202.  Church  Discipline,      '         . 
208.  Public  "Worship, 

204.  Monastic  Life,  .... 

205.  The  Congregation  of  Clugny,  . 

206.  Jlinor  Orders  of  the  Eleventh  Century,     . 
207    The  Cistercians  and  St.  Bernard, 

208.  Praemonstrauts  and  Carmelites, 
209    The  Trinitarians, 

210.  The  Humiliates,      .... 

211.  Establishment  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood, 


.  219 

221 

.  222 

223 

.  225 

226 

.  2i7 

228 

.  229 

230 

.  231 

231 

CHAP   IV.— STATE  OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE   CHURCH. 


212  Scientific  Education  of  the  Ninth  Century,     . 

213  First  Eucharistie  Controversy,       .... 

214  Gottschalk.     Cont.  from  §  12, . 

215  Literary  Interest  during  the  Tenth  Century,  under  the  Othos, 

216  Academical  Studies  in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  Centuries,  . 

217  The  Second  Eucharistie  Controversy, 

218  Scholasticism.     First  Period,  .... 

219  Mysticism.     First  Period,  ..... 

220  Abelard,  1079-April  21,  1142,  .... 

221  The  Sacred  Scriptures,        .  ... 
222.  Commencement  of  a  National  Literature  in  the  Twelfth  Century, 


232 

.  234 

235 

.  235 

236 

.  237 

23S 

.  240 

241 

.  243 

r,  .     243 

CIIAP.  v.— EXTENSION  OF  THE  ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCK 

223.  Tlie  Holy  An«gar,  801-865.  .  .  .  .  .  .245 

224.  Germanic  Nations  of  the  North,  .....  246 

225.  Tlie  Slavic  Nations,  .  .  ....     248 

226.  The  Hungarians.  .......  250 

227.  The  Finns,  Livonian«,  and  Esthonians,  ....     250 


CONTENTS. 


XXXI 


CHAP.  VI.— PARTIES  PROTESTING  AGAINST  THE  CHURCH. 


228.  The  Catharists, 

229.  Peter  of  Bruys  aud  Henry. 

230.  The  Waldenses, 

231.  The  Albigensian  "War, 


Tanchelm  and  Eon, 


CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL   CHURCK 


232.  Extension  of  the  Church, 

233.  The  Roman  Empire  and  the  Church, 

234.  Photius, 

235.  Division  of  the  Church, 

236.  State  of  Science, 

237.  Pauliciane.     §  2.     Cont  from  §  140, 


251 
253 
254 
255 


256 
257 
258 
259 
260 
261 


PERIOD    IV. 

FEOM    INNOCENT   III.    TO    LÜTHEB. 
238.  General  View  and  Historical  Writers, 


239. 
240. 
241. 
242. 
243. 
244. 
245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253. 
254. 
255. 
256. 
257. 


.CHAP.  I.— RELATION  OF  THE  PAPACY  TO  GENERAL  AFFAIRS. 

Frederic  IL, 

Overthrow  of  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen, 

St.  Louis,    ...... 

Termination  of  the  Crusades,  .... 

Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  1273-1291.     Sicilian  Vespers, 

The  Hermit  in  the  Papal  Chair,  July  5-I)ec.  13,  1294, 

Boniface  VIII.,  Dec.  24,  1294-Oct.  11,  1303, 

Commencement  of  the  Babylonian  Exile, 

Louis  of  Bavaria,  1314-1347.     Joanna  I.  of  Naples, 

Close  of  the  Babylonian  Exile, 

The  Schism,  ..... 

Council  of  Pisa,  March  25-Aug.  7,  1409, 

Council  of  Constance,  Nov.  5,  1414-April  22,  1418, 

Martin  V.,  Nov.  11,  1417-Feb.  20,  1431, 

Council  of  Basle,  1431-1443  (1449), 

The  Popes  until  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,     . 

Alexander  VI.,  Aug.  2,  1492-Aug.  18,  1503, 

Julius  II.,  Nov.  1,  1503-Feb.  21,  1513, 

Leo  X.,  March  11,  1513-1517  (1521), 


CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE 

258.  Corpus  Juris  Canonici,        .... 

259.  The  State  and  the  Church,       .... 

260.  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacj', 

261.  Ecclesiastical  Assemblies,  .... 

262.  The  National  Churches,      .... 

203.  The  Bishops  and  their  Jurisdiction,     . 

204.  The  Inquisition,      ..... 

CHAP.  HI.— ECCLESLÄ.STICAL  LIFE 

265.  The  Two  (ireat  Mendicant  Orders, 

266.  Public  AVorslii]),  ..... 

267.  Flourishing  Period  of  the  Imitative  Arts  in  the  Church, 

268.  Worshii)  of  the  Saints,  .... 

269.  Äliracles  and  Magic,  .... 

270.  Church  Discipline  and  Indulgences,     . 

271.  Flagellants  and  Dancers,     .... 


CHURCH. 


263 


265 
267 
268 
269 
269 
270 
271 
272 
273 
274 
275 
276 
277 
278 
279 
281 
282 
283 
285 


286 
287 
288 
290 
292 
292 
293 


295 
30C 
302 
307 
309 
311 
312 


XXXIl 


CONTENTS. 


»tCT.  »»»• 

272.  Mi.rnlH  (.f  tlie  Clor^'v.    .  .  .  .  .  314 

27;J.  Uflit^ioiiH  CliariKlrr  of  the  People,  .  .  .  .  .315 

274.  Survey  of  111,.  MoiiuM it;  Life,    ......  316 

27Ö.  More  Imlfpomlciit  AsKociuf ion«,     ......     317 

276.  The  Tciiiplur!*  iiinl  the  Kiiiglits  of  St.  John,     ....  318 

CIIAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATURE. 

277.  Selioldstieistn.     Second  Period,      ......  320 

278.  Scliohistieism.     Tliird  P«  riod,  ......  321 

27".>.  Mystieisin.     Second  Period,  ......  322 

2S0.  Excesses  and  Conij>i-oniisc8,       ......  324 

281.  The  8o-enlled  Revival  of  Literature,  .....     326 

282.  John  Keueliliii,  1455-1522,       ......  329 

283.  Desi.lerius  Erasmus,  1466-1536,     .  .  .  .  .  .330 

284.  Tlie  IIolv  Scriptures,    ...  ...  331 

285.  The  Due'trinc  of  the  Church,  .  .  ...     332 

286.  Ethics  and  Casuistry,   .......  333 

CIIAP.  v.— EXTENSION  OF  THE  IIOMAX  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

287.  Apologetics.     Islani.    Judnisin,      ......     335 

288.  Prussia.     IJthuauia.     Lapland,  .....  336 
28i>.  Prester  John  and  the  Mongols,       ......     337 

290.  The  Kew  World,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .338 

CHAP.  VI.— OPPOSITION  AND  REFORM. 

291.  General  View,         .......  388 

I.    Hostile  Partiks. 

292.  The  Stedingers  and  the  Heretical  Ghibellines,  .  .  .  339 

293.  Fraternity  of  the  Free  Spirit,         .  .  .  .  .  .340 

294.  Order  of 'the  Apostles,  .  .  .  .  .  .341 

295.  Termination  of  the  Earlier  Sects,  ......     312 

II.    Reform. 

296.  Reformation  in  the  Head  and  Members,  ....  343 

297.  John  Wycliflfe,  1324-Dec.  31,  1381,  .  .  .  .  .346 

298.  John  Ihiss  and  the  Hussites,    ......  347 

299.  The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren,     .....     350 

300.  Learned  Precursors  of  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  .  .  351 

301.  Jerome  Savonarola,  .......     352 

CHAP.  VIL— THE  GREEK  CHURCH. 

302.  Arsenius,  ........  354 

303.  The  Light  of  God  and  Philosophy,  .  .  .  .  .354 

304.  Attempts  at  Union.     Cont.  from  g  235,  ....  355 

305.  End  of  the  Greek  Empire,  ......     S5€ 


MODERN   CHURCH   HISTORY. 


PERIOD  Y. 

FROM  LUTHER  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 

806.  General  View,        ...... 

CIIAP.    I.— THE   GER:SIAN   REFORMATION. 

807.  Original  Authorities  and  Literary  Ilistorv,     .  .  .  . 


359 


CONTENTS. 


XXXUl 


I.     EsTABLISnMEXT    OF   THE   LuTUZKAX    CniRCH   TILL    1532. 

308.  Luther's  Youth,      ..,,.. 
•>09.  The  Ninety-Five  Tlieses,  .... 

310.  Interference  of  the  Pope,   ..... 

311.  Amicable  Negotiations,  .... 

312.  Deputation  at  Leipsic,  June  27-July,  16,  1519,     . 

313.  Melaticthon.     General  Affairs, 

314.  Appeal  to  the  Christian  Nobility  of  the  German  Nation, 

315.  Babylonian  Captivity  and  Christian  Freedom, 

316.  The  Fire-Signal,      ...... 

317.  Political  Relations  till  1521,     .... 

318.  Diet  at  Worms,  1521,  ..... 

319.  The  Wartburg,  and  the  Tumult  at  Wittenberg,  1521,  1522, 

320.  System  of  Doctrines  and  the  Scriptures,   . 

321.  D'iet  at  Nuremberg,  1522,  1523, 

322.  Introduction  of  the  Reformation,  .... 

323.  Commencement  of  the  Division  in  Germany,  1524-1526, 

324.  Tlie  King  and  the  Theologian,        .  . ' 

325.  Peasants'  War,  1524,  1525,       .... 

326.  Erasmus  and  Luther.     Cont.  from  §  285,  . 

327.  Luther's  Domestic  Life,  and  his  Colleagues,     . 

328.  Religious  Liberty  and  the  Protestation,     . 

329.  Synod  of  llomburg,  1526.     Saxon  Church  Visitation,  1527-1529, 

330.  The  Diet  of  Augsburg,  1530,  .... 

331.  League  of  Smalkald  and  Peace  of  Nuremberg, 

II.     ESTABLISUMENT   OF  TUE   REFORMED    CuURCH   UNTIL   1531 

332.  Youth  and  Doctrine  of  Zwingle,    .... 

333.  Introduction  of  the  Reformation, 

334.  Division  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy, 

335.  The  Sacramentarian  Controversy, 


361 
363 
363 
364 
365 
366 
367 
368 
369 
370 
371 
372 
373 
373 
374 
376 
377 
377 
379 
380 
381 
382 
383 
383 


384 
386 
388 
389 


III.  Establishment  of  the  Lutheran  Church  until  1555. 

336.  Articles  of  Smalkald,          .             .             .             ,             .             .  .390 

337.  Progress  and  Pulitical  Power  of  the  Reformation,      .             .             .  391 

338.  Negotiations  for  Peace  and  Preparations  for  War,             .             .  .     393 

339.  Luther's  Death  and  Public  Character,              ....  894 

340.  The  Smalkaldic  War,  1546-7,         .             .             .             .             .  .395 

341.  The  Interim,     ........  396 

342.  Maurice,  1552,        ........     397 

343.  Religious  Peace,  Sept.  25,  1555,           .....  398 

IV.  Establishment  of  the  Reformed  Church  rNm.  1564. 

344.  Tlie  Concord! urn  of  Wittenberg.     Cont.  from  §  338,         .  .     399 

345.  Italian  Switzerland,      .......  400 

346.  John  Calvin,  July  10,  1509-May  27,  1564,  ....     400 

CILVP   II.— ESTABLISHMENT  OF  A  PROTESTANT  ORTHODOXY. 


I.     LUTHERANISM. 

347.  Tlie  Antinomian  and  Osiandrian  Controversies, 

348.  Lutherans  and  PhiLippists.     General  Affairs, 

349.  ITie  Synei-gistic  Controver.^y,  . 

350  Crypto  Calvinism.     Cont.  from  §  344, 

351.  Efforts  at  Concord.       .... 

352.  Reaction  of  Saxon  Calvinism, 

353.  Spirit  and  Result  of  tlie  Doctrinal  Controversy, 


4ii2 
404 
4<i5 
407 
409 
410 
411 


XXXIV 


CONTENTS. 


II.   C'ai.vinwm. 

8r)l.  (Jortnnn  RffuniK'd  riuiicli, 

S.5Ö.  'Ihc  NttlK'rliUKiH,  .... 

860.  The  Synod  of  iJort,  Nov.  13,  IC18-cnJ  of  May,  1619, 


412 

414 
415 


CHAP.  III.— PROfJRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION  THEOUGH  EUROPE. 


357.  Tlic  Fnitod  Ausü-lan  States  until  1609, 

858.  Swedfii,       .... 

;{59.  iKMiiiiurk  with  Norway  and  Iceland,  . 

SCO.  I'oland,  Livoniii,  and  Koorland,     . 


416 

418 
419 
420 


I.  Great  Bbitain  and  Ibeland. 

SCil.  EstnMislimont  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
'M\±  Oriifiii  of  the  Puritans  and  ludepcndents, 

363.  8cotlaiul,  ...... 

364.  Great  Britain  under  the  Stuarts,   . 


421 
423 
424 
425 


II.  France. 


365.  Tlie  Night  of  St.  Bartholomew, 

366.  The  Edict  of  Nantes, 

367.  Spain  and  Italy, 


426 

428 
429 


CIIAP.   IV.— F^VNATICS  AND   ULTRAISTS   OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

868.  General  Relations  of  the  Reformation,       .....  430 

369.  Anabaptists  as  Fanatics,           ......  431 

370.  Anabaptists  as  an  Orderly  Community.     Collegiant*,       .             .             .  432 

371.  Autitrinitarians,            .......  432 

372.  Socinians,    .........  434 

373.  Caspar  Schwenckfeld,  of  Ossing.     Sebastian  Franck,              .             .  435 

CIIAP.  v.— CONDITION  AND  RESULTS  OF  PROTESTANTISM. 

374.  Protestantism  as  a  Principle,          ......  437 

375.  Morals,               ........  438 

376.  Law,             .........  440 

377.  The  Clei^v,  and  Church  Property,      .....  443 

378.  Public  worship  and  Art,   .  .  .  .  .  .  .444 

379.  Humanistic  Education  and  Holy  Scriptures.     Cont.  from  g  284,       .  446 

380.  Philosophy  and  Theosophy.     Mysticism  and  Practical  Christianity,        .  447 


CHAP.  VI.— THE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

381.  The  Popes  in  the  Age  of  the  Reformation,  till  1585,  . 

382.  Ignatius  de  Loyola,  1491-1556,      . 

383.  Development  of  Jesuitism, 

384.  The  Council  of  Trent,  Dec.  13,  1545-Dec.  14,  1563; 

385.  Sixtus  v.,  April  27,  1585-Aug.  27,  1590, 

386.  Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century, 

387.  Law  and  Political  Relations,   .     '       . 

388.  Great  Change  in  the  Character  of  Catholicism,    . 

389.  Fraternities  for  Instruction  and  Charity, 

390.  The  Fine  Arts,        .  .  .        '     . 

391.  The  Sacred  Scriptures.     Cont.  from  §g  286,  886,        .  •      . 

392.  Laws  respecting  Doctrines  and  Internal  Theological  Controversies 

393.  Efforts  at  Reconciliation,  and  Controversies  with  the  Protestants, 

394.  The  Propaganda,    ....... 

395.  The  East  Indies,  ...... 


450 
452 
453 
454 
456 
4J6 
458 
460 
462 
464 
465 
466 
468 
470 
470 


CONTENTS. 


XXXV 


396.  Japan, 

397.  China,  . 

398.  West  Indies. 


Cont.  from  §  290,    . 
CHAP.  VIL— THE  THIRTY  YEAES'  WAIL 


399.  Occasions,  .... 

400.  The  Bohemian  War.     Cont.  from  §  357, 

401.  The  German  War, 

402.  The  Peace  of  Westphalia, . 


rAGB 

.     472 

474 

.     475 


476 
477 
478 
479 


CHAP.   VIIL— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 


403.  Connections  with  Protestants, 

404.  The  Russian  Church, 

405.  The  Abyssiniana  and  Maronites. 


480 
48' 
482 


PERIOD  YI. 

FROM  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

406.  General  View,         ........ 

CHAP.  I.— PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  UNTIL  1750. 

407.  German  Orthodoxy, 

408.  George  Calixtus,  1586-1656, 

409.  Pietism.     Spener,  1685-1705, . 

410.  Philosophical  Influences.     Cartesius  to  Wolf, 

411.  Peaceable  Movements  in  Theology, 

412.  Law  and  Legal  Views  in  the  German  Church, 

413.  Legal  Relations  to  the  Catholic  Church, 

414.  Attempts  at  Union, 

415.  The  English  Revolutioa     Cont.  from  §  364, 

416.  Freethinkers  or  Deists, 

417.  The  Quakers,    .... 

418.  The  United  Brethren.     Zinzendorf,  1700-1760, 
1-19.  The  Methodists.     Wesley,  1703-1791.     Whitefield,  1714-1770, 

420.  The  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem.     Swedenborg,  1688-1772, 

421.  Minor  Fanatical  Parties,  ..... 
422    Spread  of  Christianity,  .... 

CHAP.  II.— ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH  UNTIL   1750. 

423.  The  Papacy,     ........ 

424.  The  Galilean  Church,  ...  .  . 


483 


484 
486 
487 
489 
490 
492 
492 
495 
497 
498 
502 
503 
505 
506 
508 
510 


511 

514 


Jansenism. 

425.  L    Port-Royal, ...... 

426.  IL   The  Constitution  Unigenitus,  .  ■  .  . 

427.  Mysticism,  Quietism,  and  Pious  Humor, 

428.  Newly  Established  Orders,  ..... 

429.  Spread  of  Christianity.     Cont.  from  §  394s3 , . 

CHAP.  III.— ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  UNTIL  1814. 

I.   Matteks  Prkuminary  to  toe  Revolution. 

430.  French  Philosophy.     Cont.  from  §  416,     . 

431.  Clement  XUL  (1758-69)  and  the  Jesuits,         .  .  .  . 


616 
618 
519 
621 
521 


622 
524 


XXXVl 


CONTENTS. 


432.  Cl.'rii.'iit  XIV.  (17C.lt-7J)  nn.l  the  Jf.miits, . 
4:;;!.   riim  VJ.  (1771-'.t',)j  uiul  his  Age  until  1789, 

II.    FltKXCIl   Kkvoi-utio.v. 

4:M.  TIic  Nalioniil  Assonildy  (f'onstifuanto),  1780-I7fll, 

4:35.  TIk'  l.fgisliitivo  Assembly  "'id  Niitioiiiil  Convention,  1701-1705, 

4a«.  Tlwo|>liiliintlir<i])isf.s,  17110-1802,    .... 

437.  Tlie  lloiiiiin  Kei>iil)lie.     Cont.  from  §  433, 

III.  The  Era  of  Napoleov. 

438.  Pius  VII.  and  the  Rc-establislimcnt  of  the  Gallican  Churcli, 

439.  Dispute  between  the  Emperor  and  the  I'oi)e, 

440.  Overthrow  of  the  Ecclesiastical  German  Constitution,     . 


not 
625 

526 


529 
631 
532 
532 


533 
534 
53G 


CHAP.   IV.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  TILL  1814. 


441.  Tiie  Atcc  of  Enlightenment.     Cont.  from  §§  416,  430, 

442.  Christian  Reaction.     Prussian  Religious  Edict,     . 

443.  Revolution  in  German  Literature,        .  .  .  . 

444.  Reformation  of  Philosophy  in  Germany,   . 

445.  Rationalism  and  Superuaturalism, 

446.  The  Ecclesiastical  Party  in  Germany, 

447.  Small  Fanatical  Parties,  .  .  .  .  • 

448.  Civil  Relations  of  Protestants  under  Catholic  Goverumeuts. 

§413, 


Confc.  from 


537 
539 
541 
543 
544 
54. =5 
546 

547 


CIIAP.  v.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL   CHURCH  TILL   1853. 

449.  Development  of  Protestantism,  .....  548 

450.  'Hie  Philosophy  of  the  Absolute,  and  its  Ramifications,    .  .  .  550 

451.  Orthodo.K  Pietism  and  its  I-2xtremes,     ,  .  .  _ .  •  555 

452.  Undecided  Controversies  between  Old  and  New  Protestantism,  .  .  500 

453.  Prussia,  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  till  1840.     Cont  from  g  414,      .  566 

454.  Lutheranism  as  a  Sect  under  Frederic  William  HI.,         .  .  .  569 

455.  Legal  Views  and  Legal  Relations  in  German  Countries,         .  .  571 

456.  The  Prussian  National  Church  and  its  Branches  since  1840,        .  .576 

457.  Combinations,  ........  5S7 

458.  The  Scriptures.     Cont.  from  §§  379,  411, .  ....  592 

459.  Calvinism  as  a  Sect,      .......  595 

460.  Division  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  and  in  the  Pays  de  Yaud,     .  .  597 

461.  The  Anglican  Church  and  the  Dissenters,  ....  598 
402.  Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  the  North  American  Republic,  .  .  .  601 
403  Legal  Condition  with  respect  to  Catholic  Governments,  .  .  005 
404.  Old  and  New  Sects,             .......  610 

465.  Missionary  and  Bible  Societies,  .....  612 

466.  Spread  of  Christianity,       .......  614: 

CHAP.  YI.— THE  ROMAN   CATHOLIC   CHURCH  TILT.   1853. 

467.  Re-establishment  of  the  Roman  Hierarchy.     Cont.  from  §  439,  .  617 

468.  The  Popes  before  the  Last,  .  '.  .  .  .  .619 

469.  Pius  IX.  (June  16,  1846)  and  Italy,     .....  620 

470.  The  Gallican  Church,         .  '.  .  .  .  .  .624 

471.  "^pain.     Portugal.     South  America,     .....  629 

472.  Belgium  and  Holland,         .......  683 

473.  Restoration  of  the  German  Church,    .  .  .  .  •  635 

474.  The  Ecclesiastical  Controversy  in  Prussian  Germany,      .  .  •  636 

475.  The  Gorman  Church  since  1848,  ....  640 

476.  Switz.erland.  ......••  645 

477.  Ireland  and  England,  .,...•  649 

478.  Forms  of  Catholicism.         ...  .  .  662 


CONTENTS.  XXXVU 

8BCr.  PAGK 

479.  German  Catholicism,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .656 

480.  MysHcs  aud  Wouder-Workei-s,       .  .  .  .  .  .661 

481.  Orders,  ........  662 

482.  Spread  of  Christianity.     Cont.  from  §§  394,  429,  .  .  .  .663 

CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL   CHURCH. 

483.  Catholic  and  Protestant  Influences,      .....  665 

484.  Russia.     Cont.  from  §  404,  ......     666 

485.  Greece  and  Turkey,      .  .  .  .  ...  .  669 

CILVR  YIIL— COMMON  DETAILS   AND   I^IUTUAL  RELATIONS. 

486.  Catholicism  and  Protestantism,      .  .  .  .671 

487.  The  Fine  Arts.     Cont.  from  §§  378,  390,          .             ...  674 

488.  Emancipation  and  Conversion  of  the  Jews,           ....  675 

489.  Abolition  of  Slavery,    .......  677 

490.  St.  Simouism  and  Socialism,            ......  679 

491.  The  Holy  Alliance,                                 .....  681 
Appendix,    .                                      •                         t             .             .            .  883 


INTRODUCTION. 


C.  Sagittarius,  Iiitrod.  in  Hist  Ecc.  Jen.  T.  1. 1CD4.  Vol.  II.  ed.  J.  A.  Schmid,  1719.  4.  F. 
Walch,  Grundsätze  d.  zur  Kllist  nüthigen  Vorbereitungslebren  u.  Bücherkenntn.  GOtt  ed.  2. 1772. 
C.  W.  Flügge,  Einl.  in  d.  Studium  u.  in  d.  Literatur  d.  KeL  u.  KGescli.  Giitt.  ISOl.  (J.  G.  Doic- 
ling,  Introd.  to  tiic  Crit.  Study  of  Ecc.  Hist.  Lend.  183S.  S.  J.  Jortin,  Remarks  on  Ecc.  Ilist  Lond. 
1S46.  2  vols.  8.  W.  Bates,  College  Lectt,  on  Ecc.  Uist.  Lond.  1845.  8.  G.  Camphell,  Lectt  on  Ecc. 
Uist  Lond.  1S34  8.) 

CHAP.  I.— PLAN". 

F.  F.  Kosegavten,  ü.  Stud.  Plan  u.  Darst.  d.  Allg.  KGesch.  Eeval.  1S24.  Ullmann,  ü.  Stellung 
des  Kllist.  in  unsrer  Zeit  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1829.  p.  667ss.)  J.  A.  IT.  Tittmann,  ü.  Behandl.  d. 
KGesch,  vorz.  auf  Univ.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1S33.  vol.  I.  st  2 )  Daub,  d.  Form.  d.  Dogmen  n. 
KRist  (Zeitschr.  £  Spekul.  Th.  1836.  vol.  I.  H.  1.)  Mäkler,  Ein!,  in.  d.  KOosch.  (Hist  Pol.  Bl.  t. 
d.  Kath.  DeutichL  1S39.  vol.  IV.  H.  1-a  n.  Gesamm.  Schrr.  yoI.  II.) 

§  1.  The  Church  and  the  World. 
The  Church  was  originally  founded  by  the  Spirit  which  proceeded  from 
Jesus,  and  was  intended  to  embrace  in  its  communion  all  the  religious  life 
derived  from  Ilim,  or  in  connection  with  Ilim.  All  Churches  and  Sects  com- 
prehended in  this  spiritual  community,  are  only  different  manifestations  of 
the  same  Spirit.  The  Church  stands  in  contrast  with  the  World.,  when  the 
latter  is  regarded  as  including  all  forms  of  life  Avhich  are  merely  natural,  and 
not  of  a  religious  character.  Especially  does  it  thus  stand  contrasted  Avith  the 
State.,  viewed  as  the  political  organization  of  the  people.  This  contrast,  how- 
ever, is  only  in  particular  relations,  since  the  State  is  also  a  divine  institution, 
and  the  world  was  created  by  God  and  is  intended  to  bo  gradually  pervaded 
by  the  Church.  Indeed,  the  Church,  in  its  character  of  the  earthly  kingdom 
of  God,  can  never  bo  fully  sot  forth,  except  in  intimate  connection  with  the 
world. 

§  2,     Idea  of  Church  Jlistorij. 

[P.  Schaff.  A  Vindication  of  the  Idea  of  Ilist  Development,  Pliilad.  1S46.  12.  See  also  his  Hist 
9f  Apost  Church,  New  York,  1853.] 

The  Church  is  always  in  a  progressive  state ;  /.  e.,  it  is  striving  to  be  a  per- 
petual manifestation  of  the  life  of  Christ  in  humanity.     In  other  words,  it  is 
always  aiming  to  exhibit  his  life  more  and  more  perfectly,  and  on  a  more  ex- 
1 


2  INTRODUCTION.    (IIA I'.  I.    I'LAN. 

tensive  scnie,  soiintiiiKs  in  conflict,  and  sometimes  in  connection  with  tlic 
world.  Chtnr/i  /lisfori/  is  a  representation  of  the  Clinrch  in  this  progressive 
state,  by  an  exhibition  of  the  fiicts  wliich  have  occurred  in  its  course.  In  its 
scicntifK^  form,  it  is  tiic  conilMiintion  of  all  those  individual  elements  wliich 
have  had  any  influence  upon  its  composition,  since  it  is,  Ij  crlticalhjy  an  im- 
partial, honest,  and  strict  inquiry  into  facts,  and  into  the  extent  of  the  confi- 
dence which  can  bo  reposed  in  their  proofs,  so  that  where  certainty  cannot  be 
attained,  a  knowledge  of  this  extent  in  its  different  degrees  may  determine 
the  scientific  character  of  the  narrative ;  2)  fjencticalbj,  a  statement  of  the 
facts  in  connection  witli  their  causes,  taking  care,  however,  that  no  explana- 
tions are  given  inconsistent  with  the  proper  nature  of  the  idea  developed  in 
the  events,  or  with  the  peculiar  cliaracter  of  the  active  agents  in  them ; 
3)  thwhgk-aUy^  an  estimation  of  tlie  facts  in  their  precise  relation  to  the  reli- 
gious spirit,  allowing  no  preconceived  opinions  to  determine  what  has  actu- 
ally occurred  but  only  to  assist  in  understanding  them  as  we  find  them.  The 
correct  manner  of  narration,  or  the  hititorical  style^  is  that  which  tlje  student 
naturally  adopts  when  he  has  acquired  a  true  conception  of  the  events,  and 
then  fully  expresses  this  in  living  freshness  and  reality. 

§  3.  Proper  Province  of  Church  JUstory. 
Within  the  appropriate  department  of  Church  History  lie  all  facts  which 
either  proceed  directlj*  from  the  common  Christian  spirit,  or  indirectly  are 
dependent  upon  the  opposition  or  co-operation  of  the  world.  Some  of  these 
belong  necessarily  to  the  history,  and  are  essential  points  of  dcvelnpraent  by 
Avhicli  the  Christian  spirit  must  be  represented  ;  but  others  are  only  carefully 
selected  representatives  of  the  age  in  which  they  occur,  or  peculiar  manifes- 
tations of  the  Christian  spirit  in  some  important  individuals. 

§  4.    Relation  to  the  General  History  of  Beligion. 

Hist,  pöneralo  des  cöreinonies,  mceurs  et  coutümes  rel.  de  tonsles  peuple«,  reprösontees  par  figures 
dessinoes  de  la  main  de  B.  Picarcl,  avec  des  explicat.  liist.  (Amst.  1723s«.  7  rols.)  Par.  1741ss. 
8  vols.  J.  Meiners,  AUg.  Krit  Gesell,  d.  Religionen.  Ilann.  ISOCs.  2  Tb.  E.  V.  Weiller,  Ideen  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Entw.  d.  Kel.  Gl.  Münch,  1S0S-1S15.  3  Tli.  Benj.  Constant,  de  la  Religion,  considör^e  dans 
S.1  Source,  ses  formes  et  scs  diveloppeinens,  Par.  lS24fS.  2  TIi.  Ubers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Petri.  Brl.  lS24s. 
2  vols. 

The  object  of  a  general  history  of  religion,  of  which  Church  history  is 
only  a  single  department,  is  the  development  of  the  religious  spirit  of  man- 
kind in  all  the  forms  in  which  it  has  appeared.  But  the  religious  peculiari- 
ties of  uncvangelized  nations  are  only  to  be  introduced  into  Church  history, 
when  they  are  in  some  way  involved  in  the  affairs  of  Christendom  (general- 
ly, at  first,  in  conflict  Avith  it),  or  when  they  occasion  some  new  relations  in 
it.  For,  as  the  Law  was  adapted  to  lead  the  Jew  and  Philosophy  the  Greek 
to  Christ,  the  same  result  might  be  produced  among  other  nations  by  their 
confidence  in  their  own  gods.  Accordingly,  as  Christianity  is  a  religion  for 
the  whole  human  race,  and  is  therefore  the  ultimate  point  and  perfection  of 
all  other  religions,  Church  History  should  be  the  central  point  of  all  histo- 
ries of  religion,  and  should  gradually  incorporate  within  itse*.^  their  collected 
results. 


§  5.    MODE.    VALUE.    SOURCES.  3 

§  5.     Mode  of  Treating  Church  nistory. 

Tho  Christian  spirit,  in  tho  development  of  its  infinite  nature,  and  while 
gradually  appropriating  all  human  things  to  its  use,  is  destined  and  is  com- 
petent to  be  the  religious  spirit  of  man.  This  result,  however,  will  be  ac- 
complished by  means  accordant  with  its  own  peculiar  law.  As  the  organs  by 
which  it  operates  are  necessarily  free  individuals  and  nations,  free  even  for 
error  and  sin,  the  original  princiides  of  the  historical  movement  must  neces- 
sarily assume  an  endless  diversity  of  form  in  the  lives  of  individuals.  Hence, 
the  historical.judgraent,  as  it  is  expressed  in  the  representation  of  the  event«, 
must  seize  upon  all  these  as  points  of  development  which  find  their  own  ar- 
rangement, and  have  each  an  appropriate  influence.  It  is  not,  however,  in- 
dispensable to  the  impartiality  of  the  historian,  that  he  should  appear  to  love 
nothing  and  to  hate  nothing.  It  is  only  needful,  first  of  all,  that  he  should  nev- 
er place  the  actual  facts  in  false  positions,  on  account  of  either  preferences  or 
aversions,  and  then,  that  he  should  recognize  those  cx)nditions  under  which 
others  have  perhaps  necessarily  formed  opinions  and  sentiments  different 
from  his  own.  Indeed,  a  Church  History,  in  which  the  author  exhibited  no 
distinct  ecclesiastical  character,  and  did  not  imprint  this  with  clearness  upon 
his  work,  would  be  of  very  little  value  to  the  Church. 

§  6.      Value  of  Church  History. 

Grieshnch,  de  H.  Eccl.  Utilitate,  Jon.  1776.  F.  A.  Eöthe,  v.  Einfl.  des.  Kirchenhist  Stud,  auf  d. 
Bildung  des  Gemfiths  u.  d.  Leben.  Lps.  ISIO.  4.  T.  A.  ClarUae,  Or.  de  Societatis  Chr.  Ilist.  ad  in- 
form, sacrorum  antistitem  accommodate  tradenda,  Gron.  1824. 

The  ahsolitte  value  of  Church  History  springs  from  the  fact,  that  it  is  an 
expression  of  the  self-consciousness  of  the  Church  with  respect  to  its  com- 
plete development.  From  this  is  derived  its  practical  necessity.  "Whoever 
wishes  independently  to  direct  any  portion  of  the  Church,  must  participate 
in  this  self-consciousness,  or  he  will  neither  understand  its  present  position, 
nor  be  able  to  foresee  and  wisely  affect  its  future  course.  In  thie  is  involved 
its  utility  for  controversial  and  spiritual  purposes,  or  for  the  assistance  of  oth- 
er sciences.  It  must,  however,  be  remembered,  that  when  the  value  and 
object  of  Church  history  are  too  exclusively  kept  in  view,  its  scientific  char- 
acter is  much  endangered. 

§  7.     Sources. 

F.  Wal^:h,  Kiit.  Xaolir.  v.  d.  Quellen  d.  Kllist.     (Lp?;.  1770.)    Gütf.  1773. 

Our  certainty  with  rogard  to  facts  must  depend  upon  tho  sources:  1.  Ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  their  proximity  to  the  particular  events  mentioned : 
a)  Original  documents  and  monuments.,  which  prove  a  fact,  inasmuch  as  they 
constitute  an  element  in  it.  V)  Accounts  by  eye-witnesses  or  contemporaries, 
c)  Historical  tcriters,  who  draw  directly  from  sources  now  lost.  The  more 
I'emote  these  authorities  are  from  the  events  narrated,  the  more  is  their  credi- 
bility liable  to  criticism.  2.  According  to  the  form  in  which  they  exist:  a) 
Writinys,  public  and  private,  without    a  uniform    preference  for  the  for- 


4  INTKODÜCTION.    CHAP.  I.     PLAN. 

mer.  («)  It  is  often  very  difliciilt  to  jirovc  tlmt  a  witnosH  was  either  able  or  -will- 
ing to  doclaro  the  wholo  truth,  since  his  ability  i»  often  atfected  by  his  preju- 
dices, and  liis  williugnesa  by  bis  party  spirit.  I)  Monuments,  not  only  works  of 
art,  but  living  coinnuinilics.  c)  Tradilion/i,  among  which  legends,  being 
merely  the  work  of  the  hierarchy,  prove  only  what  were  the  views  of  the 
ago  in  which  they  originated,  or  were  completed ;  and  popular  stories  serve 
to  establish  an  historical  probability  in  pro[)ortion  as  they  are  wide-«pread,  and 
conformed  to  circumstances  which  have  been  otherwise  historically  authenti- 
cated, (h)  A  thorough  investigation  of  sources  is  indispensable  only  to  the 
historical  writer,  (c) 

§  8.     Auxiliary  Sciences. 
The  auxiliary  sciences  usually  mentioned,  such  as  Ecclesia^itical  Pliilulo- 
gy,  (ji)  Chronology,  (ö)  Diplomatics,  (c)  Geography  and  Statistics,  (<T)  are  espe- 
cially necessary  only  to  the  ecclesiastical  historian.     But  General  History, 

a)  (a)  8.  Conciliorum  nova  et  amplissiina  collectio,  cur.  J.  Dom.  Mansi,  Flor,  et  Ten.  ITWss.  81 
vols.  M\o.  Canoncs  App.  et  Concill.  Saec.  4-T.  rec.  //  T.  Brum,  Bcr.  lS39s.  2  Tb.  (Bibl.  Eccl.  P.  I.); 
[Landon's  Manual  of  Councils  comprising  the  substance  of  the  most  remarkable  and  important  ca- 
nons, Load.  1S46.  1  vol  12mo.]  (ß)  BuUarium  Roman.  Luxemb.  1727.  19  Th.  f  ;  Bullarum  ampllss. 
ColL  op.  C.  Cocquelines,  Eom.  1739ss.  23  vols,  f ;  Bullarium  magnum  Eom.  (1753-1S30)  op.  Andr. 
Avocati  Barharinl,  Kom.  1835s8.  8  Th.  £  ;  Bum.  Bullarium,  o.  Auszüge  d.  Merkwürdigsten  Bullen, 
übers,  m.  Bemerk,  v.  Eisenaclmiidt,  Neust  lS31f.  2  vols.;  Sammlung  aller  Concordate,  v.  E 
Munch,  Lpz.  ISSOt  2  vols.  (7)  Codex  liturgicus  Eccl.  Universac,  ill.  J.  A.  Atsemanu»,  Rom. 
17-19SS.  13  Th.  4  (S)  Codes  regularum  Monast  cd.  Lucas  UuhUnius,  Rom.  1661.  8  Th.  4.  bus.  M 
Brockie,  Aug.  Vind.  1759.  6  Th.  t  («)  Maxima  Bibliothcca  vett.  Patrum,  Lngd.  1677ss.  2S  Th.  t 
Bibl.  vett,  Pfttniin,  op.  And.  Gallandii,  Yen.  1765ä8.  14  Tli.  f.;  comp.  Fahricii  Bibl.  gracca  Ilamb. 
(1705SS.  14  Th.)  cd.  Ilarkss,  1790s3.  12  Th.  4;  Schoenema7in,  Bibl.  bist  literaria  Patrum  Lat  Lpz. 
1792SS.  2  Th.  (till  1475):  J.  O.  Walch,  Bibl.  patristica,  Jen.  1770.  e<L  I>anz,  liU;  Hostler,  Bibl.  d 
Kirchenväter,  Lpz.  1776ss.  10  vols.;  Augusti,  Chrestomatbia  patristica,  Lps.  I5l2.  2  Th. ;  </.  G.  V. 
Engelhardt,  Lit.  Lcits,  z.  Tories,  ü.  d.  Patrlstik.  Erl.  1S23;  J.  N.  Locherer,  Lclirb.  d.  Patrologic. 
Mainz,  1S37 ;  J.  A.  Mühler,  Patrol,  o.  Christ  Literargesch.  edit  by  lieWimayr,  P.ali^b.  1S40. 1  vol. ; 
[Lib.  of  the  Fathers  of  the  IL  Cath.  Church  before  the  Division,  Transl.  by  Engl.  Clergymen,  Osf 
1S30.  20  vols.  S.]  ((,')  EUies  du  Pin,  Blbliothcque  des  autcurs  ecclesiastiques  (Par.  16SÖS3.  47  Th.) 
Amst  1690SS.  19  Th.  4.  and  Bibl.  des  auteurs  si'pares  de  la  communion  de  rigli>e  Rom.  Par.  1715s. 
3  Th. ;  comp.  Richard  Simon,  Critique  de  la  Bibl.  de  Mr.  du  Pin,  Par.  1730.  4  Tb. ;  Care.  Scripto- 
rum  EccL  literaria  (Lond.  16S9)  ed.  3  Oxon.  I74t1ss.  2  Th.  f  ;  J.  A.  Fahricii,  Bibl.  Eccl.  Hamb.  1715. 
r.  Ejusd.  Bibl.  Latina  mediae  ct  infimae  actatis,  llamb.  1734ss.  6  Th.  aus  Mansi,  Palav.  1754.  3  Th. 
4;  Hist  Littcraire  de  la  France,  par  des  relig.  Boni'dictins  de  Ä  Maur,  Par.  17*3ss.  20  Tb.  i;  J.  S. 
Asser7iani,  Bibl.  oricntalis,  Eom.  1719ss.  4  Th.  f.  Busse,  Grundr.  d.  Chr.  Lit  (till  15th  centX 
Münst  1S2S,  2  vols,  b)  Acta  Sanctorum  qnotquot  toto  orbe  eohintur,  edd.  Jo.  BoUandus  aliiqna 
Antv.  1643-1794  63  Th.  f.  comp.  De  prosecutione  opens  Bul/andiaiii,  Namur,  13:>5;  Bonner  Zeit- 
schr.  {.  Phil.  u.  Kath.  Th.  IL  17  &  20;  Voge!,  Oesch.  u.  Wü^lignng  d.  Legende  (Illgen"s  Hist  Theol. 
Abhh.  1824  vol.  IIL  p.  140ss.).  c)  iSchleiermacher,  Darstell,  des  Theol.  Studimus,  2  ed.  §  190f. 
[Brief  Outline  of  the  Study  of  ThcoL  &c  Translated  by  Tim.  Farrer,  with  Eeminis.  of  S.  Edinb. 
1550.  8.  §  184.] 

a)  J.  C.  Suiceri,  Thesaurus  eccl.  e  patribns  graecis,  Amst  (1652)  1725.  2  vols.  f. ;  C.  du  Fresne, 
Glossarium  mediae  et  inflmae  graecitatis,  Lugd.  1C55.  2  vols.  f. ;  Ejusd.  Gloss,  mediae  et  inf  latinita- 
tls,  Par.  1738SS.  6  vols,  t  and  others;  {Adelung)  Gloss,  manu.ile  .id  Scriptt  mediae  et  inC  latinitatis 
Ilal.  1772SS,  6  Th. ;  Glossaries  of  the  Germanic  and  Romanic  Languages;  [G.  C.  Z<?(rM,  Essay  on 
the  Origin  and  Formation  of  the  Rom.  Lang^.  Oxford,  1540.  8.]  V)  Aerae:  ab  urbe  o^pdita,  Seleuci- 
darum,  Uispanica,  Diocletiana  sive  martyrum,  Constantinopolitina,  indicllonnm,  Dionysiana.  comp. 
L'.\rt  de  verifier  Ics  dates  les  faits  historiques,  par  un  reJig.  Bonodictin,  Par.  175t>.  3  vols.  4.  nouv.  ed. 
par  Yitoude  S.  Alais,  Par.  ISlSs.  23  Th. ;  L.  IdeUr.  Lebrb.  d.  Chronol.  Brl.  1531;  t  Brinek- 
meier,  Prakt  Handbuch  d.  Hist  Cbronol.  Lpz.  1540;  [//  Sicolas,  The  Chron.  of  Hist  2  ed.  Lond. 
iS40. 1  vol.  8;  J.  Ilaydn,  Diet  of  Dates  to  All  Ages  and  Nations,  Lond.  1540;  Blairs  Chron.  and 


§  9.  üTvrsioN  I^'To  pebiods.  5 

the  history  of  Jurisprudence,  and  the  history  of  Philosophy  and  of  Litera- 
ture, are  all  of  great  importance  as  preparatory  sciences  to  Church  History, 
Bince  they  present,  in  a  complete  form,  subjects  Avhich,  on  account  of  tlieir 
individual  connection  with  the  Church,,  are  touched  upon  but  slightly  in 
Church  history,  and  cannot  be  thoroughly  understood  except  in  their  com- 
plete relations. 

§  9.     Division. 

As  every  thing  in  a  progressive  state  must  be  regarded  in  an  order  of  suc- 
cession, all  history  is  necessarily  arranged  according  to  time.  But  individual 
groups  of  things,  similar  in  nature,  and  connected  together  by  causes  of  a 
more  definite  character  than  mere  temporal  contiguity,  are  often  found  spring- 
ing np  in  the  same  periods.  Hence,  the  arrangement  according  to  time,  must 
be  modified  by  another  according  to  the  suhjcct.  The  division  according  to 
periods  aims  to  assign  some  definite  limits  for  the  scientific  view.  This  math- 
ematical division  by  arbitrary  intersections  is  the  more  inadmissible,  when 
the  lines  which  are  drawn  pass  through  some  event  which  constitutes  an 
epoch,  and  produces  a  thorough  transformation  of  the  Church.  The  essential 
developments  of  the  Christian  spirit  which  have  hitherto  been  made,  are 
Catholicism  and  Protestantism ;  and  the  principal  organs  by  which  it  has 
acted,  have  been  the  Greco-Koman  and  the  Germanic  national  spirit.  Accord- 
ingly, the  history  of  the  Church  is  naturally  divided  into  Three  Ages,  and  each 
of  these  into  Two  Periods.  I.  Ancient  Church  History,  until  the  establishment 
of  the  holy  Ptoman  empire  among  the  Germanic  nations,  800 :  Greco-Roman 
civilization  in  the  ascendant,  but  gradually  declining,  partly  on  account  of  its 
own  weakness,  and  partly  because  lost  in  the  German  nationality.  The  First 
Period  extends  to  the  victory  of  the  Church  under  Constantine,  312;  Estab- 
lishment of  the  Church,  and  development  of  Catholicism  in  the  midst  of  tri- 
umphant conflicts  and  sufl'erings.  The  Second  Period  exhibits  the  Church,  on 
the  one  hand,  as  the  established  Church  of  the  empire,  attending  to  the  com- 
pletion and  establishment  of  her  faith,  and  on  the  other,  striving  to  allay  the 
storm  of  national  migrations.  II.  Mediäval  Church  History,  untU  the  Ee- 
formation,  1517 :  sway  of  Romano-Germanic  Catholicism.  The  Third  Pe- 
riod extends  to  the  time  when  the  papal  despotism  attains  its  greatest  ascend- 
ency, imder  Innocent  III.,  121G:  victory  of  the  papacy  over  all  opposition. 
The  Fourth  Period  presents  us  with  the  gradual  decline  of  Catholicism,  and 
some  tokens  of  a  coming  reformation.     III.  Modern  Church  History  until  the 

Hist.  Tables;  new  ed.  and  cont.  to  the  present  time,  Lond.  1S50.  8;  Qj-fonl,  Cliron.  Tables  of  An.  <& 
Mod.  Hist,  cont,  to  ISoO.  Oxf.  1S.39.  f.  and  Iltdes  New  An.-dysis  uf  Cliron.  it  Geog.  new  ed  cor.  and 
Imp.  L'ind.  1S;30.  4  vols.  8;  ITaskelVs  Cliron.  View.  New  York.  IS+T)] ;  F.  Piper,  KirclieorechnuDj, 
Bcrl.  1S41.  4;  [Ä  F.  Jarvi»,  Cliron.  Introd.  to  Cliurch  lli>t  New  York.  1S50.  8;  J.  E.  RiddU, 
Eccles.  Chron.  Lond.  1840.  8]  c)  J.  MahUion,  do  re  diplomntioa,  ed.  2.  Par.  1X09.  f. ;  Schoneinann, 
Vollstund.  System  d.  Allf.  ftiplomalik.  Hamb.  1801.  2  vols. ;  [Diplomatics,  as  the  Germans  use  tlio 
word,  is  the  SÄcnco  which  treats  of  dijiloman,  «.  g.  Bulls,  Briefs,  Charters,  Patents  *c-]  tO  Caroli 
a  S.  Paulo,  Geo^iraphia  sacra  (Tar.  1C4I.  f )  Amst.  1704.  f. ;  F.  Sjiunhemii,  Geogr.  s;»cra  et  ecc.  (0pp. 
Lugd.  1701.  1  Th.  f.> ;  ,/.  K.  T.  WiHsc/i,  llandb.  d.  Kirclil.  Geogr.  u.  Statist,  bis  zu  anfang  d.  IG  Jahrh. 
Brl.  1846.  2  vols. ;  A.  W.  Mi'lhr,  Hierographie,  Gesch.  d.  K.  in  Landcliarten,  Elberf.  lS22ss.  2  Th.  f.; 
J.  R  T.  Willsch,  Atlas  sacer  s.  occl.  Goth.  1S4-1  f.;  Sfündliii,  KirchL  Geogr.  u.  StaUstik.  Tub.  1S04, 
2  Th. ;  J.  Wigyers,  Kirchl.  Statistik.  Hamb.  lS42s.  2  vols. 


6  INTRODUCTION.    CHAP.  I.    PLAN. 

present  time:  conflict  of  Protostantisin  >vith  Catliolicism.  The  Fifth  Period 
extends  to  tho  j)caco  of  Wcsti)lialia,  1018:  partial  victory  of  Protestantism, 
and  tlio  now  determination  of  Catholicism.  The  Sixth  Period  ßhows  us  the 
conflict  between  ccclcHinsticnl  usages  and  religious  independence.  The  prin- 
cijial  articles  of  tho  arrangement  according  to  subjects  are:  1)  The  territo- 
rial extension  of  tho  Church  ;  ('/)  2)  The  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  itg 
relation  to  tho  State ;  (/')  3)  The  developraeut  of  the  Christian  spirit,  with 
respect  to  doctrine  and  science ;  ('-)  4)  Tho  jiopular  life  of  the  Church,  (iJ) 
and  tho  system  of  public  worship.  (<)  But  this  mechanical  framework  is 
formed  only  very  gradually.  That  relation  is  always  to  be  made  most  promi- 
nent which  is  really  predominant  in  each  age.  Some  elements,  as,  c.  rj.,  the 
Papacy  (/)  and  the  Monastic  Orders,  (y)  appear  as  independent  grouj«  only 
in  a  few  periods.  After  tho  Reformation,  the  separate  Churches  form  essen- 
tial distinctions.  Every  Period,  then,  must  form  an  arrangement  out  of  its 
own  materials,  under  the  direction  of  no  other  law  than  that  which  requires 
a  vivid  picture  of  each  age,  derived  from  all  its  ecclesiastical  relations. 

a)  J.  A.  Fabriciu»,  salutaris  lux.  ev.  toti  orbi  esoriens,  s.  notilia  propagatorum  chr.  sacrorum. 
Ilatnb.  1731.  4;  P.  C.  Gratianvs,  Vrs.  e.  Gesch.  ü.  Urspr.  n.  Fortpflanz,  d.  C'hiistenth.  in  Europa, 
Tub.  17G6ss.  2  Th. ;  W.  Broicn,  Ilist.  of  the  I'ropag.  of  Christ,  among  Heathen  since  the  licfonn. 
Lond.  1S14.  2  vols. ;  C.  G.  Mumfiardt,  Yr».  e.  Allg.  Missionsgesch.  Bas.  1S2S.  8  Th.;  J.  Wiggern, 
Ocsch.  d.  Evang.  Miss.  1S459.  2  vols.;  [C  T.  Blumhardt,  Christian  Missions,  Tract  See.  Lond.  1S40. 
IS;  J.  0.  Choules,  Orig.  and  Ilist.  of  Missions,  Boston.  1S3S.  2  vols.  4;  J/iiie,  Hist,  of  Chr.  Missions, 
from  the  Kef  to  the  Present  Time.  Edinb.  1542.  12]  I)  Petrus  de  Marca,  Dss.  de  concordia  s.icer- 
dotli  et  imperii  s.  de.  libertatibus  Eecl.  Gallic.  1.  YIII.  ed.  St.  Baluziu»,  Par.  IG&B.  t. ;  J.  U.  Boehmer, 
Lps.  ITOS.  f ;  G.  J.  Planck,  Gesch.  d.  Kirchl.  Gesellschaftsverfas.'!.  Ilann.  1S03sä  5  vols. ;  C.  liifftt, 
Gesch.  Darst.  d.  Verb.  zw.  K.  u.  Staat  Mainz.  1S36.  1  Th.  (till  Justinian  I.) ;  Tliomassini,  Tetus  ct 
nova  Eccl.  disciplina  circa  benqficia.  Lua  172S.  3  Th.  f. ;  Picherii,  Hist  Cone,  peneralium.  Colon.  16S0. 
3Th.  4;  F.  Ilt/k-Ä,  Entw.  e.  vollst  Hist.  d.  KVers.  Lpz.  1759;  Staudenmaier,  Gesch.  d.  Bischofj- 
wahlen.  Tub.  1S30;  J.  Ant.  u.  Aug.  TTieiner,  Die  Einführ.  d.  erzwung.  Elielosigk.  d.  GcLstl.  Altcnb. 
1S28.  (new  tit  1S45.)  3  vols,  c)  C.  IK  Flügge,  Gesch.  d.  Theol.  Wis.-=cnsch.  (till  tlje  P.ef )  Hal.  179Gss. 
3  vols.;  A'.  F.  Stäiidlin,  Oos-h.  d.  Theol.  Wiss.  seit  Verbreitung  der  alten  Literatur.  Gütt  1?10.  f. 
2  vols. ;  F.  M'iMi,  Vollst  Hist.  d.  Ketzereien  (tili  the  image  controv.)  Lpz.  176'2ss,  11  vols. ;  I>,  Pela- 
viun.  Opus  de  theol.  dogmatibus  (Par.  1644s9.  4  vols,  f.)  ed.  Th.  Aletfiinua  (Clencus),  Antv.  (Amst) 
1700.  6  Th.  C  ;  //.  Klee,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Mainz.  lS37ss.  2  vols. ;  W.  Münscher,  Handb.  d.  DGcsch. 
(tili  1G04.)  Marb.  1797ss.  4  vols.  ed.  3  vols.  I.-IIL  ISl's. ;  Ibid.  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  (1811- 
1819.)  m.  Belegen  u.  d.  Quellen  von  D.  v.  Colin.  Cass.  lS32ss.  1  &  2  Hülfte,  1  Abth.  Fortg.  v.  j\>i»- 
decker,  2  Abth.  1S3S;  August!,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Lpz.  (1S05.  ISU.  1820.)  1S:35;  Baumgarten  Cm- 
tius,  Lehrb.  d.  DGescli.  Jen.  1S32 ;  2  Abth.  u.  Comp.  d.  DGesch.  Lpz.  1S40-46.  2  Th.  \  J.  G.  V. 
Fngelliardt,  DGesch.  Neust  1S.39.  2  vols.;  F.  K.  Jftier,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Giess.  ISW;  K.  P. 
Uagenhach,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Lpz.  1S40-41.  3  Th. ;  F.  C/i.  B,inr,  Lehrb.  d.  DGesch.  Stnttg. 
1347;  Th.  Kliefoth,  Einl.  in  d.  DGesch.  Parehim.  1S:59 ;  [A  Translation  of  the  Doctrinal  History  of 
Muenscher,  h.is  been  published  by  Dr.  Murdoch:  New  Haven.  1S30.  12;  A  Translation  of  /lagen- 
bach's  Doct.  Hist  by  C.  W.  Bud;  was  published  In  Clarke's  Ed.  For.  Theol.  Lib.  1846.  2  vols.  12.] 
d)  Acta  Sanctorum  (§  7  nt  b.)  Staudlin,  Gesch.  der  Sittenlehre  Jesu.  Gott  1799.  1S2.3.  (till  1299.)  4 
vols.  u.  Ge.sch.  d.  Chr.  Moral  s.  d.  Wicderaufl.  d.  Wiss.  Giitt  ISOS;  J.  G.  J/üUer,  Eeliqiilen  alter 
Zeiten.  Lpz.  ISOoSS.  4  vols. ;  Xeander,  Denkwürdigkeiten  aus  der  Gesch.  des  Christenth.  und 
Christi.  Lebens.  Brl.  (lS23ss.)  1S253.  3  vols,  e)  E.  Marlene,  de  antiquis  Eccl.  ritibus,  ed.  3.  Antv. 
1736SS.  4  Th.  f  ;  A.  A.  Pelliccia,  de  Chr.  Eccl.  primao,  mediae  et  noviss.  politia,  (Neap.  1777.  Ven. 
1782.  3  Th.)  edd.  Pitter  et  Braun.  Col.  1829-38.  3  Th.  revised  by  Binierim.  Mainz.  1s2.tss.  7  Th. 
In  17  vols. ;  Locherer,  "Lehfb.  d.  Chr.  Archüol.  FrankC  1S32 ;  J.  Bing]tam,Vii^Des  s.  antiquitates 
ecc.  ex.  Angl.  (Antiquities  of  tho  Churcli,  [Lond.  new  ed.  1S4G.  2  vols.]  and  others.)  lat  red,  Gri-*- 
cÄorÜM.  Ilal.  (1724SS.)  175253.  11  Th.  4;  F.  IT.  Pheinicald,  Kirchl.  Arch.  BrL  18.30;  Augiuti, 
Handb.  d.  Chr.  Arch.  Auszug,  a.  d.  Denkwürdigkk.  (1817ss.  12  vols.)  Lpz.  18:36«.  8  vols.;  C.  C.  F. 
Siegel,  llandb.  d.  Christi.  Altherthümer,  in  Alphab.  Ordn.  Lpz.  ISSGss.  4  vols.;  VT.  BfViiner,  Chr. 
Kirchl.  Altherthumswiss.  Bresl.  1S3C-9.  2  vols. ;  [J.  F.  Kiddle,  Man.  of  Chr.  Auth.  Lond.  18-34  S;  L, 
Culeman,  Autt  of  the  Chr  Church,  transl.  and  comp,  from  Augusli.  And.  1841.  8.] 


S  10.    FLACIL'S     nOTTI^'GER.    BAKONIÜ&. 


CHAP,  ir.— GENERAL   LITERATURE. 

StdudUn,  Gesch.  u.  Literatur  d.  KGeseh.  edit  by  Ileinsen.  Ilann.  1S27.  [£'.  7?.  llagenhacJi, 
Kiicykl.  u.  Melliodologie  der  Theol.  Wiss.  3  ed.  p.  224.  Lpz.  1851.  S.]      • 

§  10.     Polemical  Church  History. 

A  general  Church  History  could  not  he  reasonahly  expected,  until  tho 
Church  was  .suthciently  extended  to  einhrace  a  largo  family  of  nations.  It 
was  not,  in  fact,  written  until  the  Church  had  hecome  divided  and  the  newly 
organized  party  felt  the  necessity  of  connecting  itself  with  antiquity,  and  of  dis- 
turbing the  historical  basis  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Such  was  the  object  of 
Matthias  Flacius  Illyricus^  when  he  edited  the  Magdeburg  Centuries,  (a)  in 
which  was  enlisted  all  the  Protestant  learning  of  the  age.  It  was  distin- 
guished for  its  fomiliarity  with  original  authorities,  for  its  frequent  citations, 
for  a  criticism  which  paid  no  deference  to  earlier  writers  on  the  same  subject, 
and  for  its  passionate  style  of  controversy.  For  more  than  a  century  after- 
wards, nothing  was  published  but  text-books  formed  from  the  materials  sup- 
plied by  the  Centuries,  and  written  in  the  same  spirit.  In  the  Reformed 
Churches,  tho  elementary  studies  of  literary  men  were  turned  principally  to 
individual  portions  of  the  general  subject  to  refute  some  particular  assertions 
of  the  Catholic  writers.  J.  II.  Ilottingcr  was  anxious  to  compose  for  his 
Church  a  work  {]>)  of  a  partisan  character  like  that  of  the  Centuries,  but  his 
History,  except  in  whatever  relates  to  the  Oriental  and  Helvetic  Churches, 
indicates  a  limited  knowledge  of  original  authorities,  and  is  mingled  with 
much  irrelevant  matter.  Sj^anheiiii's  Church  History  (c)  presents  a  very  rigid 
investigation  of  historical  questions,  but  it  was  principally  aimed  against 
Baronius.  The  Catholic  Church  soon  perceived  that  very  little  advantage 
was  to  be  gained  by  merely  contending  against  the  Centuries,  and  that  it 
must  supplant  that  work  by  another  of  a  superior  character.  Intrusted  with 
such  a  task,  C'cvsnr  Baronius  wvoiQ  his  Annals  (</),  in  which  were  incorporated 
vast  treasures  of  original  documents,  selected  with  a  keen  sagacity  and  zeal 

/)  E.  S.  Cyprian,  r.  Ureprnng  u.  Wachsthuin  d.  Papstb.  Goth.  1719.  and  often.  Frkf.  1T63;  A. 
Boicer,  Hist  of  the  Popes  to  1758.  (cont  by  8.  II.  Cox-,  8  vols.  Svo.  Pliilad.  1840) ;  F.  Waldi,  Eiitw.  a 
Vollst  Hist  d.  Piipste.  Lpz.  (1750.)  1758;  L.  7.  Spitfer,  Gescli.  d.  Papsttli.  edit  by  Ourlltt  u.  Paulus. 
lldlb.  182C;  J.  A.  Llorente,  Gesch.  d.  Papste,  n.  d.  Fr.  Lpz.  1823.  2  vols. ;  C.  J.  \\'>:her,  Papstth.  n. 
Piipste.  Stutt?.  1S34.  2  Th.  [./.  lianke.  Hist  of  the  Popes,  transl.  by  Mrs.  Austin.  3  vols.  Svo.  Lond. 
1840.  and  by  W.  K.  KMi/.  Philad.  1S4S.  8;  De  Cormenin,  Hist  of  the  Popes.  Plillad.  1845.  1  vol.  8] 

(7)  n.  Iloxpiniuni  de  nionachls,  I.  VL  (Tig,  1588.  1008.)  Gen.  1099.  f. ;  A.  D.  Alteserrae,  Asccticon 
B.  Oripg.  rei  Monast  (Pur.  1074.  4.)  rec.  GlucK:  Hal.  1782 ;  //  IMijot,  Hist  dos  Ordres  Monastiques, 
Par.  (17148S.  8  Th.)  1820s3.  10  Th.  4;  Guinc.  1S40.  0  Th. ;  L'bcr.  Lpz.  1753ss.  8  Th.  revised  by 
Crome.  Pragm.  Ge.«ch.  d.  Mönchsord.  Lpz.  1774.ss.  10  vols. ;  (C.  J.  Weber)  Die  Miincherei.  Stiittg. 
1819s.  3  vols. ;  /;.  Mihicli,  Geseh.  d.  MOncIith.  (a  collection  of  materials)  Stuttg.  1828.  2  vols. ;  [S.  P. 
Day,  Monastic  Institutions,  Uitir  Orlg.  Prog.  Nat  and  Tendency.  Lond.  2  ed.  12ino.  1840;  G.  Kinil- 
lianixe.  Hist  of  Monast.  Orders.  Lond.  1093.  8.] 

a)  Ecclesiasllca  llistoria,  integrain  Ecclcsiao  Ch.  ideam  coniplectons,  congesta  per  aliquot  studio- 
SOS  et  pio8  vlros  in  urbe  >[agdebargica.  15ivs.  1.^59-74.  13  centuries  t ;  New  ed.  by  Baumgarten,  and 
Semler  NOrnb.  1757-0.'>.  broken  oil'  witli  the  Gth  vol.  I)  Historia  Eccl.  N.  T.  Tig.  1C51-C7.  9  vols, 
till  end  of  10th  cent  tho  9lh  vol.  hy  J.  J.  Ilottiiiger,  the  son.  c)  Summa  Historl.io  occl.  (LugiL 
1089-94.)  Lpz.  1698.  4.  [His  work  is  abridged  and  transl.  with  additions  by  G.  Wright.  Lond.  Svo 
1829.]    (1)  Annalcb  cccleslflslici  a  C.  u.  ad  a.  1193.  Pom,  158S-10O7.  12  Th.  f.  and  ofteo. 


8  INTRODUCTIO.V.    CUAV.  11.    LITERATURE. 

in  behalf  of  tlio  Roman  supremacy,  from  tlio  arcliivcs  of  tlic  Vatican.  Tlia 
errors  and  partialities  of  tlio  Cardinal  were  encountered  by  the  critical  labors 
of  the  Franciscan  Pagi,  in  Avliich  were  exhibited  a  learned  love  of  truth  and 
a  Gallican  attachment  to  liberty,  (r)  In /^a/y  numerous  continuations  and 
nbridf^inents  of  the  Annals  were  fn-oduced,  in  the  same  spirit  -vvbicli  the  orig- 
inal author  had  disjjlayed,  but  not  •with  equal  talent.  The  continuation  by 
lunjnnUlus  [till  15G5]  is  the  only  work,  which,  in  its  abundance  of  materials, 
can  be  ref,'ardod  as  nearly  a  rival  of  that  which  precedes  it.(y')  A  similar  lion- 
or  was  sought  by  SacharelU^  ((/)  in  oppo.sition  to  the  later  historians  of  the 
Protestant  Church,  and  in  the  composition  of  his  work  he  possessed  similar 
external  advantages,  but  he  displays  hardly  equal  diligence  in  the  usfi  of  them 
except  in  his  earliest  volumes. 

§  11.  French  Ecclesiastical  Historians. 

Catholic  writers  of  history  are  always  restrained  by  a  certain  prescribed  mode 
of  treating  their  subject,  but,  Avithin  the  limits  required  by  this,  those  who  be- 
longed to  the  French  school  attained  a  scientific  character.  The  peculiar  quali- 
ties exhibited  by  them  were  the  result  not  merely  of  the  independent  spirit  and 
position  of  the  Gallican  Church,  but  of  the  intiuence  of  an  age  in  which  the 
learned  classes  redeemed  from  obscurity  immense  collections  of  materials.  Such 
was  the  spirit  in  which  wrote  the  Dominican  Katalis  Alexander  [Xocl],  always 
learned,  dry,  and  scholastic ;  (a)  Fleury,  the  hermit  in  the  midst  of  a  court, 
devotional,  gentle,  versatile  and  copious.  Qi)  Bosstiet,  whose  History  of  the 
"World  is  written  in  an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  with  logical  eloquence,  and  an  ap- 
parent insight  into  the  ways  of  Providence,  which  implies  that  the  clever 
Bishop  of  Meaux  must  have  been  as  familiar  with  the  court  of  the  Most  Iligh, 
as  he  was  with  that  of  his  sovereign  ;  (c)  and  finally  the  Jansenist  (Sebastian 
le  Nain  de)  I'lllemont,  whose  Memoirs  are  a  conscientious  and  ample  collec- 
tion of  the  more  ancient  original  authorities,  ('i) 

§  12.     Protestant  Scientific  Church  Ilistory. 

Instead  of  regarding  history  as  a  mere  instrument  in  the  hands  of  eccle- 
siastical disputants,  Calixtns,  in  a  series  of  monographs,  pointed  out  the  sci- 
entific advantages  of  an  unbiassed  investigation  of  facts ;  and  Arnold  was  en- 

e)  Critlca  historico-chronologica  in  Annales  Baronil.  Antv.  (Genev.)  1705. 1727.  4  Th.  f.  /)  An- 
nalos  eccl.  13-21  Th.  Rom.  164()-77.  Colon.  1603m.  ;  tlie  whole  collection  by  Baronius,  Pagl,  Ray- 
naldns,  etc.  cur.  MiUisi.  Lnc.  173S-51).  3S  Th.  f.  [The  Annales  Eccl.  are  to  be  continued  \>j  Aug. 
Theiner,  from  1572  till  now;  8  vols,  have  appeared  in  1853.  Rome.  1S53.  £]  g)  Ilistoria  cccL  Rom 
1771-9G.  25  Th.  4.  (till  11S5.) 

a)  Select»  Historiae  eccl.  capita  et  in  loca  cjnsdein  insignia  diss,  historicac.  chron.  et  dogm.  Par. 
1676-SG.  24  Th.  (IC  centuries).  Later  editions :  Hist.  eccl.  Vet  et  N.  T.  ed.  ilami.  Luc.  173S.  9  Th. 
f. ;  Bassano.  177S.  9  Th.  t  I)  Hist  ecclesiastique.  Par.  1991-1720.  20  Th.  4.  and  often  (Ü1I  1414.) 
tr.insl.  into  the  Lat  Ital.  and  Germ,  continued,  without  suitable  qtialiflcations  for  the  work,  by 
Jea7i  Claud  Fahre.  Par.  1726-40.  20  Th.  4.  and  by  Alex.  La  Croije.  Par.  177C-7S.  6  Th.  [The  work 
of  Fleury  is  in  p.irt  transl.  into  Eng.  in  5  vols.  4.  and  Is  in  course  of  publ.  by  J.  If.  Xeteman.  O.von. 
1S42.]  f)  Discours  sur  rillstoire  universelle  depuis  le  comniencemont  du  nionde  jusquVi  I'empire  de 
Charles  Magne ;  [Par.  1S46.  ISmo.  and  in  2  mag.  vols.  S.  transl.  by  Hich.  Spencer.  Lond.  1730.  S.] 
d)  Memoires  pour  servir  ik  I'llist  ecol.  des  sis  premiers  slccles,  justifies  par  les  citations  des  antenr» 
crlginanx.  Par.  1693ss.  16  Th.  4.  and  often. 


§  12.    SEMLER.    SCnKOECKir.    HENKE.  9 

couraged  by  his  Pietism,  and  a  strong  predilection  for  such  studies,  to  search 
eagerly  for  traces  of  the  Christian  lifo  in  those  persons  who  had  in  each  cen- 
tury been  rejected  by  the  Church,  (a)  The  liberal  tendency  of  the  former,  and 
the  pious  spirit  of  the  latter  writer,  were  equally  opposed  to  the  established 
Church  of  their  day.  Weismanns  gentle  love  of  truth,  made  him  strive  to  re- 
concile both  these  tendencies  in  his  selection  of  important  events,  (i)  Mo- 
slieim,  conscious  of  historical  talents,  with  a  power  of  combination  always 
bold,  and  sometimes  extravagant,  and  an  acquaintance  with  men  in  various 
and  friendly  relations,  is  universally  acknowledged  to  have  been  a  master  of 
ecclesiastical  historical  writing,  (r)  Next  to  him,  Cramer  was  distinguished  for 
his  accurate  delineation  and  careful  investigation  of  the  dogmatic  history  of 
the  middle  ages,  (^T)  while  Semler^  with  no  attractions  of  style,  and  no  per- 
ception of  the  peculiar  condition  of  earlier  times,  but  with  a  lofty  indepen- 
dence, was  always  plunging  anew  into  the  trackless  abyss  of  ancient  sources.  (<) 
In  the  position  thus  acquired,  but  with  a  more  believing  spirit,  Sehrüelh  has 
written  a  Church  History,  which,  after  it  ceased  to  be  a  tedious  Reader,  as  it 
seemed  to  be  in  the  earlier  volumes,  and  rose  to  the  dignity  of  a  scientific 
work,  is  equally  trustworthy  witli  respect  to  its  materials,  and  ample  in  its 
details.  The  last  volumes  were  added  by  TzscJiirner,  with  a  fresher  energy, 
and  more  decided  sentiments.  (/)  "Writers  of  a  liberal  tendency  followed  the 
path  marked  out  by  Semler.  Sjnttler  gave  to  Church  History  a  more  anima- 
ted and  secular  aspect,  and  at  the  same  time  traced  more  perfectly  its  con- 
nections with  General  History.  ({/)  Ilenle  treated  it  rather  as  if  it  Avere  a 
history  of  religious  errors,  and  a  court  before  which  was  to  be  arraigned  all 
kinds  of  spiritual  despotism.  "When  writing  of  events  subsequent  to  the  Re- 
formation, his  work  is  especially  valuable  for  its  accurate  regard  for  even  un- 
important matters  ;  but  it  is  often  lifeless,  and  tinged  Avith  the  strongest  pre- 
judices of  his  age.  (/;)  As  soon  as  the  opposition  to  the  ecclesiastical  spirit 
of  earlier  times  had  become  developed  into  a  well-defined  subjectivity,  a 
higher  scientific- character  was  supposed  to  bo  attained  by  the  atiectation  of 
extreme  indifference.  Schmidt  collected  materials  exclusively  from  the 
sources.  (/)    Engclhardt  gives  us  a  clear,  calm,  and  frigid  account  of  the  na- 


a)  Unpartheyistho  Kirelicn-  «.  Ketzer-IIist  (Frkf.  lC90s.  f.  1720.  4  Th.  4.)  Schaffh.  lT40s?.  3 
Th.  f.  h)  Introductioin  memorabilia  eccl.  maximeSaeculorum  primorumetnovissiinonim  (Tub.  171 S. 
2  vols.)  Hal.  174.5.  2  vols.  4.  c)  His  principal  complete  work  is,  Institutionum  Hist.  cccl.  antiqnac 
et  receiitioris  1.  IV.  Hchnst.  (17.W.  4.)  1764.  4;  Ubers.  u.  verm.  v.  J.  v.  Einem.  Lpz.  1769-7S.  9  vols, 
and  by  J.  R.  SchlegeJ,  Ileilbr.  (1  »t  2  vols.  1770s.)  175Gss.  T  vols.;  comp.  Lücke,  Narratio  do  J.  L. 
Moshcmio.  Oiitt  1S.37.  4;  [Transl.  into  Engr.  with  notes,  by  ^.  J/wrrfocX-.  New  York.  3  vols.  Svo.  8 
«1.  1S41.  nmWiy  A.  ^^^: Lai ne,y{\\\\  notes,  and  often  reprinted;  bis  Comniontarii  do  reb.  Chr.  ante 
Const  has  been  recently  transl.  into  Engl,  by  Dr.  Murdock.']  <1)  Jlonsuet's  Einl.  in  d.  Gesch.  d 
Welt  u.  Kel.  übers,  mit  Abhandl.  verm.  u.  fortsres.  v.  Cramer.  Lpz.  (174Sss.)  1757ss.  S  vols 
e)  Historiae  eccl.  select«  capita.  Hal.  1767ss.  8  Th. ;  Versuche  e.  friichtb.  Ansz.  d.  KGesch.  Hal 
1773SS.  8  Th. ;  Vers.  Christi.  Jahrb.  Hal.  17S4.  2  vols.  /)  Christi.  KGesch.  (till  the  llcform.)  Lpz. 
17ÖS-1S03. 85  Th.  2  ed.  1-13  vols.  1772-1S02 ;  KGesch.  since  the  Kef.  Lpz.  lSft4-10.  10  Th.  (7)  Grund- 
'iss  der  Gesch.  d.  Christi.  Kirche.  Giilt  17S2.  r>  e<L  cont  till  the  present  tiinc  by  G.  J.  Plancl; 
Glitt  1S12;  in  Spittlers  works.  Stiittjr.  1S27.  vol.  II.  h)  All^.  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche  nach  d.  Zeit- 
folge. Braunscliw.  17SS-1S1S.  8  Vols.  5  ed.  of  1st  it  2d  vols.  4  od.  of  .3d  &  4th  vols,  and  2  ed.  of  Cth 
&  6th  vols. ;  the  last  ed.  of  vols.  Is.  5s.  after  a  careful  revision  (so  as  even  to  lose  many  of  its  ori:;i- 
nal  peculiarities),  edited  and  cont  (7tli  it  Stli  vols.)  by^.  S.  Vater.  The  Hist  since  the  Reform,  vols. 
»-8.  I'ater  has  also  comprised  in  1  Th.  (1S2.3.)  and  published  as  Th.  9.     1)  llandb.  d.  Chr.  KOescli 


10  iNTnontrcTiON'.   cirAr.  ii.   i.iTKKATf:i:E. 

ked  facts,  nntl  lio  dt'ton  (Icscends  to  tlie  niiniitest  particulars.  (/)  The  piiL]!« 
cation  of  the  ori<;inal  autlioritioH,  wliicli  hail  been  cautiously  commenced  with 
a  profusion  of  literary  treasures  by  Dam^  (l)  was  continued  by  Gicselcr^  -with 
much  judi^incnt  in  his  selections  and  in  his  criticfil  remarks,  and  a  running 
coumieiitary  upon  his  citations,  {in)  Sometimes  Tables,  and  well  dif,'e.sted  ex- 
tracts, are  useful  in  giving  a  general  view  of  the  whole  tleld.  (/;)  Siäudlhi's 
Text-lJook  is  a  convenient  collection  of  general  facts,  with  a  few  traces  ol 
the  Kantian  philosoi)hy.  Xarhe'svfm  conijiilcd  with  diligence,  and  not  with- 
out elegance,  but  it  is  without  accuracy  or  character.  Augusti's  is  a  rapid 
and  convenient  survey  of  the  whole  subject,  especially  of  that  part  which 
relates  to  the  Keformation.  lieJini's  is  an  extended  table  of  contents,  espe- 
cially with  respect  to  the  secular  department  of  ecclesiastical  history. 
Lniiijes  is  a  return  to  the  Protestant  controversial  style  of  writing,  but  with 
a  laxer  faith  in  the  authority  of  the  Bible  and  of  human  reason  itself,  {o) 
The  attempt  which  Marhcinccl-c  made  to  construct  a  philosophical  system  of 
Church  History  was  abandoned  at  an  early  stage  of  the  work,  but  it  was  full 
of  promise,  (p)  The  decidedly  ^/e^w^/c  tendency  Avas  for  a  long  time  repre- 
sented only  by  Milner,  whose  object  was  entirely  practical  and  devotional 
and  did  not  lead  him  to  study  the  sources,  (y)  until  Kcander  gave  it  a  scien- 
tific character,  by  referring  to  the  original  authorities,  develojjing  its  doc- 
trines in  an  intelligent  manner,  and  giving  prominence  to  the  long-neglected 
representations  of  the  Christian  life.  Though  aöectionately  attached  to  the 
Church,  he  was  tolerant  toward  all  who  opposed  it  on  merely  doctrinal 
grounds,  and  clothed  all  his  descriptions  with  an  ample  devotional  drapery.(/) 
In  these  respects,  as  well  as  in  others,  the  Church  History  of  Gucricle  is  only 
a  dependent  abstract  of  his  work,  characterized  by  the  same  Christian  sin- 
cerity, but  with  a  zeal  so  ardent  for  strict  Lutheranism,  that  it  finally  became 
little  more  than  a  severe  lecture  upon  the  apostasies  of  more  recent  times.  (.«) 
In  the  Keformed  Church,  Jacob  Basnage  still  pursued  the  plan  of  repelling  Bos- 
suet's  reproaches,  b}-  fastening  them  upon  his  opponent's  own  Church  ;  but 
he  has  imitated  too  closely  the  models  which  he  had  chosen  from  the  French 


Gless.  lSOl-50.  G  Tli.  2  cd.  1-4  Th.  1S2.5-27.  (till  Innocor^.t  III.)  cont.  by  F.  W.  ReUherg,  7  Th.  Giess. 
lS:i4.  k)  llandb.  d.  KGescb.  Erl.  lS33s.  4  vols.  I)  Lclirb.  d.  KGescb.  Jfn.i,  1S15-26.  2  vols.; 
Kurzgef.  Zus.iniDienst.  d.  KGescb.  Jena.  1S24.     m)  Lebrb.  d.  KGesch.  Bonn.  1S24— 10.  2  vols,  and 

3  vols. ;  1  Abth.  (till  164S.)  4  cd.  of  1st  vol. ;  1  &  2  Abth.  1S446.  3  ed.  of  2d  vol. ;  1  &  2  Abth. 
1S31S.;  [transl.  in  3  vols,  by  Ä  Dinidson.  Edinb.  1S4C-53.]  n)  Vater,  Syncbron.  Tabellen  d 
KGescb.  Hal.  (1S03.)  cont.  by  J.  C.  Thilo,  6  ed.  Hal.  1S33.  f ;  Tetens  Uald^  Hist  eccl.  VI.  priorum 
Saec.  synopticc  enarrata.  Ilavn.  1S30;  Medii  aevi  (CiU-S5S.)  P.  I.  1S32.  i\  J.  T.  L.  Dam,  Kirchen- 
hist  Tab.  Jena.  1S38.  f  ;  C.  Wahl,  KGescb.  in  IMIdcrn,  für  Studlrende  u.  Can.lidaton.  Meisen. 
1S40.  f.;  (Amusements)  L.  Lange,  T.ib.  d.  K-.  ii.  DGescb.  Jena.  1S41.  4;  J.  J/.  ScAroecih,  IlisL  re- 
ligionls  et  occl.  Christ  Ber.  1777.  ed.  7.  cur.  Marheinecke.  1S2S ;  J.  G.  C.  Scfimiilt,  Lebrb.  d.  KGescb 
Gless.  (ISOO.  1S08.)  1S26.  o)  Stäudlin,  rnivorsalgescb.  der  Chr.  Kirche.  Han.  1S07.  5.  verb.  u.  fortges. 
A.  v.  F.  A.  IfoUhamen.  1S33;  F.  A.  Naehe,  Comp.  Hist  Eccl.  ac  s.icroruin  cbrist  Lpz.  1S32;  ^u- 
gmti.  Hist  ecc.  Epitome.  Lpz.  1S34;  F.  Itehm,  Gruiidr.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Kirche,  mit  bes.  Kücks.  auf.  d. 
Verfass.  dcrs.  Marb.  1S35;  Loheg.  Lange,  Lehrb.  d.  Chr.  KGescb.  zur  Ycrtheid.  Befest  u.  Fort- 
bild, d.  Prot  Kirche.  Lpz.  1S40.  p)  Univcrsal-Kircbenbls-t  d.  Christenth.  Erlang.  l>Ofl.  1  Tli. 
q)  [Ulst  of  the  Church  of  Cbrist  Lond.  5  vols.  Svo.  1S24.  4  vols.  8.  1S34.  with  a  continuation  by  J. 
&o??.  Lond.  1S2C.  4  vols.  12;  Philad.  2  vols.  12.  1S4.5.]  r)  AUg.  Gescb.  d.  Chr.  Kel.  u.  K.  bis  auf 
Bonifaz  VIII.  10  vols.  Ilamb.  1S4Ö;  [Gen.  Hist  of  the  Ohr.  Eel.  and  Church,  trnnsl.  by  J.  Torrey, 

4  voU.  Svo.  Boston.  1S47-B1.]     »)  Handb.  d.  KGesch.  Hal.  (1SS3-46.  3  vols.)  3  vols.;   Abrias  d. 


§  12.    VEXEMA.    SCIILEIERMACnER.    §  13.    STOLBEKG.  1 1 

literature  of  his  time.  (0  Ve>icma''8  Churcli  History  is  simply  an  excellent 
collection  of  ori<:?inal  authorities,  (ii)  A  few  coinpendiums  contain  all  the  re- 
sults of  tlie  studies  in  ecclesiastical  history,  so  far  as  these  had  been  attained 
when  they  were  respectively  written.  That  of  lioyaard  especially  was  writ- 
ten with  remarkable  accuracy  and  care,  (i')  Schleiermachcr,  in  his  oral  com- 
munications, endeavored  to  effect  a  union  of  the  liberal  and  pietistic  tenden- 
cies, and  has  executed  in  a  rather  fragmentary  manner,  a  plan,  in  which,  the 
ordinary  materials  being  presupposed,  is  represented  the  intensive  and  exten- 
sive develoi>ment  of  the  new  principle  of  divine  life  which  emanated  from 
Christ,  ijr)  N'udner  has  contributed,  in  addition  to  this,  a  work  which  i3 
something  between  a  text-book  and  a  manual,  presenting  not  merely  a  dry  col- 
lection of  thoughts,  but  an  abundance  of  elementary  views  of  individual 
subjects,  (.r)  Among  the  histories  adapted  to  popular  use,  (y)  may  be  men- 
tioned the  work  of  Gfrurer^  which  was  at  first  designed  to  be  a  history  for 
the  German  people ;  but  it  finally  became  an  ample  representation  of  the 
subject,  and  generally  depended  for  its  materials  ui)on  the  best  authorities. 
The  strongly  marked  peculiarity  of  this  work,  sometimes  in  a  paradoxical 
manner,  but  frequently  with  much  good  sense,  breaks  through  the  devotional 
phrases  even  of  his  authorities,  (j) 

§  13.  Writers  of  the  German  Catholic  Church. 
It  was  not  until  Joseph  II.  attempted  to  draw  away  the  German  Church 
from  its  connection  with  Rome,  that  an  independent  and  liberal,  but  rather 
rash  and  contracted  interest  in  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  previous  times, 
began  to  be  cultivated  in  Germany.  In  the  commencement  of  this  movement, 
Eoyko,  in  his  rough  style,  neglected  nothing  which  could  injure  the  hier- 
archy, (rt)  Dannenmayr^  with  more  caution,  and  more  general  views,  pre- 
pared a  text-book  for  the  Austrian  schools,  Qi)  and  II.  Trö//"  sent  forth  what  de- 
eervca  to  be  called  a  satire  rather  than  a  history,  (c)  A  movement  of  a  higher 
order  received  its  original  impulse  from  the  Protestant  Church.  Stolberg, 
with  the  zeal,  the  unction,  and  the  unconditional  faith  of  a  proselyte,  but 
with  a  benevolent  and  glowing  spirit,  has  presented  the  more  benign  aspect 
of  Catholicism,  while  writing  and  singing  the  Uistory  of  the  Jewish  people, 

KGesch.  Ilal.  1842.  Q  Ilist.jiro  de  l'ögUse  dcpuis  Jösus  Chr.  Eotterd.  1699 ;  [Par.  1725.  2  vols.  4.] 
lO  Institutiones  Hist  eccl.  V.  et  N.  LngcL  1777ss.  7  Tli.  4.  till  ICOD.  «)  J.  A.  Titrretini,  Hist  Eccl. 
comp,  nsqiie  ml.  a.  1700.  Con.  17.34.  cd.  et  continuavit  t/l  Simonis.  Hal.  1750;  Uebers.  u.  fortges.  v. 
Tölhier.  K-inigsb.  1759;  /'.  E.  Jahlonxki,  Instltt  Hist  clirist  Frcf.  ad  V.  1753ss.  2  Tli.  ed.  3. 
cniorid.  E.  A.  Schulse.  17S3s.  Th.  IIL;  Historiam  Sacc.  IS.  add  Stosch.  1707;  emend.  Schickedans, 
17SG;  ir  J/(iH«c/itfr,  Lehrb.  d.  KGesch.  Marb.  1S04;  2d  ed.  by  n'icfUer,iS\5;  3d  cd.  by  AvWaw^ 
152C;  P.  JIofHiede  de  Groot,  Inslitt  Hist  ccc.  Gronov.  1^35;  //  J.  lioyaards,  Coin\>.  Hist  ecc. 
clir  Traj.  ad.  I'.h.  1S40-5.  2  Filsc.  w)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche,  edit  by  Bonnell.  Brl.  1S40;  (Works, 
Abth.  I.  vol.  II.)  sr)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche,  Lehrbuch.  Li)Z.  1S40.  y)  Especially:  C.  Jtidä,  Gesch. 
U.  Chr.  Kirche.  15rl.  1S.38;  IT.  Thiele,  Kurze  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Zur.  1S40;  Alb.Baur,i\.  KGesch. 
in  gedriingter  Übersicht  Wcim.  1S40 ;  Heribert  Hau,  Allg.  Go.sch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche  (deulsohkath.). 
Für  das  deutsehe  Volk.  Frkf.  1S46.  s)  Allg.  KGcsch.  Stuttg.  1S41-44.  3  vols.  (Uli  the  coniinencc- 
nient  of  the  llth  cent) 

a)  Synopsis  Hist  Rel.  et  Eecl.  Chr.  methodo  systematica  adumbrata.  Prag.  17S5.  Einl.  in  d.  Chr. 
liCl.  u.  KGesch.  Prag.  17SSfs.  2d  (modified)  cd.  1790.  Chr.  liel.  u.  KGesch.  (but  one  Per.)  Pr. 
17<9-9.\4  vols,  l)  Institt  Hist  Eccl.  Vien.  (17S^.)  UOG.  2  Th.  Thread  of  the  narrntivo  after  D.-.n- 
n*nm.  (Collegienhcft)  2  cd.  Uottwell.  1326-S.  4  Th.    c)  Gesch.  d.  Christi.  P.eL  u.  Kirche.  Zur.  1792. 


12  INTRODUCTION.  CIIAI'.  II.  I.ITEUATUEE. 

and  of  the  ancient  Chiircli.  A  continiiiition  of  h'm  history  by  another  liaiid 
was  merely  a  labored  effort  to  attain  tlie  same  style.  ('/)  With  the  same  (,'t'U- 
eral  views,  but  with  more  accuracy  and  science,  KaUrkamp  wrote  a  history, 
in  which  he  has  exhibited  a  more  profound  acquaintance  with  the  original  au- 
thorities in  his  representations  of  tlio  particular  characters  and  circumstances 
of  the  Church,  {c)  The  liberal  scliool,  which  now  sought  to  accommodate 
matters  as  much  as  possible  with  the  hierarchj",  was  represented  by  Hitter^  (f) 
and  in  the  extensive  and  popular  work  of  Locherer,  {g)  in  many  respects  like 
that  of  Schroeckh.  The  narrative  of  liuttenstoch  is  carefully  limited  to  a 
mere  statement  of  facts,  {h)  In  other  places  the  various  i)artics  were  in  di- 
rect hostility  to  each  other.  The  liierarchical  metliod  of  writing  history  was 
defended  with  keen  Avit  by  Ilortig,  the  continuation  of  whose  work  by  L-tU 
linger,  is  written  in  a  less  animated,  but  in  a  more  serious  strain.  In  his  re- 
vised edition  the  latter  has  promised  a  great  work,  in  which  those  fables  of 
the  hierarchy  which  are  altogether  untenable,  are  to  be  given  up  as  indiffer- 
ent, but  every  position  capable  of  any  defence  is  to  be  maintained  with  all 
the  weapons  which  a  learned  ingenuity  can  sujtply.  His  text-book  contains 
merely  the  external  facts  of  history.  (/)  On  the  other  hand  Ecichlin-JdeUhgg 
has  composed  a  prolix,  declamatory,  and  flippant  libel  upon  ecclesiastical  an- 
tiquity, and  of  course  fell  out  with  his  own  Church.  {Jc)  Ahog  again  pre- 
sents a  specimen  of  a  rather  clumsy  but  spirited  attempt  to  transfer  a  Protes- 
tant form  to  a  Catholic  position,  (J)  and  Annegarn  has  compiled  just  such  an 
artless,  rude,  and  tiresome  History  of  the  Church,  as  was  common  in  Ger- 
many before  the  time  of  Joseph  II.,  and  as  may  even  now  be  seen  in  many 
an  obscure  seminary,  {m) 

i  Th.  d)  F.  L.  V.  Stolherg,  Gesch.  d.  Eel.  J.  C.  namb.  1S0G-1S18.  15  Tli.  (till  1430.)  2  e<1.  of  1.  2  Th. 
ISIO.  Index  by  Moritz,  Vien.  u.  Ilamb.  1S25.  2  Th.  cont.  by  F.  R.  t.  Ken.  Mentz.  1S25-1S46.  10-42 
Th.  Indc.v  by  Saussen.  Mentz.  1S.34  e)  KGesch.  Münster.  1S19-30.  4  Th.  (till  1073.)  /)  Ilandb.  d. 
KGcsch.  Elberg.  Bonn.  1S26-35.  3  vols.  1S36.  2  ed.  of  1  &  2  vols,  g)  Gcsch.  d.  Chr.  EcL  u.  Kirche. 
E.ivensb.  1S24  83.  8  Th.  (till  1073.)  h)  Institt  Ilistoriae  EccL  N.  T.  Vien.  1S32-34.  3  Th.  (till  1517.) 
i)  Ilandb.  d.  Chr.  KGesch.  v.  Ilortig,  beend.  v.  DulUnger.  Landsh.  1S2C.  2  Tli.  Newly  revised  by 
Dölünger  (Gesch.  d.  Clir.  K.)  Landsh.  lS:3:3s.  1  vol.  1.  2  Abth.  (in  part  till  ICS'l.)  By  the  same, 
Lchrb.  d.  KGcsch.  Eogensb.  lS3Gss.  2  vols.  [■/.  J.  Ig.  Dölünger,  Hist  of  the  Church.  Trans,  by 
EJ.  Cox.  Lond.  4  vols.  Svo.]  k)  Gesch.  des  Christenth.  Freib.  ISSOs.  1  Th.  in  2  Abth.  (till  1324.) 
I)  Univcrsal-gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Mainz.  (1S41. 1S48.)  1S44.  wi)  Gesch.  d.  Chr.  Kirche.  Münst.  18»2i 
3  vols.  Comp.  Jon.  L.  Z.  1S44.  N.  144ss.  [Eng.  Gen.  Eccl.  IlistL  arc  IF»».  Palmer,  Comiiend.  Eccl. 
Hist  5  ed.  Oxford.  1S44.  G.  Waddington,  II.  of  the  Church  to  the  Eef.  Lond.  ls.33.  2  vols.  &  cent, 
throngh  the  Eef.  Lond.  1S3S.  2  vols.  8.  J.  Priestley,  Gen.  IT.  of  the  Chr.  Church,  Lond.  ISO::!.  6  vols. 
6.  Jonen-  H.  of  the  Chr.  Church  to  the  17th  century.  Lond.  lS:3ö.  2  vols.  8.  H.  Putter,  II.  of  the  Chr 
Cluirch.  Now  York.  S.  C.  A.  Goodrich,  Church  IlisL  Burlington.  1S80.  S.  TT.  Stelling,  II.  of  the  CUr, 
Church  (a  Cont.  of  Milner),  3  vols.  i^nd.  1842.] 


ANCIENT   CHUECH  HISTOPtY. 

FIRST  PERIOD. 

FROM    CIIUIST    TO    CONSTANTINE. 


§  14.     General  View  and  Original  Authorities. 

L  1)  All  ecclesiastical  writers  of  this  time.  Fragments  of  those  works  which  have  been  lost  in  : 
Grabe,  Spicilegium  Patrum  et  Haercticorum  Sacc.  I.  II.  et  III.  Oxon.  (1C9S.)  1700.  1714.  3  vols.  JiouOi, 
Reliquiae  sacrae,  s.  auctorum  fere  deperditorum  I.  et  II.  Saec.  Fragment».  [Edit,  altera.  Oxon.  1S47. 
4  vols.]  2)  Fragments  of  Jlegesippi  inro^i'r)iJ.aTa  twv  iKK\r}(Tia(TTiKwi'  trpä^euv  in  liouth,  vol. 
I.  p.  IS'ss.  Eusehii  iKK\-f\<lia<TTiK^  icrropia.  Ed.  Talenius.  Par.  1659.  f.  E.  Zimmermann,  Frcf. 
1S22.  2.  P.  4.  Heinichen.  Lpz.  lS27s.  3  Th.  4.  Burton,  Oxon.  1S33.  3  vols.  [A  new  transl.  with  Life 
of  Eus.  Lond.  1S42.  8.]  3)  Ruinart,  Acta  prlmorum  martyrum,  ed.  2.  Amst  1713.  f  rep.  Galura, 
Aug.  V.  1S02.  3  vols.  4)  Passages  from  writers  not  Christian  :  Josephus,  Suetonius,  Tacitus,  Plinius, 
Dio  Cassius,  Scriptorcs  Hist.  Angustae,  etc.  explained  in  A'i/iA.  Lardner ;  Collection  of  tne  Jewish 
and  Heathen  testimonies  of  the  Christian  religion.  Lond.  17C4s3. 4  vols.  4.  II.  TiUemont  (§  11.  nt  d.) 
Clerici  Hist  ecc.  duorum  priorum  Saec.  Amst  1716.  4.  Monfiemiido  rebus  Christianorum  ante  Const 
Commentarii.  Helmst.  175:3.  4.  [transl.  by  Vidal,  2  vols.  8.  Lond.  1S13.]  Semleri  Obss.  quibus  Hist 
Christian,  illustratur  usque  ad  Const  Hal.  1784.  //.  W.  Jfillman,  Hist  of  Christianity  from  tlio  ISirth 
of  Christ  to  the  extinction  of  Paganism  in  the  Roman  Empire.  Lond.  1840.  3  vols,  [with  notes  by 
Jfurdock.  8vo.  New  York.  Kti)/e,  Eccles.  Hist  of  2  and  3  Centt.  8vo.  1826.  2  vols.  Ä  I/lt»1«,  Hist 
of  the  Rise  and  early  Prog,  of  Christianity.  2  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  W.  B.  Taylor,  The  Hist  of  Chrlstian- 
ty,  from  its  Promulg.  to  its  legal  estab.  in  the  Rom.  Empire.  12mo.  Lond.  1*44.  E.  Ilavtvn,  Lectures 
apon  the  Hist  of  the  Chr.  Church  t:om  the  Ascen.  of  .T.  Christ  to  the  conversion  of  Const  4  ed.  12mo. 
Lond.  1340.  liohert  MUlar,  Hist  of  the  Propag.  of  Christ  Lond.  2  vols.  Svo.  1731.  3  ed.  Wm.  Cave, 
Lives  of  Fathers  of  the  first  four  ages  of  the  Church.  Lond.  2  vols.  fol.  16S;3-S7.  new  etl.  by  H.  Cary, 
1S40.  3  vols.  8.  ir.  Cave,  Prim.  Chr.  or  Rol.  of  the  Anc.  Christians,  ed.  by  Cary.  Oxf  1S40.  8.  P/iilip 
S<:haff.  H.  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  transl.  by  E.  J).  Yeomans.  Now  York.  1S53.  8.  vol.  I.  Samuel 
Elliot,  Hist,  of  the  Eariy  Chrlstian.s.  Lond.  1858.  J.  C.  lioberlson.  Hist  of  the  Christian  Church  to  the 
Pontif  of  Greg,  the  Great  Lond.  1853.  8.] 

In  tlie  history  of  tlio  world,  Classic  Heathenism  appears  as  a  single  forra 
of  human  life,  on  the  development  of  -which,  its  time  was  fulfilled ;  and  Ju- 
daism appears  as  a  great  prophetic  system  accomplished  by  Christianity.  The 
Jewish  veil,  under  which  the  latter  made  its  appearance,  was  removed  by 
Paul,  and  when  the  Gospel  had  been  proclaimed  in  all  parts  of  the  Koman 


14  ANCIENT  CHURCH  IIISTOnT.    PEll.  L 

oinpire,  tlio  forms  of  drock  and  Romnri  civilization  Lcf-anie  incorporate«!  in 
the  Church.  But  in  tlio  mean  time  a  prodigious  struggle  was  coiiiincnced  by 
the  general  8|)irit  of  antiquity.  The  Church,  not  bo  much  by  intellectaal 
wcai)ons,  as  by  its  hibors  and  sacrifice!!,  was  so  completely  victorious,  that  nt 
the  end  of  tliis  period  tlie  Koinan  einiäro  was  under  the  necessity  of  either 
becoming  Cliristian,  or  of  being  utterly  subverted.  During  thi.s  struggle,  with 
no  aid  from  the  State,  and  with  no  external  interference,  the  Ciiurch  devel- 
oped its  appropriate  Constitution.  With  the  exception  of  individual  in- 
stances of  extravagance  or  timidity,  its  morals  and  its  discipline  were  of  the 
strictest  kind,  and  the  private  life  of  its  members  was  serious  and  heavenly. 
The  religious  feelings  of  the  people,  excited  by  Grecian  philosophy,  and  strug- 
gling with  subtle  foreign  elements,  now  sought  to  attain  detinite  and  fixed 
forms  of  thought.  The  Period  may  be  naturally  divided  into  two  sections, 
the  first  containing  the  historical  conditions  under  which  Christianity  was 
introduced,  and  the  history  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  until  the  death  of  the 
last  of  the  Apostles,  near  the  close  of  the  first  century,  and  the  other  embra- 
cing the  formation  of  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  by 
Lul-e^  are  the  commencement  of  a  Church  History,  limited  by  the  personal 
knowledge,  position,  and  object  of  the  writer.  It  presents  us  with  the  actual 
establishment  of  the  Church  in  its  two  principal  departments — among  the 
Jews  by  Peter,  and  among  the  Greeks  by  Paul,  (a)  The  authentic  epistles  of 
these  apostles  are  the  most  trustworthy  monuments  of  the  Apostolic  Church. 
Hegcsippus^  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  committed  to  writing 
every  thing  he  thought  worthy  of  preservation  in  the  Apostolic  traditions,  (b) 
The  first  proper  history  of  the  Church  (till  324)  was  written  by  Emehius  of 
Cacmrea^  under  the  impression  which  the  great  revolutions  of  his  age  pro- 
duced upon  his  mind.  Though  he  was  atiected  by  the  prejudices,  he  possessed 
also  the  advantages  of  his  position,  and  while  he  probably  omitted  some  things, 
we  have  no  evidence  that  he  has  stated  what  is  untrue,  (c) 

a)  Schneckenherger  ü.  d.  Zweck  d.  App.  Gesch.  Bern.  1S41.  I)  Euseb.  11.  ecc  II.  2-3.  I  IL  16. 19. 
IV.  7s.  11.  22.  Comp.  Ilieron.  catal.  c.  22.  Schultheis,  Ilcges.  prtnceps  auctor  reram  Chr.  Tur.  1?32. 
c)  With  regard  to  his  authorities  and  credibility:  Moeller,  Hafn.  1S13.  (Archiv,  f.  KGesch.  vul.  III. 
ft.  1.)  Dam,  Jen.  1S15.  P.  I.  Kestner  Goett.  1S17.  4.  lieuUrda/il,  Lond.  Goth.  1526.  liienstra,  Tr^ 
ad.  lih.  1S:33.  Jnchmann,  in  Ulgens  Zcitsclir.  1S.39.  IL  2.  F.  C.  Baur,  comparator  Eiia.  HlstorUe  eee. 
parens  cum  parente  Ilistoriarmn  Uerodoto,  Tuhk  1334.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    HEATHENISM.    §  15.    GREEK  LIFK  15 

DIVISION  I.     ESTABLISnMEXT  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

CHAP.  I.     INTRODUCTORY  HISTORY. 
I.  Classic  Heathexism. 

Creuzer,  Symbolik  u.  Mythologie  d.  alten  Vrilker,  bes.  d.  Griechen,  Lps.  u.  Darnist.  (1  SlOss.)  1519ss 
Til.;  Baur,  Symb.  u.  Myth.  o.  dio  Naturrcl.  d.  Alterth.  Stuttj:.  IS'25;  Loheck;  Aglaophamns  s.  d« 
Theol.  niypticae  Graecoruin  cansis.  Eegioin.  lS-29.  2  Th. ;  O.  Müller,  Prolegomena  zu  e.  wiss.  Mythol 
Gütt.  1S25.  [lutrod.  to  a  Scientific  Syst  of  Myth,  transl.  by  J.  Leitch.  Lond.  1S44.  8];  P.  Tan  Lim- 
lurg  Brounei;  Hist,  dc  la  civilisation  morale  et  rel.  des  Grccs.  Green.  18*3-43.  S  Th. ;  Hegel,  Phil, 
d.  Eel.  Brl.  1833.  vol.  2.  p.  14Sss.  Phil.  d.  Gesch.  Brl.  1837.  p.  232ss. ;  P.  F.  Sluhr,  die  Eel.  Systeme 
d.  Hellenen  in  ihrer  gesoh.  Entw.  Brl.  1838;  J/!  W.  I/i'ßter,(l.  Eel.  d.  Griechen  u.  Römer,  Brandeiib. 
1845.  [IK&HJ«,  Diet  of  Gr.  &Eom.  Myth.  Lond.  1844-49.  3  vols.  S.  T.  nwigM,GT.Si.llom.  Myth. 
New  York.  1849.  12]  •,—Benj.  Constant,  du  Polytlicisme  romnin.  Par.  1533.  2  Th. ;  Härtung,  d.  Rel.  d. 
EOmer.  Erl.  1830.  2  vols. ;  Clu  Wak,  de  rel.  Eoin.  antiquiss.  Tub.  1845.  4.  P.  l.—  Tholuck,  ii.  d.  Wesen 
u.  sittl.  Einfl.  d.  Heidenth.  (Ncandor's  Denkwiirdigk,  vol.  I.  modified  ir.  tlio  2d  ed.)  [A.  Tlwluck. 
Nature  &  Moral  Inti.  of  Heathenism,  transl.  by  R.  Emerson,  in  Biblical  Eep.  f.ir  1832.  and  in  Clarke's 
Bibl.  Cab.  vol.  28.  Ediiib.  1841] ;  Im.  37t.ScÄ,  Q.  d.  Rcli;.,'ionsbegr.  d.  Alton.  (StuiL  u.  Krit  1823. 
vol.  I.  H.  Zi.)\—F.  Jacobs,  ü,  d.  Erziehung  d.  Hellenen  z.  Sittliclik.  (Venn.  Schrr.  Lpz.  1829.  P.  III.) 
HeideMth.  n.  Christenth.  (Lpz.  1837.  Th.  VI.)  ;  K.  GruneUeii,  ü.  d.  Sittliche  d.  bild.  Kunst  b.  d 
Griech.  Lpz.  lS;>i.  (Illg.  Zeitschr.  vol.  IIL  st  2.)  [J.  St  Juh7i,  Manners,  Custt  Arts,  &c.  of  Anc.  6r. 
Lond.  1842.  3  vols.  8;  //  I/ase,  Publ.  &  Priv.  Life  of  the  An.  Greeks,  transl.  from  Germ.  Lond.  1836. 
8 ;  W.  A.  Becker,  Gallus,  or  Rom.  Scenes  of  the  time  of  Augustus,  illust  tl»e  manners  and  custt  of 
the  Romans,  transi.  from  the  Germ,  by  F.  Metcalfe.  Lond.  1844.  8.  On  the  State  of  Man  before  Chris- 
tianity. Lond.  1S48.  12.]     ' 

§  15.  ropular  Life  among  the  Greels. 
The  original  civilization  which  had  prevailed  in  some  portions  of  the 
East  had  finally  become  torpid  within  limits  immutably  fixed  by  the  com- 
bined influence  of  caste  and  despotism.  But  under  the  delightful  sky  of  beau- 
tiful Greece,  the  purely  earthly  life  of  man,  in  the  midst  of  ettbrts  to  attain 
social  freedom,  and  triumphant  struggles  against  the  monarch  of  the  Eastern 
world  (after  4ttO,  b.  c),  became  developed  in  its  fairest  natural  perfection. 
Borne  on  by  youthful  energies  and  a  noble  spirit  of  refinement,  directed  by 
a  clear  understanding  and  a  wise  moderation,  it  received  still  higlier  lustre 
and  distinctness  from  a  state  of  art  which  gave  utterance  to  what  is  beyond 
expression,  and  proclaimed  the  reconciliation  of  the  spirit  with  outward  na- 
ture. Even  when  it  presented  nature  in  its  utmost  nakedness,  it  preserved  a 
chaste  moderation,  and  wlien  it  portrayed  the  darker  aspects  of  our  earthly 
existence,  it  always  made  liberty  and  beauty  triumphant.  Grecian  manners 
and  science  were  carried  by  travelling  expeditions  and  colonies  to  the  shores 
of  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  and  Southern  Italy,  and  finally,  by  means  of  Alexan- 
der's conquests  (after  334),  Grecian  civilization  became  established  over  all 
the  Eastern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

§  16.     Limits  of  Grecian  Refinement. 

Man  was  regarded  only  as  a  citizen,  and  all  virtues  had  relation  to  the 

glory  of  his  native  land.    Tlio  free  action  of  the  citizen  was  founded  upon 

an  order  of  slaves.     A  part  of  the  women  were  confined  within  tlie  narrow 

limits  of  domestic  life,  and  another  purchased  a  participation  in  manly  plea- 


16  ANCIENT  CUUßClI  IIISTOUV.    PKR.   I.    I>IV.  I.    TILL   A.   D.  100. 

Burcs  and  more  ftttnictivo  rofinomciits  witli  u  i)r()])ortioriate  Iosh  of  womanly 
dignity  and  donicstio  hapiiiriess.  Tlio  jjolitical  jiower  of  tlio  several  State» 
was  developed  and  consumed  in  factious  contests  and  civil  wars.  Even  in 
the  brightest  days  of  Greece,  civilization  had  to  contend  with  remnants  of 
ancient  barbarism  and  its  bloody  crimes. 

§  17.  The  Religion  of  the  Greelcs. 
The  celestial  world,  in  which  the  Greeks  believed,  was  only  an  ideal 
transcript  of  their  ordinary  life,  embellished  by  the  hand  and  for  the  pur- 
poses of  art.  Even  the  fanciful  relation  of  sex,  which  they  ascribed  to  their 
deities,  though  borrowed  from  oriental  allegories,  was  so  modified  by  the 
poetic  imaginations  of  the  Greeks,  as  only  to  reflect  and  justify,  as  in  a  mir- 
ror, the  playful  spirit  of  the  people.  This,  however,  exerted  no  very  cor- 
rupting influence  upon  a  people  whose  matrimonial  life  was  guarded  by  usages 
and  laws,  and  Avhose  vigorous  energies  Avere  controlled  by  the  gymnasium, 
and  a  predominant  taste  for  the  beautiful.  But  every  thing  great  or  beauti- 
ful in  common  life,  was  adorned  and  consecrated  by  some  connection  with 
the  gods  of  their  country.  It  was  for  this  reason  that,  although  the  people 
were  sincerely  attached  to  their  deities,  and  their  religious  services  were  joy- 
ous festivals  embellished  with  all  that  art  could  contribute,  they  could  enjoy 
the  keen  wit  of  the  poet  when  he  ridiculed  the  weaknesses  of  the  gods,  no 
less  than  when  he  laughed  at  those  of  the  sovereign  people  of  Athens.  The 
religion  of  the  Hellenes  was  necessarily  a  deification  not  so  much  of  nature 
in  its  mysterious  depths,  as  of  the  spirit  in  its  various  manifestations. 
The  real  Deity  revealed  to  them  was  beauty.  The  piety  best  conformed  to 
the  national  character  was  so  far  from  rising  above  the  earth,  that  it  never 
went  even  beyond  their  native  land.  The  mysteries  could  of  course  transmit 
no  doctrine  of  religion  inconsistent  with  this  spirit  of  the  popular  faith. 
They  were  simply  celebrations  of  the  festivals  of  the  ancient  gods.  They 
served  not  only  to  preserve  the  memory  of  the  old  and  fallen  deities  of  na- 
ture, but  to  create  a  presentiment  of  a  supreme  Deity,  who,  at  some  future 
period,  would  extend  his  sovereignty  over  the  universe.  The  point  at  which 
"the  Hellenic  theology  found  its  termination  and  constructed  an  altar  to  the 
Unknown  God,  "w^s  where  it  submitted  to  an  absolute  necessity,  ruling  over 
gods  and  men. 

§  18.  Relation  of  Philosophy  to  the  Popular  Religion. 
Socrates  (409-399)  brought  back  Philosophy  from  its  attempts  to  ex- 
plain the  universe  by  ingenious  fancies,  to  its  appropriate  Grecian  object, 
which  was,  to  render  the  mind  conscious  of  its  nature,  and  thus  to  become 
the  supreme  rule  of  life  for  a  freeborn  man.  In  doing  so,  however,  be  was 
aware  that  as  a  citizen  of  a  moral  community  he  was  liable  to  come  into 
conflict  with  Athenian  usages.  From  the  position  which  he  had  attained, 
Plato  (428-348)  and  Aristotle  (384-322)  sought  to  discover  the  ultimate  prin- 
ciple of  all  knowledge  and  being.  Both  recognized  a  spiritual  and  iudepen- 
dent  author  of  the  universe,  and  both  appreciated  the  supreme  importance  of 
the  intellectual  and  moral  life.     Aristotle,  commencing  with  sensible  pheno- 


CHAP.   I.     HEATHEXISM.    §   IS.    GRECIAN   PHILOSOniY.  17 

mena,  and  proceeding  by  successive  steps  of  reasoning  to  general  laws,  may 
be  regarded  as  the  most  perfect  specimen  of  a  healthy  intellectual  educa- 
tion among  the  Greeks.  If  Plato,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  matter  as  well  as 
the  form  of  his  speculations,  shows  that  the  highest  point  of  Grecian  life  con- 
sisted in  adorning  the  present  existence  by  moral  excellence  and  beauty,  on 
the  other,  he  far  transcends  this,  and  stands  like  a  prophet,  incomprehensible 
by  his  own  age,  on  account  of  his  earnest  consciousness  of  sinfulness,  and 
his  absolute  exaltation  of  the  eternal  above  the  temporal.*  Those  who  un- 
dertook the  further  development  of  Philosophy,  attached  themselves  once 
more  to  the  purely  practical  tendency  of  Socrates,  and  to  the  various  parties 
already  springing  up  among  his  disciples.  They,  however,  seized  upon  only 
disconnected  elements  of  Grecian  life.  Epicurus  (342—271)  laid  hold  of 
pleasure  alone,  to  which  virtue  was  subservient  as  a  necessary  means,  and 
Zeno,  his  contemporary,  selected  power,  with  which  virtue  is  herself  satisfied. 
The  former  regarded  the  universe  as  the  sport  of  chance,  and  the  latter  be- 
lieved it  animated  by  a  divine  omnipresent  soul.  In  opposition  to  the  views 
of  these  teachers,  and  especially  to  those  of  Plato,  there  arose  in  the  midst 
of  the  Academy  itself,  a  party  under  Arccsilaus  (316-24:1)  and  Carneades  (214- 
129),  which  advocated  a  system  of  overwrought  logic,  teaching  that  man  was 
never  designed  to  know  the  truth  with  certainty,  and  that  consequently  his 
only  peace  was  to  be  found  in  dealing  with  probabilities,  and  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  this  universal  uncertainty.  Philosophy,  in  all  its  forms,  had  passed 
beyond  the  limits  of  Polytheism.  The  Socratic  school,  however,  regarded  the 
popular  faith  as  a  mode  of  conceiving  truth  indispensable  to  a  people  bound 
in  the  fetters  of  sensuality.  Its  disciples  therefore,  without  hesitation, 
adopted  the  usages  and  modes  of  expression  prevalent  around  them.  The 
way  in  which  Epicurus  maintained  the  existence  of  the  gods  was  in  fact  an 
adroit  denial  of  it,  but,  satisfied  with  having  freed  his  followers  from  all  fear 
of  the  gods,  he  was  wise  enough  to  warn  them  of  the  danger  of  contending 
with  public  opinion.  Stoical  Pantheism  allowed  that  the  deities  existed 
merely  as  names  and  allegories  for  the  various  manifestations  of  the  universal 
life,  but  the  deportment  of  the  sages  toward  them  was  proud  and  independent. 
The  later  Academy  maintained  that  the  existence  or  non-existence  of  the 
gods  was  equally  probable,  and  its  adherents  thought  it  safest  to  honor  them 
with  the  ordinary  forms  of  worship.  While  therefore  Philosophy  was  not  } 
directly  hostile  to  the  idolatry  which  had  prevailed  from  ancient  times,  the  \ 
educated  portion  of  the  nation  were  elevated  by  it  above  the  popular  faith. 

§  19.     Rome  as  a  EcpuMic. 

The  Roman  people  had  sprung  up  in  the  midst  of  violence,  they  had  been 
kept  together  by  a  rigid  discipline,  and  they  had  to  attain  maturity  in  the 
battle-field,  contending  first  for  their  existence,  and  then  for  their  greatness. 
At  an  early  period,  tlie  opinion  began  to  prevail,  and  soon  became  a  predomi- 

•  C.  Ackermann,  d.«  Christi  im  Pinto  u.  In  d.  plat  Pliil.  Ilainb.  18.35;  F.  C.  Baur,  d.  Christi,  d. 
Platonism.  o.  Sokr.  u.  Christus.  Tub.  1S;37 ;  [Plato  contra  Athoos,  or  Platonic  Theology,  by  T.  Letcis 
New  York.  1S15.  £.  Pond,  Lifo,  Works,  Opinions,  iic  of  Plato.  Portland.  S.] 

2 


18         ANCIENT  ciruncir  iiisTonv.   per.  i.  div.  i.  ti/j.  a.  d.  loo. 

nniit  popular  sentiment,  that  they  were  destined  to  attain  universal  deminioa 
All  the  virtues  which  constitute  the  true  hnsis  of  civil  and  domestic  pros- 
perity were  i)ractiscd  witli  simplicity  and  purity.  But  the  keen  enjoyment 
of  life,  natural  to  youtli,  l)ecaiiic  passionate  only  in  individual  instances,  for 
wo  iind  among  them  no  general  rcfmement,  or  cultivation  of  tlic  elegant  arts. 
Religion  was  wholly  tmdor  the  control  of  the  State,  and  its  sacred  rites 
were  for  a  long  time  only  in  the  hands  of  the  Patricians.  Its  serious  cere- 
monies pervaded  every  relation,  both  of  the  family  and  the  State.  While, 
therefore,  it  was  regarded  as  indispensable  to  society,  it  was  in  reality  only  a 
respectful  reverence  for  a  superior  poAver,  recognized  in  the  highest  degree  by 
the  boldest  and  mightiest  minds. 

§  20.  Decline  of  Greece. 
During  the  strifes  of  contending  factions,  political  power  had  become 
despotic,  in  the  hands  sometimes  of  the  nobles,  and  sometimes  of  the  popu- 
lace. The  consequence  was  that  Greece  was  distracted  by  internal  divisions, 
and  became  subject,  first  to  the  Macedonians,  and  then,  with  these  masters, 
(14G)  to  the  Romans.  The  virtues  of  the  people,  which  had  Leen  founded 
upon  their  relation  to  their  native  country,  could  not,  of  course,  survive  the 
loss  of  their  independence.  The  individuality  of  character,  wliich  had  be- 
fore so  nobly  distinguished  them,  now  degenerated  into  selfishness ;  art  be- 
came subservient  to  the  grossest  sensuality,  and  it  now  became  evident,  in 
the  midst  of  public  misfortunes,  that  a  life  consumed  in  the  mere  embellish- 
ment of  an  earthly  existence  must  be  totally  unsatisfactory.  Yet  so  abundant 
was  the  inheritance  of  art  and  science  bequeathed  to  them  by  their  ances- 
tors, that  their  private  life  was  for  a  long  time  enriched  by  its  stores,  and 
Greece  gave  laws  to  its  conquerors. 

§  21.  Elevation  and  Decline  of  Borne. 
"When  Augustus,  in  his  testament,  advised  the  Roman  people  never  to 
surpass  the  limits  which  nature  had  assigned  to  them,  as  the  permanent  bul- 
warks of  the  Empire,  all  nations  inhabiting  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
had  already  submitted  to  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  power,  and  all  nationali- 
ties had  been  broken  up  by  the  stern  unity  of  the  Empire.  As  the  Romans 
had  conquered  the  civilized  world,  they  now  resolved  to  participate  in  its  ad- 
vantages, by  enjoying  not  only  its  coarse  sensual  pleasures,  but  its  intellectual 
treasures.  But  Grecian  civilization  was  so  far  in  advance  of  them,  that  it 
could  not  be  conquered  without  calling  forth  creative  powers  in  the  con- 
querors. By  the  subjugation  and  government  of  so  many  provinces,  such  an 
inequality  in  power  and  possessions  was  introduced,  that  universal  freedom 
was  no  longer  tolerable,  and  the  popular  character  became  so  degraded,  that 
in  spite  of  republican  forms,  no  one  thought  of  combining  public  freedom 
with  the  monarchy.  The  will  of  the  prince  was  acknowledged  to  be  the  su- 
preme law,  but  the  supreme  power  was  actually  in  the  army.  Accordingly, 
the  successors  of  Augustus,  while  they  knew  that  they  were  masters  of  the 
world,  knew  quite  as  well  that  they  could  never  call  one  day  their  own. 
They  therefore  either  stupifieJ  themselves  in  the  wildest  enjoyment  of  the 


CHAP.  L    HEATHENISM,    g  22.    DECLINE.  19 

present  moment,  or  sought  safety  in  a  reign  of  terror.  The  wretchedness  of 
the  Roman  populace,  and  tlie  exhausted  condition  of  the  provinces,  were  in 
desperate  and  frightful  contrast  with  an  atSuence  which  strove  with  shame- 
less ingenuity  to  wrest  from  nature  more  enjoyment  than  she  was  able  to 
give  or  endure.  And  yet  for  centuries  after  the  old  Roman  virtues  had  been 
lost,  there  remained  a  noble  national  spirit,  the  valor  of  the  legions,  and  in 
private  life,  the  supremacy  of  the  law. 

§  22.     Decline  of  the  Popular  Eeligion. 

The  Greek  religion  was  adapted  only  to  such  as  were  in  the  enjoyment  of 
prosperity.  To  those  who  were  struggling  with  misfortune,  it  offered  neither 
consolation  nor  strength,  and  the  gods  themselves  had  apparently  deserted 
the  cities  from  which  they  were  now  invited  by  the  conquerors.  The  deifi- 
cation of  Roman  des^pots  threw  scandal  on  the  gods,  and  revealed  the  secret 
of  their  origin.  The  explanation  of  the  Greek  myths  undermined  also  the 
veneration  which  had  before  been  felt  for  Roman  ceremonies.*  Philosophy 
no  longer  hesitated  to  mock  a  religious  worship  already  abandoned  by  its 
deities.  The  Roman  statesmen,  it  is  true,  thought  it  necessary  to  maintain  a 
religion  of  whose  nullity  tliey  were  persuaded,  because  it  seemed  to  be  the 
very  foundation  of  their  Sttite.  "When,  however,  a  people  are  governed  by  a 
falsehood,  the  fact  cannot  long  be  concealed  from  them.  The  human  mind, 
ordinarily  dissatisfied  with  infidelity,  and  especially  impatient  with  it  in 
seasons  of  peculiar  difficulty,  now  sought  for  the  peace  it  had  lost  in  all 
kinds  of  barbarous  forms  of  worship.  In  the  midst,  too,  of  those  frequent 
changes  of  fortune  to  which  despotic  governments  are  subject,  it  made  an 
effort  to  obtain  a  knowledge  and  a  control  of  the  dark  future,  by  means  of 
magical  arts.  Unbelief  and  superstition  were  thus  boldly  and  distinctly  ar- 
rayed by  the  side  of  each  other.  When  the  peculiar  spirit  of  each  nation 
had  been  destroyed,  a  popular  religion  could  no  longer  be  generally  upheld, 
an'd  the  gods  were  all  united  in  the  Roman  Pantheon.  Philosophy,  however, 
had  neither  the  inclination  nor  the  power  to  found  a  new  religion. 

IT.    JroAiSM. 

F!tw.  JosfpM  0pp.  eil.  IFiiverkamp,  Amst.  1720.  2  Th.  f. ;  Small  ed.  by  Oherthür,  AVürtzb.  17S2.<«. 
8  Th.  and  In  the  1  Abth.  of  the  Uibl.  sacra,  Lpss.  lS2(lss.  5  Th.  [Transl.  into  Eng.  by  W.  Wlihton,  &, 
cd.  by  //  Stehhing.  Svo.  Lond.  lS-11.  and  a  new  Transl.  by  li.  Trail,  with  notes,  Ess.iys,  &c  and 
e<l.  by  I.  Taylor,  Lond.  &  New  York.  1S47.]  F.  C.  ifi-ier,  Judaica  s.  vetorum  Scrr.  profnnornin  de 
rob.  jud.  frainiin.  Jen.  1S.32;  Vdrin^c,  do  Syn.igoara  vet  (Frnneq.  1090  Loiicop.  172«.  4  ;  [Vitrlnpa's 
Synag.  &  tho  Church,  transl.  by  Bernard,  8vo.  Lond.]  J.  D.  MicJmelin,  mos.  Recht.  Frkf.  1775si 
6Th.  [Transl.  into  Kn?.  by  A.  Smith.  4  vols.  8vo.  Lond.  H14];  J.  J.  Ifexs,  Gesch.  d.  Israel,  Zur. 
76G'«.  12  Til.:  n^  Wette,  Lehrb.  d.  hebr.  Archäol.  nebst  Cnindr.  d.  hebr.  Gesch.  Lps.  (1S14.)  18.30; 
J.  .V.  JiMt,  nil?  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  Brl.  1832.  2  vols. ;  [J.iKf»  Hist  of  tho  Jews,  from  the  Maccabees  to  the 
present  day,  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  II.  Tropkin«.  1S4S.  New  York;]  If.  Leo,  Vorles.  ü.  d.  Gescli.  d. 
jiid.  Staats.  Hrl.  1S2S.  retracted  in  his  Lehrb.  d.  L'nlversali;esch.  cd.  2.  vol.  I.  p.  6(>3ss.  co-np.  Stud.  u. 
Krit  1330.  vol.  I.  p.  1.17s'*.;  Bertheaii,  zur  Ge*c!i.  d.  I'^r.  Gütt  1S42:  I/.  EicnM,  Gesch.  d.  Volke« 
.israel  b.  Cliristus.  Gott  lS4'lss.  3  vols. ;  J.  Sa'vaiinr,  Hist,  des  Institutions  de  Molse  ct  du  peuple 
li6br.  Par.  1S2S.  3  vols.    [This  work  was  answered  by  M.  Dupin,  the  older,  In  "  Jesus  devant  Calphe 


*  L.  Krahner  Grundlinien  z.  Gesch.  d.  Verfalls  d.  rOm.  StaatsreL  Ual.  1837.  4. 


aO  A.VriKNT  CHUnCH    IIISTOIIT.     I'KIl.   I.     I»IV.    I.    TILL   A.   I).   V>'<. 

et  Pllato,"  Par.  1828.  8] ;  Gramherg,  krlL  Gcsoh.  d.  K.  Ideen  d.  A.  T.  Br).  l'*29.s.  2  Th.;  Vulke,  \ 
Rel.  d.  A.  T.  BrI.  1835.  1  Th.;  S.  L.  Stfinhenn,  d.  OlTcnb.  n.  d.  Lclirbc^.d.  Synag.  Frkf.  1985.  1  vol. 
A.  F.  Ofrörer,  d.  Jahrb.  drs  Helle«.  Stultff.  1S3S.  2  Abth.— A'jiot*;,  d.  rrophetbinu»  d.  Ilcbr.  BreeL 
1837.  2  vol«.;  Konter,  die  rro[)li.  d.  A.  u.  N.  T.  Lps.  1838;  [//.  //  Milmnn,  Hist,  of  the  Jews,  from 
the  B.  of  Christ  to  tho  Abol.  of  I'acanlsin  In  the  Kom.  Einp.  wilh  notes  by  Murdock.  3  vols.  New 
York.  1831 ;  J.  Buenage,  Hist  of  tho  Jews  from  Je.^us  Christ  to  the  pr.  time,  being  a  cont.  of  Jose- 
phuR.  transl.  by  T.  Taylor,  Lond.  1708.  f.;  D.  Stiamn,  lleion's  rilgrlinago  to  Jerusalem,  A  I'lctnrd 
of  Jiulalsin  In  the  Cent  before  Christ,  transl.  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1824.  2  vol».  8.] 

§  23.     The  Beligious  Life  of  the  People. 
Jehovah  •\va.'?  worsliipped  as  the  only  living  and  Mo.st  High  God,     His 
government,  by  agents,  in  direct  communication  with  himself,  collectively 
called  tho  Theocracy,  was  regarded  as  the  only  legitimate  anthority.    By  his 
law  tho  spirit  was  wrested  from  its  hold  upon  the  natural  world,  and  his 
people  were  separated  from  all  other  nations,    "When  the  popular  life  had 
attained  full  maturity  during  the  period  between  Samuel  and  the  Exile  [1156- 
588,  B.  C),  a  flourishing  kind  of  sacred  poetry,  with  no  great  refinement  of 
art,  became  developed,  and  the  manners  and  morals  of  the  people,  though 
rude,  were  generally  strict.     The  people,  however,  were  always  inclined  to 
apostatize  and  adopt  the  sensual  and  idolatrous  worship  of  nature,  jjrevalent 
among  the  neighboring  nations.     The  state,  distracted  by  the  struggle  of 
the  hierarchy  with  the  monarchy,  became  divided  (after  975)  into  the  king- 
doms of  Judah  and  Israel,  and  at  last  fell  a  prey  to  foreign  enemies.    It  was 
not  until  after  the  Exile,  that  the  spirit  of  the  people  corresponded  with  that 
of  their  law,  and  then  the  benefits  of  such  a  result,  and  the  complete  execu- 
tion of  their  political  system,  were  limited  by  the  dominion  of  the  Persians, 
the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans,  who,  without  intermission,  succeeded  one  an- 
other.   A  similar  religious  improvement  was  founded  upon  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, the  type  and  mirror  of  the  popular  life.    In  the  midst  of  the  calamities 
of  the  Exile,  a  stronger  faith  in  a  future  state  of  existence  Avas  awakened,  in 
connection  with  the  explanation  of  moral  evil  by  demoniac  agency.    But  a 
natural  result  of  the  importance  which  the  hierarchy  consequently  gave  to 
the  outward  ritual  of  the  law,  was  soon  experienced  in  the  extreme  valuation 
of  these  observances,  without  reference  to  their  spiritual  import.    The  origi- 
nal contradiction  involved  in  the  idea  they  generally  entertained  of  a  God, 
who  was  the  sole  Lord  of  the  Universe,  and  yet  revealed  himself  as  the  God 
of  only  a  single  nation,  became  increasingly  prominent,  as  the  world  became 
more  generally  known.     Their  belief  also  in  the  exclusive  partiality  of  God 
for  themselves  as  a  people,  in  connection  with  the  continual  oppression  they 
experienced  from  their  foreign  masters,  produced  a  bitter  feeling  toward 
every  thing  foreign,  and  a  hatred  of  the  whole  hnman  race.    It  was  during 
this  decline,  and  as  the  precise  result  of  it,  that  the  predominant  rehgious  cha- 
racter of  the  nation  was  formed.     Its  fundamental  element  was  an  obstinate 
nationality,  and  a  bold  determination  to  sacrifice  every  thing  for  its  preserva- 
tion.   This,  in  connection  Avith  their  internal  dissensions  and  moral  debase- 
ment, could  lead  to  nothing  but  a  tragical  result,  when  opposed  to  the  over- 
whelming power  of  the  Romans.    But  a  series  of  prophets  had  at  one  time 
been  produced  by  the  Theocracy,  in  connection  with  a  spiritual  tendency 
among  the  people,  which  had  taught  them  to  solve  all  the  contradictions  of 


CHAP.   L    JUDAISM.    §  24.    DISPERSED   JEWS.    §  25.    PDILO.  21 

tlie  present  time,  by  believing  contemplations  of  the  future.  These  ilessianio 
prophecies  therefore  livfil  on  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  consoling,  but  at  the 
same  time  ensnaring  them  with  the  strong  expectation  that  Judaism  was  des- 
tined to  become  universal 

§  2i.     The  dispersed  Jeics  (tv  Siaa-nopa). 

Jlemond,  Gescb.  d.  Ausbreit.  d.  Judenth.  v.  Cyrus  bis  a.  d.  Unterg.  d.  jüd.  Staats.  Lpz.  1789 ;  Groot, 
de  migrationibus  Ilebrr.  extra  patriarn  ante  Hieras.  a  Eoin.  delttam.  Gron.  ISIT.  4;  Levyssohn,  de 
Judaconim  sub  Caesaribus  conditione  et  de  legibus  eos  spectantibus.  Lngd.  182S.  4. 

According  to  the  laws  of  war  then  prevalent,  Jewish  colonies  were  trans- 
ferred to  other  lands,  in  the  train  of  the  various  conquerors  of  Palestine. 
Individual  Jews  also  wandered  into  the  same  countries,  for  the  sake  of  gain. 
In  the  time  of  Christ,  therefore,  Jewish  communities,  sufc^'ect  to  great  vicissi- 
tudes of  fortune,  were  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
With  their  characteristic  shrewdness,  and  their  indefatigable  industry,  they 
had  acquired  wealth  by  commerce,  and  by  wealth,  independence  and  privi- 
leges. They  lived  according  to  the  law  of  their  fathers,  and  paid  homage  to 
the  hierarchy  at  Jerusalem,  as  their  highest  human  authority.  In  conse- 
quence of  their  temple  tribute  (bldpaxfia),  their  offerings,  and  their  pilgrim- 
ages, immense  wealth  flawed  into  Jerusalem  from  every  part  of  the  world, 
and  became  an  instrument  of  great  power  in  the  hands  of  the  priesthood,  and 
a  temptation  to  Roman  rapacity  and  corruption. 

§  25.  Hellenism. 
C.  G.  L.  GrosKmann,  Quacstt  Philonea,\  I.  De  Theologiao  Phil,  fontibus  et  auctorit.  II.  De 
Ao7(u  Phil.  Lps.  1S29;  Gfrörei;  Philo  u.  d.  alex.  Theosophie,  o.  v.  Einfl.  d.  jüd.  ägypt  Schule  a.  d. 
N.T.  Stuttg.  1831.  2  Abth.  (new  title,  1S35) ;  A.  F.  Dähne,  gcsch.  Darst  d.jQd.  alex.  Kel.  PhU. 
Hal  1837.  2  Abtb.  comp,  üaur,  in  d.  Jahrb.  f.  wiss.  Kritik.  18-35.  p.  737-92 ;  J.  C.  L.  Georgii,  Ü.  d. 
neuesten  Gegens.  In  Auffnss.  d.  Alex.  Rel.  Phil.  (Illgens  Zeitschr.  1839.  H.  3.  4) ;  [J.  Bryant,  Seutt, 
of  Phil.  Jud.  on  the  Word  of  God  Carnb.  1797.  8J. 

Although  the  Jews  who  resided  in  countries  pervaded  by  Grecian  culture 
seldom  gave  up  their  national  attachments  and  spirit,  they  were  unavoidably 
much  affected  by  the  intercourse  and  science  of  those  around  them.  Such 
was  the  origin  of  the  Hellenism,  which,  in  Alexandria,  then  the  groat  lunrt 
of  trade  even  in  science,  gave  birth  to  the  first  philosophy  of  revelation. 
This  has  been  transmitted  to  subsecjuent  times,  principally  by  the  writings  of 
Philo,  (n)  The  contradictory  elements  of  which  it  was  composed  were  :  an 
unconditional  feith  in  the  divine  revelation  contained  in  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
an  equal  confidence  in  the  truth  of  the  Platonic  philosophj-.  These  conflict- 
ing principles  were  subjectively  harmonized  by  the  adoption  of  the  opihiong 
that  tlie  Greek  philosophy  was  derived  from  the  Scriptures,  and  that  the  di- 
vine mind  in  the  Scriptures  was  to  be  discovered  by  tlic  allegorical  method  of 
interpretation.  Its  fundamental  principle  was  :  sucli  an  extreme  refinement 
of  the  idea  of  God,  that  every  distinct  attribute  of  his  nature  disappeared, 


a)  Philoni«  0pp.  ed.  Jfanyey.  Lond.  1742.  2  Th.  f.  The  greater  part  of  this  is  used  in  an  ed.  cur. 
Pfeiffer.  Erl.  (1785ss.;  1820.  5  Th. ;  Small  ed.  embracing  the  remainilcr,  discovered  by  A.  Jfajo,  & 
Aucher,  in  2  Abth.  of  the  Bibl.  Patrum.  Lps.  1828ss.  6  Th. ;  Cretuer,  z.  Krit,  d.  Schrr.  d.  Philo. 
(Stud.  u.  Kvit  l&Bl.  II.  1)  •  GroKsmann.  do  Phil,  operum  continua  Serie  et  ord.  chron.  Lps.  1341.  4 
P.  L 


22  ANCIENT  cHuncir  iriSYOKi.   ri;u.  i.  div.  l  till  a.  d.  loa 

nnvl  all  connection  between  him  nnd  the  world  ceased.  It  was  therefore  sup- 
posed that  certain  intorincdiato  beings  (Xiiyor  and.Xoyft)  proceeded  from  God — 
fanciful  creatures,  which  can  scarcely  be  called  personal  existences,  nor  yet 
mere  extensions  of  the  divine  essence.  These  gave  existence  to  Matter,  which 
was  not  divine,  but  was  formed  according  to  the  archetypes  of  their  own 
ideal  world,  and  was  animated  by  the  divine  breath.  Even  man,  so  far  as 
his  earthly  nature  is  concerned,  is  fallen  matter,  Avith  God  concealed  from  his 
view.  But  that  which  was  originally  divine  in  him,  must  be  liberated  by 
struggles  and  self-denials,  until  he  finds  his  true  life  during  some  favored  mo- 
ments even  in  this  world,  in  the  blessed  contemplation  of  the  Deity.  This 
divine  philosophy  was  reduced  to  practice  by  the  Therapeutae^  who  lived  in 
separate  huts,  chiefly  in  the  Mareotis,  near  Alexandria,  abstaining  from  all 
pleasures,  cares,  and  toils  of  an  earthly  life,  and  entirely  devoted  to  the  con- 
templation and  praise  of  the  divine  nature.  {]>) 

§  26,     The  Tliree  Sects. 

Trium  scriptorum  ilhistrium  (Dncsii,  Scaligeri,  Serarii)  de  tribus  Judaeorum  sectis  syntai'ma 
ed.  Tnglandiua.  Delphis.  1703.  2  Th.  4;  P.  Beer,  Gesch.  Lehren  u.  Meinungen  aller  rel.  Seelen  d. 
Jud.  Br6nn.  lS22s.  2  vols.;  ScJmeckenhurgei;  die  Pharisäer,  Eel.  Philosophen  o.  Askcliker?  (Beitr. 
X.  Einl.  in's  N.  T.  Stuttg.  1832.  N.  7.)  Grossmanyi,  De  Philos.  Sadducaeor.  Lps.  1S3G.  II.  De  frag- 
mentis  Sadd.  exeg.  1837.  IIL  De  statu  Sadd.  literario,  morali  et  politico.  1&33.  4. 

The  most  distinct  forms  of  Judaism  in  Palestine,  after  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  were  represented  in  three  regularly  organized  sects.  The  Phari- 
sees^ i.  e.  the  Separated,  were  representatives  of  the  rigid  hierarchy,  and  of 
modern  Judaism  with  all  its  faults  and  virtues.  The  most  austere  portion  of 
this  sect  adhered  to  the  authority  of  Rabbi  Shammai,  and  a  mUder  party  to 
that  of  HilUl.  In  the  latter  party,  a  tendency  toward  Hellenism  was  practi- 
cable, and  Gamaliel  is  said  to  have  participated  in  it.  The  Sadducees,  whose 
name  signifies  the  Eighteous,  and  who  constituted  in  fact  the  wealthy  and 
aristocraticportionsof  society,  maintained  the  older  Hebraism,  the  intellectual 
liberty  of  which,  in  a  corrupt  and  yet  speculative  period,  was  easily  perverted 
so  as  to  encourage  licentiousness  and  unbelief.  The  disputes  which  these  sects 
carried  on  with  each  other  became  sometimes  so  riolent  that  the  government 
was  disturbed  on  account  of  them.  The  Essenea.  i.  e.  Healing  Ones,  or 
Saints,  were  those  who  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  world,  and  in  ditJer- 
ent  degrees  of  their  order,  according  to  the  rigidity  of  their  asceticism,  with- 
drew from  all  public  life,  to  live  in  extreme  solitude  on  the  western  coast  of 
the  Dead  Sea.  Their  doctrine,  so  far  as  it  has  been  made  known,  indicated 
Bomo"atfinity  with  the  Alexandrian  philosophy,  as  it  converged  evidently  to- 
ward a  theory  of  angel  hierarchy.  Their  moral  system  and  habits  were  simi- 
lar to  those  of  the  Therapentae,  although  they  adhered  more  decidedly  to  the 
Hebrew  prophecies.  Their  mode  of  life  was  communistic,  and  their  time  was 
wholly  occupied  in  prayer  and  labor.  Although  they  condemned  the  private 
possession  of  wealth,  individuals  might  possess  some  property  as  a  fief,  from 

V)  The  orig.  evidence  in  various  forms  in  Pliilo,  and  many  erroneous  statements  with  respect 
to  them  in  Emehhts,  IT.  Ecc.  II.  17;  BeUermann.  gcsch.  Nachrichten  a.  d.  Alterthume  ü.  E.'«ä«äi 
n.  Therapeuten.  Brl.  1S21 ;  J.  Sauer,  do  Essenis  et  Therapeutis,  Vrat  1S29;  G/rorer,  Ablh.  S.  jx 
280SS. ;  Dähne,  vol.  I.  p.  439ss. 


CHAP.  I.    JUDAISM.     §  27.    SAMARITANS.    §  2S.    PEOSELTTES.  23 

the  common  .stock.    They  never  visited  the  Temple,  because  bloody  sacrifices 
were  ottered  in  it,  but  they  sent  to  it  their  sacred  gifts. 

§  27.     The  Samaritans. 

Besides  the  Jewish  sources  of  a  partisan  cliaracter,  consult  The  Samar.  Pentateucli,  even  in  the 
Arabic  translation,  and  John  iv.  5-42;  {Siefert)  Per.  de  temp,  schisraatis  ecc.  Judaeos  Inter,  et  Sa- 
niarr.  oborti.  Kesiom.  1S23.  4.  comp.  Ease's  Loben  Jesu.  p.  lOSs.  [Neander's  Life  of  Clirist  p.  ISOss. ; 
IfeDdstenherg,  On  the  Pentateuch,  vol.  I.  p.  TOss.;  M.  Stuart,  Essay  on  Sam.  Pent  &,  Lit  in  Bib. 
Itopos.  1S.32.  P.  4.  p.  651.  &  Essays  on  the  Old  Test  Andover,  1845.  8 ;  Kitto'a  Journal  of  Sac.  Lit 
July,  1353.  p.  293.] 

From  its  first  establishment,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  always  character- 
ized by  a  great  laxity  of  religious  faith,  a  dislike  to  the  Levitical  priesthood, 
and  a  fondness  for  the  idolatrous  worship  of  the  surrounding  nations.  Hav- 
ing been  conquered  by  the  Assyrians  (722),  the  small  remnant  allowed  to  re- 
main in  the  country  soon  became  nearly  amalgamated  with  the  heathen  colo- 
nists introduced  among  them.  And  yet  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria,  the 
fruitful  hill  country  between  Judaea  and  Galilee,  olfored  to  assist  the  returning 
.Jews  in  rebuilding  the  Temple  of  Zion.  This  proposal  being  rejected,  just 
before  Alexander's  triumphant  march  through  their  country,  they  received 
through  Manasseh,  the  exiled  brother  of  the  Jewish  high  priest,  and  the  fa- 
vor of  the  Persian  monarch,  not  only  a  copy  of  the  Pentateuch,  but  permis- 
sion to  build  a  temple  to  Jehovah  on  Mount  Gerizim.  In  spite  of  all  their 
foreign  mixtures,  both  of  sentiments  and  of  blood,  the  Samaritans  were  espe« 
cially  attached  to  the  ancient  Hebraism,  and  carried  out  its  moral  and  intel- 
lectual tendencies.  They  shared  in  the  political  fortunes  of  Judaea,  and  were 
animated  by  a  similar  hatred  to  the  Eomans,  but  the  State  possessed  very  little 
power,  on  account  of  the  still  greater  mutual  hatred  of  the  Jews  and  Sa- 
maritans. 

§  28.  Proselytes. 
The  contempt  which  a  people  without  refinement  in  art  or  science,  enter- 
tained for  every  thing  foreign,  was  of  course  met  by  the  Greeks  and  Eo- 
mans with  a  similar  contempt,  (a)  And  yet  the  strength  of  religious  faith 
among  the  Jews,  the  worship  of  one  God,  and  the  veneration  for  the  myste- 
rious rites  and  shrines  of  the  temple  of  Jehovah,  were  peculiarly  imposing. 
Modern  Judaism,  too,  was  naturally  inclined  to  conquest.  Hence  from  the 
general  inclination  toward  foreign  religions,  and  from  the  dissatistaction  felt 
with  respect  to  the  social  relations  of  the  Empire,  many,  especially  women, 
laborers,  and  slaves,  felt  attracted  by  the  hopes  held  out  to  them  by  the 
Jews.  Some  became  2^'''osehjtes  of  righteousness  to  Judaism,  and  many  re- 
nounced idolatry  by  obeying  what  were  called  the  Noachian  precepts,  and 
thus,  according  to  the  decision  of  the  milder  teachers  of  the  law,  became 
proselytes  of  the  Gate,  i.  o.  friends  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  sliarors  in  many 
of  its  hopes,  without  being  subject  to  the  yoke  of  the  law,  without  adoi)ting 
the  narrow  jirojudices  of  the  Jews,  and  without  expecting  justification  by 
their  external  services.     Others  pleased  or  silenced  their  consciences  by  the 

a)   Tdcit.  ni<t.  V.  .5;  ifinucii  Fel.  Octavius  c  10. 


24  ANCIKNT  CIH-UCII    lllSTonV.     PKi:.  I.     DIV.  I.    TIU.  A.  P.  IW. 

practice  of  Jewish  ceremonies,  nnd  allowed  themselves  to  he  beguiled  b^ 

Tewirtli  coiiiurers.  {f>) 


CHAP.  II.— THE  APOSTOLIC  CHURCH. 

Lud.  Capelli  lltst  np.  lllustrata,  Genev.  1684.  4  ed.  Fabriclns,  Lps.  1C91 ;  J.  F.  Jiuildel,  Kcc 
tp.  Jen.  17'29;  J.  J.  lies»,  Gcscli.  u.  Sclirr.  d.  Apostol  Znrch.  1789.  4  ed.  lS20»s.  8  Tb. ;  F.  Lficke, 
Com.  dc  Ecc.  Apost  Goett  1813.  4;  J.  O.  rUtnvk;  Oesch.  d.  Chrlstenth.  In  d.  Periode  »r.  Einfuhr 
nn".  OTitt  1818;  Tli.  II.  A.  Neander  [Ilist.  of  tlie  Planting  and  Training  cT  tlio  Chri.itlan  Cliurcb 
by  the  Ai«>stli-s,  Transl.  by  J.  F.  liijland.  Phil.  1  vol.  1844] ;  /'.  Ch.  Jimir,  I'aulu)»,  Sluttg.  1845;  A 
Sc?nceglei;  d;is  nncliapost.  Zoitalt.  in  d.  Ilauptinonicnten  sr.  Entwickl.  Tub.  184C.  2  vol». ;  comp.  E. 
Zeller  ii.  Chr.  Urclir.  u.  Unchr.  in  Sclnveglor's  Jahrb.  1814.  Juni;  (IF.  O.  Dietlein,  d.  UrchrUtenth. 
cine  Belcuclit.  der.  v.  d.  Schule  d.  Urn.  Dr.  v.  Baur^  fl.  d.  A  post  Zeita.  aufgestellten  Vermuthungen. 
Ilal.  1845  ;)  [A'.  U.  Hagenbach,  F.  C-  Baur,  and  J.  P.  Lange,  have  each  published  IILstories  of  the 
Primitive  and  Apostolic  Church,  in  Germ.;  G.  Benson,  Hist  of  the  First  Planting  of  Christianty, 
Lond.  175G.  3  vols.  4;  F.  W.  P.  Greemcood,  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Apostle?,  Ac.  Bost,  1846.  12:  /.. 
Coleman,  Anc.  Christianity  exemplified.  Philad.  IS-OS.  2  vols.  8;  //.  IK  J.  TViierocÄ,  Hist  of  the 
Chr.  Church,  vol.  L  Apostolic  Age,  Transl.  by  T.  Carlyle,  Lond.  1852.] 

§  29,  The  First  Pentecost. 
I.  AcU,  2. 1-41 ;  II.  Herder,  Gabe  d.  Sprachen.  Eig.  1794;  Ammon,  de  novis  Unguis.  ErI.  ISOS; 
ITaite,  Zur  Gesch.  d.  ersten  Chr.  Pflngstf. ;  {Winers  Zeitschr.  f.  Wiss.  Theol.  1827.  H.  2;)  Bleek,  ü. 
d.  Gabe  des  yXdiaaai^  KaXilv.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1829.  vol.  IL  IL  1 ;  comp.  Ohhausen,  vol.  II.  H.  8; 
Eepl.  V.  Bleek,  18Sn.  vol.  I.  II.  1.  p.  45-64;  Ohhaiiffn,  ibid.  p.  G4-66.)  ^«n^r.  Abb.  in  d.  Tub.  Zclt- 
6chr.  f.  Theol.  1830.  IL  2;  Bäumlein,  Abb.  in  the  Studien  d.  Würtemb.  Geistlieb.  1834.  II.  2; 
Schneckenhurger,  in  his  Beitr.  zur  Einl.  in's  N.  T.  N.  S.  Billroth;  [Expos,  of  the  Epp.  of  Paul  to 
the  Cor.  (in  Edinb.  Bibl.  Cabinet,  No.  21.  23)  on  1  Cor.  siv.];  D.  Schnh,  d.  Geistesgaben  d.  ersten 
Christen,  insbes.  d.  sogen.  Gabe  d.  Spr.  Bresl.  1S36;  Baur,  Krit  Ucbers.  (Stud.  n.  Krit.  1838,  p.  ClSsf.) 
Seinecke,  Sprachgabe  d.  ersten  Christen.  Lpz.  1842. 

As  tlie  founder  of  a  new  popular  religion,  and  as  the  !Mossiah  and  Son  of 
God,  who  must  fulfil  all  the  longings  of  the  people,  and  the  prophecies  of  the 
Scriptures,  Jesus  had  awakened  a  spirit  which  in  independent  spirituality  was 
to  rise  above  every  thing  earthly,  unite  men  in  love,  by  regeneration,  with 
the  Father  of  all,  and  regardless  of  all  national  distinctions,  bring  them  mi- 
der  one  great  bond  of  brotherhood  in  the  kingdom  of  God.  A  few  faithful 
disciples,  on  whom  exclusively  this  Spirit  had  before  rested,  waited  in  close 
fellowship  at  Jerusalem  for  the  promised  manifestation  of  this  Sidrit.  Early 
in  the  morning  of  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  soon  after  the  Pvesurrection  (about 
33),  on  the  occurrence  of  a  remarkable  natural  phenomenon,  they  felt  con- 
scious of  an  extraordinary  inspiration,  Avhich  they  regarded  as  a  shedding 
forth  of  the  divine  Spirit  upon  their  hearts,  from  without  and  above  them 
selves.  This  internal  influence  manifested  itself  to  others  principally  by  au 
animated  and  copious  style  of  speaking — a  sjyeal-ing  tcith  towjucs,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Luke,  was  generally  regarded  as  a  decisive  evidence  that  Chris- 
tianity had  arrived  at  its  completion,  (a)  Such  phenomena  were  regarded  in 
the  primitive  Church  as  the  gift  of  the  Spirit,  bestowed  without  reference  to 
the  ordinary  state  of  the  heart,  and  were  indeed  frequently  abused  so  as  to 
become  subservient  to  vanity,  (b)    Such  Avas  the  foct  until  far  into  the  second 


I)  Juren.  Sat.  VL  54.3.  Scnec  de  snperstt  (in  August  de  Civ.  Dt-i.  VL  11);  Josfphi  Antiqq 
VIIL  2.  5.  XVIII.  3.  5. 

a)  AcU  10,  40s.  19,  6.  comp.  8.  15s&     h)  1  Cor  14. 


CHAP.  ir.  APOST.  cnURCn.  §  29.  PENTEC03T.  §  so.  JERUSALEM.     26 

century,  (c)  and  even  to  a  still  later  period,  in  seasons  and  congregations 
in  which  powerful  excitements  prevailed.    At  this  feast  of  Pentecost,  accord- 
ing to  the  rather  obscure  account  of  Luke,  a  discourse  was  delivered  in  seve- 
ral foreign  languages.     A  power  to  do  this,  however,  was  not  regarded  in ) 
the  apostolic  Church  as  the  ordinary  attendant  of  this  gracious  gift ;  we  have 
no  account  of  its  repetition,  and  it  is  of  importance  only  as  indicating  that 
Christianity  was  destined  to  become  nniversal.    But  the  great  fact^  which  . 
then  took  place,  was  the  revelation  of  the  new  spmtTthrough  which  the/ 
Church  was  visibly  and  publicly  to  be  established. 

§  30.     Fortune  of  the  Churcli  of  Jerusalem. 

The  rage  of  the  people  had  been  appeased  by  the  death  of  Jesus ;  and 
when  the  recollection  of  his  benevolent  deeds  revived,  the  feeling  began  to 
prevail  througliout  the  city,  that  they  had  imbrued  their  hands  in  the  blood 
of  an  innocent  man,  and  possibly  in  that  of  their  own  Messiah,  "^hen,  there- 
fore, his  timid  disciples  suddenly  announced  with  great  earnestness  and  con- 
fidence that  he  had  risen  from  the  dead,  thousands,  by  baptism,  professed 
themselves  his  disciples,  and  the  popular  favor  was  turned  toward  them. 
Alarmed  at  this,  and  divided  in  their  own  coun.sels  (since  many  of  the  Phari- 
sees, out  of  hatred  to  the  Sadducees,  were  willing  that  the  gospel,  which  pro- 
claimed a  resurrection,  should  prevail),  the  Sanhedrim  were  irresolute,  and 
adopted  no  efficient  measures,  while  the  apostles  were  full  of  courage,  wUl- 
ing  to  sutler  shame  for  Christ,  and  determined  to  obey  God  rather  than  men. 
Still,  no  sooner  had  those  friendly  to  their  cause  become  connected  with 
them,  than  the  Galileans,  or  Xazareans,  became,  as  before,  a  much-hated 
sect.  A  party  zealous  for  the  law  were  allowed  to  stone  Stcplien  (about  36^\ 
and  Herod  Agrijqm  looked  upon  it  as  a  popular  measure  to  persecute  the 
Christians.  James,  the  brother  of  John,  was  beheaded,  and  Fctcr  escaped 
the  same  fate  only  by  mysterious  aid  (44).  {(i)  But  when,  on  the  sudden 
death  of  Ilerod  Agrippa,  Q>)  all  Palestine  became  a  Roman  province,  the  con- 
gregation was  allowed  to  become  tranquilly  established  and  enlarged.  "When 
most  of  the  disciples  fled,  on  the  persecution  after  the  death  of  Stephen,  the 
apostles  remained  at  Jerusalem.  There  stood  together  those  pillars  of  the 
Church,  Peter,  James,  and  John,  even  as  late  as  near  the  middle  of  the  cen- 
tury. After  that,  James  the  Just,  the  brother  of  our  Lord,  is  mentioned  as 
the  principal  leader  among  the  Christian  Jews,  although  all  authentic  ac 
counts  agree  in  ascribing  to  him  a  high  degree  of  circumspection  and  mod- 
eration even  in  his  Judaism,  (c)  To  judge  from  the  epistle  bearing  his  name, 
Lo  must  have  been  a  pious  and  earnest  teacher,  especially  in  his  admonitions 
in  favor  of  morality,  but  with  no  prominent  characteristics  peculiar  to  Chris- 
tianity. ('0  By  Jewish  Cliristians  ho  has  since  been  honored  as  a  kind  of  na- 
tional saint;  and  although  the  disciple  of  Jesus  is  not  very  prominent  in  his 
rigid  discipline,  and  in  the  remote  occasion  of  his  death,  this  was  only  to 


c)  Iren.  V.  C, 

(I)  Acts  6,  S— 7,  00;  12,  1-19.  h)  Acts  12,  20s&  comp.  Joeephi  Antlqq.  XIX.  7,  2.  c)  Gal.  2,  9. 
comp.  Acta  1,">,  ]3ss.  d)  Liter.  Review,  in  TluiU,  Coiiiin.  in  Ep.  Jac  p.  2Sss.;  F.  TT.  Kern,  Char- 
•cter  n.  Ursprung  d.  Br.  Juk.  (from  Ilio  Tub.  Zeitsclir.)  Tub.  ISGO. 


26  ANCIKNT  CliritCll  HInTORV.     I'KK.  I.     DIV.  I.    TU-I,  A.  D.  100. 

prove  hirnsc'lf  iiioro  perfectly  ft  Christ iaii  hero  Avlicn  ho  wan  called  actnallj 
to  die.  («)  The  iilaiii  testimony  of  history  declares,  that  the  lli>,'h  Priest  Ana- 
nua,  a  Sadduceo,  availing  liimself  of  tlio  interregnum  whioli  took  place  after 
the  death  of  the  procurator  Felix,  had  James,  and  a  few  otlicrs,  stoned  tc 
death,  as  transgressors  of  the  }*[osaic  law  (03).  (/) 

§  31.     Jevhh  Christianity. 
D.  van  ITeijif,  Ds.  de  Jiidaeo-Christianismo  ejusqae  vl  ct  enieacltatc,  quam  cxsc-rult  In  rem  Chr. 
Saec.  I.  Lugil.  B.  1S2S.  comp.  §  85. 

The  dispersion  of  the  congregation  after  the  death  of  Stephen  was  the 
commencement  of  its  propagation  in  other  regions.  The  knowledge  of  Christ 
was  probably  carried  by  pilgrims  from  Jerusalem  into  all  parts  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  and  yet  but  a  small  part  of  the  Jewish  population  actually  be- 
ean*e  Christian.  The  principal  seat  of  Christian  Judaism  among  the  dis 
persed  portion  of  the  nation  was  at  AntiocJi^  where  the  name  of  Christian 
was  first  applied  to  the  Church  by  those  who  were  not  its  members. 
The  Jewish  law  was  observed  with  the  utmost  strictness.  Cliristianity  was 
regarded  as  a  perfected  Judaism,  whose  hopes  were  already  in  part,  or  soon 
to  be  completely  fulfilled.  It  was  only  with  this  understanding  that  it  could 
have  gained  general  acceptance  in  Palestine.  The  Pharisees  were  inclined  to 
receive,  aud  zealously  to  advocate  It,  so  far  as  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  Jesus  was  concerned ;  and  the  Essenes  Avere  fovorable  to  its  religious 
spirituality.  The  assertion,  that  a  Jewish  Christianity  of  an  Essene  com- 
plexion sprung  up  at  an  early  period,  by  an  accession  of  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  Essenes  to  the  Church,  is  rendered  probable  by  partial  affinities  be- 
tween the  two  systems,  and  certain  by  witnesses  after  the  middle  of  the  se- 
cond century.  But  as  the  gospel  was  proclaimed  principally  in  public  assem- 
blies, and  as  conversions  from  a  community  so  rigidly  secluded  must  have 
been  extremely  difficult,  wo  can  hardly  suppose  that  such  an  accession  could 
have  taken  place  in  any  large  numbers,  till  after  the  dispersion  of  the  Essene 
settlements,  aud  the  desolation  of  the  Jewish  country.  Besides,  it  does  not 
appear  that  Christianity,  in  its  earliest  form,  possessed  any  prominent  traits 
of  an  Essene  character.  As  it  was  believed  to  be  intended  for  all  men,  those 
who  looked  upon  it  through  an  old  Hebrew  medium,  must  have  regarded  the 
reception  of  the  law  as  a  necessary  part  of  the  process.  According  to  Luke's 
account  (Acts  x.  11-18),  Peter  could  be  induced  to  baptized  proselyte  of  the 
gate,  and  could  justify  himself  for  the  act  before  his  brethren,  in  no  other 
way  than  by  the  assurance  of  a  divine  revelation.  But  as  the  Church  could 
not  at  that  time  conveniently  separate  its  blessings,  the  more  rigid  Jewish 
Christians  demanded  that  baptized  proselytes  should  afterwards  be  circum- 
cised. 

§  32.     Satnaritaji  Christians  and  Sects. 

The  first  decisive  instance  in  which  Christianity  broke  over  the  pro- 
per limits  of  the  Jewish  nation,  Avas  that  in  which  the  gospel  was  car- 
ried  to  Samaria.    The  seed  which  Jesus,  regardless  of  the  popular  hatred. 


e)  Euseb.  11.  ecc.  II.  1.  23.    /)  Josephi,  Antiqq.  XX.  P,  1. 


mAP.  IL    APOST.  CHUECn.    §  32.  SIMON.    §  &S.  PAUL.  27 

had  sown  in  Sychem,  Avas  liarvested  by  the  apostles.  ('/)  The  Samaritans. 
however,  were  at  that  time  too  much  taken  up  with  tlie  claims  of  certain 
founders  of  new  religions  in  their  own  midst,  strange  phantoms  of  the  truth, 
to  be  much  interested  in  a  Messiah  from  Judea.  Dositheus^  professing  to  be 
the  propliet  promised  in  the  likeness  of  Moses  (Deut.  18,  18),  had  appeared 
among  them  with  a  severe  exaggeration  of  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  had 
finally  starved  himself  in  a  cave.  (/')  Simon  Magus  obtained  many  adherents 
in  Samaria,  and  perhaps  also  some  in  Rome.  According  to  his  own  assertion, 
or  at  least  thai  of  his  followers,  he  was  an  incarnation  of  the  Spirit  which 
bad  created  the  world,  to  deliver  the  soul  of  the  world,  in  bondage  to  the 
earthly  powers,  by  whom  it  had  been  confined  in  a  woman,  and  at  that  time 
in  his  own  wife,  Helena.  "With  the  deliverance  of  this  world-soul,  all  be- 
lievers were  also  to  be  released  from  their  imprisonment.  He  Avas,  however, 
anxious  to  purchase  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  apostles,  and  trembled  before 
their  malediction,  (c)  In  some  accounts,  he  appears  degraded  to  a  mere  pan- 
der to  lewdness,  {d)  and  in  popular  traditions  he  became  the  representative  of  all 
magical  arts  and  their  fortunes  during  his  day,  in  contrast  with  the  triumph- 
ant simplicity  of  pious  faith.  (<)  Menandcr  also  aspired  to  the  honor  of  be- 
ing a  Messiah,  and  a  divine  incarnation,  with  power  to  make  his  followers 
immortal.  (./')  The  influence  of  each  of  these  three  impostors  was  continued 
through  some  minor  sects  until  some  time  in  the  sixth  century.  They  were 
often  confounded,  by  those  who  were  not  well  informed  on  the  subject,  with 
the  followers  of  Christ ;  and  perhaps  some  of  them,  like  Simon  himself,  at 
one  time,  from  worldly  policy,  may  have  passed  themselves  off  as  such.  It 
is  possible,  too,  that  they  may  sometimes  have  really  claimed  to  be  Chris- 
tians, in  accordance  with  a  doctrine  by  which  all  religions  were  mingled  to- 
gether, and  the  same  God  was  said  to  have  revealed  himself  to  the  Samari- 
tans as  the  Father,  to  the  Jews  as  the  Son,  and  to  the  Gentiles  as  the  Spirit. 

§  33.     Paul. 

J.  Pearson,  Annales  Paul.  Hal.  1718.  [Load.  1GS9.  4.  transl.  into  Eng.  by  WiUianu,  Cambr. 
182C.  12.]  W.  Paletj,  Ilorao  Paul,  or  the  Truth  of  the  Scriptural  Hist,  of  Paul  evinced.  [With  a 
Buppl.  by  E.  Biley.  Lend.  1840.  Illustrated  by  Tate.  Lend.  1S3T.  Publ.  in  New  York.  1S4;J.  In 
works.  Cambr.  (Ma'«.)  1S30.]  J.  T.  Heimen,  der  Ap.  P.  Gütt  1S30;  K.  Schräder,  der  Ap.  P.  Lpz. 
ISoOss.  5  vols.;  Tholuck,  Lebensurastäude,  Character  ii.  Sprache  d.  P.;  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S35.  II.  2. 
and  Verm.  Schrr.  vol  II.  p.  2:2ss.)  [Life  and  Cliar.  of  Paul,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  of  A.  Tho' 
lud;  and  publ.  in  the  Edinb.  Bibl.  Cabinet,  vol.  23.]  IL  A.  Schott,  ErOrtr.  einiger  Chronol.  Punkte 
in  d.  Lebensscsch.  d.  P.  Jena.  1S32;  J.  F.  ]Vunn,  ii.  d.  Zeitbest  im  Leben  d.  P.;  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  f. 
Theol.  1S3S.  II.  1) ;— Z.  Ueteri,  Entw.  d.  P.  Lehrbegr.  Zur.  1S24.  cd.  5.  1 534.  A.  F.  Vuhne,  Entw. 
d.  P.  Lehrbegr.  Ual.  1885  ■,—Baur,  Paulus  (p.  24.) 

The  development  of  Cliristianity  as  a  sjjiritual  religion  for  the  whole 
world,  was  accomplished  principally  by  the  agency  of  Saul,  called  after  tho 
Eoman  form  Paul.  The  idea  of  its  liberation  from  Judaism  did  not,  indeed, 
originate  with  him,  for  certain  Hellenists  from  Cyprus  had  before  preached 

a)  Acti  8,  5-17;  John  4,  35-33.  h)  Orig.  de  princ.  IV,  17.  (vol.  L  p.  178)  in  Jo.  torn.  13.  (vol.  IV 
p.  237);  Einphan.  Oi>p.,  vol.  I.  p.  30.  c)  Acts  8,  9-24;  Jiintin.  ApoL  L  c.  26,  66;  Tryph.  c  120 
(Sinioni  Deo  Sancto.  Senionl  Sanco  Deo  Fidio;)  Iren.  I.  20.  Extracts  from  both  Eiiaeh.  II.  ecc- II 
13.  Ejriph.  Ilacr.  21.  d)  Joseph!,  Antiqq.  XX,  7.  2.  e)  Arnoh.  II,  12;  Clement,  Homil.  II,  29s.s. 
Recos;nitt,  I,  72.  If,  7ss. ;  comp.  Targttin  Jeru»hulemi,  ad  Num.  31,  8;  Sueton.  Vita  Neron.  c  li 
/)  Jii,9tiiii,  Apol.  I  c  26;  Ej>ii'h.  Uacr.  22. 


28  ANCIKNT  CIIUIICII  IIISTOKV.     I'Kl:.  I.     DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  I),  10). 

tlio  gospel  to  the  Creeks  in  Antioch,  («)  and  Stophou  did  not  deny  the  charge, 
tliat  Jesus  had  coino  to  destroy  tlie  temple,  and  to  chaM<ro  the  cercmoniiil 
law.  (//)  But  it  was  reserved  for  Paul  successfully  to  justify  and  triuinjili- 
nntly  to  carry  out  this  idea.  lie  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  was  a 
Roman  citizen  born  at  Tarsus  the  capital  of  Cilicia,  had  been  educated  for  a 
learned  Phariseo  in  the  school  of  Gamaliel  at  Jerusalem,  and  was  by  occupa- 
tion a  tentmaker.  The  traces  of  a  Greek  education,  whicli  his  writititrs 
Bometimes  exhibit,  may  be  ascribed  either  to  tlie  school  in  wliich  he  had  been 
educated,  or  to  his  subsequent  pursuits  and  associations.  "With  a  cliaraeter 
not  only  great  but  exalted,  able  and  energetic  in  worldly  things,  thougli  full 
of  longings  after  those  which  are  heavenly,  he  jdaced  himself,  in  defence  of 
the  law  of  his  fatliers,  at  the  head  of  those  who  persecuted  the  followers  of 
Christ.  Stephen  fell  before  his  eyes,  and  Gamaliel  warned  the  rulers  that 
they  should  not  contend  against  God.  But  while  journeying  to  Damascus,  to 
persecute  those  Christians  whom  he  might  find  there  (probably  3G),  he  and 
his  companions  were  suddenly  struck  to  the  earth  by  fire  from  heaven, 
Christ  now  revealed  himself  to  his  spirit  as  the  Saviour  of  the  world,  and  ha 
could  no  longer  resist  the  mighty  power  of  truth,  (c)  His  rich  natural  en- 
dowments were  now  illuminated  by  the  gracious  influences  of  the  Holy 
Spirit,  his  fonuer  self  was  cast  off,  and  Christ  alone  lived  within  him.  After 
a  residence  of  three  years  in  Arabia  and  Damascus,  bo  fled  from  the  latter 
city  to  Jerusalem  (39),  that  he  might  form  an  acquaintance  with  Peter.  lie 
was  soon  after  invited  by  Barnabas  from  Tarsus,  to  assist  in  the  work  of  the 
gospel  at  Antioch,  When  both  had  conveyed  provisions  from  that  congrega- 
tion to  Jerusalem,  for  the  relief  of  the  brethren  there  (44),  they  were  sent 
on  a  missionary  tour  to  Cyprus,  and  some  provinces  of  Asia  Minor.  They 
commenced  their  labors  by  preaching  in  the  synagogues ;  {'T)  but  as  they 
were  generally  treated  with  contempt,  and  often  with  much  abuse  by  tho 
Jews,  while  they  were  generally  fovored  by  proselytes,  they  soon  began  to 
form  independent  churches,  composed  principally  of  Greeks.  These  they  re- 
garded, according  to  the  custom  at  Antioch,  as  not  bound  to  observe  the  cere- 
monial law,  and  it  was  even  rumored  that  Paul  had  gone  so  far  as  to  prevent 
the  Jews  from  circumcising  their  childi-en.  He  himself,  however,  conformed 
to  the  ritual  of  the  law,  at  least  as  far  as  appeared  expedient  to  prevent  all 
unnecessary  offence  to  his  brethren ;  and  accordingly,  in  Christian  liberty,  he 
■was  a  Greek  with  Greeks  and  a  Jew  with  Jews.  But  at  Antioch,  some  from 
Jerusalem  maintained  that  circumcision  was  indispensable  to  salvation.  In 
consequence  of  the  division  created  by  this  party,  Paul  and  Barnabas  under- 
took a  journey  to  Jerusalem  (about  50),  where,  after  hearing  what  God  had 
already  accomplished  by  their  means  in  carrying  the  gospel  to  the  heathen, 
the  three  apostles  of  Jewish  Christianity  extended  to  them  the  hand  of  fel- 
lowship.   A  charter  of  privileges  was  then  agreed  upon,  which  was  imme- 


a)  .dcfe  11,  20-22.  l)Acts6,13s.  c)  tfa?.  1, 15s. ;  1  Con  9,  1;  15.  3;  ^cf«  9, 1  22;  22,  3-lC  ; 
26,  9-lS;  Ammon,i\e  rej^ntlna  Sauli  convcrsione,  Erl.  1T9S  (0pp.  theoL  p.  Iss.);  Greiling,  Hist 
Psycbol.  Vers.  ü.  d.  pi  .tz.l.  Ueberg.  <1.  P.  (Ilenkes  Mus.  1S06.  vol.  IIL  p.  220.)  Straus«,  Streit5ctrr. 
ir.  1.  p.  61ss. ;  comp.  K  Sengel,  Obss.  de  P.  ad  rem  Chr.  convcrs.  2  P.  (0pp.  Hanib.  1S31) ;— C*.  G. 
i'ücA/«;",  dc  anno,  quo  P.  ad  sacra  chr.  conversus  est,  Lps.  lS2i     d)  Comp.  Rom.  1,  16;  9,  Si* 


CHAP.  IL  APOST,  ciirrxn.  §  .3.3.   paul.  09 

diately  gent  forth  in  a  solemn  edict  to  all  Gentile  Christian.'^,  forbidding  any 
yoke  to  be  imposed  upon  them,  except  a  few  observances  like  those  which 
were  required  of  proselytes.  Tliis  proceeding  could  not  be  reconciled  with 
the  original  covenant  (Gal.  2,  Iss.)  without  considerable  ingenuity  of  rea- 
soning, and  was  not  very  consistent  with  the  course  which  Paul  sometimes 
pursued,  but  it  was  a  well-intended  scheme  to  harmonize  those  conflicting 
tendencies  which  were  just  springing  up  in  the  Church,  and  of  which  tradi- 
tion gives  us  an  account  (Acts  15).  (>)  It  was  not  until  Paul,  fully  believing 
himself  called  of  God  to  be  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  had  extensively  pro- 
pagated the  Church  among  the  Greeks,  that  it  became  practically  indepen- 
dent of  the  prejudices  which  prevailed  in  Palestine.  During  his  two  long 
journeys,  and  his  protracted  residences  in  Ephesus  and  Corinth,  he  established 
numerous  churches  in  the  several  cities  of  Asia  Minor,  Macedonia,  and 
Achaia,  encountering  for  greater  difficulties  (2  Cor.  11,  20ss.)  than  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  Hated  equally  b}'  Jews  and  by  Jewish 
Christians,  with  many  presentiments  of  his  approaching  death,  he  went, 
about  Pentecost  in  the  year  58,  to  Jerusalem.  There,  abandoned  if  not  be- 
trayed by  Christians,  he  was  delivered  from  the  hands  of  the  exasperated 
mob  in  the  temple  by  the  Roman  guards.  For  two  years  he  was  kept  in 
bonds  as  a  Eoman  citizen,  by  the  procurator  Felix  in  Cesarea ;  and  when 
Festus  came  into  the  same  office,  as  the  successor  of  Felix,  in  consequence  of 
his  appeal  to  the  emperor  he  was  sent  late  in  the  year  CO  to  Rome.  After 
a  stormy  voyage,  he  was  kept  in  slight  confinement  in  that  city,  and  during 
two  years  he  labored  in  behalf  of  the  great  object  of  his  life,  not  only  with 
those  around  him,  but  by  means  of  epistles  and  friends  with  those  at  a  dis- 
tance. It  is  hardly  possible  that  he  could  have  survived  the  persecution  under 
Nero,  but  he  was  probably  beheaded  at  Rome  (64).  That  he  was  liberated, 
and  that  he  then  for  the  first  time  visited  the  utmost  limits  of  Western 
Europe ,(/)  and  finally  ended  his  life  during  a  second  imprisonment  in  Rome, 
appears  more  like  a  learned  conjecture  than  an  ancient  tradition.  {(/)  His 
epistles  abound  in  rabbinical  explanations,  in  arguments  stated  in  the  form  of 
bold  and  complex  syllogisms,  in  evidences  of  a  highly  wrought  intelligenco 
in  connection  with  a  profound  spirit  glowing  with  benevolence,  and  in  waves 
of  thought  which  appear  to  struggle  with  and  break  upon  one  another.  His 
style  was  concise  and  often  difficult,  but  he  always  had  the  right  word  fur 
every  variety  of  condition,  sometimes  powerfully  convincing  or  threatening, 
and  at  other  times  carrying  all  along  with  him  by  his  cordial  expressions  of 
affection.  A  nature  like  his  may  have  ascribed  some  things  to  a  divine  reve- 
lation through  visions,  which  were  the  result  of  intelligent  reflection,  and 
which  may  have  been  influenced  by  his  peculiar  physical  temperament.  (A) 

«)  Schneckenhurger,  Apoetelgesch.  p.  Tis».;  SchtctgUr,  nacliapostol.  Zeltalt  vol.  I.  p.  llGss. ; 
comp.  2>eander,  [Hist,  of  Plant  and  Train.  Ac  B.  111.  Ch.  4.  p.  7&ss.  3  ed.  Phil.id.  1S44.  8.] 
/)  Clem.  Horn.  Kp.  I.  ad  Corinth,  c.  5.  g)  Kuseb.  If.  cce.  II,  22; — J.  P.  Mynster,  do  ultiinis  annU 
Aiuneris  ap.  a  P.  goiti.  Ilavn.  1S15;  J.  T.  L.  Dam,  do  loco  Euscbii,  qui  do  altera  P.  captivitntc  aglt, 
Jen.  1S16.  4;— iE".  /'.  It.  Wulf,  do  alt  P.  captlv.  dss.  II.  Lps.  ISlOs. ;  Baur,  die  Sogon.  Pastoralbr.  d. 
Paul.  Stuttg.  1S35.  p.  CSss;  comp.  Tub.  Zeit>iclir.  1S3S.  II.  3.  §  438s. ;  Stud.  u.  Krit  1541.  U.  1 
1)  The  visions  related  by  Luke  in  the  AcU  of  the  Apostles,  and  the  allusions  to  siudlar  things  in  g«a- 
ral  in  the  Clementine»,  are  conlirinetl  in  2  Cor.  12,  1-? 


50  ANCiKNT  ciiuncii  ni!^Toitv.   rr.i:.  i.  7)iv.  i.  till  a.  d.  t'c 

His  doctrines  nro  essoiitinlly  tlic  same  with  those  of  Jesus,  so  far  as  tiiey  pro- 
ceed from  tiic  acknowledgment  that  Jesus  was  the  Messiah,  and  are  the  views 
of  a  profoundly  religious  mind,  aftected  by  similar  rational  prepossessions. 
They  were,  however,  at  the  same  time,  independently  founded  upon  his  own 
peculiar  life  and  conflicts.  In  the  first,  he  liad  exi)erienced  the  remarkable 
contrast  botwccn  a  period  of  enmity  tc  Christ,  and  another  in  Avhicli  Christ 
Lad  become  his  only  lifo.  This  private  experience  he  regarded  as  a  specimen 
of  the  life  of  mankind  fallen  from  God  by  sin,  and  reconciled  to  God  by 
dlirist,  and  hence  his  evangelical  instructions  were  specially  directed  to  the 
awakening  of  the  consciousness  of  sinfulness.  His  conflicts  had  been  princi- 
pally directed  to  the  liberation  of  the  Christian  spirit  from  the  Jewish  law. 
lie  therefore  maintained,  that  if  our  whole  salvation  must  come  from  Christ, 
the  law  is  not  necessary  to  salvation.  The  connection  between  these  j)rinci- 
ples  was  made  out  by  showing,  that  as  man  has  not  fulfilled  the  law,  the 
works  of  the  law  can  only  lead  to  condemnation,  and  salvation  can  be  ob- 
tained only  by  a  complete  surrender  of  the  heart  to  Christ ;  i.  e.  by  faith 
alone,  not  by  a  descent  from  Abraham,  not  by  the  merit  of  our  own  works, 
but  wholly  from  the  free  grace  of  God.  Paul  acknowledged  that  the  old 
covenant  was  divine,  but  he  contended  that  it  was  completed  by  the  new 
covenant  of  God  Avith  man  by  Christ,  so  that  now  it  had  bo?ome  an  abroga- 
ted institution.  In  his  estimation,  Christ  was  the  substance  of  all  religion, 
and  the  sole  ruler  of  the  world.  The  advent  of  Christ  to  our  world  Avas  the 
lofty  central  point  of  all  human  history,  from  which  he  looked  back  upon  the 
preliminary  revelation  which  had  been  given  to  Jews  and  Gentiles,  and  per- 
verted by  them  both,  and  forward  to  the  final  triumjih  of  the  kingdom  of 
God,  when  all  opposition  shall  be  overcome,  and  Christ  himself  shall  with- 
draw, that  God  may  be  all  in  all. 

§  34.     Peter. 
Zrayer?toß,  Eitil  in  d.  retrin.  Sclirr.  Ilamb.  1335;  comp.  K.  Hase,  Lebon  Jesn.  p.  112s.     [A, 
Lee,  Life  of  the  Ap.  Peter.  Lond.  18Ö2. 12.] 

The  practical  energy  which  Peter  possessed,  and  on  which  our  Lord  him- 
self appears  to  have  founded  considerable  expectations,  made  him  the  princi- 
pal representative  at  least  of  the  external  affairs  of  the  Church,  as  long  as  he 
tarried  at  Jerusalem  (until  about  50).  At  a  later  period,  when  at  Antioch, 
principally  from  regard  to  particular  persons,  he  relapsed  to  the  exclusively 
national  view  of  Christianity,  he  Avas  decidedly  opposed  by  Paul  (Gal.  2, 
lis.),  Avho  advocated  a  gospel  free  for  all  mankind.  In  an  apostle  so  prone 
to  extremes,  such  an  act,  Avhich  almost  seems  like  a  second  denial  of  his 
Lord,  is  no  more  incredible  on  the  ground  that  he  had  before  not  only  toler- 
ated, but  even  been  the  first  to  defend  Gentile  Christianity,  than  it  was  in 
Barnabas.  But  his  former  relation  to  Paul  appears  never  to  have  been  fully 
restored,  for  the  first  epistle  which  bears  his  name  contains  no  conclusive 
evidence  of  this,  and  in  the  memory  of  the  next  generation,  Peter  and  Paul 
Avere  at  the  head  of  opposite  parties  iu  the  Church.  According  to  testimony 
derived  from  times  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  mingled,  indeed, 
with  many  error*,  legends  and  party  statements,  but  proving  Avhat  must  hav« 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CIIUP.CII.     §  34.  PETER.     §  35.  PAKTIE3.  31 

been  the  opinion  of  the  Eoman  Church,  Peter  sufiered  crucifixion  at  Rome 
(about  C7).  (")  Jerome  is  the  first  who  informs  us  (catal.  c.  1),  that  he  at 
one  time  resided  at  Antioch,  and  afterwards  was  for  twenty-five  years  Bishof 
of  Rome.  Although  satisfactory  evidence  from  the  history  of  Paul  proves 
that  he  could  not  have  resided  for  so  long  a  time  at  Eome,  and  even  older 
traditions  show  that  he  could  have  sustained  no  particular  office  in  the  church 
of  that  place,  since  they  mention,  in  different  orders  of  succession,  Linus, 
Anacletus,  and  Clement,  as  the  first  bishops  of  Rome ;  (h)  it  is  nevertheless 
certain,  that  wherever  Peter  was,  his  personal  influence  would  always  give 
liiin  the  first  position,  unless  Paul  had  been  by  his  side.  Ilis  character  is  well 
reflected  m  the  legend  of  his  flight,  from  which  he  was  recalled  by  some 
pungent  reproof  from  the  lips  of  Christ  himself,  and  in  that  of  his  crucifixion 
with  his  head  downwards,  (f) 

§  35.  Position  of  Parties  in  the  Time  of  Paul. 
In  its  progress  among  the  heathen,  the  gospel  necessarily  appealed  entire- 
ly to  the  general  religious  spirit  which  the  apostle  to  the  Gentiles  recognized 
even  among  them,  (")  since,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  myths  which  might 
serve  as  types  of  Christ,  and  some  prophetic  announcement,  made  by  the 
Platonic  philosophy  with  which  the  apostles  were  unacquainted,  it  found  no 
promises  handed  down  fi-om  the  fathers,  and  only  the  most  obscure  expecta- 
tions. Even  after  Christianity  had  torn  itself  entirely  away  from  the  Mosaic 
law,  in  consequence  of  its  own  origin  as  well  as  of  that  of  its  principal 
teachers,  the  Jewish  element  was  still  prominent  in  the  phrases,  doctrines,  di- 
vine worship,  and  polity  of  the  Church,  and  it  was  not  remodelled  until  it 
gradually  became  affected  by  Grecian  modes  of  thought.  Jewish  and  Gen- 
tile Christianity  existed  side  by  side,  either  mutually  recognizing  or  exclud- 
ing one  another.  The  former  was  sustained  by  the  influence  of  those  who 
had  been  called  the  pillars  among  the  apostles,  and  possessed  an  external  sup- 
port in  the  necefsities  of  the  poor  saints  at  Jerusalem.  (/<)  An  internal  basis 
was  also  supplied,  by  the  concession,  that  it  was  a  duty  which  national  if  not 
religious  piet}'  required,  for  a  Jew  to  adliere  firmly  to  the  law.  Each  of  these 
forms  of  Christianity,  however,  must  finally  have  felt,  that  its  own  rights  de- 
pended upon  the  rejection  of  the  other.  It  was  therefore  always  urged  to 
adopt  the  exclusive  policy,  which  was  at  first  precipitated  by  certain  zealots 
among  tlie  Jewish  Cliristians,  perhaps  through  a  refusal  of  social  intercourse, 
or  possibly  by  the  uneasiness  created  in  the  minds  of  so?uc  Gentile  Chris- 

a)  DionysiuK  Corinth,  and  Cajus  Jiom.  in  Eufteh.  11.  ccc.  II,  25;  (The  doubtful  Icstiiiiony  of  Pa- 
plas,  ih.  II,  15;)  Tren.  Ill,  1.  3;  Tertiil.  c  Mara  IV.  5 ;— S  rtire  Til,  de  IV-lro  Itomac  mnrtyre,  non 
pontifico,  L.  n.  1710.4;  J.  G.  I/erhst,  in  d.  Tub.  QiiRrtnI.«chr.  1S20.  H.  4.  p.  SGTss. ;  on  the  other 
h.tnd,  Fr.  Spun/ieniii,  I)s.  do  tictft  profectiono  Petri  In  urbem  Komam.  (0pp.  Misi-oll.  I.ngd.  B.  1708. 
Til.  II.  P.  831«.);  Ji'iur,  in  d.  Tub.  Zt-iL^chr.  1S31.  H.  4;  C.  F.  v.  Ammon,  Forth,  d  Chr.  z.  Welt- 
rel.  Lpz.  ISIO.  vol.  IV.  p.  819ss.  h)  Emeh.  II.  ecc.  Ill,  2;  Rußni,  Praof.  ad  Rccogn.  Petri ;  even 
the  CataloguK  lAheiUinuK,  about  354.  On  the  other  hand,  the  most  recent  Cath.  assertion:  Vol- 
linger,  KGesch.  vol.  I.  Abtli.  1.  p.  C^s. ;  Wimlischintinn,  Vindiciae  Petrin.io,  Ratisb.  1S86* 
Stengldn,  in  d.  Tub.  QuartaK^^chr.  1S40.  If.  2s.;  comp.  J>aur,  z.  Literatur  d.  Pitnis-Safrc,  in  his 
Paulus,  p.  GTlss.  c)  Enxeh.  H.  ecc  III,  1;  /li'-ron.  catal.  c.  1.  On  the  other  hand:  Tertul.  de 
pracser.  c.  8G.     [.\rt,  in  Kitto'ä  .Toiiriial  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  V.] 

n)  ümn.  1,  19;  Arts  17,  2i-29.     h)  Gitl.  a  10-  I  Cor.  IC,  les. 


32  ANCIENT  CIIUUCII  HISTOUY.    rKK.  I.    UIV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  100. 

tians  with  respect  to  the  law.  (c)  If,  tliercfore,  Paul  liimsolf  npoke  somewhat 
equivocnlly  of  tlio  exorhitnnt  respect  paid  to  the  apostles  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity (2  Cor.  1_',  11.  Gal.  2,  6),  his  apostleship,  which  was  referred  to  by 
every  oi)poiiciit  .'is  destitute  of  all  external  proof  of  a  divine  call,  would  be 
barely  tolerated  by  tlio  more  liberal  portion  of  the  Jewish  Cliristians,  and  by 
the  more  intolerant  j)ortiün  would  be  po.sitively  rejected.  Jewisli  Christian 
ity  was  certainly  in  the  ascendant  in  Palestine,  and  there,  until  the  violent 
measures  used  by  Hadrian,  no  bishops  at  Jerusalem  were  chosen  except  from 
among  the  circumcision,  Avith  a  decided  preference  for  the  acquaintance  or 
kindred  of  Jesus  according  to  the  flesh.  (<7)  In  like  manner,  in  the  circle  of 
Paul's  influence.  Gentile  Christianity  alone  could  have  been  predominant ; 
and  in  proof  of  this,  an  undeniable  document  exists  in  the  epistle  to  the  Ro- 
mans, in  whicli  the  principal  idea  is  the  overwlielming  superiority  of  the 
number  of  Gentiles  in  the  Church.  It  is  not,  however,  probable,  that  after 
Paul  had  been  removed,  and  the  destruction  of  the  holy  city  seemed  like  a 
divine  judgment  against  Judaism,  any  churches  composed  of  persons  bom 
and  educated  as  Greeks  or  Eomans  would  be  persuaded  to  observe  the  Jew- 
ish law,  although  attempts  Avere  not  wanting  even  long  after  the  commence- 
ment of  the  second  century  to  form  associations,  and  exclude  members  on 
this  ground.  Accordingly,  when  we  find  that  Hegesippus  called  the  Church, 
which  had  existed  prior  to  the  death  of  the  apostles,  a  pure  virgin,  and  on 
his  way  to  Rome  found  what  he  called  the  irue  doctrine  with  the  bishops,  we 
conclude  that  he  must  have  belonged  to  that  class  of  Jewish  Christians,  which, 
after  the  example  of  the  prophets,  and  of  our  Lord  himself,  was  not  op- 
posed to  a  Gentile  Christianity,  (e)  The  church  at  Corinth,  soon  after  its  or- 
ganization, presents  a  picture  of  the  parties  formed  especially  on  these  con- 
flicting views.  One  party,  which  assumed  the  name  of  JPeter,  may  have  re- 
garded at  least  some  parts  of  the  Mosaic  law  as  still  in  force,  while  another, 
called  after  the  name  of  PrtwZ,  looked  upon  the  doctrines  advocated  by  him 
as  exclusively  Christian.  A  third  party  could  find  true  Christianity  nowhere 
so  well  presented,  as  in  the  method  of  instruction  adopted  by  the  learned 
Alexandrian,  Apollos.  A  fourth,  if  it  was  not  a  mere  branch  of  the  Petriue 
party,  maintained  that  Paul  had  never  enjoyed  the  apostolic  privilege  of  a 
direct  intercourse  with  Christ,  and  appropriated  to  itself  exclusively  the  name 
of  Christ,  because  it  rejected  all  apostolic  traditions,  and  relied  entirely  upon 
its  immediate  union  with  Christ.  (/)  Paul  did  indeed  defend  his  apostolical 
authority  against  these  various  parties,  by  whom  the  unity  of  the  Corinthian 
Church  was  not  destroyed,  but  he  did  so  only  on  the  ground  that  he  had  re- 
ceived it  from  Christ  himself.  He  did  not  deny,  that  every  church  had  a 
right  to  use,  for  its  own  edification,  the  various  gifts  of  its  religious  teachers, 
but  he  warned  them  that  every  thing  which  was  not  built  upon  Christ  was 
perishable.    He  insisted  that  the  Christian  was  a  new  man,  after  the  image 

c)  C.  Bitob,  de  abrog.  legis  Mos.  ex  Petri,  Jac.  et  Jo.  itemqiie  Ecc  ab  iisdem  coDstitutarum 
sententla.  Monte- Albano,  1S42 ;  C.  E.  Scharling,  de  Paulo  ejusquö  adversariis,  Ilaun.  1336.  d)  Eiuteb. 
IL  ecc.  IV,  5;  Sulp.  Set.  IL  sacr.  II,  31. 

e)EMeh.\l.  ecc.  in,  82.  IV,  22.  /)  1  Cor.  1,  llss.  comp.  2  Cor.  10,  1—Baur,  ü.  d.  Chris- 
tuspartei in  d.  Cor.  Gemeinde  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1S31.  P.  4.  comp.  1S36.  p.  4),  n.  Paulus,  p.  2''0ss.; 
Dan.  Schenkel,  de  Ecc.  Corinthla  priinaeva  factionibus  turb.ita,  Bas.  1S3S;  Dr.  J.  H.  GolJfujrn,  d 


CHAP.  II.     APOST.  CnUECII.    §  85.  PARTIES.    §  3C.  JOHN.  32 

of  God,  and  was  no  longer  a  Greek,  or  a  Jew,  or  a  Barbarian,  but  Christ  was  ali 
in  all,  (g)  A  new  tendency,  having  its  origin  among  Jewish  Christians,  made 
its  appearance  at  Colosse,  which  promised  its  votaries  a  mysterious  kind  of 
knowledge,  and  a  power  over  the  spiritual  world,  on  condition  that  certain 
unnatural  austerities  were  undergone.  (/()  On  the  other  hand,  Paul  main- 
tained, that  the  highest  wisdom  was  to  be  found  in  the  simple  gospel  of 
Christ,  and  that  a  Christian  had  a  rational  freedom  allowed  him  with  respect 
to  earthly  things. 

§  36.    JoJm. 

Lücke,  Vers.  e.  Vollst  Ein!.  In  d.  OfFenb.  Job.  u.  in  d.  apokal.  Lit.  Bonn.  1S32.  u.  Com.  u.  d.  Ev. 
Job.  Bonn.  ed.  8.  1S40.  vol.  I.  Einleitung ;  Baumgarten-C niMua,  Theol.  Aiisl.  d.  Job.  Scbr.  Jen. 
1S4-3.  vol.  I.  Einleitung;—^.  Frommann,  d.  Jo.  Lebrbegr.  Lps.  lS-39 ;  A'.  li.  JCdatlin,  Lcbrbcgr.  d. 
Ev.  u.  d.  Briefe  Jo.  Brl.  1S43; — G.  C.J.  Lutzelherger,  d.  Kircbl.  Tradition  ü.  d.  Ap.  Job.  in  ibrer 
Grnndlosigktit.  Lps.  1S40;  Maur,  ü.  d.  Composition  u.  d.  Charakter  d.  Job.  Ev.  {ZnUer'tt  Jabrb.  1S44. 
P.  1.  3s.);  £.  Zeller,  d.  äussern  Zcignlsse  iL  Dasein  u.  Urspr.  d.  4  Ev.  {Ihul.  1S45.  P.  A)-— J.  A.  IT. 
Khraril,  de  Ev.  Job.  u.  die  neueste  Ilypotbese  ü.  s.  Entsteh.  Zur.  1S45; — TT'  Grimm,  Job.  inErscb. 
n.  Gruber's  Enc3kl.  sect.  II.  vol.  XXII. ;  comp.  Ilasc,  Leben  Jesu.  p.  Ess.  ll'2s.  {A.  JUlgenftld,  i 
Ev.  u.  d.  Briefe  Jo.  nach  ibr.  Lehrbegr.  dargest  Halle.  1S49.] 

As  far  back  as  the  recollection  of  the  churclies  in  Anterior  Asia  extended, 
John  appears  as  the  central  point  of  interest  to  all  the  congregations  of  Asia 
Minor,  and  moving  in  the  same  scene  of  action  which  had  previou!5ly  been 
under  the  care  of  Paul  at  Ephesus.  He  is  represented  as  indignantly  con- 
tending against  erroneous  teachers,  whether  of  the  Jewish  or  Gentile  parties, 
or  as  reclaiming  by  love  those  that  were  lost,  and  binding  all  together  in  uni- 
ty, ip)  He  is  said,  by  the  legends,  to  have  been  miraculously  delivered  from 
martyrdom  at  Piome.  (h)  A  residence  in  Patmos,  which,  according  to  his  own 
narration  (Rev.  1,  9),  must  have  occurred  in  the  time  of  Galba,  was  changed 
by  popular  rumor  in  the  Church,  into  a  banishment  under  Domitian.  All 
traditions,  however,  agree  in  declaring,  that  he  attained  an  age  in  which  tlie 
heart  alone  remains  vigorous,  (c)  and  that  he  finally  fell  asleep  in  the  midst 
of  his  disciples,  in  the  reign  of  Trajan,  His  life  and  death  were  vividly  re- 
flected in  many  legendary  accounts,  the  earliest  of  which  were  noticed  by 
himself  in  his  gospel  (John  21,  22s.)  ('/)  Even  in  the  middle  of  the  centu- 
ry, he  was  the  third  among  the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  Christians.  The  book 
of  Revelations,  whose  authenticity  is  pretty  well  confirmed,  which  is  evi- 
dently conformed  to  Jewish  types  and.  imagery,  and  must  have  been  com- 
posed prior  to  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  manifestly  corresponds  to  such 
a  position.  In  that  book,  the  chosen  first-fruits  around  the  throne  of  the 
Lamb  belonged  exclusively  to  the  twelve  tribes,  but  beyond  these  were  an 
innumerable  company  from  among  the  Gentiles,  with  palms  and  white  robes, 
praising  also  the  Lamb  that  had  been  slain.  {<)  The  natural  progress  of  a 
thoughtful  man,  as  it  is  evident  the  author  of  the  fourth  gospel  was,  and  as 

Cbristnspart  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1S40.  P.  2);  Dähne,  dio  Christuspart.  Hal.  1841;  T.  F.  Knieicd, 
Ecc.  Cor.  vctust.  dlssensiones.  Gedan.  1812.  4.  g)  1  Cor.  3;  Col.  3, 10s.  h)  Col.  2;—Sc7ineclienhur' 
Oer,  Ü.  d.  Irrlebrcr  zu  Col.  (anbang  z.  8<-br.  ü.  d.  Prosely  ten  taufe.  Brl.  1S23.  u.  Beitr.  z.  Einl.  N.  14) ; 
Jlheinirald,  de  pseudodoctorib.  Coloss.  Vcron.  Rlicn.  1S34.  4. 

«)  Euseh.  H.  ecc.  V,  24.  Ill,  2.3.     h)  Terittl.  do  pracscr.  c.  30.    c)  Ilieron.  in  Ep.  ad  Gal.  6.    f?)^»«- 
(7M«tm«.  dc  Trin.  VI,  89 ;  Pxeudo-nippohjt.  (\<s  consuinmat.  inundi  (llijip.  0pp.  ed.  Fabr.  Apper.d. 
J.  M);  com) .  Fabricii,  Cod.  Apoc.  Tb.  II.  p.  OSS.    e)  liei:  7,  4-10.  comp.  Jo.  4,  22. 
3 


34  ANCIKNT  CIIi:i£(  II  HISToKV.     I'ER.  I.     DIV.  I.     TIIJ.  A.  D.  Ufl. 

one  80  specially  beloved  of  tlio  I-ord  must  liavc  been,  duririp  a  jieriod  exten 
sivc  as  tliat  of  an  ordinary  t,'eneration,  and  spent  ainong  clmrelies  wliich  had 
enjoyed  Greek  culture  and  the  labors  of  Paul,  will  sufficiently  account  fur 
any  apparent  discrepancies,  or  tokens  of  advancement,  which  one  may  notice 
in  passing  from  tbo  Rcveiations  to  the  Gospel  and  the  first  epistle  of  John. 
In  these  later  productions,  the  same  spiritual  and  comprehensive  views  of 
Christianity  i)rcvail,  which  arc  so  manifest  in  the  epistles  of  Paul,  but  they 
seem  to  indicate  tliat  the  mental  conflicts  of  the  writer  had  passed  away. 
This  gospel,  moreover,  seems  to  appeal  not  so  much  to  a  spirit  conscious  of 
sin,  and  specially  feeling  its  need  of  salvation,  as  to  something  exalted  in  the 
existing  nature  of  man,  and  its  aspirations  after  perfection,  Christianity, 
therefore,  appears  there  to  consist  not  so  much  in  mere  faith  in  the  mercy  of 
God^Iirough  Christ,  as  more  immediately  in  love,  and  in  the  union  of  the 
divine  and  human  in  the  heart,  Avliich  was  comi)lete  in  Christ,  and  is  de- 
signed for  our  race.  The  incarnate  Logos  is  a  borrowed  symbol  of  this  uni- 
ty, partially  indicated  before  in  the  epistles  of  Paul,  (/)  but  presented  in  the 
gospel  in  a  dogmatic  form.  It  there  appears  as  a  celestial  being  not  belong- 
ing to  our  race,  but  taking  the  place  of  beloved  man,  although,  in  conse- 
quence of  personal  recollections  of  Jesus,  it  is  pervaded  by  historical  facts  of 
the  most  perfect  human  character.  The  love  which  John  inculcated,  is  pow- 
erful enougli  to  conquer  death,  and  penetrate  through  all  obstacles  up  to  God. 
The  most  flourishing  form  of  Christianity,  in  past  or  future  times,  is  here 
partially  presented.  It  consists  in  a  life,  even  on  earth,  of  tranquil,  unbro- 
ken, and  everlasting  rest  in  God,  in  which  all  apparent  schism  between  the 
prgisent  and  the  future,  the  human  and  the  divine,  has  been  overcome. 

§  37.  Parties  in,  the  Time  of  John. 

The  eame  subjects  Avhich  were  destined  to  agitate  the  Church  in  future 
ages,  began  already  to  bo  discussed  among  opposing  parties.  The  various 
views  and  sects  which  had  formerly  prevailed  among  the  Jews,  were  certain- 
ly carried  forward  in  the  very  commencement,  so  as  to  produce  similar  vari- 
eties among  Jewish  Christians,  Even  the  different  conceptions  which  were 
then  entertained  of  Jesus,  had  their  origin  in  the  national  expectations  of 
the  Jews  respecting  their  Messiah,  But  as  every  account  we  have  of  them 
belongs  to  a  later  age,  it  may  be  that  the  first  power  of  Christian  love,  com- 
bined with  the  external  influence  of  Gentile  Christians,  was  then  sufiicient  to 
hold  together  even  opposing  elements.  The  feelings  of  bitterness  which,  ac- 
coi-ding  to  the  prominent  recollections  of  the  Church  in  the  next  century,  the 
apostle  John  entertained  toward  Ccrinthus,  vrere  too  peculiar  to  have  been 
awakened  by  the  existence  of  any  thing  in  the  latter  of  a  merely  Jewish 

/)  The  passage  in  1  Cor.  8, 6. 15, 47.  cannot  be  explained  away ;  hence  the  more  distinct  and  prominent 
reference?  to  a  Son  of  God  who  existed  before  tlie  world,  and  created  it,  whicli  are  found  in  the  Epp.  to 
Ihc  Colossians.  Ephesians  and  Pliilippisins,  form  no  ground  for  suspecting  the  genuineness  of  thoee 
writings.  Although  all  views  not  merely  accidental  must  have  their  appnipriate  time  of  develop- 
ment, the  Jewish  notions  of  the  Messiah  and  the  Alex.indrian  doctrine  of  the  Logos  were  so  pre- 
»iljusted  to  one  another,  that  they  might  easily  bo  supposed  to  have  been  all  combined  together 
[n  3  single  night. 


CHAP.  IL     APOST.  Ciirncil.    §  3:.  GEEIXTUU?.    §  33.  TRADITIONS.  35 

character.  Qi)  On  the  supposition  that  this  Cerinthus  taught,  as  he  is  said, 
especially  in  Roman  and  Alexandrian  accounts,  to  have  done,  that  a  millen- 
nial kingdom  of  the  most  sensuous  nature  was  to  be  expected,  that  the  ob- 
servance of  the  law  was  indispensable  to  salvation,  and  that  the  origin  of 
Jesus  was  merely  human,  (b)  such  views  were  at  that  time  l>y  no  means  tin- 
common.  If,  as  Irenaeus  declares,  he  regarded  the  Creator  of  the  world  as 
an  inferior  being,  so  that  the  Most  High  God  was  not  revealed  until  he  ap- 
peared through  Christ  as  a  superior  being,  in  connection  with  the  man 
Jesus,  from  the  time  of  the  baptism  till  the  crucifixion,  (c)  he  must,  like  John 
himself,  have  meant  that  the  law  was  only  intended  for  the  development  of 
the  kingdom,  and  that  the  sensuous  glory  of  that  kingdom  was  merely  alle- 
gorical. (iT)  In  conformity  with  his  Alexandrian  education,  he  regarded  the 
Creator  of  the  world  as  an  intermediate  divine  being,  in  the  service  of  the 
supreme  celestial  Deity,  (c)  Those  who  looked  upon  matter  as  essentially 
evil,  in  accordance  with  a  doctrine  springing  from  an  overwrought  Platon- 
ism,  or  from  Hindoo  speculations,  and  certainly  prevalent  in  Alexandria,  must 
have  been  offended  at  the  idea  of  a  revelation  of  Deity  through  sensible  ob- 
jects. Accordingly,  the  various  forms  of  Docetism  agreed  in  declaring,  that 
every  thing  corporeal  in  Christ  was  only  in  appearance,  and  for  the  manifes- 
tation of  the  Spirit,  and  that  his  life  was  merely  a  continual  Theophany.  It 
was  against  the  subtilizing  process  which  this  view  rendered  necessary  with 
respect  to  the  evangelical  history,  that  testimony  was  borne  probably  even  in 
the  epistles  of  John,  and  certainly  in  those  which  bear  the  name  of  Igna- 
tius. (/)  The  Xicolaitans^  whose  name  was  doubtless  symbolical,  and  founded 
upon  traditional  recollections,  were  merely  the  first  representatives  of  a  large 
class  of  thinkers  in  subsequent  times,  who  abused  the  spiritual  superiority  of 
Christianity  to  all  corporeal  objects,  to  give  countenance  to  the  Greek  frivol- 
ity with  respect  to  the  relations  of  the  sexes,  (g) 

§  38.  Traditions  respecting  the  Apostles. 
The  stories  which  have  been  related  with  regard  to  a  division  of  the 
world  by  lot  among  the  apostles,  of  the  composition  of  a  creed  in  Jerusalem 
at  the  time  of  their  separation  twelve  years  after  the  Ascension,  of  their 
celibacy  or  continence,  and  of  their  martyrdom,  belong  to  the  legends  of  tho 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  According  to  earUer  traditions,  which,  however, 
present  no  individuality  of  character,  Thomas  went  to  Parthia,  Andrew  to 
Scythia,  ('/)  Bartholomew  to  India,  (J)  and  Philip  died  at  Ilierapolis,  in  Phry- 
gia.  In  one  of  the  most  copious,  a  story  is  told,  and  higlily  embellished,  of 
a  mission  of  Thaddens  to  Abgarus,  prince  of  Edessa,  in  consequence  of  an 
earlier  correspondence  between  Jesus  and  that  prince.  ('•) 

a)  Iren.  Ill,  S;—Sc7imidt^  Cerinth  e.  judais.  Clirlst.  In  s.  Bibl.  f.  Kritik,  u.  E.x.  vol.  L  p.  ISls-s.; 
PaHlux,  Hist  Ccr.  (Introd.  in  N.  T.  cap.  seloctiora.  Jon.  1799);  comp.  Saiir,  Clir.  Gnosis.  Tub.  1S35. 
p.  IIT.  4n.3ss.  h)  Kweh.  II.  ecc.  HI,  2S;  Epiph.  Iint-r.  23.  o)  /;•<«,  I,  26.  d)  fren.  V,  H3.  e)  Tke- 
oiloret  Ilacrot.  fiibb.  II,  8:  Iren.  I,  26.  /)  1  Jo.  1,  1-3;  4,  2s. ;  2  Jo.  7;  Ignatim  ad  Ej>hes.  c,  7.  18. 
id  J^myrn.  c.  1-8 :— .1  //.  XUmt-ijer,  de  Dooeti?.  Ilnl.  1S23.  4.  0)  fltr-  2,  6. 14s». ;  2  Pet.  2,  lö ;  Jud.  11, 
UKac  rbv  AooV,  C?  ybs  ,  comp.  Ireit.  1,  26;  Clew.  Strom.  II.  p.  490& ;  III.  p.  ö-22s. ;— -VSre- 
tvher,  Vermutli.  0.  d.  Nikolailcn  (Gablcr's  Jonrn.  f.  Tlieol.  Lit.  1608.  vol.  V.  p.  17ss.);  £uMld_  ia 
Apooal.  .Id.  p.  110;  Gßörer,  Gesch.  d.  Urchr.  I,  2.  p.  4(i2ss. 

a)  EtiseK  II.  cce.  Ill,  1.    h)  n,Ul.  V,  10.     c)  JbUl.  I,  13;  K.  //««<',  Leben  Jesu  p.  11«. 


SG  ANCIKNT  CIIUllCI!  III.STORY.     I'KR.  I.     DIV.  I.    TILL  A.  I).  100. 

§  39.     ApoxtoUcal  Fathers  of  the  First  C'cnturij. 

Putrutn  qui  tcrnporlbiis  npostolnrum  flnrncrunt,  0pp.  cd.  Coteleriun.  Par.  1G72.  rep.  Clericni, 
Anist  (109S.)  1724.  2  Tli.  f. ;  rntrum  npp.  0pp.  cd.  Itusel,  Lond.  1706.  2  Th. ;  Patrum  npp.  0pp.  c-(L 
Ueffle.  Tub.  (1*».  1S43.)  'JS47.  [A.  JIutler,  Lives  of  tlio  Father»,  Mart>T.s,  4:c  Lond.  1833.  2  vols.  8, 
K.  BhkeratcVi,  Tlie  Chr.  Fathers  of  tho  First  and  Second  Centuries.  Lond.  1S45.  12;  Ahp.  Wake, 
Ap.  Fathei-8.  Lond.  1S17.  S.]—I/ei/ns,  Junius  et  van  Gllse,  CommcntL  de  Patrum  app.  doctrlna  mo- 
rail.  Lugd.  183.3.  4.     [Ilifffer/ekl,  d.  Erforschungen  ü.  d.  Schrr.  A  p.  Väter.  Kerl.  ISM.  8.] 

When  the  contemporaries  and  disciples  of  the  apostles  left  behind  them 
any  writing.^,  they  were  distinguished  by  the  ancient  Church  as  apostolic 
fathers.  The  genuineness  of  their  writings  cannot  be  perfectly  maintained, 
especially  against  the  suspicion  of  having  been  revised  in  later  times.  They 
resemble  the  writings  of  the  apostles  not  so  much  in  their  distinct  and  intel- 
lectual peculiarities,  as  in  their  general  conception  of  Christianity,  witliout 
doctrinal  precision  or  references  to  Grecian  learning.  The  epistle  of  Larna- 
las  treats  of  the  relation  of  Christianity  to  Judaism,  in  the  manner  of  the 
epistle  to  the  Hebrev,'s,  with  an  allusion  to  the  temple  of  Jerusalem  as  if  it 
were  already  destroyed.  In  spite  of  the  powerful  historical  proofs  we  pos- 
sess of  the  genuineness  of  the  epistle,  the  insipid  spirit  and  the  stupid  arbi- 
trariness of  its  allegorical  explanations,  continually  suggest  doubts  whether  it 
could  be  the  production  of  a  man  once  regarded  as  the  equal  of  Paul,  {n) 
The  epistle  of  Clemens  Eomaniis  (Phü.  4,  3)  to  the  Corinthians,  was  intend- 
ed to  eflfect  a  reconciliation  between  the  parties  which  had  been  organized 
among  them.  It  inculcates  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith,  but,  in  the 
spirit  of  Paul,  it  exhorts  all  to  adorn  themselves  also  with  good  works.  Tlie  se- 
cond epistle  which  bears  the  name  of  the  same  writer,  is  generally  of  a  devo- 
tional character,  but  it  is  a  mere  fragment,  and  of  a  very  doubtfid  authenticity. 
The  Shepherd  of  Eermas  is  a  strenuous  exhortation  to  morality,  enforced  by 
the  prospect  of  the  second  advent  of  Christ.  It  is  in  the  form  of  direct  rev- 
elations from  God,  and  visions  of  angels.  In  the  manner  of  Jewish  Chris- 
tians, it  displays  great  confidence  in  the  holiness  of  good  works,  but  contains 
evidence  that  baptism  had  already  taken  the  place  of  circumcision.  The  in- 
dividual Avhose  composition  it  professes  to  be,  is  unknown,  but  the  general 
use  made  of  it  in  the  churches  of  tho  second  century,  for  devotional  reading, 
indicates  that  he  must  have  been  an  apostolical  personage.  {I) 

§  40.     Political  Oc  er  throw  of  Judaism. 
Josephi  de  bello  Jud.  L  VIL ;    Tiuiii,   Hist.   V,  1-13. 

The  obstinacy  of  the  Jewish  nation  may  have  required  unusual  severity 
on  the  part  of  the  Romans,  but  the  extreme  violence  of  the  procurator  Gcs- 

a)  In  favor  of  its  genuineness :  K  Uenke,  de  Epistolae  quae  Barn,  tribuitur,  authentia.  Jen.  Ii27 ; 
Jiördam,<\&  auth.  Ep.  B.  Ilafn.  1S23;  JIaverkorn  van  Byieinjk,  de  B.  Arnheni.  IS».  On  the 
other  side:  UUmaiin,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S28.  P.  2;  Zug.  in  d.  Zeitschr.  f.  d.  Erzbl=th.  Freyb.  P. 
2s, ;  ir^ele,  d.  Sendschr.  d.  Ap.  B.  untersucht,  überseUt  u.  erklärt  Tub.  1S40;— /).  Schenkel  (Stud, 
n.  Krit  1S37.  H.  3.)  contends  for  the  interpolation  of  c  7-12.  15.  16.  by  some  Ther."»pentic  Jewish 
Christians;  Jleberle,  in  d.  Stud.  d.  Geistl.  Würtemb.  1S46.  P.  1.  Chap.  16  seems  to  refer  to  the 
Temple  of  Aelia  Capltolina.  J)  Eom.  16, 14.  'O  iroi^rjr-  Pastor.  Lat  translation  and  Greek  Frag- 
ments;—Cmfa,  Disqq.  in  Pastorem  Ilermac.  P.  L  Bonn.  1820.  4;  Jachmann,  d.  Hirte  dos  Ilermaa 
Konigsb.  1S35. 


CHAP.  IL    APOST.  CHUECn.    §  40.  JERUSALEM.    §  41.  fMPEEOKS.  37 

iius  Florm  (after  64),  could  find  no  palliation  except  in  the  insurrections  to 
which  he  had  driven  the  people.  They  had  entered  upon  the  war  (G6),  not 
so  much  in  the  hope  of  victory,  as  in  despair  of  all  earthly  peace.  Legions 
had  fallen  in  the  mountains  of  Judea,  when  VesjKCsian  (after  67),  and  after 
his  elevation  to  the  imperial  throne,  the  Cajsar  Titus  (70),  arrayed  the  whole 
power  of  the  empire  against  Jerusalem.  The  Christian  churches,  remember- 
ing the  prophecy  which  Jesus  had  left  them,  abandoned  their  native  land, 
and  betook  themselves  to  PeUa,  on  the  other  side  of  Jordan.  Though  famine 
and  civil  war  raged  in  Jerusalem,  every  otFer  of  mercy  connected  with  the 
condition  of  renewed  servitude  was  scornfully  rejected,  and  the  holy  city 
was  at  last  destroyed  in  a  sublime  death-struggle  against  the  whole  power  of 
the  Roman  world. 

§  4:1.     Tlie  Roman  Civil  Power. 

[71  Arnold,  Later  Eoman  Commonwealth.  New  York.  1S46.  3  vols.  8.] 

It  was  the  policy  of  the  Roman  government  to  permit  all  nations  under 
its  yoke  to  retain  their  own  gods,  but  some  very  ancient  laws,  forbidding  any 
Roman  citizen  to  worship  divinities  not  recognized  by  the  State,  and  any 
conquered  nation  to  propagate  their  religion  in  other  parts  of  the  Empire, 
were  still  in  existence.  («)  Hence,  the  more  Christianity  disconnected  itself 
from  Judaism,  the  more  it  lost  the  right  of  toleration  conceded  to  every 
national  religion,  and  by  its  efltbrts  to  make  spiritual  conquests  it  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  laws.  In  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  however,  so  strong  were 
the  inclinations  of  the  people  toward  foreign  religions,  and  so  numerous  the 
admissions  of  foreigners  to  the  rights  of  citizenship,  that  these  laws  had  be- 
come nearly  obsolete,  and  could  be  restored  to  their  authority  only  by  special 
acts  of  power,  (h)  There  is  no  other  authority  for  believing  that  Tiberius 
ever  adopted  Christ  as  one  of  his  household  gods,  but  the  legends  of  the 
second  century,  (c)  Under  Claudius^  Christians  were  expelled  from  Rome  (-53) 
merely  as  Jews,  (d)  J^ero  (64)  transferred  to  the  Christians  the  guilt  of  his  own 
incendiary  conduct,  and  caused  all  who  could  be  found  in  the  city  to  be  put 
to  death,  for  although  they  were  generally  regarded  as  innocent  of  the  crime 
imputed  to  them,  they  were  condemned  as  enemies  of  the  human  race.  (<) 
Under  Domitian  (81-96)  the  charge  of  Christianity  was  used  as  a  pretext,  by 
Avhich  persons  might  be  convicted  of  a  kind  of  high  treason,  that  so  their 
property  might  be  confiscated,  and  themselves  banished  or  executed.  Flavins 
Clemens,  a  man  of  consular  dignity,  and  belonging  to  the  imperial  family,  was 
put  to  death,  and  his  wife  Domitilla  was  banished  to  an  island,  according  to 
Roman  accounts  for  contempt  of  the  gods,  and  giving  tliemselves  up  to  Jew- 
ish practices,  but  according  to  Christian  views  as  martyrs  for  the  truth.  (/) 
Some  persons  arraigned  before  the  emperor,  on  account  of  their  connection, 
by  birth,  with  Jesus,  were  dismissed  without  molestation,  as  harmless  peas- 


«)  Cicero  de  legib.  II,  8.    h)  Fr.  W<dch,  do  Romanorum  in  tolerandis  divcrsis  religlonibus  dis- 
eiplina  publica.    (Nov.  Commcntt.  Soc.  Reg.  Goctt  17*3.  vol  IIL)    f)  Terttd.  Apologet  c.  5.  21. 
In  favor  of  it;  Iiiaun,<Xe  Tiberii  Christum  in  dcorum   nnmerum  rcforendi  consilio,  Bonn.  ISat. 
d)  Sueton,  Cliuid.  c.  25;  Amnion,  Vs.  in  Suet.  Claud,  c.  25.  Erl.  ISIO.  4.    e^   Tucili  Ann.  XV,  44 
ÄU€ton.  Nero,  c.  10.   /)  Siieion.  Dom.  c.  15;  Dio  Ca.nius  (Epit.  Xiphilini),  LXVU,  14;  Eitgtb. 


38  AXCIKNT  ClItTRClI  lIISTOr.T.     PKR.  I.     BIV.  I.    TILL  A.  T>.    100. 

ants.  ((/)  Xrrra  (96-98)  forbudo  tliat  any  one  should  Ijo  accused  for  being  a 
Christian,  in  tho  midst  of  these  persecutions,  Cliristians  made  no  resistance 
further  than  individually  to  assert  their  innocence,  and  then  silently  resign 
themselves  to  their  fate,  (A)  Near  tho  close  of  the  first  century  churches 
were  to  ho  found  in  all  tho  principal  cities  of  tho  Eastern  empire,  but  in  the 
West  there  are  no  distinct  traces  of  them,  out  of  Italy.  The  first  converts 
wcro  principally  slaves,  laborers,  and  ■vvomon,  but  so  numerous  were  they, 
tliat  even  then  it  is  said,  tho  temples  of  Asia  Minor  were  deserted,  and  flesb 
which  had  been  otiered  to  idols  could  find  no  sale. 

§  42.     Constitution  of  the  Local  Churches. 

C.  M.  Pfiiff,  do  originib.  juris  ecc.  Tub.  1719.  etl.  -i.  Ulm.  1750.  4  {Greiling)  Urvert  d.  »post- 
Chrlstengem.  Halbrst  1S19;  Bretschneider,  die  Verf.  z.  Z.  d.  App.  reprncsentaiiv-demokr.  o.  aristo • 
kratisch?  {A.  K.  Zeitung.  1S83.  N.  lOSss.  u.  Kirchl.  polit  Zeitfragen.  Lpz.  1&47.  p.  Ms.«.);  7?.  liothe, 
die  Anfänge  d.  chr.  K.  u.  ilirer  Verf.  Witt  1S37. 1  vol. ;  A.  Petersen,  die  Idee.  d.  cbr.  K.  Lpz.  1S.39- 
46.  .3  Tb. ;  [J.  E.  Riddle,  Manual  of  Cbr.  Antt  Lond.  1S40.  ?,;  J.  P.  WilMn,  Prim.Gov.  of  Cbr. 
Cburcbes.  Philad.  1S33.  12;  A.  Keander,  Planting  it  Training,  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  E.  Kyland. 
Pbilad.  1844  S.  L.  Coleman,  The  Apostol.  &  Prim.  Church,  ic.  Pbilad.  1S45.  12;  A.  Barnen,  In- 
quiry into  the  Orig.  &  Gov.  of  Ap.  Church.  Pbilad.  1S43.  12;  R.  Whately,  The  Kingdom  of  Chiist. 
New  York.  1S42.  12 ;  J.  L.  Monheim,  Commentt.  on  the  Affairs  of  Christians  before  Const,  transl. 
from  Germ,  by  Yidal.  Lond.  1813.  3  vols.  8;  J.  Bingham,  Origines  F.cclcsiasticae,  transl.  from  Lat. 
Lond.  1852.  3  vols.  S;  P.  King,  Const,  of  Prim.  Clmrch.  Lond.  1719.  8;  W.  Sclater,  Orig.  Draught  of 
Prim.  Church.  Lond.  1727.  8;  iV.  Bangs,  Orig.  Church  of  Christ.  New  York.  1587.  2  ed.  8.] 

The  separate  existence  of  the  Christian  Church  was  effected  quite  as  much 
by  the  daily  religious  assemblies  of  the  disciples  at  Jerusalem,  as  by  their 
partial  exclusion  from  the  synagogues.  The  Twelve  Ajyostlcs  at  first  regarded 
themselves  as  a  perfected  or  exclusive  College  for  the  establishment  of  Chi-is- 
tianity  in  the  world.  They  had  been  the  special  companions  of  the  Lord, 
and  were  now  the  principal  vouchers  for  the  evangelical  traditions.  They 
therefore  exercised  an  undisputed  authority  over  the  Church,  shared  however 
in  a  short  time  with  others,  who  became  distinguished  for  their  spiritual  gifts 
as  apostles  and  founders  of  churches.  Xext  to  them  in  rank  were  the  EkcuX' 
gelists,  a  class  of  travelling  preachers,  sometimes  also  called,  in  the  more  ex- 
tensive sense  of  the  term,  apostles.  The  Prophet  ia  was  the  gift  granted  to 
many  persons  at  that  time,  by  which  they  were  enabled  to  speak  in  an  in- 
spired, enraptured  manner  of  discourse.  In  the  case  of  Agabus,  hojvever, 
we  have  a  specimen  of  a  class  of  soothsayers  who  only  faintly  resembled  an- 
other, then  for  ever  gone.  («•)  The  actual  officers  of  the  local  churches  were 
chosen  as  circumstances  called  for  them,  after  the  model  of  the  synagogue. 
aiders  (TTpeaßvTepoi,  C^rir-t)  were  appointed  to  preside,  and  preserve  order  in 
the  church,  and  Deacons  {SiaKovoi),  to  take  charge  of  the  poor,  and  to  assist 
in  every  effort  for  the  common  good,  (b)  The  Elders  were  sometimes  called 
by  the  unassuming  name  of  Overseers  (iTTio-Konoi),  an  appellation  more  con- 
sonant with  Grecian  customs,  and  first  adopted  in  Grecian  congregations. 


Chron.  II.  ad  Olymp.  218 ;  Rieron.  ep.  86.  (al.  27.)  cf.  Phil.  4,  22.  g)  Ettseb.  Hist.  ecc.  Ill,  15.  h)  Or 
thä  other  band:  ÄVs^n^r,  die  Agape  o.  d.  gtbeime  Weltbund  der  Christen  von  Kleuiens  ia  P.oia 
outer  Domitian  gestiftet.  Jena.  1S19. 

cJ)  AcU  11,  2S.  21, 10s.      I)  Acts  6, 1-10. 


CHAP.  II.    APOST.  CHURCH.    §  42.  CONSTITUTION.    §  4-3.  LIFE.  39 

Both  titles  were  as  jet  used  indiscriminately,  although  in  consequence  of  the 
personal  intluence  of  some  ■who  presided  in  the  churches,  especially  of  Jeru- 
Balem,  the  way  may  have  been  prepared  even  then,  for  the  distinction  which 
became  so  decided  and  general  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  next  century,  (r) 
The  officers  of  each  church  were  chosen  by  the  people,  or  with  the  consent 
of  the  people  were  installed  over  them  by  those  who  organized  them  into  a 
church.     Although  the  office  of  a  public  teacher  must  have  seemed  most  im- 
portant,  and   the  necessity   of  well  qualified  instructors  must  have  been 
urgent,  (d)  it  does  not  appear  that  any  persons  were  at  first  set  apart,  exclu- 
sively for  that  duty,  (e)  and  every  thing  like  a  hierarchy  was  excluded  by 
the  universal  acknowledgment  that  all  believers  were  members  of  a  general 
priesthood.  (/)    It  was  looked  upon  as  a  matter  of  conscience,  that  all  civil 
suits  should  be  settled  by  arbitrators  selected  from  the  church  itself,  (g)    After   ( 
the  excitement  of  the  first  establishment  of  the  church  had  subsided,  icomeii 
once  more  returned  to  a  silent  submission  to  the  Avord  of  God,  and  to  the    ' 
performance  of  their  proper  duties  in  the  domestic  circle.     But  in  addition 
to  the  Deaconesses^  who  were  employed  in  charitable  offices  among  the  women,    ) 
there  were  probably,  even  then,  some  female  preslyters  or  icidoics^  for  the 
supervision  and  instruction  of  the  younger  persons  of  their  own  sex.  (A)  / 
Every  one  who  applied  for  admission  to  the  Church  was  immediately  re- 
ceived, but  those  who  were  subsequently  found  guilty  of  gross  offences  were 
excluded  by  the  action  of  the  congregation.    In  the  management  of  its  pub- 
lic affairs  each  congregation  was  an  independent  society,  but  by  spiritual  fel- ' 
lowship,  and  the  influence  of  distinguished  travelling  teachers,  all  the  con-  ^ 
gregations  were  so  connected  together,  as  collectively  to  form  one  great  king- 
dom of  God,  of  which  even  in  the  time  of  Paul,  Jerusalem  was  regarded  as    \ 
the  centre.     The  supreme  law  was  love,  and  the  sovereign  power  was  exer- 
cised by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

§  43.     Ecclesiastical  Life. 

Arnold,  erst«  Liebe  cL  i.  wahre  Abbildung  d.  ersten  Christen.  Frnkf.  1696.  f.  &  oft. :  Stickel  et 
Bogeiihar'J,  Biga  commeott  de  niorali  jirimaevoruin  Christianorum  conditione,  Neost  ad  0.  1S26. 

As  the  Church  at  Jerusalem  grew  up  out  of  the  original  company  of  the 
apostles,  the  common  fund  which  had  existed  in  the  latter,  suggested  the 
bold  thought  of  a  community  of  goods.  Although  such  a  project  was  much 
facilitated  by  the  enthusiastic  brotherly  love  then  prevalent,  and  an  expecta- 
tion that  all  existing  relations  were  soon  to  be  overthrown,  it  was  never  com- 
pletely carried  out,  and  this  congregation  was  soon  in  need  of  the  charities 
of  Oliristians  in  foreign  countries,  (a)  A  hypocritical  vanity  which  occurred 
in  a  form  not  very  uncommon  in  religious  circles,  was  visited  with  a  terrible 

c)  Cic.  ad  Attic.  VII,  11;  Acte  20,  17.  2S;  P/dl.  1,  1 ;  1  Pet.  5,  Is.;  Clem.  Jlom.  ad  Cor. 
c.  42.  44;  Ifenrnte  Past.  L  2.  A\— Blonde!,  Apologia  pro  sententia  Ilier.  do  Episc.  Anist  1616.4; 
Cahler,  do  E[>iscopls  primae  ecc.  Jen.  1SÜ5.  4.    d)  Acts  6,  2;—/.  Tim.  8,  2.  5, 17;  //  Tim.  2,  24. 

e)  Forhiger,  Ds.  de    iniincrib.   ecc,  tempore   App.   Lps.  1776.  4;    Gabler,  examinatur  Forbi- 
geri  sent,  de  Prosb.  Jen.  1S12.  4.  2  Pgg.   /)  /.  Pet.  2,  9.  5,  3,  cf.  Rom.  12,  1.  g)  I.  Cor.  6,  1-S. 
cf.  Matt.  IS,  l.'Jss.    ;0  Acts  2.  17.  21,  0.— A'om.  IG,  \.—  Tit.  2,  3;  7.  Tim.  5,  0;  Cone.  Land.  can.  11 
{ifawii,  Til.  II.  p.  E66).— //i/sc,  .Strc-it-^clirr.  P.  2,  p.  ;3.5<s. 

a)  Acts  4,  32sa  cf.  12, 12. — Musheim,  de  vera  natura  coinuiuiiionis  bonorum  in  Eco.  lliur.  (D.^xa 


40  ANCIENT  CimilCII  IIISTOnV.     PKK.  I.     I»IV.  I.    TILL  A.  D.  tOO. 

(livilio  retribution.  (//)     Tlic  ordinary  mode  of  life  in  each  ooiif,'ref,Mtion  pre- 
soritoil  ninny  points   of  coinpariflon  with    that  wliieh   existed    among   the 
Essenes.  (c)     Christians  regarded  themselves,  in  contrast  witli  the  world,  as 
the  consecrated  people  of  God.    Every  intellectual  faculty,  according  to  its 
peculiar  nature,  Avas  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  when 
exalted  by  the  common  sjiirit  of  the  Church,  was  looked  npon  as  a  gracious 
"•ift  of  the  Holy  Gliost.     Hence,  while  there  were  many  gifts,  there  was  but 
one  Spirit.     Tlio  most  remarkable  of  these  gifts  was  the  power  of  miracu- 
lously healing  the  sick,  at  first  more  especially  exercised  by  Peter,  but  after- 
wards supposed  to  be  a  permanent  possession  of  the  Church.     The  Holy 
Ghost  was  regarded  as  the  common  spirit  of  the  whole  Church,  proceeding 
directly  from  Christ,  awakening  and  appropriating  to  its  use  the  sacred  en- 
thusiasm of  each  individual.     The  external  manifestations  of  this  spirit  were 
sometimes  genuine  exhibitions  of  divine  power,  but  were  sometimes  con- 
founded with  the  fanatical  irruptions  of  a  high  religious  excitemem,  nnd  in 
all  cases  were  regarded  as  fulfilments  of  a  prophetic  metaphor  of  ilcssianic 
prophecy.  ((T)    The  sincere  piety  which  generally  prevailed,  however,  did  no* 
always  prevent  the  pride  which  flatters  itself  on  account  of  its  external  sei 
vices,  nor  did  the  extraordinary  brotherly  love  which  the  great  body  ot 
Christians  exhibited,  entirely  suppress  some  manifestations  of  envy  and  party 
spirit.     When  persecution  was  expected,  it  was  not  uncommon  for  some 
among  the  Jewish  Christians  to  save  themselves  by  apostacy,  and  among  the 
Gentile  portion  of  the  Church  sins  were  sometimes  committed  which  were 
regarded  as  unpardonable,  (e)    Even  when  Christian  morality  had  been  in- 
fluenced by  Jewish  views  of  personal  purity,  it  had  much  to  contend  with  in 
the  sensuality  of  the  Greeks.     Fastings  and  abstinences,  which  had  been  re- 
garded from  a  period  of  great  antiquity,  as  conducive  to  a  pious  disposition, 
together  with  some  festivals,  were  very  soon  introduced  into  the  Christian 
Church.     Paul,  it  is  true,  rejected  them  when  any  attempted  to  enforce  them 
as  a  matter  of  legal  obligation,  or  of  personal  merit,  but  he  looked  upon  vir- 
ginity as  a  very  desirable  condition,  and  expressed  an  inferior  regard  for  the 
married  state.  (/)     No  change  was  required  in  the  social  relations  of  life,  but 
they  were  exalted  by  higher  motives  and  principles,  (g)     All  hope  of  an 
earthly  theocracy  was  apparently  destroyed  by  the  death  of  Jesus,  but  Chris- 
tians generally  believed  that  Christ  was  to  return  to  the  world  a  second  time, 
and  many  indulged  the  .hope  that  they  would  live  to  witness  his  advent.    This 
faith  gave  birth  to  the  boldest  expectations,  partaking  generally  of  a  sensuous 
character,  and  while  it  seemed  a  national  necessity,  and  a  religious  consola- 
tion to  the  Jewish,  it  Avas  a  source  of  anxiety  and  perplexity  to  the  Grecian 
congregations.  (A) 

§  44.     Afodc  of  Worship. 
The  devotional  exercises  of  the  Christian  assemblies,  like  those  of  the 
Jewish  synagogues,  consisted  principally  of  prayers,  singing  of  hymns,  and 

— , 

»d  n.  ecc  Altou.  1743.  Th.  XL)  6)  Acts  5, 1-11.  c)  Comp.  Gß-örer,  Gesch.  d.  Urclir.  III.  p.  855ss. 
<f)  Act^.  15-lS;  T.  Cor.  12,  4.  14,  Iss.  e)  Heb.  6.  4<s.  10,  25ss.— /.  Jo.  5,  16.  /)  /.  Cor.  7,  Is.  S2si 
(7)  Ep.  ad  Philemon.  7i)  After  the  Apoc.ilypse,  M^itlA.  IC,  2S ;  /.  Cor.  15,  52 :  P/iil.  4,  6;  ITeb.  10, 37  , 
/.  Jo.  2,  IS ;  James  5,  S ;  /.  Pet.  4,  5.— 7/.  T/ies».  2. 


ciiAP.  II.  APOST.  cnrncu    §  a.  woksiiip.   §  45.  DOCTnixEs.  4] 

eacred  discourses,  founded  upoa  portions  of  tlie  'Old  Testament.  Apostolic 
epistles  were  read  in  the  congregation,  to  Avliich  they  had  been  originally  di- 
rected, but  after  a  single  reading  they  were  generally  laid  aside.  Every  one 
who  had  the  power  and  the  inclination  to  speak  in  public,  was  allowed  to  do 
so  with  freedom.  Baptism  as  an  initiatory  rite  was  performed  simply  in  the 
name  of  Jesus,  (a)  The  love-feast,  in  whicli  were  combined  the  ordinary 
meal  and  the  religious  service  of  the  primitive  Christians,  was  originally  cele- 
brated in  Jerusalem  every  day.  At  its  conclusion  the  broken  bread  and  the 
consecrated  cup  was  passed  around  to  every  one  at  the  table.  (5)  In  the  Jew- 
ish Christian  congregations  the  Jewish  Sabbath  and  festivals  Avere  observed. 
Paul  denied  that  any  one  was  bound  by  positive  law  to  show  a  preference  of 
one  sacred  day  above  another,  (c)  Only  in  congregations  composed  px'inci- 
pally  of  Greeks,  could  the  members  be  induced  to  observe  Sunday  in  com- 
memoration of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  (<7)  and  among  them  no  interest  could 
be  awakened  in  those  Jewish  festivals,  whicli  were  not  connected  with  some 
event  of  the  Christian  history,  to  give  them  additional  importance.  It  is, 
however,  not  easy  to  explain  why  even  Paul  and  John  should  have  discon- 
tinued in  such  congregations  the  eating  of  the  paschal  lamb,  according  to  the 
usage  of  their  forefathers,  (e) 

§  45.  Doctrines  of  the  Church. 
No  public  sentiment  upon  definite  articles  of  Christian  faith  had  yet  been 
formed,  but  in  addition  to  those  generally  received  maxims  of  piety,  which 
in  some  instances  had  been  handed  down  from  the  lips  of  Jesus,  and  in  others 
had  been  gradually  developed  in  the  course  of  free  discussion,  the  whole  sys- 
tem of  Jewish  faith  passed  over  into,  the  Christian  Church,  and  was  received 
as  divine.  The  only  condition  of  admission  to  the  Church,  was  a  promise  to 
live  a  new  life,  and  an  acknowledgment  of  Jesus  as  the  Messiah.  In  this  ac- 
knowledgment free  scope  Avas  given  to  all  those  views  of  the  nature  of  the 
Messiah,  which  prevailed  among  the  people,  from  a  simple  recognition  of  him 
as  the  Son  of  David,  and  a  man  filled  with  the  Spirit  of  God,  to  a  belief  in 
him  as  an  angel,  and  an  impersonation  of  some  one  of  the  attributes  of 
Jehovah.  In  the  view  of  the  Greeks  the  Messianic  oflSce  had  no  special  sig- 
nificance, and  Christ  Avas  to  them  simply  the  Lord,  and  the  Son  of  God.  As 
far  as  the  reception  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Iloly  Ghost  may  be  regarded  as  au 
indication  of  the  development  of  Christianity  at  this  period,  the  views  of  the 
Church  may  be  inferred  from  the  baptismal  foi-mula,  Avhicli  was  a  simple  ex- 
pression of  faith  in  the  divine  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit  (Matth.  28,  19).  This 
Avhole  transaction  was  a  thoroughly  practical  matter,  and  admitted  of  a  great 
variety  of  views. 

«)  Acta  2,  83.  8,  IG.  10,  48;  Horn.  6,  3.  h)  J.  T.  F.  Drescher,  de  vott,  Cliristianorum  Agapis.  Gies5. 
1S24.  c)  Gal.  4,  Oss. ;  Cut.  2,  IG;  Rom.  14,  5;  comp.  /  Cor.  5,  G#s. ;  Comp.  Juaüii.  c.  Trypli.  c.  10, 
1-2.  d)  ActsW,  T;  /.  Cor.  16,  2;  licv.  1,  10;  narnah.  c.  15.— C  C.  L.  Franke,  de  diet  dominie; 
ajmd  vett.  Christ,  culebratione,  Hal.  ls2G;  (Coraintt.  sei.  ed.  Volbeding.  ISIG.  Tli.  I.  P.  I.)  e)  AcU 
20,  5s. ;  Eiiaeb.  II.  ccc.  V,  24.  I 


42  AXCIKNT  CIlUnCH  IIIäTOUY.     TU:.  I.     blV.  II.    A.  I).  100-312. 


,^  'j  '  DIVISIOX  II.-FORMATION  OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CIIURCn. 

CrUP.    I— STRUGGLE   OF   THE   CHURCH   FOR   JTS   OWN  EXIST- 

ENCE. 

Lactantin«,  do  inortib.  pcKcciitorurn,  ed.  Btiuldri,  Traj.  ad.  Kh.  1C03.  and  often.  [Tlils  work 
l<  trnnsl.  by  ßp.  Jinruet.  Lond.  1713.  8.] — C.  Kortholt,(\v  iierscfniullonib.  ecc.  i>riiiiacvao  (Jen.  1600), 
Kilon.  1GS9.  4;  TriUisl.  into  Germ.;  Besclir.  d.  10  grossen  V»Tf(il;.'g.  llarnb.  lO'JB;  <7j7/t(,n,  iJecllne 
ami  Fall  of  tlie  Horn.  Kiiip.  Lond.  177Css.  6  vols.  4,  and  often.  [Witb  notes  by  Jlihnan  and 
Iriiizot.  New  York.  1S13.  4  vols.  8.]  Trans),  into  Germ,  by  WenK;  and  otiiers.  Lps.  17SSs8.  19  vols.; 
the  IGtli  cliap.  respecting  the  prop,  of  Clir.  by  natural  cause»,  transl.  by  A.  F.  v.  n'iilterttem,lJamh. 
17SS-,  G.  A.  Oslander,  Ausbreit,  d.  Cliristcnth.  (Stfiudiin's  u.  Tzschimer's  Arch.  vol.  4.  sect  2);  //. 
G.  Tzschirner,  der  Fall  des  lleidenth.  Lps.  1829.  1  vol. ;  A.  Beugnot,  Ilist.  de  la  destruction  du  pa- 
ganisme  en  Occident.  Par.  1S35.  2  vols.    \_A.  NiUchl,  d.  Entsteh,  der  Altkatli.  K.  Bonn.  1850.] 

§  40.     The  Jacs. 
Zunz,  die  Gottesdienst!.  Yurtr.  d.  Jud.  hist  entwickelt  Brl.  1332.  comp.  §  40. 

Uninstructed  by  the  past,  and  unhuinbled  by  defeats,  the  Jews  contended 
against  their  fate  (after  115),  and  from  Western  Africa  to  Asia  Minor,  insurrec- 
tions rolled  over  the  land,  always  to  be  quelled  in  Jewish  blood.  That  he 
miglit  not  be  compelled  to  put  the  whole  nation  to  death,  Hadrian  resolved 
to  destroy  its  nationality.  The  people  were  forbidden  to  observe  their  Sab- 
baths, and  circumcision  was  punished  as  a  crime  probably  as  emasculation,  ('/) 
and  on  the  ruins  of  Jerusalem  a  city  consecrated  to  Jupiter  was  built,  and  in 
honor  of  that  divinity  and  of  the  emperor  was  called  Aelia  CapitoUna. 
When  reduced  to  extremity,  the  nation  was  called  to  arms  (132)  by  Bar 
Cocliba^  i.  e.  the  Son  of  a  Star,  (5)  who  professed  to  be  the  promised  Messiah, 
and  was  acknowledged  to  be  such  by  the  distinguished  Rabbi  Akiba.  He 
succeeded  in  conquering  Jerusalem,  and  in  consequence  of  his  heroic  but 
sanguinary  exploits,  Palestine  became  once  more  free.  But  after  all  the  hor- 
rors and  vicissitudes  of  a  three  years'  war,  Julius  Scveru-'i  got  possession,  by 
storm,  of  Bethar,  the  last  fortress  of  this  Messiah's  kingdom.  The  impostor 
himself  fell  in  the  battle.  The  whole  of  Palestine  had  become  a  desert. 
Every  Jew  was  forbidden,  under  penalty  of  death,  to  set  foot  within  the  holy 
city.  Those  Christians  who  remained  in  Palestine  suffered  much  during  this 
struggle,  not  only  from  the  Romans,  by  whom  they  were  frequently  treated 
as  Jews,  but  still  more  from  the  followers  of  the  false  Messiah,  because  they 
refused  to  follow  him  in  his  eöbrts  to  save  their  common  country.  {<:)  These 
national  misfortunes  were  regarded  by  the  Jews  as  divine  judgments  for  their 
inditierence  to  the  law  of  their  fathers,  and  had  no  influence  in  diminishing 
their  assurance  of  future  success.  Schools  of  learning  were  established,  to 
serve  as  spiritual  courts,  and  centres  of  influence  for  the  nation  in  its  general 
dispersion.     Genuine  lialhinism  was  formed  on  the  ruins  of  the  older  sects 

a)  SpartianI,  lladr.  c.  14.  comp.  Digest.  XLVIIL  tit.  S.  fr.  11;  Nov.  Just  142.  c  1.  I)  Xum 
24  17.  After  his  failure  he  was  called :  S<^"'ri3  "13  ,  filius  mendacii.  <■)  L  i>*'o  t"</s«.  LXVIU 
82;  LXIX,  12ss. ;  Enseb.  11.  ecc,  lY,  2.  C;  Justini',  Ap.  L  c  31.— IL  Dei/ling.  Aeliae  Cap.  Orl- 
gines  ef  Hist  Lps.  1713;     Munter,  der  Jüd.    Kries  unter   Trajan  w.    lladr.  Altana  u.  Lps.  1;21 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLE  OF  CHKISTIANITT.    §  46.  JUDAISM.    §  47.  E0MAX3.      43 

at  Tiherias^  in  tlie  school  of  Ilillel,  in  which  the  Mosaic  law,  in  its  utmost 
extent,  though  partially  accommodated  to  the  times,  was  taught  hy  a  class 
of  teachers  permanently  set  apart  to  this  work.  The  traditions  of  the  scribes 
here  reduced  to  writing  (Mishna,  about  220),  with  oxi)lanations  {Gonara,  in 
the  4th  cent.),  constituted,  in  subsequent  times,  the  principal  book  for  in- 
struction and  religious  law  (Talmud).  A  still  greater 'influence  was  after- 
wards acquired  by  the  schools  on  the  Euphrates,  in  Avhich  the  Babylonian 
Talmud  was  composed  of  the  same  general  materials  (430  till  521),  and  be- 
came more  generally  esteemed,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  more  distinct 
form  of  modern  Judaism.  The  Jews,  Avho  were  the  sources  of  all  the  calum- 
nies heaped  upon  Christ  and  the  Church,  knew  very  well  how  to  excite  the 
Bame  hatred  against  the  Christians  of  which  they  were  themselves  the  vic- 
tims. {'!)  The  feelings  of  Christians  with  respect  to  the  Jews  still  remained 
of  a  coutradictory  character.  In  a  dialogue  of  Justin,  in  which  the  author 
replies  to  the  objections  of  a  candid  Jew  against  the  vocation  of  Jesus,  and 
the  transitory  nature  of  the  divine  law,  the  position  is  assumed,  that  the  Mo- 
saic precepts  and  institutions  were  only  prefigurations  and  symbols  either  of 
what  Christ  did,  or  of  what  happened  to  him  and  his  followers,  (e)  It  was 
even  then  asserted,  that  Christianity  had  been  rejected  by  the  people  among 
whom  it  originated,  and  that  the  few  who  had  embraced  it  were  by  no  means 
the  most  faithful  and  consistent  Christians.  (/)  The  proofs  adduced  by 
Cyprian  are  a  collection  of  pertinent  and  impertinent  passages  of  Scripture, 
to  show  that  the  Jews  were  to  be  cast  olf,  and  that  all  the  prophecies  either 
had  been  or  would  be  fulfilled  by  Christ,  (y) 

§  47.   The  Roman  People  and  Empire. 

Kortholt,  Pasranus  oljtrectator,  Kilon.  1G9S.  4;  J.  J.  Ilulderic.i,  Gontilis  obtrcetator,  Tl2;nr.  1744; 
Papht,  de  culpa  Christiaiior.  in  vexatt.  inotis  a  Eom.  Erl.  17S9.  8  Pgg.  4 ;  Munter,  die  Cliristin  im 
beiduischen  Ilause  yor  Constantin,  Kopcnh.  1S2S. 

From  the  time  of  Trajan,  the  Roman  people  had  been  accustomed  in  a 
tumultuous  manner  to  demand  that  Christians  should  be  put  to  death.  This 
proceeded  originally  from  perilous  who  either  derived  their  support  from  some 
connection  with  idolatry,  or  found  their  principal  honor  or  pleasure  in  the 
cultivation  of  pagan  literature.  But  internally  decayed,  as  heathenism  then 
was,  it  could  never  have  awakened  such  a  powerful  opposition,  and,  in  the 
course  of  the  struggle,  have  won  for  itself  once  more  a  high  degree  of  attach- 
ment, merely  by  appeals  in  behalf  of  the  old  idolatry.  The  Avholo  common 
feeling  of  the  ancient  world,  and  the  chief  glory  .of  the  present  life,  was  as- 
sailed by  Christianity,  and  the  people  saw  nothing  proposed  in  return  but  e 
severe  and  cheerless  system  of  virtue,  in  Avhich  tlie  world  was  rendered  a 
desert,  that  an  uncertain  heaven  might  be  won.  The  hatred  thus  awakened 
endeavored  to  justify  itself  by  suspicions.  The  spiritual  worship  of  an  in- 
visible God  was  denounced  as  atheism:  participation  in  the  sacred  body  of 

d)  Justin,  c.  Tryph.  o.  tCs.;  Terlul.  sd  nation.  I,  14.  e)  AidKoyos  rrpb?  Tpvpwva  'lov^aiov. 
Ed.  JthJ),  Lond.  171»;  0pp.  rec.  J.  C.  T.  0(to,  Jen.  lS42s.  Tli.  U.-.-^.Vüu.icher,  an  Dial,  c  Tryph. 
Jnstino  rr-cto  adscribatiir?   (Comnientt.  thcol.  ed.  Ilosonmueller,  Lps.  1S-2C.  Tli.  I.  P.   2,  p.  184ss.) 

/)  Juntini,  .\p(il.  I.  c.  53.     g)  Tostimonlnrnni  ndv.  Judaeos,  1.  III. 


44  ANCIENT  ClIUKCH  lIISTOnV.     I'EU.  1.     lUV.  II.     A.  I).  liJO-812. 

Christ  was  represented  as  a  TLj'CHtean  feant ;  the  privacy  of  tlie  Christian  as- 
semblies was  looked  upon  jis  a  cloak  for  conspiracy,  and  for  secret  crimes; 
and  the  fraternal  fellowship  which  generally  jirevailed  among  Christians,  was 
suspected  as  the  result  and  the  occasion  of  uimatural  lasciviousncss.  Tlie  re- 
proaches heaped  upon  each  other  by  the  Church  and  the  various  Christiai. 
sects,  (n)  and  the  confessions  wrung  by  torture  from  heathen  slaves,  with  re- 
epcc*^  to  their  Christian  masters,  (h)  appeared  to  confirm  the  suspicions  of 
those  who  were  anxious  to  find  evidences  of  guilt.  The  public  misfortunes 
m  which  that  ago  abounded,  were  all  regarded  as  divine  judgments  for  the 
dishonor  done  to  the  oflended  gods.  But  to  persons  of  distinction,  and  to 
those  who  had  been  educated  in  the  spirit  of  the  times,  Christianity  appeared 
to  he  a  dark  superstition  of  an  infatuated  rabble.  The  magistrates  were,  in- 
deed, frequently  induced  to  persecute  Cliristians,  by  the  clamors  of  the  mul- 
titude, and  by  their  own  passions ;  but  the  true  reason  for  it  was  to  be  found 
in  motives  of  state  policy.  Christians  looked  ui)on  it  as  dangerous  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  which  the  soldiers  were  obliged  to  receive,  or  to  per- 
form the  duties  of  any  public  or  civil  office,  (c)  although  man}'  overcame 
their  religions  scruples  from  a  regard  to  personal  advantages  or  feelings  of 
duty.  Although  they  generally  submitted  to  every  outrage  inflicted  upon 
them  by  the  magistrates,  whom  they  regarded  as  appointed  by  God,  their 
vast  number  and  mutual  fellowship  rendered  them  formidable  to  the  civil 
authorities.  Indeed,  this  consciousness  of  their  own  power,  and  their  con- 
viction that  the  empire  was  destined  to  a  speedy  overthrow  were  so  openh* 
expressed,  (d)  that  their  assurances  of  fidelity  and  loyalty  appeared  quite  sus- 
picious. At  all  events,  the  State  was  torn  by  dissensions,  and  as  long  a3 
any  hope  remained  of  overcoming  Christians  by  terror,  sanguinary  measures 
were  looked  upon  as  likely  to  result  in  good.  The  fate  of  Christians  was,  it 
is  true,  determined  by  the  imperial  edicts  in  every  part  of  the  empire,  but  it 
was  rendered  mild  or  severe  according  to  the  popular  sentiment  in  each  pro- 
vince and  the  personal  feelings  of  the  local  magistrate. 

I  48.     Conduct  of  the  Indkidual  Emperors  during  the  Second  and  Third  Cen- 
turies. 

Franc.  BahJuini,  Commtr.  ail  edlcta  vett  prince.  Rom.  de  Christianis,  Hal.  1727.  4;  C.  JD.  A 
JIavtini,  Persecutiones  Christianorum  sub  Iinpp.  Eom.  Eostocli.  180-2s.  3  Comni.  4;  Schumann 
r.  Mansegg,  die  Terfolguniren  d.  ersten  christl.  Kirche.  A'len.  1S21 ;  G.  S.  KTipke,  do  statu  et  condl:. 
Christianorum  sub  Impp.  Kom.  alterius  post  Clir.  Saec.  Ber.  1S2S. 

1.  A  noble  race  of  emperors,  in  whom  the  Greek  and  Roman  spirit  was 
once  more  revived,  were,  in  the  old  Roman  style,  either  inditierent  or  severe 
in  their  treatment  of  Christianity.  A  rescript  of  Trajan  (98-117),  in  reply 
to  some  inquiries  of  Plinius  (about  110)  respecting  the  conduct  to  be  pursued 
towards  Christians,  directed  that  they  should  not  be  sought  after  by  the  civil 
authorities,  but  that  all  legally  arraigned  by  accusers  before  the  courts,  wert 

a)  Tcrtul.  de  jejun.  c,  17 ;  Clem.  Strom.  III.  p.  511 ;  Emeb.  U.  ecc  IV,  7.  b)  Etiaeb.  II.  ccc.  VI, 
1.  c)  Tertiil.  de  cor.  c.  11 ;  Apologet  c  8S;  de  Pallio,  c  5;  Euinart,  Acta  Martyr,  cd.  2.  p.  299a 
(7)  TertuK  Apolojet.  c.  87.  Tlie  Apocalypse  of  John,  and  many  things  In  the  Sibvllinc  books,  ^M 
»Iready  announced  these. 


CHAP.  1     STRUGGLES  OF  CHRISTIANITY.     §  4S.  ROMAN  EMPERORS.  45 

either  to  Le  pardoned  if  tliey  denied  the  charge  or  repented,  or  given  over 
to  death  if  they  continued  obstinate.  He  however  allowed,  that  no  uniform 
rule  could  be  prescribed  in  this  matter.  So  many  of  them  in  IJithynia  and 
Pontus  were  induced  to  invoke  the  gods,  to  anathematize  Christ,  and  to  honor 
the  statue  of  the  emperor  with  offerings  of  wine  and  incense,  that  Pliny  in- 
dulged the  hope  that,  by  a  skilful  combination  of  mildness  and  severity,  he 
■would  soon  be  able  to  put  an  end  to  this  superstition.  (0)  The  aged  Symeov, 
the  son  of  Cleopas,  and  the  successor  of  James  at  Jerusalem,  being  accused 
before  Atticus,  the  governor  of  the  city,  of  being  a  Christian,  and  of  the 
family  of  David,  was  crucified  (107),  (A)  and  I(/nntiiis,  Bishop  of  Antioch, 
after  a  personal  audience  with  the  emperor,  was  torn  to  pieces  by  lions  in 
the  Coliseum,  for  the  amusement  of  the  Roman  people  (116).  (<•)  About 
this  time,  the  people  began  at  their  festivals,  or  in  time  of  public  calamity, 
to  demand  the  blood  of  Christians.  Hadrian  (117-138)  and  Antoninus  Pius 
(138-161)  therefore  checked  these  tumultuous  proceedings,  by  directing  that 
the  strict  forms  of  law  belonging  to  the  usual  trials  should  be  observed.  QT) 
The  stoical  repugnance  which  Harens  Aurclius  (lGl-180)  felt  toward  the  en- 
thusiasm of  the  Christians,  induced  hira  to  allow  the  popular  hatred  in  south- 
ern Gaul  and  Asia  Minor  to  have  its  full  career  of  blood,  (e)  Pohjcarp^ 
Bishop  of  Smyrna,  the  last  living  relic  of  Apostolic  days,  died  (169)  at  the 
stake,  because  he  refused  to  curse  the  Lord  whom  he  had  faithfully  served 
for  8G  years.  (/)  The  miracle  of  the  Legio  fulminatrix  (174)  was  cither  not 
important  enough,  or  not  sufficiently  authenticated,  to  turn  the  philosophic 
emperor  from  his  course.  ({/)  2.  Until  some  time  in  the  middle  of  the  third 
century,  the  emperors  were  either  inditferent  or  favorable  to  Christianity  ; 
but  as  the  ancient  laws  still  remained  unrepealed,  its  adherents  Avere  depend- 
ent upon  the  caprice  of  the  municipal  governors.  The  wanton  cruelty  of 
Commodus  (180-192)  was  softened  to  mildness  with  respect  to  Christians, 
by  the  influence  of  his  paramour  Mareia,  and  yet  Apollonius  Avas  put  to 
death,  principally,  however,  on  account  of  his  eloquent  apology  for  Christian- 
ity before  the  Senate.  Ilis  accuser  was  executed  at  an  earlier  period,  per- 
haps as  his  slave.  (//)  Scptimius  Severvs  (192-211)  merely  prohibited  the 
further  propagation  of  Christianity,  (i)  The  enmity  which  Caracnlla 
(211-217)  bore  toward  the  whole  human  race,  amounted  only  to  indilTerence 
with  respect  to  the  Church.  {Ic)  The  efieminate  pleasure  which  IIdio<jahnlm 
(218-222)  took  in  oriental  systems  of  religion,  operated  favorably  in  behalf 
of  Christianity.  (J)     AVith  a  nobler  appreciation  of  its  spiritual  nature,  Alex- 


a)  Pllnii,  Epp.  X.  p.  903.  (al.  OTs.);  Tertul.  Apologet,  c.  2;  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  Ill,  'iZ;— Haver- 
saat,  Vertlicidiitung  tier  I'lin.  Briefe  ü.  J.  Ciiriston,  GOtt  1733.  b)  Euseb.  IL  ccc.  Ill,  32,  comp.  IL 
tftor  Ilegesippus.  c)  Euseb.  H.  ccc.  Ill,  2G;  Acta  martyril  IgnaL  in  liuinart,  p.  Sss.  d)  Jitsthii, 
Apol.  I.  c.  68;  Hitfin,  II.  ecc.  IV,  9;  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  IV,  26;  comp.  SpariUmi,  Iladr.  c.  22.  On  Ih« 
spuriousness  of  tlie  Edictuni  ad  Cominuno  Asiao  in  Euseb.  IV,  13,  and  Just.  I.  c  consult  Jfajner 
de  Edicto  Antonint  pro  Christ  Argent.  IVSl.  4.  e)  Marcus  Aur.  irphs  iavriv  XI,  3;  Euseb.  11 
ecc.  V,  1-8.  f)  Ecclesiao  Smyrnonsis  de  mnrtyrio  Polycnrpi  Ep.  Encycl.  In  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  IV,  15. 
A  fuller  recension  In  liuinart,  p.  31s8,  g)  Tertul.  Apologet  c.  5;  Euseb  IL  ecc,  V,  5.  For  tli« 
views  entertained  by  heathen,  see  Dio  Cass.  Epit  Xiphilini  LXXI,  8;  SuhJas,  verb. 'lovXtayhs. 
Jul.  CapitoUn.  Marc.  Aur.  c.  24.  A)  F.useb.  IL  ccc,  V,  21 ;  Hieron.  catal.  c  42.  i)  Spartiani,  So- 
TW.  c  IT.  comp.   Tertul.  ad  Scapul.  c  4.    k)  Tertul.  ad  Scapul.  c.  4.    I)  Lamprhl.  Ilellog.  c.  8 


46  ANCIKNT  CllUUCir  HISTOUV.     VVAl.  I.     UIV.  II.     A.  I).  1(M>-8I2. 

nn/ler  Screrim  (222-235)  jilaooil  tlio  stiituo  of  Christ  niiKing  liis  lioiiBolioli 
gods,  ftn(l  praotically  rocofrnizod  the  Christian  conffrc^'ation  at  Rome  as  a 
civil  corporation.  His  niofhor,  Julia  Maininaea,  wliilc  at  Aiitioch,  took  de- 
liglit  in  the  learning  of  Ori<rc'n.  (///)  In  the  view  of  MaxutiltviH  the  Thraciau 
(2-35-2.'38),  the  Tnurdorer  of  Alexander,  such  favor  was  a  sufiicient  reason  for 
persecuting  him  who  liad  received  it.  Among  those  wlio  followed  him  in 
rapid  succession  in  the  imperial  throne,  Philip  the  Arabian  (244-249)  was  so 
favorahlo  to  Christianity,  that  the  report  became  almost  universal,  that  he 
was  himself  a  Christian,  {n)  3.  The  Church  finally  became  so  ]iowerfiil, 
tliat  it  became  necessary  either  to  acknoAvledgo  its  legality,  or  to  persecute  it 
with  all  the  power  of  the  empire.  Decius  (249-251)  raised  the  first  general 
persecution,  by  requiring  the  magistrates  to  institute  inrjuisitorial  proceed- 
ings. Those  who  sustained  office  in  the  Church  directly  met  death,  or  if 
they  fled,  they  purchased  life  with  the  loss  of  property  and  home.  (")  To 
tliis  distressing  period,  popular  tradition  has  assigned  the  commencement  of 
the  slumber  of  the  seven  children  of  Ef)hesus,  who  did  not  awake  until  the 
time  of  Theodosius  II.  (447),  and  were  then  astonislicd  to  find  the  persecuted 
sign  of  the  cross  ruling  over  the  imperial  city  and  the  Avorld.  {p)  OaUm 
(251-253)  was  prevented  only  by  the  political  commotions  of  his  reign  from 
completing  the  sanguinary  work  of  his  predecessor.  F«/ew/7HM  (253— 260), 
after  a  brief  period  of  favor  toward  the  Church,  sought  systematically  to  de- 
stroy it  by  exterminating  its  ofiicers.  (q)  But  Gallienus  (2G0-2G8)  gave  peace 
to  the  whole  Church,  by  an  edict  in  which  he  recognized  it  as  a  civil  corpo- 
ration. (?')  Aureliamis  (270-275),  who  at  one  time  had  consented  to  act  as  an 
umpire  between  contending  bishops,  determined  afterwards,  from  heathenish 
scruples,  to  persecute  the  Christians.  His  death  was  effected  by  a  military 
conspiracy  before  the  execution  of  his  purpose,  (s)  and  during  a  long  period  of 
rest,  the  government  appeared  to  have  abandoned  for  ever  the  unequal  con- 
test of  mere  force  in  opposition  to  spiritual  principles. 

§  49.  Internal  Ilistory  of  Paganism 
After  the  middle  of  the  first  century,  in  consequence  of  intercourse  with 
the  east,  and  of  the  pressure  of  internal  elements,  the  intellectual  world  made 
considerable  progress.  On  the  one  hand,  with  a  high-wrought  religious  fer- 
vor, it  overpassed  the  proper  limits  of  heathenism,  and  connected  itself  some- 
times Avith  a  particular  phase  of  Platonism,  and  sometimes  with  the  pure 
and  self-denying  mode  of  life  which  tradition  assigned  to  the  PythagoreaE 
system.  On  the  other  hand,  when  it  was  only  partially  aroused,  it  carried 
the  spiritual  element  into  the  world  of  sense,  that  it  might  obtain  a  control 
over  the  latter  by  magical  arts,  and  penetrate  the  mysteries  of  the  world  of 
spirits.  We  therefore  find,  in  the  very  midst  of  great  moral  corruption, 
and  the  dissolution  of  all  social  and  natural'  ties,  initiations  into  wonderful 

«0  Lnmprid.  Alex.  Sever,  c.  29.  49.  comp.  2S.  48. 45 ;  Eusel.  IT.  ecc  VI,  21. 23.  n)  Eus(h.  U.  ecc. 

VI,  S4;  Ilieron.  Cliron.  ad  ann.  246.  o)  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  VI,  40-42;  Cypri'm,  de  lapsi?,  and  his  epis- 
tles written  at  this  time;  LacUint.  de  niortiU  c.  4.  p)  Gregor.  Taron,  de  gloria  Mart.  Par.  lt>40 
p.  215s.;  Jieinecciu-^  de  T  dormientib.  Lps.  1702.  S.inctor.  7  dormientiiim  IlisL  Rom.  1742.  4 
5)  Eweh.  n.  ecc.  VII,  10s.;    Cypriani  Ep.  S2.      r)  Euseb.  U.  ecc  VI I,  13.     «)  Eusib.  II.  eoa 

VII,  80 ;  Lactant  de  mortlb.  c  6. 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLES  OF  CHEISTIAKITT.    §  50.  NEW  I'LATOXISM.  47 

jnysteries,  a  capricious  confulenco  in  miracles,  extreme  sell-deni;!).-;,  and  pan- 
gninary  expiations,  (a)  In  the  attempted  union  of  Pulytlieisni  and  Mono« 
theism,  the  gods  were  regarded  only  as  different  names  of  the  one  God,  or  as 
the  organs  through  which  he  revealed  himself  to  his  creatures.  Even  the 
Stoa,  by  the  influence  of  Bj^ictetus  (about  100),  received  a  character  which 
no  longer  sought  virtue  in  perpetual  struggles,  but  in  patient  endurance. 
The  literature  of  that  period,  generally  a  forced  after-growth  of  a  mighty 
nature  then  extinct,  gradually  developed  the  characteristics  of  credulity  and 
superstition.  Even  as  early  as  the  time  of  Plutarch  (50-120),  with  all  his 
enthusiasm  for  the  exalted  models  of  antiquity,  his  writings  abound  in  much 
which  is  fantastic.  Aclian  (about  222)  is  full  of  pious  legends  about  the 
manifestations  of  the  Deity  in  nature  and  in  common  life.  The  spirit  of  the 
age  is  well  reflected  in  the  animated  but  extravagant  writings  of  the  African 
rhetorician  Apidcius  (about  170),  in  which  are  sensual  thouglits  side  by  side 
with  pious  fanaticism,  and  satires  upon  superstition  mingled  Avith  supersti- 
tious dreamings.  {b)  This  tendency,  Avhcn  it  first  came  in  contact  with 
Christianity,  appropriated  to  itself  many  Christian  elements,  merely  that  it 
might  become  a  better  match  for  its  opponent.  Tlie  real  Apollonius  of  Ty- 
ana  (3796)  travelled  about  in  the  character  of  a  reformer  of  heathenism, 
striving  to  give  to  it  the  character  of  unlimited  f.ätli  which  wo  have  de- 
scribed, and  deceived  many  by  the  strange  revelations  which  he  probably  ac- 
complished by  some  magnetic  clairvoyance,  so  that  he  became  honoreu  as  a 
prophet,  and  sometimes  even  as  God.  But  in  a  rhetorical  work,  in  which 
Philostrat'iis  (about  230)  professed  to  give  his  life,  and  attempted  to  present 
him  before  the  world  as  the  Christ  of  heathenism,  he  became  the  ideal  of  a  holy 
sage  wonderfully  honored  by  the  gods,  {e)  On  the  other  hand,  there  were 
some  who  attempted  to  represent  the  mighty  world-spirit  of  the  ancient 
Greek  philosophy,  but  they  uniformly  found,  that  while  aiming  to  personate 
such  a  character  in  one  respect,  they  were  inconsistent  with  it  in  another. 

§  50.     Kcic  Platonism. 

.  I.  Plotiiii,  0pp.  oinni:i;  Porphijrii  lAher  de  vita  Plotini,  ed.  Creiner,  Oxon.  1S3C.  3  vols.  4; 
nop(pvfiiov  ((>i\ocT6(pov  wphs  MapweAAo*',  invonit  notisque  ill.  Aiiq.  J/aJtts,  Mediol.  ISIG.— II. 
Among  the  ITistt.  of  Plul.  ospfci:illy,  Tennemann,  vol.  VI.  [Ilis  M-inii.-il  is  tr.insl.  0.\f.  1S32.  S.] 
Ritter,  vol.  IV.  [transl.  by  Morri^^on,  Oxf.  1838.  4  vols.  8;  I/enrifs  Hist,  of  Phil.  2  vols.  N.  Y.  1S41.] 
Creiiser,  Prepnratio  ad  Plotini  lib.  de  pulchritud.  Heidolb.  1S14;  comp.  Stud.  ii.  Krit,  1834.  P.  2.  p, 
837ss. ;  Imm.  FiiMf,  An  PIdl.  novao  Platonicae  origino,  Berl.  ISlS;  F.  Boutenceh;  Pliilosopboruni 
Aloxandr.  ac  Neo-Platonifonim  rccensio,  (Commcntt  Soc.  Scient.  Goctt.  18'23.  Tli.  V.);  C.  Stein- 
hart, do  dialcctioa  Plotini  rationo,  Numb,  ct  Hal.  1829;  Ejuad.  Meletcmata  Plotlnianji,  Hal.  1S40.  4; 
K.  Vogt,  Noo-Pl.  u.  Chrislcntli.  I5crl.  1830.  1  Th.  \_Leices,  Biogr.  Hist,  of  Pliil.  Lond.  4  vols.  ISino. 
art.  Plot,] 

The  tendency  of  Paganism  on  the  side  of  faith,  and  the  attempt  to  com- 
bine in  one  system  all  the  sources  of  truth,  reached  its  utmost  limit  in  what 

a)  P.  K.  MüJlei;  do  bierarchia  et  studio  vitae  ascclicao  in  sncris  ct  mysterils  Graecc  Komano- 
ruDique  latcntib.  Havn.  1S(I3,  transl.  into  Genu,  in  tlie  Neuen  IBibl.  d.  gcbunen  Wiss.  vol.  LX.K. 
I)  Sc/Uosser,  Gescb.  d.  alten  Welt  u.  ilirer  Cultur.  vol.  III.  Abth.  3  (18.31.)  p.  189s9.  lOGss.  c)  Florii 
P/tilostniti  quae  supersunt,  cd.  Kitijser,  Tur.  1844s.  2  Th.  [The  two  first  books  rolatinc:  t'^  tbe  Ufa 
of  Apoll.  Tyau.  trans',  into  I'-ii^-.  by  C.  Blount,  fi>l.  Lond.  1(58".]  /?(•«",  Apull.  v,  Tyand  u.  Chils 
tus,  Tub.  1832. 


48  ANCIKNT  nit'nrii  iiistoky.   itj:.  i.   i>iv.  ii.   a.  n.  ioo-!5i2. 

wns  called  New  riatoiiisni.  Tliis  system  had  its  origin  in  tlie  discourses  of 
Ammoniaa  Sdccas,  of  Alexandria,  near  the  commencement  of  tlio  third  cen- 
tiirj',  but  is  i)resentcd  in  its  most  attractive  form  in  the  Enncades  of  I'lotuais 
(205-270),  and  was  best  represented  by  Jtimblirhus  in  the  fourth,  and  by  Fro- 
clits  in  the  tifth  century.  Tlie  masters  of  this  school  were  regarded  as  seers 
and  saints,  -who  had  broken  the  bonds  of  a  life  of  sense,  and  even  on  earth 
were  honored  with  tho  privilege  of  an  immediate  intuition  of  the  Deity. 
What  Pliilo  had  undertaken,  they  now  completed,  thongh  in  a  Avider  sense, 
in  behalf  of  paganism.  While  New-Platonism  took  part  in  the  higher  discus- 
sions and  conclusions  of  philosoi)hy,  it  nevertheless  stood  opposed  to  all  phi- 
losopliy,  since  it  did  not  profess  to  rest  upon  careful  inquiries  into  the  eternal 
laws  of  the  spirit,  but  claimed  to  be  a  revelation  from  God.  Tlius  exalting 
itself  above  all  such  investigations,  it  became  the  poetry  as  well  as  the  reli- 
gion of  philosophy.  It  attached  itself  more  especially  to  the  system  of  Plato, 
and  professed  to  be  an  explanation  and  a  development  of  his  views,  but  it 
aimed  to  bring  together  the  fundamental  principles  of  all  philosophical 
schools,  and  the  ideas  Avhich  constitute  the  basis  of  all  popular  religions. 
Even  Christianity,  therefore,  "was  acknowledged  by  those  who  advocated  this 
system,  but  only  as  it  originally  came  from  the  inspired  soul  of  its  founder. 
It  did  not  at  first  originate  in  a  spirit  hostile  to  Christianity,  and  it  is  even 
doubtful  to  what  extent  Ammonius  and  PorphjTy  were  at  one  time  connect- 
ed with  the  Church.  It  is,  however,  certain,  that  it  was  profoundly  affected 
by  the  peculiarities  of  Christianity,  even  while  it  was  struggling  with  that 
system,  during  the  third  century,  for  the  empire  of  the  world.*  The  divinity 
w'hich  it  presents  is  exalted  above  all  human  apprehension,  and  Tvas  called 
simply  the  Self-sufiicient  One  (t6  ev).  From  his  overflowing  fulness  proceed- 
ed the  Divine  Intelligence,  and  from  this  the  World-Soul,  by  which  the  mate- 
rial universe  is  pervaded  with  divine  life.  Evil  is  only  that  which  is  imper- 
fect, and  is  'the  most  distant  reflection  of  Deity  upon  matter.  The  human 
soul  which  had  been  produced  by  the  Divine  Intelligence,  fell,  in  consequence 
of  its  longing  after  earthly  things,  from  its  original  divine  life  to  its  present 
temporal  existence.  It  therefore  belongs  to  the  sensual  as  well  as  to  tho 
intellectual  world.  But  the  souls  of  the  good  and  wise,  even  in  this  world, 
are  in  their  happiest  moments  reunited  with  the  Deity,  and  death  is  to  such 
a  complete  restoration  to  their  home.  From  a  pious  veneration  for  an  an- 
cestry far  back  in  antiquity,  the  Grecian  gods  especially  were  regarded  as 
the  personal  manifestations  of  the  divine  life  in  nature.  Some  of  them  were 
celestial  beings,  and  some  ruled  here  on  earth.  These  earthly  powers  were 
the  national  gods  (jiepiKol,  (?iväpKai),  subordinate  to  the  Deity,  and  exalted 
above  all  passion.  The  myths  were  therefore,  of  course,  to  be  explained  al- 
legorically.  The  arts  of  Divination  and  Magic  were  justified  on  the  ground 
of  the  necessary  connection  of  all  phenomena  by  virtue  of  the  unity  of  the 
world-principle.    While,  therefore,  New-Platonism  was  a  new  power,  it  was 

♦  Ettseb.  n.  ecc.  VI.  19,  and  Praep.  evang.  XI,  19;  Socrat.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  23.—Jfos/ieim,  de  studio 
Ethnicor.  Christianos  imiUndi.  (Dss.  ad  Hist  ecc.  Alton.  17:33);  VUmann^  Eintluss  d.  Christenth. 
auf  Porphyr.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S;3'2.  II.  i.^—Keil,  de  causis  alieni  Platonicor.  rec.  a  rel.  chr.  animi.  Lps. 
17S5.  4.  (0pp.  ed.  Goldhom.  Lps.  1S21.  vol.  1.) 


CHAP.  I.  STECGGLES  OF  CIIEISTIANITY.  J  61.  LITEEAKY  C0NTE0VEI:SIE3.    49 

nevertlieless  a  reformation  of  the  old  faith.  Though  it  extended  itself  over 
the  "whole  Roman  empire,  it  emhraced  within  itself  contradictory  elements, 
and  coald  maintain  its  existence  only  long  enough  to  witness  and  embellish 
the  downfall  of  heathenism. 

§  51.     Literary  Controversies  of  Christ iardty. 

Deäaus  C.  G.  Baumgarten-Crushis,  de  scriptoribus  Baee.  II.  qui  novam  re!,  impngnarunt,  vel 
Itnpugnassc  creduntur.  Misn.  1845.  4. 

It  was  not  until  the  age  of  the  Antonines  that  Christianity  appeared  im- 
portant enough  to  be  the  object  of  literary  discussion,  or  sought  to  defend 
itself  by  literary  weapons.  The  last  discourse  in  which  Fronto  made  an 
attack  upon  Christians,  appears  to  have  been  merely  a  legal  defence  of  the 
I)roceedings  against  them  under  Marcus  Aurclius.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  negative  spirit  exhibited  in  the  writings  of  Lucian  exerted  a  fovorable 
influence  upon  Christianity,  since  his  mockeries,  like  a  death-warning, -com- 
pletely undermined  all  confidence  in  the  ancient  gods ;  but  he  has  occasionally 
derided  the  Christians  also  as  fimatical  simpletons,  even  while  he  involuntarily 
supplies  evidence  in  favor  of  their  brotherly  love,  and  fortitude  in  death.  («) 
A  genuine  discourse  of  Cclsiis,  written  during  the  persecution  under  Marcus 
Aurelius,  has  been  preserved  in  the  extracts  of  Origen.  (l)  The  author  was 
an  intelligent  man,  but  full  of  pride  and  contempt  for  Christianity.  While 
endeavoring  to  throw  suspicion  upon  its  origin  and  opposing  the  Church  of 
his  own  times,  he  frequently  confounds  it  with  the  vagaries  of  its  different 
sects,  and  collects  nearly  every  thing  which  Judaism  Avith  its  unfulfilled  ideas 
of  the  Messiah  and  its  calumnious  traditions,  together  with  all  that  pagan 
refinement  with  its  philosojjhy,  especially  the  Platonic,  could  produce  against 
it.  We  have  also  a  Dialogue  written  by  Minucivs  Felix  (§  52;,  in  which 
Caecilius  brings  forward  the  arguments  generally  urged  by  the  heathen  of 
that  period  against  Christianity.  In  behalf  of  the  Olympic  deities,  it  was  al- 
leged that  history  showed  that  the  gods  had  protected  and  avenged  their 
Avorshippers ;  that  miracles  had  been  wrought,  and  predictions  by  divination 
had  been  announced  by  their  votaries,  and  that  a  Supreme  Deity  had  always 
been  worshipped  in  connection  Avith  many  gods.  Against  Christianity  Avas 
urged ;  its  foreign  and  barbarous  origin,  to  Avhich  all  that  Avas  national  must 
be  sacrificed,  and  its  recent  origin,  to  which  all  that  Avas  established  must 
give  Avay ;  all  that  was  true  or  good  in  Christianity  belonged  still  more  an- 
ciently to  Philosophy,  so  that  the  only  novelty  Avhich  it  possessed  Avas  a  most 
repulsive  outward  form ;  its  sacred  Scri])turc3  Avere  of  doubtful  origin,  and 
frequently  had  been  altered ;  Jesus  Avas  said  to  have  been  the  offspring  of 
adultery,  instructed  by  magicians  in  Egypt,  and  surrounded  only  by  Avretched 
fishermen  and  abandoned  publicans,  to  have  died  in  the  expression  of  unman- 

a)  'AKf^avSpoi  t)  ^f/fvSSixavris,  c25.  8>;  Utpl  rT]sUfpfypli/ovTf\fVTris,  c  11-16;  'AAtj^v 
IfTTopla,  I,  22.  80.  II,  4.  11. — A.  JEichsladii.  Pg.  Luel.inns  nuin  gcrlplis  suis  adjuvaro  rcligioncru 
Christ  voluerit?  Jen.  1S20.  4;  K.  G.  Jacob,  Cliaractcrislik  Lucians.  Ilainb.  18.32;  Kühn,  Luc.  a 
criiiilne  librorum  sncr.  irrisorum  libcratur.  P.  I.  Grimae,  1344.  4.  ^)  'A\rjäT]s  \6yos.—Fenger,  do 
Colso,  Epiciiroo.  llavn.  1828;  C.  H.  Jachmann,  do  Celso  disseruit  et  fraginenta  Ubri  c.  Cliristlanos 
colk'git  Eegiom.  1S3G.  4;  F.  A.  Philipp!,  de  Celsi  pliilosoiihandi  gonerc.  Berol.  1S3G;  Bindemann, 

4 


50  ANCIKNT  CIIUIICII  IIISTOUV.     PKR.  I.    DIV.  II.     A.  I).  lOö-rilü. 

ly  sorrows,  and  finally  to  have  f^'ivon  no  proof  of  liis  resurrection  except  what 
was  derived  from  liis  own  followers.  Against  Christians  it  was  urged:  that 
they  had  deified  a  jjuhlicly  executed  malefactor ;  tliat  they  demanded  a  blind 
faith  ;  lliat  tliey  invited  to  their  society  those  who  were  sinners  and  criminals, 
while  in  the  heathen  mysteries,  none  were  initiated  but  those  who  were  pure 
in  heart ;  that  the  various  Christian  sects  wero  intolerant  towards  each  oth- 
er;  that  they  were  remarkably  unfortunate ;  and  finally,  that  if  they  were  not 
secret  criminals,  they  shunned  publicity,  and  were  enemies  to  the  eternal 
city  of  Home.  The  opposition  which  the  New-Platonic  school  made  to  Chris- 
tianity, may  be  considered  as  represented  by  Porpltyrij  (233-30.jj.  (r)  From 
all  that  can  be  learned  by  means  of  a  few  rather  inconsiderable  remains,  he 
appears  to  have  applied  his  censures  iirincipally  to  the  dithcult  portions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  and  the  deceptive  character  of  tlie  allegorical  method  of 
interpreting  them,  to  the  composition  of  the  prophecies  of  Daniel  after  the 
events  to  Avhich  they  relate  had  taken  place,  to  the  coiitradiction  implied  in 
the  abolition  of  the  divine  law  by  one  who  came  from  God,  to  the  disagree- 
ment between  Peter  and  Paul,  to  the  death  of  Ananias,  and  to  the  misfortune 
of  Jesus,  in  being  so  misunderstood  by  a  company  of  pitiable  fonatics.  Iliero- 
dcs  (about  800)  contrasted  the  life  of  Apollonius  with  that  of  Jesus,  though 
in  the  latter  he  seems  to  have  mingled  incidents  in  the  history  of  other  Mes- 
siahs of  whom  he  had  heard.  lie  was  an  orator  concerned  in  stirring  up  the 
persecution  under  Diocletian,  and  had  permitted  Christians  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  Christian  virgins  to  be  violated.  ('/)  All  the  controversial  writ- 
ings of  that  period,  so  far  as  they  were  opposed  to  Christianity,  were  subse 
quently  destroyed  by  the  pious  barbarism  of  the  Christian  emperors,  {e) 

§  52,     The  Christian  ApohgistK. 

I.  Apologg.  Christ.  0pp.  (ed.  rntdeutius  3faranus.)  Par.  1742.  f. 

II.  FahriciuK,  delectus  argnmentorum  et  S3'Ilabus  scriptorum,  qui  veritatem  rel.  clir.  as.-eruernnt. 
ITamb.  17-2Ö.  4;  Tsschirner,  Ge.'^ch.  d.  Apologetik.  Lps.  1805;  only  1  toI.  ;  Clausen,  Apologetae  Ec- 
clesiae  eljr.  ante  Theodosiani,  Platonis  ejusque  pliilosophjae  arbitri.  Ilafn.  ISIT;  G.  11.  van  Senden 
Gesch.  d.  Apologetik.  Uebers.  (from  the  Dutch  PraoC  dated  1*31)  v.  TT  Quack,  n.  7?.  Binder.  Stutfg. 
1S46.  1  Th. 

"^lien  the  emperor  Hadrian  was  at  Athens  (about  130)  two  defences  of 
Christianity  were  presented  to  him,  one  by  the  philosopher  Arididcs,  and 
another  by  the  Bishop  Quadratus.  The  latter  boasted  that  there  Avere  some 
among  his  acquaintance  who  had  been  healed,  and  indeed  some  who  had 
been  raised  from  the  dead  by  Jesus,  {it)  The  most  flourishing  period  of 
apologetic  writings  was  during  the  sway  of  the  Antonines,  when  the  Church 
was  quite  as  much  under  the  influence  of  hope,  as  of  fear  with  respect  to  its 
external  condition,  and  when  every  opinion  was  allowed  to  be  pubhcly  ex- 
pressed.    The  Apologies  of  Justin  Martyr,  (h)  written  at  Flavia  Neapolis 

Ü.  Cel3.  u.  s.  Sehr.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1S42.  P.  2.)  c)  Kara  Xpiariavwv  Ao'701— Fragments  may 
be  found  in  IlolstenU  Ds.  de  vita  et  scriptis  Porph.  Eom.  1630;  (Fahricii  Bibl.  Gr.  Th.  IV.  p. 
207ss.)  [Select  Works  of  Porph.  transl.  by  Taylor.  Lond.  1S23.  S.]  d)  A0701  <pt\a\-ndfis  Tphs 
XpiffTiafovs-  Fragments  in  the  polemical  writings  of  Euseh.  contra  Ilicrocl.  liber. — Laetant  de 
mortib.  c.  ir>.      e)  Codese.  Justin.  I.  I.  tit.  1.  const  8. 

a)  Eu^eh.  II.  ecc.  IV,  8.  comp.  Ilieron.  catal.  c.  19s.  I)  Apologia  I.  ct  II.  ed.  ThaJemann,  Lps. 
1755;  0pp.  rec  Otio.  TU.    I.— Arendt,  Krlt  Unters,  ü.  d.  Sclirr.  Just   (.Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S34 


CHAP.  L    STRUGGLES  OF  CUEISTIANITY.    §  02.  APOLOGISTS.  51 

under  a  sense  of  unjust  oppres.«ion,  are  valuable  rather  for  the  spirit,  than  for 
the  talent  or  caution  displayed  in  them.  Even  after  he  had  become  an  evan- 
gelist, he  still  retained  his  philosopher's  cloak,  and  having  wandered  through 
all  the  existing  schools  of  philosophy,  he  had  found  peace  at  last  in  the  gos- 
pel of  Christ.  Although  he  disparages  Greek  learning  by  maintaining  that 
it  had  been  borroAved  from  Hebrew  sources,  he  acknowledged  that  what  was 
a  perfect  light  in  Christianity  may  have  been  essentially  the  same  with  the 
dim  revelations  of  the  divine  Spirit  in  the  Grecian  systems.  In  this  way  he 
found  a  point  of  accommodation  by  which  he  coiild  unite  both  systems  to- 
gether. Occupying  essentially  the  same  ground  with  that  which  had  been 
taken  by  the  apostle  Paul,  he  seems  cither  totally  unconscious  of  the  fact,  or 
to  have  I'egarded  it  with  the  prejudices  of  a  Jewish  Christian.  ('■)  The  onl}' 
answer  which  the  philosophical  emperor,  and  perhaps  also  the  cynical  phi- 
losopher Crescens,  who  was  attacked  in  the  second  Apology,  condescended 
to  give,  was  the  execution  of  the  Christian  philosopher  at  Rome  (lGl-8).  (J) 
Ilis  disciple  Tatlarnis  from  Assyria,  wrote  intelligently,  but  with  passionate 
errors  respecting  Greek  customs  and  philosophy,  (e)  The  author  of  the  epis- 
tle to  Dlognetus  shows  that  he  had  enjoyed  a  Greek  educalion,  and  that  he 
was  animated  by  a  Christianity  which  was  entirely  a  new  religion.  (/)  Athe- 
nagora»^  by  mild  and  judicious  appeals  to  Marcus  Aurelius,  attempted  to 
prove  that  Christians  were  innocent  of  the  crimes  imputed  to  them  and  Avere 
worthy  of  the  imperial  favor.  (7)  Mdito^  Bishop  of  Sardis,  especially  skilled 
in  the  literature  of  the  Old  Testament,  a  eunuch  for  the  kingdom  of  heav- 
en's sake,  and  esteemed  by  his  people  as  a  prophet  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
sought  justice  from  the  same  prince  in  behalf  of  a  philosophy  which  had  in- 
deed originated  among  barbarians,  but  had  risen  under  Augustus  as  a  propi- 
tious star  for  the  Roman  empire,  and  had  advanced  simultaneously  with 
it.  (/()  The  three  books  of  Tluophilus  of  Antioch  (170-180),  addressed  to 
Autolycus,  contain  a  carefully  written  but  narrowly  conceived  defence  of  the 
Christian  party ;  (/")  and  the  mockeries  heaped  upon  the  philosophers  of  that 
period  by  Hcrmias^  present  a  superficial  but  witty  caricature  of  the  paradoxi- 
cal questions  which  engrossed  their  attention.  (Ä-)  The  Octavius,  a  colloquy 
written  by  the  African  rhetorician  and  Roman  advocate,  Minuchts  Fdix^  in 
the  style  of  Cicero,  is  a  clear  and  concise  statement  of  the  real  questions  gen- 


S  25Gss.);  C.  Semtscli,  J.  d.  Märt.  Bral.  1840s.  2  vols.;  Otto,  de  Just.  Mart,  scrlptis  et  doctrlna.  Jen. 
]8tl ;  F.  C.  Bolt,  Ü.  d.  Vcrlirdtniss  dor  beiden  Apol.  (lllgen's  Zcitselir.  184.3.  P.  8).  [Art  in  Kitto's 
Journal  of  BiM.  Lit.  vol.  V.]  c)  Comp,  however,  Otto,  in  Ill?,-n"s  Zeitsclir.  1841.  P.  2.  1S42.  P.  3. 
1S43.  P.  1.  d)  C.  Semisc/i,  ü.  d.  Todesj.  Just  (Stud.  u.  Krlt.  1S35.  P.  4);  A.  Stieren,  ü.  d.  Todesj. 
Just  (Ill?en"s  Zcitselir.  1842.  P.  1.)  e)  Aoyof  Trphs"E\\r)vai.  ed.  Mort/i,  Oxon.  1700.— /Z  A. 
Daniff,  Tatinn  der  Apologet  Ilal.  1S37.  /)  'EiriffToA?;  irpus  Aiöyvnrov.  ed.  B<M,  in  0pp.  Patrum 
»el.  Ber.  IS.'G.  P.  L;  Otto,  in  0pp.  Just  Th.  U.—C.  D.  a  Grosxlieim,  Conim.  de  Ej.ist  ad  Diogn. 
Lps.  IS'23.  4;  Otto,  de  Epist  ad  Dlogn.  Justinl  nonicn  pr.io  se  fercntc.  Jen.  1844.  g)  ripeaßda 
iTff)\  Xpiffriavwv.  cd.  Lindner.  Longo5al.  1774. — Clurisse,  do  Athenagorao  vita,  scrlptis,  doctr. 
Lugd.  1819.  4.  [Athcnngoras,  transl.  Into  Eng.  ■with  notes  by  Humphreys.  Lond.  1714.  8.]  /<)  Ac- 
cording to  the  Fragments  in  Eiwb.  IL  ecc.  IV,  26,  comp.  V,  24;  Hieran,  catal.  c  24;  Piper,  Me- 
ito.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S88.  P.  1.)  ))  T[(p\  rrj?  twv  Xptariavwu  TriVrecur.  cd.  J.  C.  UV/  Ilamh 
.724;   Ucbcrs.  rait  Anm.  v.  Tliieiicinann.  Lpz.   1834.     k)  Ataavpuhs  räiv  t{<o  (pi\oc76(b<iit'.  ed 


52  ANCIKXT  CIIUrX'H  inSTOUY.     I'Ki:.  I.     IJIV.  II.    A.  D.  10O-3I8. 

erftlly  discussed  in  his  day.  (I)  Tertnll'uin^  especially  in  his  Apolof^eticus,  not 
only  donionstratod  the  perfect  right  of  the  Church  to  civil  jirotection,  hut  in- 
veighed \vith  hitter  eloquenoc  against  the  vile  amouis  of  the  ancient  gods  in 
the  shape  of  fishes,  l/irds,  and  hcasts.  Ori(/cn,  Avhosc  philosopdiical  viewa 
"were  fundamentally  similar  to  those  of  liis  opponent,"  with  an  untiring  indus- 
try met  all  the  ohjcctions  whlch  Celsus  had  urged,  and  -while  doing  so,  pre- 
sented a  doctrinal  defence  of  Christianity,  with  very  little  care  or  success  in 
the  discussion  of  the  political  question.  These  works  of  Origen  and  Tertul- 
lian  indicate  that  their  authors  fully  helieved  that  Christianity  had  already 
reached  a  point  which  rendered  its  future  progress  inevitahle.  Amohius  of 
Sicca  endeavored,  in  a  controversial  work  (about  803),  to  obtain  the  confi- 
dence of  the  Christians,  whom  he  had  before  persecuted  ;  and  though  it  con- 
tained many  needless  speculations,  it  defended  also  the  more  profound  doc- 
trines of  the  Church,  and  exposed  the  errors  of  heathenism  with  much 
rhetorical  skill,  (m)  The  object  of  the  apologists  was :  1)  To  answer  the  ob- 
jections made  against  Christians.  They  met  the  charge  of  atheism  by  point- 
ing to  the  well-known  piety  of  Christians  and  showing  the  true  nature  of  a 
spiritual  worship.  To  the  imputation  of  unnatural  crimes  they  opposed  the 
strictness  of  their  morality,  and  in  refutation  of  the  charge  of  treason,  they 
appealed  to  the  submission  shown  by  Christians  in  time  of  persecution,  and 
to  the  prayers  which  they  offered  up  in  behalf  of  the  emperor.  The  suffer- 
ings of  Christians  Avere  ascribed  to  demoniac  agency ;  the  death  of  the  mar- 
tyrs was  shown  tobe  no  real  evil;  the  representation  of  a  Deity  enduring 
sufferings  but  glorified  even  in  death,  they  proved  was  not  unknown  even  in 
Grecian  mythology  ;  public  calamities  were  attributed  to  the  divine  displeasure 
on  account  of  the  persecution  of  Christians ;  and  although  they  did  not  con- 
cede that  the  recent  introduction  of  a  religioa  was  a  proper  argument  against 
its  truth,  they  traced  the  radical  principles  of  Christianity  back  to  a  time  be- 
fore Moses  and  Abraham — a  period  prior  to  the  existence  of  any  of  tlie  Gre- 
cian systems  of  philosophy.  2)  To  contend  against  the  Hellenistic  systems. 
By  appeals  to  facts  and  to  reason,  they  showed  the  utter  insufficiency  and  the 
immorality  of  polytheism  ;  they  objected  to  the  spiritual  explanations  given 
of  the  myths  as  uncandid ;  and  while  they  acknowledged  all  that  was  true 
and  consistent  with  the  gospel  in  philosophy,  they  proved  that  this  was  quite 
unsatisfactory  as  the  basis  of  a  national  religion.  3)  To  prove  the  truth  and 
divine  authority  of  Christianity.  Among  the  arguments  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, were,  the  moral  power  and  divine  wisdom  exhibited  even  by  poor  and 
uneducated  people,  the  religions  peace  conferred  by  Christianity,  its  perfect 
reasonableness  and  its  rapid  and  irresistible  progress,  the  triumph  with  which 
the  martyi-s  met  their  fate,  and  the  historical  proofs  of  divine  assistance. 


Dommerich.  Hal.  1764.  I)  Ed.  Lindner.  Longosal  (1760)  1778;  Uebors.  m.  Anin.  r.  liussicttrm. 
Ilamb.  1S24.  4 ;  Keu  hrsg.  erklärt  u.  übi  rs.  v.  Luhkert.  Lps.  1S36 ;  Ad  fiilem  cod.  Eogii  ct  Brus.  rcc. 
Kihiard.  de  ^riiralto,  praefatus  est  OreHi.  Tur.  1336.—//  Meier,  Comm.  de  Min.  Fei.  Tnr.  IS'24.— 
Doubtful  vrbcther  it  was  written  in  the  oge  of  the  Antonines,  or  after  Tertullian.  Probably  in  th« 
former,  in)  Disputationes  adv.  gentes.  1.  VII.  ed.  J.  C.  Orelli,  Lpsv  1S16 ;  Additanientum.  Lpi 
1S17;  ex  nova  cod.  Taris  collat  rcc.  G.  F.  JTildebrand,  llal.  1S44;  Uebcrs.  u.  eriäut  v.  E.  A.  V 
■Bemiard.  Landsh.  1342. — P.  K.  Mayer,  de  ratione  et  argumento  apologetic!  Arnubiani.  Uava  IS15. 


CHAP.  I.    STRUGGLES  OF  CIIKISTIANITT.    §  58.  BAEBAHOUS  NATIONS.       53 

Among  the  last,  a  superior  place  wa.s  given  to  fulfilled  prophecies,  but  next 
to  them  stood  the  miracles  wliich  had  been  wrought  by  Jesus  and  his  fol- 
lowers in  the  different  periods  of  the  Church. 

§  53.  Eeliglon  of  Barbarous  Nations. 
Roman  power  and  Greek  culture  had  either  broken  up,  renovated,  or 
adopted  into  the  Roman  Pantheon  the  religions  of  all  conquered  nations.  In 
the  East,  ever  since  the  time  of  the  Grecian  conquests,  nothing  remained  in 
Asia.,  with  the  exception  of  the  established  local  worship  of  some  favorite 
gods,  but  a  sensuous  glow  of  devotion,  or  occasionally  in  Egypt  a  gloomy, 
pensive  and  mysterious  form.  In  Western  Europe,  the  religion  of  the  Celtic 
nations  was  evidently  declining.  In  Gaul.,  the  Druids,  as  priests,  judges, 
eages,  and  physicians,  had  monopolized  all  intellectual  pursuits,  and  estab- 
lished a  powerful  hierarchy.  In  contrast  with  them  existed  a  nobilitj',  whoso 
sole  occupation  was  war.  To  these  two  classes  the  common  people  gradual- 
ly became  completely  enslaved.  But  when  the  common  people  sunk  into 
this  state  of  insignificance,  the  priesthood  lost  their  principal  support  in  op- 
position to  the  nobility,  and  it  was  on  account  of  the  discord  which  prevailed 
between  these  states,  that  the  Romans  were  invited  into  their  country. 
Caesar  came,  and  saw,  and  conquered.  The  national  religion  was  then  re- 
stricted within  certain  limits  by  the  Roman  law.  Augustus  required  that  no 
Roman  citizen  should  take  any  part  in  its  rites,  and  Claudius  finally  prohib- 
ited all  human  sacrifices.  It  was  not,  however,  so  much  by  the  direct  power 
of  their  conquerors  that  the  Druids  were  overthrown,  as  by  the  new  social 
relations  then  introduced.  As  early  as  near  the  close  of  the  first  century, 
the  Order  of  the  Druids  was  an  independent  and  learned  association,  and  the 
old  popular  faith  was  mingled  with  the  Roman  mythology,  (a)  In  Britain^  the 
power  of  the  Druids,  which  was  continually  exerted  to  arouse  the  people  to 
renewed  efforts  for  freedom,  could  only  be  destroyed  by  violence  (02).  Un- 
der the  conciliatory  administration  of  Agricola,  Roman  habits  and  arts  of 
life  acquired  ascendency  even  to  the  foot  of  the  Highlands,  (h)  Hence,  no 
province  of  the  empire  opposed  Christianity  with  any  remarkable  or  long- 
continued  energy,  and  the  "West  presented  but  little  more  resistance  to  its 
progress  than  had  been  awakened  in  its  own  eastern  home. 

§  54.  Spread  of  Christianity. 
Near  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  the  gospel  had,  in  the  East, 
passed  beyond  the  limits  of  the  Roman  empire.  In  Edc.ssa  especially  it 
gained  possession  of  the  throne,  and  a  few  cliurches  were  collected  in  Par- 
thia,  Persia,  and  India.  Proceeding  from  Rome,  it  obtained  an  established 
position  in  Carthage  and  in  the  western  provinces  of  Africa.    In  Western 

a)  Caemr;  <le  bc-llo  call.  I,  31.  VI,  12-lfi.— .7:  0.  Fi  hk,  do  Pniidis  cd.  A.  Frick,  Ulm.  1744.  4 
Duclo»,  Mem.  sur  les  DniideÄ.  (Mem.  dc  Taoad.  dos  inscript  Th.  XIX.) ;  Jfonn,  Gosch.  d.  Ileidentli. 
im  nOrdl.  Eur.  Lps.  u.  Dnrmst  lS22s.  vol.  II.  p.  853-426.  h)  K.  DdvU»,  Celtic  Eesoarclies  on  tb« 
OrIj;in  and  Traditions  of  the  Ancient  Britons.  Lond.  1S04.  [I<hm.  Rltosoftlie  British  Druids.  Lend., 
O.  /nr/ghm,  Tlio  Celtic  Druids.  Lond.  1S2T.  4.]  Tohmd,  Hist,  of  tlio  Druids,  witli  additions  by 
TTuihUi'sUm.  Montrose,  1S14;  2rone,  vol.  11.  p.  42G-54S.  [Kitl>-n\i  lid.  .Virff.  vol.  11.  1?2?.  pp.  Sl-itt 
.19-122.  490-500;  Incidents  of  the  Apostolic  A?e  in  Britain.  Lond.  :^U.  12.1 


54  ANciKNT  rui'iic'ir  irisTonr.  per.  r.   mv.  ir.   a.  n.  100-812. 

Europe  it  ])ressc(l  onward  to  S|)ain  and  even  gained  some  possessions  in  Bri 
tain.  Flourishing  cluirelics  from  Asia  Minor  -were  jdanted  in  Lj'ons,  Vieniio, 
and  Paris,  from  which  Christianity  was  extended  to  ])arharous  nations  whose 
lansua},'c  had  never  hecn  reduced  to  writing.  Qt)  Near  the  chj.se  of  tlie  third 
century,  churches  were  established  in  Armenia,  and  a  few  bislioprics  were 
formed  on  the  Khine  and  in  Britain.  The  manner  in  Avhich  religion  was  pro- 
l)agatcd  was,  commencing  generally  with  the  large  cities,  it  Avas  carried  for- 
ward not  so  nuich  by  organized  missions  as  by  ordinary  social  intcrconrse. 
It  had  become  powerful  as  a  popular  element,  prevailing  most  among  the 
lower  classes,  but  by  means  of  slaves  and  women  it  had  penetrated,  as  early 
as  near  the  end  of  the  second  century,  every  order  of  society.  Abont  that 
time  the  Apologists  speak  of  the  number  of  Christians  with  skilful  and  en- 
thusiastic declamation  ;  (h)  and  though  even  in  the  commencement  of  the 
fourth  century  they  were  far  from  being  a  majority  of  the  population,  their 
intimate  fellowship  and  zeal  gave  them  a  predominant  influence  in  society. 
The  barbarous  Jewish  origin  and  the  strict  and  self-denying  morality  of  their 
religion,  the  suspicion  of  political  disaflection  under  which  they  rested,  and 
their  simple,  lowly  character  at  first,  were  powerful  diflSculties  in  the  way 
of  its  propagation.  But  to  be  weighed  against  these,  as  secondary  causes  of 
its  victory,  must  be  noticed  the  advantage  which  it  enjoyed  on  account  of 
the  xmity  of  the  Eoman  empire  and  the  general  prevalence  of  Greek  cul- 
ture, its  miraculous  powers,  and  the  benefits  which  it  offered  to  the  poor,  the 
sick,  travellers,  and  those  Avho  were  in  any  way  destitute.  Even  the  perse- 
cutions throi\gh  which  it  passed  were  beneficial,  since  they  were  severe 
enough  to  arouse  in  its  followers  an  heroic  courage,  and  in  those  who  observed 
them  an  admiring  wonder,  and  yet  were  not  protracted  or  general  enough  to 
destroy  the  Church.  Next  to  the  vital  decline  of  heathenism,  however,  the 
essential  reason  of  its  success  was  the  real  truth  and  power  of  Christianity 
presenting  itself  in  the  happiest  of  all  forms — a  religion  adapted  to  the  masses 
of  the  people. 

§  55.     The  Last  Persecution. 
Lactant.  de  mortib.  c.  7-13.  Eitsei.  H.  ecc.  YIIL  IX 

In  the  enjoyment  of  forty  years  of  peace  Christianity  had  time  to  per- 
fect its  victories.  It  was  then  that  Diocletian  (284—305)  by  his  protracted 
course  of  real  success,  was  induced  to  hope  he  might  restore  the  empire  to 
its  former  glory.  lie  regarded  the  restoration  of  the  established  religion  to 
its  former  ascendency  as  a  primary  condition  on  which  such  a  result  de- 
pended. His  son-in-law  the  Caesar  Galei'ius^  in  consequence  of  bis  low  dis- 
position and  heathenish  superstition,  became  the  instrument  of  a  party  in  the 
court,  which  demanded  the  subversion  of  Christianity  as  indispensable  to  the 
stability  of  their  power.  The  heathen  government,  conscious  tliat  it  was 
sinking  in  its  proper  character  before  the  spiritua.  power  of  the  Church,  com- 
menced another  struggle,  on  the  issue  of  which  was  staked  its  life  or  death. 
Galerius  first  removed  all  Christians  from  his  army  (298).     Diocletian  still 


ß)  Iren.  Ill,  4.    V)  Tertul.  Apologotlciis,  c.  S".  e.  Juil.  c. 


CHAP.  I.    STKUGGLES  OF  CHKISTIANITY.     §  5G.  MAKTYR9.  55 

shrunk  from  tlio  contest,  for  he  'well  knew  it  would  be  terrible.  Finally 
when  counsel  had  been  sought  from  gods  and  men,  the  destruction  of  the 
Church  of  Nicomedia  (Feb.  23,  303)  proclaimed  that  the  persecution  of  the 
Cliristians  had  commenced.  The  imperial  edict  which  immediately  followed 
that  event,  commanded  that  all  Christian  temples  should  be  destroyed,  and 
the  books  belonging  to  them  burned ;  that  all  civil  officers  professing  Chris- 
tianity should  forfeit  their  dignities ;  that  Christian  citizens  should  be  deprived 
of  their  civil  privileges,  and  that  even  slaves  who  avowed  faith  in  Christ 
should  lose  all  prospect  of  freedom,  (a)  The  indignation  such  a  proceeding 
provoked  against  the  emperor,  and  the  real  or  imaginary  perils  AUnch  now 
threatened  him,  required  that  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  should  bo  ar- 
rayed against  the  Christians.  After  two  other  edicts  had  been  put  forth,  each 
more  rigorous  than  that  which  preceded  it,  a  fourth  (30i)  required  that  all 
Christians  should  be  compelled  to  offer  sacrifice  by  every  practicable  means,  (h) 
The  persecution  raged  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  empire.  The  spirit  of  the 
Church  was  divided  by  the  most  heroic  courage  and  base  cowardice.  Monu- 
ments were  erected  in  honor  of  the  emperor,  implying  that  he  had  utterly 
abolished  the  name  of  Cliristian.  But  in  Gaul,  Spain,  and  Britain,  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Christians  were  much  m.itigated  by  the  conduct  of  the  Caesar 
Constantius  Chlorus.  His  son,  Constantine  (after  806),  inherited  his  father's 
spirit  in  a  still  higher  degree.  In  the  East,  Galerius,  tired  of  the  useless  effu- 
sion of  blood,  on  his  deathbed  (311)  suspended  the  progress  of  the  persecu- 
tion, ((•)  but  it  was  immediately  renewed  in  Asia  by  Maximinus.  "When  Con- 
Btantine,  however,  had  overthrown  Maxentius,  he,  in  conjimction  with  Lici- 
nius,  the  Augustus  of  Eastern  Europe,  was  induced  by  his  regard  for  Chris- 
tians to  proclaim  (312)  a  universal  toleration  for  all  religions.  (J) 

§  50.     The  Martyrs. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  ten  jicrsecutions,  as  that  number  is  conve- 
nient for  popular  recollection,  and  accordant  with  certain  allegorical  rela- 
tions, {a)  but  some  of  them  scarcely  deserve  the  name.  Those  who  were 
disposed  to  fly  from  the  danger  usually  found  the  way  of  escape  unobstructed ; 
when  any  actually  suffered  they  were  generali}-  those  whose  lives  were  re- 
garded as  of  no  value,  those  whose  death  appeared  needful,  on  account  of 
their  superior  guilt,  as  a  warning  to  others,  and  those  Avho  occupied  promi- 
nent stations  in  the  Church,  or  slaves.  Accordingly,  even  in  the  time  of 
Origen,  the  number  of  those  who  had  died  as  martyrs  was  very  small,  and 
easily  reckoned.  {l>)  We  read  of  a  blind  fury,  in  the  times  of  Decius  and  Dio- 
cletian, which  no  longer  regarded  individuals,  but  vented  itself  in  the  sftcrlfico 
of  whole  masses  of  people  at  once;  but  in  general,  the  first  notices  we  have 
respecting  it  arc  in  the  exaggerated  accounts  Avliich  have  come  down  to  us  in 

a)  Lact.  c.  13.  Euseh.  VIII,  2.    I)  Ewieh.  de  martyrlbus  Tnlacst  c  Z. 

c)  Lact  c.  84.  Euseb.  VIII,  17. 

d)  Its  contents  may  be  inferred  from  the  edict  of  313 :  Lact,  c  4S.  Eusob.  X,  5. 
o)  Apoc.  17,  12!-s.  Exod.  7s3. 

h)  Orig.  c.  Cels.  III.  (TIi.  I.  p.  4Ö2.)  Tet  comp.  It'en.  IV,  33,  O.—DodiceV,  de  pnticit.^le  mnrtyrca]. 
In  his  Dss.  Cyprianicis.    On  the  other  hand,  Ruinarti  Traef.  ad  Acta  martyruin. 


5G  AKCIKNT  ClirilCII  IIISTOUY.     I'VAl  I.     UIV.  II.     A.  I).     100-3U 

legends.  Tims  wo  liml  tliat  cloven  thousand  virgins  are  .said  to  have  perished 
with  St.  Ursula.  The  most  credible  evidence  on  which  this  story  was  built, 
consists  in  a  false  construction  of  an  ancient  manuscript,  and  a  revelation  from 
heaven  to  a  company  of  monks  first  in  the  year  1103,  which  jtointed  out 
their  bones.  The  story  of  the  massacre  of  the  Thcban  legion  (2C8)  appears 
in  a  fluetu'iting  state  even  in  the  sixth  century,  (r)  TIic  executions  generally 
took  place  in  strict  coiilbriiiity  with  the  demands  of  the  penal  law,  but  when 
the  feelings  of  the  populace  were  especially  embittered,  or  when  it  seemed 
desirable  to  terrify  survivors,  the  most  dreadful  illegal  torments  were  de- 
vised. {(I)  Many  saved  themselves  by  denying  Christ,  and  oflering  sacrifice 
io  the  gods  (thurificati,  sacrificati),  some  by  bribing  the  magistrates  to  grant 
them  certificates  that  they  had  sacrificed  (libellatici),  and  others  by  surren- 
dering the  sacred  books  (traditorcs).  But  so  great  was  the  joy  of  the  Con- 
fessors and  the  Martyrs,  that  they  were  sometimes  reproved  by  judicious 
pastors  for  pressing  too  eagerly  forward  to  death.  The  virtues  of  Greek  and 
Roman  antiquity  were  revived,  as  the  people  surrendered  themselves  that 
they  might  obtain  a  home  beyond  the  skies,  (e)  The  power  of  faith  was 
triumphant  even  over  the  feelings  of  our  common  nature,  and  over  the  shud- 
dering horror  which  persons  of  a  delicate  habit  and  of  refinement  are  apt  to 
feel  on  such  occasions.  Even  children  took  i)Ieasure  in  death,  and  noble 
maidens  endured  what  was  far  worse.  (/)  Althougli  many  encountered 
death  cheerfully,  because  they  preferred  it  to  the  disgrace  which  must  have 
been  the  lot  of  the  apostate  and  the  traitor,  and  because  they  longed  for  the 
honor  and  glory  which  the  martyrs  attained  even  on  earth  in  the  admiration 
of  their  friends  and  expected  immediately  after  in  Paradise,  there  was  be- 
yond all  this  a  genuine  delight  in  following  Jesus,  which  gave  to  the  Church 
a  consciousness  that  it  Avas  invincible. 


CUx\.P.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTIO:^'  OF  THE  CllUliCir. 

J.  IT.  Böhmer,  Entwickl.  d.  KStaatsd.  ersten  3  Jalirli.  Hal.  (171S)  173.5.  W.  K.  L.  ZUgler,  Yrs.  e. 
prasm.  Goscli.  d.  kirclil.  Gesellschaftsformen  in  d.  ersten  C  .lahrli.  Lps.  179S.  Möhler,  die  Einli.  in  d. 
K.  o.  d.  Trineip.  d.  Kath.  im  Geiste  d.  KVerf.  d.  3  ersten  Jalirh.  Tub.  IS'25.  Ihise,  de  jure  ecc. 
Comnitr.  hist.  Lps.  182S.  P.  I.  J.  IT.  M.  Ernesti,  KStaat,  d.  3  ersten  Jahrh.  Xiirnh.  1S30.  W.  Böh- 
mer, die  socialen  Verb.  d.  K.  alter  Zeit.  (Alterthumsw.  vol.  I.)  Brcsl.  1S36.  K.  Rothe,  die  Anfang« 
d.  K.  n.  ihrer  Verf.  Witt  183".  vol.  I.  {Riddle's  Manu;d  of  Christian  Antiquities,  Lond.  Bhigham's 
Origines  Ecclesiasticae,  Lond.  1S4Ö.  L.  Coleman,  rrimitive  Christianitj-  Exemplified,  Philad.  1S52. 
2  vols.  S.] 

§  57.     Original  Documents  on  Ecclesiastical  Law, 
The  usages  and  laws  which  prevailed  in  particular  provinces  were  not  es- 
sentially difl:erent  from  each  other,  since  the  general  relations  of  society  were 

c)  Vita  Rom  wii.  (Acta  Sanctor.  Feb.  Th.  TIL  p.  740.)  Triihemii  Ann.  Hirs.  Th.  I.  p.  4")0.  O.  IIa- 
Uens  Rcimchronik  d.  Stadt  Colin.  Edited  by  Groots,  Coll.  18.34  Comp.  P.hcinwald's  Hep.  1S;35.  vol. 
IX.  p.  SOlss.— /)!t  Bourdieu,  sur  lo  martyre  de  la  legion  tliebeenne,  Amst.  1705.  12.  Jos.  d'l^lf,  de- 
fense do  la  vCrite  de  la  legion  thebeenne.  Par.  1741.  12.— Respecting  Massa  Candida ;  in  Prudent 
Hymn.  13s.  sec.  Titlemont,  Th.  IV.  p.  17.')ss. 

d)  Siigitfariits  de  mart,  cscrucialib.  Frcf  ct  Lps.  (tC70)  '.COG.  4.    f)  Etiseh.  II.  ccc.  V,  1. 
/)  Lact.  Instt  T,  13. 


CHAP.  IL     CONSTITUTION.        57.  LEGISLATION.     §  58.  CLERGY.  57 

every  where  the  same,  and  a  continual  intercourse  "was  carried  on  hetween 
the  several  parts  of  the  empire.  They  may  be  learned  partly  from  the  wri- 
tings of  the  contemporaneous  fathers,  in  ■which  individual  facts  are  referred 
to,  and  partly  from  later  enactment.s,  which,  without  hesitation,  refer  to  primi- 
tive usage.  The  Ajwstolical  Constitutions  which  bear  the  name  of  Clemens 
Romanus,  in  the  first  six  books  contain  the  oldest  usages  and  laws  prevalent 
among  the  Jewish  Christians  of  the  Oriental  Church  of  the  tliird  century. 
In  the  fourth  century,  when  the  seventh  and  eighth  books  were  added,  this 
work  received  some  interpolations  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical  usages,  though 
not  in  the  sense  charged  by  the  Arians.  As  a  collection  they  have  never  at- 
tained any  legal  authority,  (it)  The  Aj)ostolical  Canons'are  a  compilation 
gradually  formed  of  the  constitutions  and  enactments  of  Synods  during  the 
fourth  century,  and  therefore  are  supposed  to  embrace  the  traditions  respect- 
ing law,  which  had  come  down  from  the  Apostles.  The  Roman  Church  hav- 
ing once  rejected  this  collection  as  a  whole,  decided  (after  500)  to  receive  the 
first  fifty  canons,  (i)  John  Scholasticus  (middle  of  the  6th  century)  found  ah 
the  eighty-five  canons  alreadj'  in  the  books  of  laws  used  in  the  Greek  Cliurch.  (c) 
No  proof  therefore  in  favor  of  a  regular  system  of  legal  relations  in  the 
churches  of  the  second  and  third  centuries  can  be  drawn  merely  from  thi-s 
collection,  because  it  bears  the  apostolic  name. 

§  58.     The  Clergy  and  the  Laity. 

The  offices  of  the  Church  at  this  period  presented  very  little  to  excite  the 
cupidity  of  ordinary  men,  and  even  the  honor  attending  them  was  counter- 
balanced by  the  dangers.  And  yet  it  seemed  desirable  to  increa.so  the  venera- 
tion which  necessarily  attends  the  virtues  and  a  faithful  performance  of  offi- 
cial duty  in  the  Church,  by  mysterious  forms  of  ordination,  by  connecting 
them  through  various  associations  with  the  Old  Testament  priesthood,  and 
by  external  tokens  of  peculiar  sanctity.  The  result  was,  that  even  in  the 
second  century  the  priests  (icXr/pof,  ordo)  were  represented  as  the  official  me- 
diators between  Christ  and  the  congregation  (X«of,  plebs).  To  speak  in  the 
bhurch,  and  to  administer  holy  rites,  were  conceded  to  be  the  special  prero- 
gatives of  the  clergy,  although  learned  laymen  were  sometimes  heard  in  the 
public  assembly,  with  the  consent  of  tlie  bishop,  {li)  In  all  things  relating 
to  the  business  of  the  congregation,  tlie  principal  care  and  autliority  devolved 
upon  the  clergy,  But  this  power  was  generally  exercised  mildly  and  with  a 
true  regard  for  the  public  good,  since  those  who  possessed  it  could  use  no  ex- 
ternal means  of  coercion,  and  the  clergy,  being  generally  without  fixed  sala- 

a)  AioToyal  tup  ay.  'AirocTToAw^,  printfld  In  Otelerius'  Edit,  of  tlio  Patres  Ajip.  Th.  I.  p.  199. 
WelUen  lias  publ.  r  new  edit  of  the  Ap.  Constt  Lps.  1S54.  12.]— (?.  Krahbf,  ü.  Ursprung  n.  Inhalt 
der  apost.  Constitt  Hamb.  1S29.  J.  S.  v.  Drei/,  neue  Unters,  ü.  d.  Constitt.  u.  Kanones  der  App. 
Tub.  18.32. 

l)  GelaMi,  Dccrctum  a.  494.  {Gratlnn  :  c.  8.  D.  XV.  §  04.)  Dionysii  Praefatio.  (J/ljn^/.  Th.  I.  p.  3.) 
c)  Kav&vis  fKK\ri(TiarTriKol  tIüv  ay,  'Axo(TT6\wy,  printed  in  most  of  theeccles.  collections  of  laws 
and  in  Cuteleriun,  I.  p.  437.— .V.  F.  lifgenhrecht.  de  canonlb.  App.  Vrat  1823.  Krabbe  do  c<xL 
conjnum,  qui  App.  nomine  clrcuniferuntur.  Gott  1829.  4. 

rt)  Eu!<,:h.  n.  ccc.  VI,  19.  Constt  app.  VIII,  32.  comp.  Cone.  OirtJi.  IV.  a.  419.  can.  98.  (.lAni«i 
Th.  III.  p.  959.)    [Cone.  Carth.  an.  898.  can.  22.  In  Landons  Manual  of  CounciK] 


58  ANcir.NT  <  ini:(  II  iii-KiKV.    ri:i:.  I.   MV.  ii.    a.  d.  100-C12. 

rics,  Avcro  (loiK-inlüiit  iii)Oii  tliu  voluntary  contributions  of  tlic  people.  (J) 
Tlicir  autliority  was  often  inueli  slriiitcned  by  the  inlliienco  of  the  confessors, 
and  tlio  idea  was  not  yet  removed  of  .1  pricstliood  emljracint,'  all  true  Chris- 
tian?, (r)  The  congregation  still  possessed  the  undisputed,  tiiough  often  tho 
violated  right,  to  decide  upon  the  exclusion  and  tho  restoration  of  its  own 
members,  to  confirm  the  choice  of  its  presbyters,  to  bo  heard  ujion  every  im- 
portant matter,  and  to  elect  its  own  bishop.  This  last  mcntit)ned  jiublic  pri- 
vilege, near  tho  close  of  the  third  century,  was  much  curtailed  by  the  inter- 
ference of  the  clergy  who  presided  over  the  congregation,  and  of  the  neigh- 
boring bishops,  (dl  As  many  presbyters  were  elected  as  appeared  necessary 
at  tho  time,  until  in  eacb  congregation  such  a  number  was  gradually  settled 
upon  as  its  circumstances  seemed  to  require.  In  the  African  churches  the 
Elders  (seniores)  do  not  seem  to  have  been  devoted  to  tlie  business  of  in- 
struction, nor  to  have  belonged  to  the  clerical  order.  Their  office  did  not 
then  imply  a  clearly  recognized  distinction  between  lay  and  clerical  presby- 
ters, and  they  were  probably  relics  of  tho  original  equality  of  the  clergy  and 
all  God's  people  in  the  primitive  Church,  when  all  the  presbyters  were  not 
fitted  for  the  work  of  instruction  and  private  members  of  the  Church  were 
not  excluded  from  it.  (c)  Deacons  were  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
proper  priesthood  (sacerdotium),  but  as  ecclesiastical  servants  (ministres).  As 
the  number  seven  originally  connected  Avith  tho  deacon's  office  was  not  will- 
ingly exceeded,  the  larger  churches  in  the  third  century  were  supplied  with 
sub-deacons.  To  the  appropriate  duties  of  the  deacon's  office  were  added  li- 
turgical exercises,  and  sometimes  also  preaching.  As  they  were  elected  by 
the  bishop  alone,  they  were  sometimes  through  his  influence  exalted  above 
the  presbyters.  The  inferior  services  pertaining  to  the  Church  were  per- 
formed by  laymen,  from  whom  were  gradually  formed  four  gradations  of  a 
semi-clergy,  called  Ostiarii,  Lectores,  Exorcistae,  and  Acoluthi.  The  clergy 
became  more  and  more  separated  from  all  secular  employments,  but  as  they 
were  generally  obliged  to  pass  through  the  inferior  offices,  they  obtained  a 
practical  education,  and  many  of  them  in  the  catechetical  schools  of  the 
Church  or  in  the  philosophical  schools  of  the  heathen,  acquired  considerable 
learning.  The  rule  that  no  one  should  be  advanced  to  the  higher  stations  in 
the  Church  until  he  had  performed  for  a  certain  period  the  functions  of  each 
inferior  office,  was  frequently  dispensed  with  by  the  favor  of  the  bishop  or 
of  the  people,  and  laymen  and  even  catechumens  were  sometimes  imme- 
diately elevated  to  the  episcopal  office. 


I)  Ziegler,  die  Einkünfte  des  CIcrus  in  d.  ersten  3  Jnlirli.  (Ilenkes  N.  Mag.  vol.  IV.  p.  lls-s.) 

c)  Iren.  IV,  20.  rertul.  de  bapt.  c.  17.  Ex.iort.  ad  cast.  c.  7.  Orig.  in  Jo.  torn.  1,  3.  (,Th.  IV.  p.  3.) 
de  orat  c.  23. 

d)  Cypr.  Ep.  31.  §  5.  Ep.  5D.  §  \.—Euseh.  II.  eec.  VI,  ^X—Cypr.  Ep.  6.  §  ö.—Cypr.  Ep.  M.  S  a 
Ep.  68.  §  6. 

e)  Ciilvhii  Inst.  IV,  3,  8.  Corrected  by  Vitringa,  de  syn.  vet.  II,  2. 


CHAP.  II.    CONSTITUTION.    §  59.  BISHOPS.  59 

§  59.    Bishops. 

Wcdonis  ifeimtini  {Sitlmafiii)  Ds.  do  Episcopls  et  Presbb.  c.  Petavuin.  L.  li.  1C41.  A  Bfondel, 
Apol.  pro  sententla  Hier,  de  Episc.  et  Prr.  Amst  IWO.  4.  On  the  otlicr  side:  //  HammonJ,  Dss.  4. 
quibiis  Ei)iscopatus  jura  ex  Sc.  S.  ot  antlquitiito  adstruuntur.  Lond.  ICiil.  A.— Locke,  Ecc.  app.  p. 
lOOts.— Ä7.5«,  Ü.  d.  Urspr.  d.  bisch.  Gewalt.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  1S.32.  vol.  II.  sect.  'i.)—Ruthe  die  Anf.  d. 
clir.  Kirche,  p.  ITtss.  On  the  other  side:  Baur  ü.  d.  Urspr.  des  Episcopats.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1S33.  P. 
3.)  Comp.  §  42.  note  c.  {Jamieson,  C>prianus  Isotiuius.  Lond.  1705.] 

In  the  Epistles  "which  bear  the  name  of  Ignatius,  the  episcopate  is  repre- 
sented as  the  divinely  appointed  pillar  which  sustains  the  whole  ecclesiastical 
fabric,  and  yet  much  needing  the  writer's  most  earnest  commendations.  So 
general  and  so  thorough  a  change  as  that  which  iij  any  view  of  the  case  it 
must  have  pa.ssed  through  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  could  then 
have  been  effected  b}'  no  personal  influence,  nor  by  general  consent,  but  only 
by  the  concurrent  power  of  circumstances.  Wherever  there  Avas  more 
than  one  presbyter,  some  individual  on  account  of  his  personal  influence 
would  be  called  to  preside,  or  all  would  do  so  in  rotation.  "When  different 
portions  of  the  larger  congregations  met,  as  they  sometimes  did,  in  dilTerefit 
places  of  worship  at  the  same  time,  each  congregation  would  naturally  be 
anxious  to  preserve  as  much  as  possible  its  existing  unity,  in  spite  of  its  acci- 
dental separation.  This  was  accomplished  by  retaining  a  common  connec- 
tion with  the  presbyter  who  had  previously  presided  over  them.  But  by 
this  means  his  jurisdiction  became  much  enlarged  and  strengthened.  The 
name  Overseer  was  especially  applied  to  the  peculiar  office  which  such  a 
presbyter  filled,  (a)  As  soon  as  this  name  became  thus  appropriated  to  de- 
signate a  superior  dignity  in  the  larger  cities,  tliose  presbyters  who  stood 
alone  in  the  smaller  towns  would  naturally  prefer  the  original  Greek  appella- 
tion which  was  common  to  them  all.  Ilence.  Irenaeus  continued  to  use 
both  names  interchangeably,  and  this  memento  of  the  original  equality  of 
presbyters  and  bishops  remained  firmly  in  the  Church  for  a  long  time  after 
new  relations  entirely  inconsistent  with  it  had  become  established,  (l)  At 
the  same  time  also  those  Elders  of  the  former  age  who  had  been  distinguished 
for  their  personal  character  were  always  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  BLsh- 
ops.  The  complete  realization  of  the  Episcopate  may  be  seen  in  the  Epistles 
of  Cyprian.  The  Bishop,  as  the  successor  of  the  apostles,  there  ai)pears  as 
the  representative  of  his  Church,  and  at  the  same  time  to  the  Church  itself 
he  is  the  vicar  of  Christ;  he  is  espoused  to  the  local  congregation,  and  also 
to  the  general  Church ;  he  is  responsible  to  God  alone,  and  yet  is  an  indi- 
vidual organ  of  the  whole  episcopate,  (c)  He  possessed  supreme  power  in 
the  Church,  and  yet  in  important  matters  was  to  do  nothing  without  tho 
counsel  of  his  presbyters,  (cf)    All  ordinations  proceeded  from  him.    At  first 

rt)  In  Justin  (Apol.  L  c.  65.)  still  called  irapfarws. 

h)  I/iero».  ad  Tit  I,  7.  Ep.  101.  (al.  S^.)  nd  Evanfielum.  Amhrosids'er.  (iniarius  Duic.)  ad  Epli. 
IV,  11.  ad  I.  Tim.  Ill,  10.  Clirymst.  Hom.  in  Phil.  I,  1.  (Th.  XI.  p.  195.)  Both  passages  of  Jeromo 
in  Oratian  :  o.  T>.  D.  XCV.  and  24.  D.  XCIII.  [also  In  GieseUr  Ecc.  Hist  vol.  I.  p.  100.  note  2.]  But 
Urban  JI.  in  Cone.  Benevent,  ein.  1.  (ifansi.  Th.  XX.  p.  73S.)  can  bo  appealed  to  on  this  subject 
only  when  the  conte.xt  is  disregarded. 

-)  Ci/pr.  Oratio  ad  Cone.  Carth.  (p.  4«.)  Ep.  72.  §  .3.  nd  Stephan.  Ep.  67.  §  .3.  De  unltato  Ecc.  a  4, 

d)  Ci/pi:  dc  nleator  c.  1.  Kp.  60.  §  7.  Ep.  C.  §  5.  Ep.  23.  §  2.  comp.  Cunc.  CarViag.  IV.  a.  419.  caa 
84,  85.    (ilansi,  Ti).  ILL  p.  954.) 


GO  ANC'iiCNT  cin;i:cii  iiistouv.    ri:i:.  i.    niv.  ii.   a.  d.  i'io-3i2. 

lio  was  liiinsc'lf  ordained  by  the  iiiipowition  of  tlie  liands  of  llio  presbyter* 
but  afterwards  by  the  iicigbborin^  bisliops.  Every  tran-slation  of  a  biskop 
appeared  of  doubtful  i)ropricty,  altliougli  it  was  often  necessarily  conceded  to 
the  dciuandrt  of  ambition  and  of  liigber  powers,  as  well  as  to  tlie  conimot 
welfare.  Many  of  tlio  bishops  of  the  country  congregations  ( xoiitnln-Konot) 
continued  from  the  very  commencement  of  their  existence  dependent  upon 
those  bishoprics  in  the  city  from  which  they  sprung,  and  others  originally 
independent  gradually  submitted  to  the  influence  of  the  neighboring  city 
bishop.  In  Africa  alone  no  distinction  between  the  names  ever  appears.  Tho 
bishops  of  the  larger  cities  in  like  manner  becarao  exalted  in  power  and  au- 
thority above  tho  others.  But  all  bishops  possessed  the  right  of  perfect 
equality  among  themselves  since  their  prerogatives  depended  not  upon  tho 
transitory  possessions  of  this  world,  but  upon  the  common  investiture  which 
they  had  all  received  from  Christ. 

§  GO.     St/nods. 

ZleffUr,  pragm.  Darst,  des  Ursprungs  <1.  Synoden  u.  d.  Ausbildung  d.  Synodalverf.  (Ilenke's  N 
Maj:.  vol.  I.  p.  1'25bs. 

Ever  since  the  latter  part  of  the  second  century  a  number  of  assemblies, 
composed  of  bishops  residing  near  each  other,  had  been  held  to  obtain  the 
highest  possible  authority  for  a  decision  of  the  controversies  which  had 
sprung  up.  (a)  But  in  the  commencement  of  the  third  century  the  provin- 
cial synods,  at  first  in  Greece,  (l)  and  soon  afterwards  m  the  whole  Eastern 
world,  became  the  formal  basis  of  an  ecclesiastical  constitution,  as  the  su- 
preme courts  of  legislation,  administration  and  jurisdiction.  Their  meetings 
were  held  either  annually  or  semi-annually,  and  every  bishop  in  the  province 
had  a  seat  and  a  voice  in  them,  and  as  exceptions  to  the  rule,  even  presbyters 
and  confessors.  The  bishops  were  heard  not  as  representatives  of  their 
churches  but  in  their  own  name,  in  consequence  of  a  right  received  from  the 
Holy  Ghost,  (c)  The  meetings  however  were  public,  and  the  people  who 
were  present  made  their  influence  felt.  The  possession  of  infallibility  was 
never  thought  of,  and  their  decisions  liad  no  authority  beyond  their  respec- 
tive provinces.  ((7)  The  ecclesiastical  provinces  which  in  this  way  appear  as 
communities,  to  which  all  individual  bishops  were  amenable,  generally  co" 
responded  Avith  the  provinces  of  the  empire. 

§  61.     Metropolitans. 

The  natural  presidents  of  the  ecclesiastical  provinces  were  the  bishops 
of  the  principal  cities  (ju»;rpo7roXety).  The  grounds  on  which  their  pre-emi- 
nence was  founded  were  generally  the  apostolical  origin  of  their  churches, 
the  wealth  of  their  congregations,  and  their  frequent  opportunities  of  assist- 
ing those  who  resided  in  tho  provinces.  The  Metropolitans  therefore,  as  the 
first  among  their  equals,  soon  obtained  the  right  of  convening  and  conduct- 

d)  Euseb.  n.  ecc.  V.  16.  23.    6)  Tertul  de  jejnn.  c.  1-3. 

c)  Ci/pr.  Ep.  54.  §  5.  Comp.  Cone.  Arelat.  a.  314.  {Jfansi,  Th  II.  p.  469.) 

d)  Ci/pr.  Ep.  14.  §  1  Ep.  M.  §  5.  Ep.  72.  §  3. 


CHAP.  II.     COXSTITUTIOX.     §  Gl.  METKOI'OLITANS.        62.  GEKAT  BISHOPS.    61 

ing  the  proceedings  of  the  Sjiiods,  and  of  confirming  and  ordaining  the  pro- 
vincial bishops.  But  it  was  only  in  the  East  that  this  Metropolitan  system 
was  completely  carried  out.  The  Bishop  of  Carthage  sometimes  claimed  the 
right  of  a  Metropolitan  over  the  churches  in  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  where 
there  was  no  great  city  naturally  possessing  the  right  of  precedence,  but  the 
presidency  in  their  synods  was  abvays  given  to  the  oldest  bishop  (Sonex). 

§  62,     The  Three  Great  Bishops. 

The  same  causes  which  produced  the  elevation  of  the  metropolitans,  op- 
erated in  a  still  higher  degree  to  give  the  largest  metropolitan  diocese  to  the 
bishops  of  the  three  principal  cities  of  the  empire,  L'ome,  Alexandria,  and 
Antioch.  Rome  obtained  Middle  and  Lower  Italy  with  uncertain  limits, 
and  by  means  of  a  colony  of  bishops  sent  into  Southern  Gaul  (about  2o0)  au 
indefinite  influence  was  secured  in  tlie  aliairs  of  that  region,  {n)  Alexandria 
obtained  possession  of  Egypt,  and  Antioch  of  Syria.  The  successor  of  St. 
Peter  received  an  honorable  rank  above  all  other  bi.shops,  on  account  of  the 
majesty  of  the  eternal  citj',  and  the  vast  and  skilfully  used  wealth  at  his  dis- 
posal even  when  Laurentius  could  present  to  the  avaricious  magistrate  the 
poor  of  the  city  as  the  treasure  of  the  Roman  Church,  (b)  Roman  bishops 
of  that  period  have  since  been  canonized,  who  were  great  only  in  their 
deaths.  No  extraordinary  individuals  were  concerned  in  laying  the  founda- 
tions of  her  subsequent  empire.  The  first  presage  of  its  future  position  was 
afforded  in  two  attempts  wliich  it  made  to  impose  its  usages  upon  other 
churches.  These  were  sternly  repelled  by  the  Asiatic  and  African  bishops,  (c) 
The  thought  of  a  Bishop  of  bishops  was  first  advanced  in  favor  of  James, 
about  the  middle  of  the  second  centurj',  by  a  Jewish  party  in  Rome,  and  was 
regarded  in  Africa  as  equivalent  to  an  ecclesiastical  tyranny.  (</)  Tlie  first 
voluntary  recognition  of  Roman  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  report  that  the  apostolical  traditions  had  been  preserved  with 
especial  purity  in  the  "West,  {e)  Cyprian  saw  in  the  pre-eminence  of  Peter  a 
symbol  of  the  unity  of  the  Church.  (/)  Even  when  Marcellinus  offered  in- 
cense to  the  gods  (302),  the  very  infirmity  of  a  Roman  bishop  has  been  made 

a)  Cypr.  Ep.  67.  comp.  Gregor.  Taron.  II.  Francor.  I,  23.  , 

h)  Tho  proofs  are  collected  by  TiUemont.  Th.  IV.  p.  41..     c)  §  69.  84. 

d)  Ep.  Clementls  ad  Jac.  in  Clem.  Homil.  (P.  app.  ed.  Coteler.  Th.  I.  p.  605).  Ci/pr.  In  Cone  Car- 
tliag.  {nont?i,  Pvoliq.  sac.  III.  p.  91)  conf.  Tcrtul.  do  pudic.  c.  1. 

e)  Iren.  Ill,  3,  2:  "Ad  banc  Ecclesiam  propter  potiorom  (potentlnrem)  princlp.illtntpm  nccesse 
est  omnein  eonvenire  Ecclesiam,  Iioc  est  cos  qui  sunt  nndiquo  Alleles,  in  qua  semper  »b  his,  qui  sunt 
undlquc,  conservata  est  ea  quae  est  nb  Apostolis  traditio.  [Xlphs  Taxnrjv  iKK\T](Ttav  Sta  tJ)» 
iKavuTfpav  apxh"  i^vaym}  iriKTav  crvfifiaiveiv  rvji/  (KKXTjffiav,  rovr'  fffri  tovs  travraxiäft' 
iriiTTovt,  iv  1]  ofl  virh  rüv  wavrax^^f  ffwrfrripriTai  rj  airb  twv  'Airo(rr6\wv  irapiSoffn.) 
Comp.  Tertiil.  de  praeser.  c.  .06.  20s. — (irieshnch,  do  iiotcntlorc  Eecl.  Horn,  principalitate.  Jen.  177S, 
(0pp.  ed.  Gahler,  Th.  II.  p.  1.36ss.).  PauliiH  in  the  Soptironizon.  1S19.  P.  3.  On  tho  other  side :  Ka- 
terkamp, Ü.  d.  Primat  Münst.  1S20.  p.  SOs-i.  Unnl-ovan;/,  de  primata  R.  Pontif.  Aus.  V.  ISIJl.  p. 
2Sss.— 'J  hiersch.  In  d.  ?tuii.  u.  Krlt.  1S42,   P.  2.  comp.  Xeander,  [Chnrcli  Hist  vol.  I.  pp.  2n;i-205.] 

/)  De  unit  Ecc.  c.  3.  Here,  even  In  tho  penulne  text,  and  often  In  tho  epistles  (52.  55),  lie  ac- 
knowledges Rome  as  the  ecclesia  principali»,  withont,  bovrcvor,  conceding  to  It  a  sn|iremaey  in 
^,onsii:',ent  with  the  parity  ot  all  bisliops  (Kp.  71).  Aiitlrom.  interpretation  of  Matt  16,  IS.  in  Orig 
In  Mt.  torn.  12.  §  IDs.  14. 


62  ANCIENT  ciirncii  iiistouv.    ri:i:.  i.   div.  il   a.  i».  iw-sia. 

to  ■vvcfir  sucli  an  aspect  in  popular  rt.'i)orts,  a«  to  promote  the  glory  of  the  Ro 
man  see.  {[/) 

§  03,     The  CaÜiolic  Cliurch  and  its  Various  Branches. 

The  internal  and  essential  unity  of  the  Church  as  the  kingdom  of  God  on 
earth,  suggested  tiio  idea  of  an  external  unity  also.  The  effort  to  attain  thin 
was  much  favored  by  the  political  unity  of  the  Avliole  civilized  world.  The 
religious  consciousness  which  prevailed  in  the  Christian  Cliurch  with  more  or 
less  distinctness,  when  assailed  by  theological  or  moral  elements  inconsistent 
"with  itself,  was  accustomed  to  appeal  to  the  apostolical  traditions  which  re- 
mained in  the  churches  founded  by  the  apostles.  From  this  sprung  up  the 
Great  or  CathoUc  Church.,  (a)  in  distinction  from  the  heretics  Avho  defended 
these  foreign  elements,  and  who  were  disunited  among  themselves.  By  the 
former  term  was  meant  the  great  body  in  which  all  the  congregations  found« 
ed  by  the  apostles,  and  such  as  were  connected  Avith  them,  had  hitherto  felt 
conscious  of  a  unity  through  faith  and  love,  and  which  was  the  only  source 
of  true  Christianity,  of  grace,  and  of  salvation.  The  first  hint  of  this  repre- 
sentation Avas  given  by  Ignatius,  but  it  was  further  developed  by  Irenaens, 
and  Avas  completed  by  Cyprian,  (h)  This  unity  was  realized  in  many  transac- 
tions in  Avhich  the  bishops  and  churches  held  intercourse  with  each  other. 
But  Avithout  detracting  from  it,  a  Church  of  the  East  and  a  Church  of 
the  West  began  to  be  distinguished  from  each  other  with  respect  to  lan- 
guage, customs,  and  theological  tendencies.  Peculiar  usages,  in  fact,  some- 
times became  permanent  even  in  diflerent  parts  of  the  same  metropolitan 
diocese,  especially  in  those  ecclesiastical  proAinces  whose  boundaries  corre- 
spond Avith  old  notional  limits.  Accordingly,  in  addition  to  the  dioceses 
of  the  three  great  bishops,  the  first  outlines  of  national  churches  were  formed 
in  correspondence  Avith  local  attachments  and  interests.  Thus  the  African 
Church,  connected  Avith  Rome  by  feelings  of  free  mutual  sympathy,  and  ex- 
hibiting its  peculiar  spirit  in  the  writings  of  Tertullian,  sprung  up,  and  com- 
pleted an  appropriate  code  of  laws  after  the  middle  of  the  third  century,  in 
the  provincial  synods  of  Carthage,  (c)  Thus,  also,  the  Armenian  Church  was 
originated,  on  Avliich  Gregory  the  Fnlijhtcner,  Avho  by  his  family  connec- 
tions had  been  deeply  involved  in  the  political  disorders  of  his  country,  and 
Avhen  Christianity  triumphed  had  been  brought  out  of  a  long  night  of  im- 
prisonment to  be  made  a  metropolitan  (302),  so  deeply  imprinted  his  OAvn 
spirit,  that  for  a  long  time  the  superior  bishop  or  Catholicus  was  selected 
from  his  family,  (d) 

g)  TTarduhi,  Acta  Concill.  vol.  I.  p.  217ss.    Baron,  nd  a.  302.  N.  SSss. 

a)  The  former  term  may  be  found  in  Celsns  {Ofifj.  c  Ccls.  Y.  59)  and  C(mstitt.  opp.  II.  25,  and 
the  latter  occurs  in  Ignat.  ad  Smyrn.  c.  S.  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Church  of  Smj-rna  respecting  the 
death  of  Pdlycarp.  in  Euseh.  H.  ecc.  IV,  15. 

I)  Ciipr.  de  unitate  Ecc.  especially  c.  4,  5,  21.  Ep.  4".  g  2. 

f)  S<:hel<<traUn,  Ecc.  afric.  sub  primatu  Carthas.  Tar.  16T9.  4.  J/!  Leydtcker,  Hist.  Ecc.  afric 
Utraj.  1694.  4.    Morcdli  Africa  chrlst.  Bri.K.  1S16.  3  Th.    Miatter,  rriraordia  Ecc.  afric.  Ilafn.  15.29.  4. 

(1)  Agathangeli  (revised),  Acta  S.  Gregor.  (Acta  Sancton  Sept  Tli.  VIII.  p.  821sf.)  MotU 
Choronensiii{abo\itHOi\  Hist.  Armen.  1.  III.  ed.  WJiMon.  Lond.  1736.  4.  M'll.  Samtteljan^  Be- 
kehr. Armen,  durch  den  h.  Greg.  111.  Wien.  1S44. — S^tint  Jfitrtin,  Mcnioires  sur  TArmenie.  Par 
\S1S  2  T!i.  ChamicJi,  Ilistory  of  Armenia,  tjansl.  by  Audall.  Calcutta.  1S2T.  2  Th. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.     §  C4.  CIIEISTIAN  JJOEALS.  63 

CHAP.   III.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  Gi.  Christian  Morals. 
Those  gifts  which  the  Sjiirit  of  God  Lad  bestowed  as  first-fruits  m  tho 
early  periods  of  tho  Church,  had  now  been  expended,  although  Irenaeus  tes- 
tifies that  the  power  of  prophesjing,  of  speaking  with  tongues,  of  healing 
diseases,  and  even  of  raising  tho  dead,  remained  in  Lis  time.  Neither  of 
these,  however,  were  common,  except  that  method  of  healing  the  sick  which 
consisted  in  the  expulsion  of  demons,  {(i)  Abstinence  from  blood  and  from 
things  strangled  may  have  been  occasioned  by  the  decree  of  the  apostles,  as 
it  obtained  prevalence  Avith  the  Avritings  of  Luke.  {]i)  The  private  life  of 
Christians  was  regulated  by  principles  directly  opposed  not  only  to  the  sen- 
suous, but  to  the  intellectual  pleasures  of  heathenism.  ('•)  In  their  estimation, 
the  earth  was  a  vale  of  tears,  and  the  predominant  feeling  of  the  noblest 
minds  was  an  ardent  longing  for  their  home  in  anotlicr  world.  Joy  in  death 
and  love  toward  his  brethren  continued  still  to  be  tho  distinguishing  badge 
of  a  follower  of  Christ,  {d)  This  spirit  became  peculiarly  powerful  in  times 
of  persecution,  but  in  the  longer  periods  of  tranquillity,  envy  and  strife,  cov- 
e'ousness  and  love  of  pleasure  gained  the  ascendency.  The  more  earnest  of 
the  public  teachers,  therefore,  regarded  the  persecutions  in  the  reigns  of  De- 
cius  and  Diocletian  as  divine  judgments  to  arouse  a  slumbering  Church.  {<  ) 
A  pious  abandonment  even  of  the  innocent  enjoyments  of  the  world 
{aa-KTiiris)  became  a  prevalent  characteristic  of  the  times,  but  among  some 
individuals  in  the  Church  it  was  regarded  as  the  ultimate  object  of  all  gene- 
ral eflbrt.  Although  marriage  had  been  exalted  by  Christianity  to  its  true 
spiritual  meaning,  (/)  vows  of  perpetual  cLastity  were  looked  upon  as  mer- 
itorious, (j/j  and  many  virgins  {awda-uKToi^  sorores)  undertook  the  often  un- 
fortunate, and  therefore  gradually  discountenanced  task,  of  exhibiting  the 
power  of  a  holy  will  as  brides  of  the  Lord  in  most  intimate  companionship 
with  the  clergy.  (A)  These  vows  were  not  absolutely  irrevocable,  but  the  re- 
cantation of  them  Avas  threatened  with  the  severest  penances.  An  entrance 
into  the  marriage  state  after  consecration  as  a  Deacon,  Avas  regarded  as  of 
doubtful  propriety,  and  Avas  limited  by  special  restrictions.  (J)  In  the  ex- 
treme West,  one  Synod  had  already  forbidden  the  clergy  to  enter  the  m;ir- 
riago  state,  and  even  the  lower  clergy  Avere  prohibited  all  connubial  inter- 
course during  seasons  of  public  duty.  (Jc)     On  the  other  hand,  all  attempts  to 

0)  Ire».  IT,  57.  Y,  C.  {^Etuteh.  IL  ccc.  V,  7.)  'Rrtul.  .i.l  Scnpul.  c.  2.  ApnU.-.  c.  '.'o.  Ovig.  c.  Cfl?. 
I,  7.  A'1I,4.  (Th.  I.  p.  325.  1  GOO.) 

1)  Tertiil.  Apoloji.  c.  9.    Only  tlio  Greek  Church  however  h.ns  nctiinlly  .iilhere.l  to  It. 

c)  E.  G.  Tertul.  (le  spoctaculis,  c.  23.  de  ciiltu  feiinii.  II.  2.—f/<'/<:U,  ü.  d.  IJigorisii:  (I.  !»Uci  Cluis- 
t*n  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S41.  V.  3.) 

(.1)  Minuc.  F.r.  c.  S.   ISiineh.  11.  ecc.  A'll,  22. 

.?)  Ci/pr.  (h'  lap?.  (Opp.  Amstcl.  "On.  p.  SS.)    Kiixch.  11.  ccc.  A'lII,  1. 

/)  Teriul.  Ri\  uxor.  II,  S.  comp.  Oriff.  in  Nittii.  lioni.  0  (Th.  II.  p.  28S.) 

(7)  For  heathen  testimony,  Galin  In  Aliuljei^hi,  IIl>t  Antelslam.  oil.  Flrischfi:  p.  109. 

A)  The  first  trace  <K-curs  as  early  as  In  Jlennae  I'aslor  III.  Sim.  P,  11. —  Ciqn:  Fp.  02  («na 
Ancyr.  c.  19.     X!<:.  c  S. 

i)  (hnatitf.  opp.  \l.  \'.     Cone.  Anc;/i:  c.10.    Xeocae«.  c.  1. 

k)  Cone.  nnOerit.  (3ii6-309.)  c.  38.  comp.  c.  66. 


64  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOUY.    ri;U.  I.    DIV.  II.    a.  I).  lOO-OU. 

impose  a  rigid  system  of  asceticism  as  a  matter  of  universal  obligation,  wore 
discoimtenancod  l»y  the  Church.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  Church  frequent- 
ly camo  into  collision  with  the  various  classes  of  Encratitct,  s(jme  of  whom 
rejected  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the  Lord's  Sujipcr  (vS/joTrapaoruTai,  aquarii.) 

§  05.     St.  Anthony. 

Athananiun,  Vita  S.  Antonii.  (Tli.  II.  p.  4.Wm.)  Sozrmi.  If.  ccc.  I.  13.  Ilieron.  catal.  c.  8S.  Oth- 
er things :  Tillemon^  Tli.  VII.  p.  lOlss.  [//.  liuffner.  The  Fathers  of  the  IX-sc-rt  New  York. 
1850.  2  vols.  12.] 

The  more  rigid  ascetics  in  Egypt  lived  as  hermits,  although,  during  tlic 
third  century,  most  of  them  continued  near  their  own  homes.  Elias  and 
John  were  their  predecessors,  and  the  Tlicrapcutao  their  countrymen.  A 
complete  withdrawal  from  the  world  seemed  the  necessary  consequence  of 
the  rupture  between  Christianity  and  the  world.  This  philosophical  mode  ol 
life  received  its  permanent  form  through  the  influence  of  Anthony.  TThen 
a  mere  youth,  he  had  become  independent  and  wealthy  by  the  early  death  of 
his  parents.  On  one  occasion  he  stepped  into  the  temple,  and  heard  read 
from  the  gospels  the  word  of  the  Lord  to  the  rich  young  man.  This,  like  the 
voice  of  God  to  him  personally,  decided  his  future  course  of  life.  He  dis- 
tributed his  goods  among  the  poor  (about  270),  and  betook  himself  first  to  a 
tomb,  and  then  to  a  dilapidated  castle  in  the  mountain,  there  to  wage  a  fear- 
ful conflict  with  himself  nnder  the  idea  of  an  encounter  with  Satan.  The 
visible  form  in  which  his  adversary  assailed  him,  Avas  sometimes  that  of  a 
beautiful  woman,  and  at  other  times  that  of  wild  beasts  and  monsters.  Ills 
friends,  who  brought  him  bread  once  in  six  months,  heard  his  wild  shrieks,  or 
found  him  powerless  and  prostrate  on  the  ground.  The  report  of  a  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  (311)  allured  him  from  his  solitude.  The  Alexandri- 
ans gazed  upon  this  man  of  the  desert  Avith  amazement.  In  the  very  courts  of 
justice,  he  encouraged  the  confessors  and  waited  upon  the  prisoners,  but  found 
not  a  martyr's  death.  From  that  time  his  fame  spread  abroad,  the  desert 
became  peopled  with  his  disciples,  Avhom  he  directed  to  engage  in  prayer, 
and  manual  labor  for  their  own  support  and  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  lie 
himself  would  Avatch  through  many  nights  in  succession ;  bread  and  salt  was 
his  only  food,  and  of  this  he  partook  only  once  in  three  days,  ashamed  that 
an  immortal  spirit  should  need  even  that.  He  was  without  human  learning, 
but  endoAved  Avith  eminent  natural  abilities,  and  in  the  service  of  the  King 
of  kings  Avas  exalted  above  the  fear,  as  he  Avas  afterAvards  above  the  favor  of 
earthly  monarchs.  His  Avord  healed  the  sick  and  cast  out  devils.  "When  his 
prayers  Avere  ansAvered,  as  they  not  unfrequently  Avere,  he  boasted  not  of  his 
power,  nor  did  he  murmur  when  they  were  unheard,  but  in  both  cases  he 
gave  praise  to  God.  No  angry  person  Avent  from  his  presence  unreconciled 
Avith  his  adversary,  and  no  mourner  uncomforted.  He  seemed  to  have  been 
provided  by  God  to  be  a  physician  in  bodily  and  spiritual  things  for  the 
whole  land  of  Egypt.  In  the  blissful  enjoyment  of  this  earthly  poverty,  it 
was  revealed  to  him  that  there  was  one  man  more  perfect  than  himself. 
Since  the  Decian  persecution,  Paul  of  Thebes  had  resided  in  a  cave  of  the 
desert,  Avith  a  single  palm-tree  to  give  him  provision,  shelter,  and  clothing. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  65.  ANTIIONT.    §  60.  DISCIPLINE.  65 

Ninety  years  had  passed  away  since  tidings  of  him  had  reached  a  human  ear. 
Anthony  visited  him  in  season  to  witness  his  death  (340).'^  In  the  evening 
of  his  life,  and  annoyed  hy  the  honors  and  interruptions  of  men,  Anthony 
•withdrew  still  further  into  the  desert,  where  he  cultivated  the  fruit  needful 
for  his  food,  and  presenting  himself  only  occasionally  among  men,  to  contend 
for  the  true  faith,  or  to  protect  the  oppressed.  Ho  finiüly  attained  the  age 
of  a  hundred  and  five  years,  when  he  expired  (356).  His  glory  sprung 
from  no  books,  worldly  wisdom,  or  work  of  art,  but  only  from  his  piety ;  and 
he  departed  childless  indeed,  but  the  father  of  an  innumerable  spiritual  family. 

§  G6.     Ecclesiastical  Discipline. 

L  TeHitl.  de  poenitentia.  Cypr.  de  lapsis.  Epp.  canonicae  Dionysii  Altaiandrini  (about  262), 
Gregorii  T/iautnaturgi,  Petri  Aleaandrini  (3u6),  Canones  Cone.  lUiheritani. 

II.  Tob.  Pfanner,  de  catechumenis  antiquae  Ecc.  Francof.  16S8. — Jo.  M'^ini,  Commentr.  liist  de 
disciplioa  in  admiiiistr.  sacrnin  poenitentlae  XIII.  priuiis  Saec  Par.  1051.  Antv.  lOSl.  Yen.  1T02.  t 
Fliigge,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Theol.  u.  Rel.  1798.  vol.  IL 

Candidates  for  admission  to  the  Church  (KaTT])(ovfifvoi)  were  first  careful- 
ly instructed,  and  rigidly  examined  in  all  the  studies  cf  the  several  stages  of 
their  education.  They  were  then  admitted  by  baptisK  and  confirmation  to 
all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a  Christian  citizen.  Such  a  process  was  re- 
garded as  important,  because  real  goodness  of  heart  and  a  good  character  were 
then  of  fiir  greater  value  than  numbers.  A  high  degree  of  public  morality 
was  upheld  by  a  rigid  discipline.  Only  public  scandals,  or  otlences  voluntari- 
ly confessed,  were  subjected  to  its  penalties.  AU  who  appeared  unworthy  of 
Christian  fellowship  on  account  of  adultery,  murder,  or  apostasy  from  Chris- 
tianity, were  immediately  excommunicated.  These  could  be  restored  to  their 
former  position  in  the  Church  only  after  a  series  of  penances  adjusted  to  the 
nature  of  the  offence  by  the  various  codes  of  discipline,  and  sometimes  pro- 
tracted to  the  end  of  life.  The  power  of  a  disturbed  conscience,  and  the 
terrors  of  an  exclusion  from  the  Church,  in  which  alone  salvation  was 
thought  to  be  attainable,  induced  many  to  undergo  the  most  fearful  penances. 
At  that  time,  few  could  perceive  a  distinction  between  an  abandonment  by 
God  and  an  exclusion  from  his  Church.  The  power  to  relax  the  severity  of 
the  penitential  laws  in  particular  instances,  was  indispensable  in  times  of  per- 
secution, on  account  of  the  multitude  of  those  who  fell  away  and  subsequent- 
ly returned  Avith  sorrow.  It  was  usually  exercised  by  the  churches  and  the 
bishops  with  scrupulous  restrictions,  but  by  the  confessors  and  martyrs  with 
60  much  indiscretion,  that  the  discipline  of  the  Church  was  in  danger  of  be- 
coming ineffectual.  In  general  the  principle  was  conceded,  that  every  actu- 
al penitent,  at  least  in  the  hour  of  death,  should  be  admitted  to  reconciliation 
for  ail  his  offences.  As  a  mere  outward  form  in  connection  with  excommu- 
nication, particular  bishops  or  synods  withdrew  ecclesiastical  fellowsliip 
from  whole  churches  or  parties,  on  account  of  what  was  regarded  as  un- 
christian sentiments. 

*  ITieron.  Tita  Panii  Eremitao.    Instances  more  like  tliat  of  the  shoemaker  at  Alexandria,  In 
Tita«  Patr.  P.  II.  §  121.  comp.  Apologia  Co^)/.  Aug.  p.  2S5. 


66  ANCIENT  Cll'JIiCU  IIISTORV.     rEli.  I.     UIV.  II.    A.  l>.  100-812. 

?  67.     7'hc  MontanintK. 

I.  Kiisrh.  IF.  coc.  V,  .3.  14-19.  JCjdjihan.  liner.  48s.  Kindred  niattors,  ami  n  tronlmeiit  of  tlit 
5iil)Jeot  «hicli  ^-rios  itnicli  bi'yoiid  ordinary  views  of  It  In  all  the  wrltln(,'S  of  TertiiUian.  II.  G. 
l(V;'ji«(/o;;/;  (lu  Montnnjstl.s.  Gcdanl.  Ur^l.  4.  F.  Munter,  tlfCala  ot  orac.  Montan Istar.  Havn.  1829. 
C  jV.  Kirchner,  do  Montanist  Ds.  I.  Jen.  1882.  F.  C.  A.  fkhice(/ler,  d.  MonUinl.sinus,  u.  d. 
Kirclio  des  2  Julirb.  Tub.  1S41.    Bee  also  bis  Nacbapost  Zcltalt  vol.  II.  p.  2D9ss. 

Ill  an  oxcitement  wLich  originated  in  Phr^'gia,  and  extended  over  all  tlie 
churches  of  Asia  Minor,  not  only  tlie  rigor  of  ecclc.sia.stical  morals  and  disci- 
pline, hut  the  extraordinary  zeal  -which  prevailed  in  tlie  apostolic  Church, 
was  revived  and  even  exceeded.  It  was  there  maintained,  that  the  life  of  a 
true  Christian  was  a  continual  self-denial,  that  he  should  find  pleasnrc  in 
nothing  hut  God  and  a  martyr's  death,  and  that  all  earthly  delights,  even 
those  which  science  affords,  are  sinful.  Murder,  lewdness,  and  apostasy  sub- 
jected those  who  were  guilty  of  them  to  a  hopeless  exclusion  from  the 
Church.  No  church  Avas  regarded  as  genuine  Avhich  Avould  not  cany  out 
this  rigid  system  of  morals,  or  wliich  allowed  of  second  marriages,  and  re- 
admitted tlioso  who  had  once  been  excluded  as  offenders.  Such  churches 
they  denominated  carnal  (the  \|/u;(tKoi),  superior  to  which  stood  the  Church 
of  the  Spirit  (the  nffvuariKoi),  since  the  Spirit  was  to  be  looked  for  in  the 
Church,  and  not  exclusively  in  the  assembly  of  the  bishops.  An  ecstasy 
which  proceeded  from  within  themselves,  or  a  divine  frenzy,  they  looked 
upon  as  the  most  exalted  condition  in  which  a  Christian  could  be  found.  A 
prophet  iu  this  state  was  far  superior  to  a  bishop.  The  peculiar  form  of 
apostolic  Christianity  exhibited  iu  the  Apocalypse,  while  struggling  with 
Gnosticism,  and  pressing  forward  after  a  still  higher  development  of  religion, 
might  possibly  have  become  gradually  perverted  into  this  Montanism^  but  its 
assertion  respecting  higher  revelations  of  truth  to  be  expected  in  the  Church, 
indicates  a  consciousness  of  innovation.  Jfontamis  of  Mysia  is  designated  by 
some  contemporary  writers  at  a  distance  from  him,  as  the  author  of  this 
movement.  He  had  probably  been  a  priest  of  Cybele,  and  Avas  at  this  time 
attended  by  two  prophetic  women.  "With  the  imaginative,  enthusiastic  spirit 
which  characterized  his  fellow-countrymen,  he  announced  himself  as  the  in- 
dividual in  whom  the  promised  Paraclete  had  completely  revealed  himself, 
that  the  Church  might  be  carried  forward  to  its  perfection  just  before  the 
introduction  of  the  millennial  kingdom.  The  heavenly  Jerusalem,  the  me- 
tropolis of  that  kingdt;m,  Avas  to  descend  to  earth  at  Pepuza.  The  Montanists 
(oi  Kara  «tp^-j/nf,  Pepuziaui)  were  expelled  from  the  Church  by  the  Asiatic 
bishops  (about  170),  not,  however,  without  great  hesitation,  since  their  new 
[jrophecies  were  not  absolutely  inconsistent  Avith  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
of  that  period,  and  it  was  therefore  difficult  to  determine  whether  they  were 
of  divine  ov  demoniac  origin.  In  Asia,  they  continued  to  exist  under  an  ec- 
clesiastical constitution  of  their  own,  until  some  time  in  the  sixth  century. 
In  the  West,  their  moral  principles  obtained  an  influence  Avhich  seemed 
almost  a  complete  victory.  What  Montanus  had  announced  in  a  fanatical 
spirit,  Tertullian,  with  his  polished  and  liberal  vicAvs,  presented  to  the  appre- 
hensions of  men  Avith  a  kind  of  twilight  distinctness.  All  that  either  of 
these  «An  did  was  boldly  to  comjdete  Avhat  nearly  the  whole  Church  of  that 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  CS.  XOVATIANS.    §  C9.  HOLY  SEASON'S.  67 

age  was  striving  for,  and  merely  to  demand  of  everj  one  what  was  admired 
in  individual  saints,  but  ■which,  if  it  had  generally  prevailed,  would  either 
have  destroyed  the  Church  or  the  nature  of  man. 

§  68.     The  N&vatians. 

Cypr.  Epp.  41-52.  Exmeb.  H.  ecc.  VI,  4.$-4.'5.  VIII,  8.  Cona.  Nie  can.  G.  Cod.  Theod.  XVI. 
tit  ö!  lex.  2.  Soorat.  H.  ecc.  I,  10.  IV,  23.  V,  21. 

In  opposition  to  Cornelms^  the  newly  elected  hishop,  Kotatian^  his  pres- 
byter, violently  opposed  the  readmission  of  those  who  had  once  fallen.  This 
man  was  a  philosopher  who  had  embraced  Christianity  in  the  midst  of  sickness 
and  severe  spiritual  conflicts,  and  after  his  conversion  had  become  an  ascetic, 
and  a  prudent  advocate  of  the  faith  generally  embraced  in  the  Church.*  By 
his  own  party,  strengthened  by  some  persons  from  the  African  Church,  he 
was  elected  a  rival  bishop  (251).  The  Novatians  excluded  from  the  Church 
all  those  who  had  been  guilty  of  deadly  sins,  and  taught,  that  while 
such  should  be  exhorted  to  repentance  and  hope  of  the  divine  mercy, 
no  prospect  should  be  held  out  to  them  that  they  would  ever  be  readmitted 
to  a  Church  which  should  consist  only  of  saints  and  purified  persons  (»caSapoi). 
They  withdrew  all  fellowship  from  the  Catholic  Church,  and  re-baptized  all 
who  came  from  it  to  them.  Their  party  was  sometimes  treated  with  re- 
spect, generally  with  forbearance,  and  by  the  emperor  himself,  at  Nicaea, 
with  good-humored  raillery,  but  it  was  overwhelmed  by  the  authority  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  Its  adherents  continued  without  a  visible  organization  for 
some  centuries,  though  in  Phrygia  they  wore  sometimes  confounded  with  the 
Montanists.  In  other  countries  also  a  similar  uncertainty  with  respect  to 
the  true  idea  of  the  Church,  and  strict  discipline,  produced  similar  divisions, 
but  all  these  necessarily  ceased  when  heathenism  was  overthrown,  and  mild- 
er views  gained  the  ascendency. 

§  69.     Ilohj  Season.%  and  the  Controversy  about  Easter. 

Iliinpinidmis,  Festa  Christ  (Tigur.  1593.)  Geiiev.  167-i.  Auffusti,  die  Feste  der  alten  Christen. 
Lpe.  1S17-2II.  3  vols.  UUmann,  Zusaininenst  des  clir.  Fosteyclus  mit  vorehrlstL  Festen.  Appendi.v 
tu  Crcuzer^ii  Symbolik,  vol.  IV.  separ.itely  piinted  from  the  third  ed.  Darmst  1S43.  SOimlenmaier, 
d.  Gtist  d.  Chrislentli.  in  d.  heil.  Zeiten,  Ilandl.  n.  d.  heil.  Kunst  Mainz.  (1&35.)  183S.  2  vols. 

The  three  hours  of  the  day  observed  by  the  Jews  as  seasons  for  prayer, 
were  recommended  to  those  whose  secular  employments  were  likely  to  with- 
draw their  thoughts  from  God,  as  an  excellent  means  of  reminding  them  of 
their  duty.  The  dawn  of  the  day,  and  in  times  of  persecution  tlie  night, 
wa-;  preferred  for  public  as.semblies.  That  they  might  give  special  solemnity 
to  their  higher  festivals,  the  jirecodiiig  night  wa.s  made  a  part  of  them 
(vigilia).  In  determining  what  days  should  be  ob.'^erved  as  holy,  they  paid 
attention  to  the  critical  seasons  of  joy  or  grief  which  occurred  in  the  course 
of  our  Saviour's  life.  We(hwsda4j^  and  especially  Friday  (dies  stationum, 
feria  quarta  et  sexta),  were  consecrated  as  i)artial  fast-days  (till  3  r.  m.)  in 
commemoration  of  his  sufftrings.     The  Koman  Church  regarded  Saturday  as 

•  Do  Trinitate,  0pp.  ed.  Jackson.  Lond.  1723.  {Gallamf,  Th.  IV.)    Comp.  Ilieron.  catal.  c.  TO. 


68  ANCIENT  CHURCH  III8T0ET.    PER.  I.    DIV.  11.    A.  D.  10i>-812. 

a  fnst-diiy,  in  direct  opposition  to  tliose  wlio  regarded  it  as  a  Sabbath.  Sun^ 
dn7j  roinaincd  a  joyful  festival,  in  which  all  fasting  and  worldly  business  was 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  but  the  original  commandment  of  the  Deca- 
logue respecting  the  Sabbath  was  not  then  applied  to  that  day.  (a)  A  sea- 
pon  of  fasting  of  greater  or  less  length  in  different  places  (afterwards  called 
Quadrigcsinia),  was  observed  just  before  the  passover.  In  Asia  Minor,  the 
paschal  supper  was  eaten  as  a  type  of  Christ's  sacrifice  on  the  night  of  the 
fourteenth  day  of  the  month  Nisan.  But  in  otlier  parts  of  the  Church,  the 
Jewish  festival  was  altogether  set  aside.  The  Kesurrection  of  our  Lord  was 
celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  in  the  spring,  and  the  day  of 
his  death  on  the  Friday  preceding.  When  Pohjcarp  visited  Rome  (about 
160),  this  difference  in  reckoning  was  discussed,  though  without  injury  to 
Christian  unity..  But  the  Roman  bishop  Victor  threatened  to  withdraw  ec- 
clesiastical fellowship  from  the  Asiatic  bishops,  on  account  of  their  course  in 
this  matter  (19G).  Public  opinion  was  in  favor  of  the  usage  in  the  Roman 
Church  with  respect  to  this  festival,  but  the  violent  measures  pursued  by  the 
Roman  bishop  were  decidedly  condemned  by  all  distinguished  teachers,  (b) 
The  fifty  days  which  immediately  followed  Easter  (Pentecost),  formed  a  sea- 
son of  festivity  for  the  commemoration  of  the  glorification  of  Christ,  and  the 
last  day  of  that  period  was  kept  as  the  proper  Pen  tecost,  in  honor  of  the  effu- 
sion of  the  Holy  Spirit.  According  to  the  oldest  authorities,  heretics  were 
baptized  on  the  Feast  of  the  Ei)iphany^  which  was  celebrated  in  conformity 
with  the  views  of  the  heretics,  in  commemoration  of  the  Manifestation 
(eVt^ai/f  la)  of  the  Messiah.  In  this  festival  the  Church  had  reference  to  the 
revelation  of  Christ  in  the  flesh,  and  hence  in  the  oriental  churches,  after  the 
close  of  the  third  century,  the  sixth  of  January  appears  to  have  been  ob- 
served in  the  double  sense  of  a  baptismal  and  a  birth-day  festival,  (c)  Some 
churches  annually  celebrated  the  days  on  which  the  martyrdom  of  some  of 
their  number  took  place,  as  if  they^vere  birth-days  (uatalia),  when  assem- 
blies were  held  around  their  graves ;  and  about  the  close  of  the  third  centu- 
ry some  amusements  were  allowed  on  sucb  occasions,  instead  of  the  heathen 
festivities  formerly  enjoyed.  (<Z)  As  these  martyrs  were  looked  upon  as  the  best 
representatives  of  Jesus  Christ  on  earth,  the  relation  of  the  Church  to  them 
was  that  of  an  affectionate  fellowship.  Even  then  we  find  some  indications 
of  a  confidence  in  their  power  to  aid  men  either  in  the  present  life  or  at  the 
final  judgment.  In  accordance  with  the  ancient  doctrine  of  the  saving  effi- 
cacy of  an  expiatory  death,  a  degree  of  influence  was  ascribed  to  their  death 
as  well  as  to  that  of  Jesus,  {e) 

a)  F.  Liebetrut,  d.  Tag  d.  Herrn.  Bcrl.  1S3T.    F.  W.  Rücker,  v.  Tage  d.  Herrn.  Erl.  1S89. 

h)  Emeb.  H.  ecc.  V,  23-25.  Vita  Constant  III,  IS.  Socrat  H.  ecc  V,  21.  Cbronicon  pasch.  ed. 
Dufretn«.  Vax.  168S.  Add.  N.  \i.—Xeander,  ü.  Yeraula-ss.  u.  Beschaffenh.  d.  hit  Passalistreitiikeiten. 
(KHist  Archiv.  1S23.  Bt  2.)  ReUherg,  d.  Pascbastreit  (Illgens  Zeitschr.  1S32.  B.  IL  St  2.)  GU^eler 
In  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S83.  P.  4. 

c)  Clement.  Strom.  I.  p.  407s.  comp.  Casaiani  Collat  X,  i.—Jablonsky,  de  orig.  fosti  natly. 
Christi,  Ds.  L  §  T.  (0pp.  Th.  III.  p.  328s9.)     Gieseler  in  d.  Hall.  Lit  Z.  1S23.  p.  S36. 

d)  Greg.  Thaumaturgi  0pp.  ed.  Toss.  Mog.  1G04.  p.  312.  comp.  August.  Ep.  29.  §  9.  ad 
Alyplura. 

e)  Ep.  Ecd.  Smijm.  {Eusel.  H.  ecc,  IT,  15.)  Ci/pr.  de  laps.  c.  17.  (aL  :4s.)  Orig.  exhort  ad 
mart  c.  50. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  70.  FESTIVALS.    §  71.  LORD'S  SUPPER.  69 

§  70.     Sacred  Places  and  their  Decoration. 

Cinmpini,  vctl.  nionninentn.  Rome.  1743.  3  vols.  f.  Jacutii  chr.  antiqnitatam  speciinlna.  P.ome. 
.752.  4  Milliter,  Sinnbilder  u.  Kunstvorst  d.  alten  Christen.  Alton.  1S25.  2  parte.  4.  Giüneiken,  v. 
d.  Ursachen  n.  Grunzen  d.  Kunsthasses  in  (L  ersten  8  Jahrh.  (Kunstblatt.  1831.  N.  SSss.)  [ifrs.  Jiime- 
ton,  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art.  Lond.  1848.  2  vols.  8.  Lord  Lindsay,  Sketches  of  the  Hist,  of  Clirls- 
♦ian  Art.  Lond.  1S47.  3  vols.  8.] 

The  halls  in  whicli  the  Christians  were  accustomed  to  as.seinl)le,  were  fur- 
nished for  public  speaking  with  an  elevated  platform,  and  for  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  with  a  table  Avhich,  near  the  end  of  the  second 
century,  was  called  an  altar.  Churches  began  to  be  constructed  after  the 
close  of  the  third  century,  and  during  the  reign  of  Diocletian  some  were 
built  of  considerable  size.  "When  the  people  very  generally  adopted  the  sen- 
timent, that  God  was  present  in  some  peculiar  sense  in  the  hou.se  of  worship, 
their  more  intelligent  public  teachers  reminded  them  that  the  world  was  his 
temple,  (a)  Christians  were  fond  of  holding  their  religious  assemblies  over 
the  graves  of  the  dead,  and  sometimes  they  even  descended  into  the  vaults 
of  the  catacombs  to  find  a  place  for  prayer.  Such  places,  however,  at  least 
in  Eome,  were  never  fitted  to  accommodate  their  larger  assemblies,  (h)  The 
imitative  arts  had  flourished  principally  in  the  service  of  the  ancient  gods, 
and  hence  the  same '  hatred  which  had  prevailed  against  them  among  the 
Jews,  was  continued  in  the  Christian  Church.  Kone  but  heathen  who  re- 
vered Jesus,  as  either  a  sage  or  a  Son  of  God,  or  heretics,  who  mingled  to- 
gether pagan  and  Christian  principles,  ever  possessed  images  of  him.  In 
place  of  these,  however,  and  with  the  direct  object  of  excluding  heathen 
images,  were  introduced  various  Christian  emblems,  such  as  the  cross,  the 
good  shepherd,  the  ram  and  the  lambs,  the  fisherman  and  the  fishes  (IXGYS), 
the  ship,  the  dove,  the  palm,  the  lyre,  the  phoenix,  and  the  cock  and  anchor. 
At  first,  these  were  used  only  in  private  dwellings,  but  gradually  they  were 
introduced  as  ornaments  of  tombs,  and  as  works  of  art  in  fresco  or  mosaic, 
to  decorate  their  churches.  But  even  as  late  as  the  fourth  century,  they 
were  censured  as  innovations,  (c) 

§  71.    Sacred  Services. 

The  worship  of  the  Temple  described  in  the  Old  Testament,  was  the 
model  to  which  was  conformed  as  much  as  possible  the  public  services  of  the 
Christian  assemblies.  In  compliance  with  the  .«[lirit  of  the  times,  tliough  it 
was  originally  a  matter  of  necessity,  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered  near 
the  close  of  the  second  century  as  a  Christian  mystery,  with  the  view  of  in- 
vesting it  with  an  increased  sanctity  by  its  seclusion  and  sccresy.  By  this 
means,  a  mysterious  character  was  imparted  to  a  number  of  the  usages  and 

a)  Tertul.  de  orat.  c.  24. 

h)  Comi).  If ieron.  in  Ezceh.  c.  40.  Aflcr  the  works  of  7?(/«io, -IrriH (7/1/,  Boldetii,  am\  Ji'itiari, 
bco  Rontell,  Roms  KatakotnlH'n.  (Rcschreilning  dor  Stadt  Rom,  von  Plainer,  Buniten,  and  otli. 
Stuttg.  1830s?.  vol.  I.  [ip.  3.51-411',.)  C.  K.  lirth'niKinn,  11.  d.  iiltosfen  chr.  Bop-flbnl.spstilttcn  11.  be«. 
d.  Katakomben  zu  Neapel  m.  lliron  Wande'.;oniähldcn.  Hainb.  1S39.  4.  [C.  MnitUind,  The  Church 
In  the  Catacombs,  or  a  Description  of  the  Prim.  Cluircli  of  Rome,  new  ed.  I/)nd.  1S50.  8.] 

c)  Cone.  Illiberit.  can.  30.    £pijifuiii.  Ep.  ad  Jo.  Ilieros.  (vol.  IL  p.  317.) 


70  ANCIENT  CllUnCII  IIISTOIiY.     I'ER.  I.     DIV.  11.     A.  I).  100-8R 

forms  of  tliü  Clnircli.  (a)  Tlio  Lord's  Siq>j>cr  was  celebrated  at  tlic  close  of 
every  Boleinn  asscinhly,  but  the  mncli-abuscd  and  more  infrequent  Lorc-Fmni 
■was  f^enerally  lifld  iipart  from  tbo  public  services,  and  in  the  evening.  Tlie 
bread  and  the  wine  Avere  in  some  instances  regarded  as  the  symbols  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Christ,  and  in  others  as  pervaded  by  the  Logos.  Thi» 
sacred  ordinance  was  supposed  to  be  a  thank-offering,  and  to  have  some  spe- 
cial influence  upon  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The  consecrated  bread  was 
sent  to  those  who  were  absent,  or  taken  home  for  subsequent  use,  and  eometimes 
bottles  of  the  wine,  labelled  with  some  pious  toasts,  were  even  placed  on  the 
coflins  of  the  dead.  (?/)  Origen  found  Infant  Duptism  an  old  ancestral  usage 
in  the  region  where  he  resided,  but  others  advised  that,  as  a  matter  of  poli- 
cy, the  baptism  of  even  adults  should  bo  deferred  as  long  as  possible  (pro- 
crastinatio).  ((■)  The  solemn  act  by  wbich  the  worsbip  of  the  gods  Avas  ab- 
jured, taken  in  connection  with  tlie  Jewish  notion  of  the  expulsion  of  demons, 
gave  occasion  to  tho  practice  of  uniting  Exarcism  with  the  ordinance  of  bap- 
tism. The  principle  that  baptism  was  to  bo  administered  but  once  to  the 
same  person,  was  universally  acknowledged.  But  tlie  African,  and  even 
some  of  the  Asiatic  churches,  baptized  those  who  came  to  them  from  any  of 
the  heretical  sects,  because  they  denied  the  Christian  character  of  baptism 
when  administered  among  those  sects.  The  Roman- Church,  however,  re- 
cognized the  validity  of  all  baptisms  in  which  the  subject  formed  a  full  pur- 
pose to  enter  into  fellowship  with  Christ.  ((7)  Those  catechumens  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  before  baptism,  were  looked  upon  as  laptized  in  Mood. 
The  reception  or  addition  of  a  name  in  baptism,  had  reference  to  apostolic 
example,  and  a  cycle  of  Christian  names,  of  Jewish  or  heathen  origin,  was  in 
this  way  formed.  Sponsors  (di/uSoxot,  sponsores)  were  introduced  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  baptism,  that  they  might  be  sureties  for  the  good  intentions 
of  adult  candidates,  and  for  the  future  education  of  infants,  and  as  witnesses  in 
all  cases.  The  seasons  in  which  baptism  was  ordinarily  administered,  Avere 
Easter,  Pentecost,  and  Epiphany.  During  the  performance  of  the  rite,  tho 
candidates  were  clothed  in  Avhite  garments  (vestis  alba).  The  imposition  of 
hands  for  the  communication  of  the  Holy  Ghost  {x^ipo'iiala.)^  was  originally 
connected  Avith  and  immediately  folloAved  by  the  rite  of  baptism.  But  Avhen, 
in  the  "West,  the  imparting  of  the  gift  of  the  Spirit  was  looked  upon  as  the  pre- 
rogative of  the  bishops,  the  ceremony  of  confirmation  was  perfonned  as  a  dis- 
tinct rite.  Tho  intention  of  those  Avho  were  about  to  enter  the  marriaije  rela- 
tion^ Avas  previously  made  known  to  the  assembled  congregation.  The  betrothed 
parties,  after  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  received  the  benediction  of  the 
priest.    There  was  ranch  contention  betAveen  the  respective  advocates  of  the 


a)  These  were  not  called  rfjsc?7)/?«a  area«  i  until  after  the  Eeformation,  and  in  the  Catholic  Chnrcb 
they  were  then  referred  as  apostolic  to  religious  doctrines.  Controversial  writings  of  ScheMraie 
and  TenUel.  1678ss.  C.  Frotnmann,  de  disa  arc.  Jen.  1S33.  Ji.  liothe,  de  disc,  arc  Hcidclb.  1S41. 
comp.  Grossmann,  de  Judaeor.  disc.  arc.  Lps.  ISSSs.  2  P.  4. 

h)  EuseltM  Romanus  (Mabillon),  de  cultu  sanctorum  ignotor.  Tar.  16SS.  (ed.  2. 1705.)  4.  Beschr 
d.  Stadt  Rom.  vol.  I.  p.  400ss.  Bellermann,  p.  60s. 

c)  Orig.  In  Kom.  AT,  9.  (vol.  IV.  p.  565.)    On  the  other  hand :  Tertul.  de  bapt.  c.  IS. 

d)  Tertul.  de  bapt  c.  15.  Cypr.  Epp.  69-75.  Cone.  Carth.  III.  {Oupr.  0pp.  p.  15?5S.>-(Ma»- 
chettJ)  Escrcitazioni  Ciprianiche  circa  il  batteslnio  degli  crctici.  Roma.  17S7. 


CHAP.  III.     ECCLE3.  LIFE.     §71.  CULTUS.    CHAP.   IV.     §72.  CAXON.  71 

Jewish  and  the  Eoman  law,  regarding  Avhat  ouglit  to  he  considered  legal  im- 
pediments to  marriage.  The  dift'erent  moral  principles  of  the  parties,  and  tho 
precepts  of  the  Old  Testament,  were  looked  upon  as  valid  ohjections  to  all 
intermarriages  with  the  heathen,  (c)  Divorces  were  seldom  recognized  by  tho 
Church  for  any  other  cause  than  adultery.  All  who  had  died  in  the  Lord 
v.'ere  committed  to  tho  grave  with  ecclesiastical  solemnities.  The  mode  of 
burial  was  generally  conformed  to  the  usages  of  the  ancient  Jews,  or  to  oth- 
er customs  not  inconsistent  with  the  habits  i"  the  ancient  Romans.  On  an- 
niversaries of  the  decease  of  beloved  friends,  alms  were  distributed  in  their 
name  among  the  poor,  or  gifts  were  presented  in  their  behalf  at  the  altar,  by 
which  means  their  names  continued  to  be  remembered  and  mentioned  in  tho 
prayers  of  tlie  Church. 


CHAP.  IV.— DOCTRINES  OF  THE  CHURCH,  AXD  OPINIONS   OP- 
POSED TO  THEM. 

§  72.  Sources  from  which  the  Church  derived  its  System  of  Fai'h. 
The  books  of  the  Old  Testament  Avere  at  first  the  only  books  -which  tho 
Church  regarded  as  sacred.  Although  Paul's  views  respecting  them  avoided 
all  extremes,  public  opinion  generally  agreed  with  him,  and  the  clergy 
did  not  hesitate  to  appeal  to  them  as  authority  for  what  they  wished  to 
prove.  Melito  visited  Palestine  for  the  express  purpose  of  ascertaining  what 
books  belonged  to  the  canon  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  finally  settled  upon 
those  recognized  by  the  Jews  of  that  region.  To  these,  Origen  subsequent- 
ly added  the  book  of  the  Maccabees,  {a)  and  as  the  Alexandrian  version 
(LXX.)  was  in  general  use  in  the  Greek  congregations,  all  the  books  em- 
braced in  it  (since  the  time  of  Jerome,  so  far  as  not  contained  in  the  original 
Hebrew,  called  the  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Testament)  were  esteemed  as  of 
nearly  equal  authority.  But  the  necessity  of  tho  case,  and  a  consciousness 
that  Christianity  had  much  peculiar  to  itself,  produced  during  tho  second  cen- 
tury, from  tho  writings  of  its  founders,  a  body  of  Sacred  Scriptures  exclu- 
sively its  own.  Justin  made  use  of  an  indefinite  multitude  of  apostolic  me- 
moirs, among  which  wo  find  mentioned  a  gospel  of  tho  Hel)rews.  (Jj)  Tlie 
unity  of  the  Church,  however,  rendered  it  indispensable  that  there  should  be 
an  agreement  in  aU  its  pai'ts  respecting  the  canon  of  its  Holy  Scriptures. 
Marcion  was  probably  not  merely  tho  first  witness,  but  in  accordance  with 
his  peculiar  views  of  the  nature  of  Christianity,  tho  first  author  of  such  a 
canon.  \Iq  testifies  to  one  gospel  and  tho  ten  epistles  of  Paul,  but  those  who. 
in  a  short  time,  were  opposed  to  him,  mention  four  gospels,  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  thirteen  epistles  of  Paul,  one  epistlo  of  Peter,  and  one  of  John 
Respecting  tho  remaining  portions  of  tho  New  Testament,  the  views  of  the 

<■)  Tertitl.  de  inonog:.  c.  7.  11.     Ci/pr.  Jo.  lapsia.  e.  0. 

a)  Kmeh.  H.  ccc.  IV,  20.     Oriij.  in  IN.  1.  (vol.  II.  p.  529.) 

?/)  U^/H«/-,  Just,  Evv.  can.  usum  fiiisse  ostoiulitiir.  Lps.  1S19.  4.  On  the  other  hand :  Credne-, 
P.eitr.  z.  Einl.  in  d.  l$ibl.  ScliiT.  vol.  I.  p.  21Is.s.  Comp.  Hhideniann  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S42.  P  2. 
Fiantk  in  d.  Stud.  d.  Gcistlichk.  Wurtemb.  1S40.  P.  1. 


72  ANCIKNT  CIIUUfH  IIISTuKV.     VKll.  1.    DIV.  II.    A.  I).  100  812. 

Cluiroli  wore  not  tlien  quite  nettled. (0  Iii  docidinR  whether  any  l)ook  wai 
canonical,  they  were  (letennined  on  the  one  linnd  hy  tlie  apo.stolic  character 
of  the  author,  and  on  the  other  hy  the  Christian  popular  character  of  the 
book  itself.  In  conformity  with  the  views  of  the  Jews  respecting  the  Old 
Te.stamont,  the  writings  of  the  New  Testament  were  regarded  as  inspired  hy 
the  Holy  Ghost,  but  this  inspiration  was  looked  upon  only  as  the  highest 
state  of  religious  fervor.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  in  the  ordinary  language  of 
the  people,  were  made  the  basis  of  all  ])uhlic  devotional  exercises,  and  all 
were  frequently  urged  to  peruse  them  in  private ;  hut  copies  of  them  were 
very  exjiensivc,  and  only  a  few  among  the  people  were  capable  of  reading 
them.  ('/)  In  opposition  to  worldly  wisdom,  and  the  esoteric  doctrines  of  the 
heretics,  the  Church  appealed  to  the  literal  meaning  of  the  sacred  writ- 
ings. 0)  But  the  only  way  in  which  it  seemed  possible  satisftictorily  to  con- 
fute heretics,  was  by  appealing  to  Tradition^  (/)  by  which  was  meant  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church  orally  communicated  by  the  apostles  to  the  first 
bishops,  and  propagated  by  them  in  an  unadulterated  form  among  their  suc- 
cessors. It  was,  in  fact,  an  abstract  of  every  thing  which  the  Christian  con 
sciousness  of  each  age  had  uttered  through  public  opinion,  against  views 
inconsistent  with  it.  As  a  summary  of  these  traditionary  doctrines,  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed  (ej)  was  gradually  formed  out  of  the  confessions  of  faith  used  in 
baptism.  As  these  were  intended  to  bo  opposed  to  the  heretical  opinions  of 
the  day,  this  creed  possessed  a  tolerably  uniform  character,  though  some  of 
its  particular  expressions  were  still  undetermined.  The  Eule  of  Faith  to 
which  some  ecclesiastical  fathers  alluded,  was  only  a  free  amplification  of  this 
creed,  adapted  to  the  wants  of  tlie  period  in  which  it  was  composed.  {Ti)  In 
this  way  a  scale  was  in  practice  formed,  according  to  which  tradition  was 
placed  in  a  station  superior  to  that  of  the  Scriptures  as  a  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion and  a  necessary  complement  to  the  system  of  faith  ;  and  the  Creed  was 
looked  upon  as  superior  to  tradition,  on  the  ground  of  its  being  an  author- 
ized abstract  of  it ;  but  in  principle  all  three  were  regarded  as  equally  saf* 
and  necessarily  harmonious  sources  of  Christian  truth. 

§73.     Apostolic  Fathers  of  the  Second  Century .     Cont .  from  %  Z^ . 

A  few  Asiatic  bishops  who  had  beheld  the  face  of  the  apostle  John,  wen 
numbered  among  the  apostolic  Fathers.  Their  writings  belong  to  a  perioc 
anterior  to  the  cultivation  of  Greek  literature  and  the  principal  contest  with 
heathenism,  and  they  had  access  only  to  particular  books  of  the  Xew  Testa- 
ment. The  Seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius,  written  while  their  author  was  on 
his  journey  to  his  place  of  martyrdom,  have  been  altered,  certainly  in  their 

c)  J.  Kirchho/er,  Qaellensamml.  z.  Gesch.  z.  nontest.  Can.  bis  Ilieron.  Ziir.  1S44. 

cl)F.  m/icA,  V.  Gebrauch  d.  II.  Sehr,  in  d.  ersten  4  J.ilirh.  Lps.  i:99.  (On  the  other  hand: 
Lessiiiff,  Sfimnul.  Schrr.  Berl.  1S40.  vol.  XI.  p.  SGlss.)  L.  v.  Bss,  Auszüge  ü.  d.  nothw.  u.  nüul.  Bibe!- 
les.  a.  d.  KV.  Lps.  (1S03.)  1S16.    See  also  his  Clirvfost.  o.  Stimmen  der  KY.  f.  Bibelles.  DarmsL  lS2-t 

e)  Iren.  I,  8.  1.  Ill,  2.     Tertul.  de  resurrect,  cam.  c.  3. 

/)  Iren.  Ill,  8s.     Tertul.  de  prescript,  c.  13-27.  de  corona  c.  3. 

ff)  liußni  E.\positio  in  Syrab.  X\ix>.—Sir  Peter  King,  Ilist.  Symb.  of  the  Ap.  Creed.  Lend.  1702.  & 

;0  Iren.  I,  10.  Tertnl.  d.  vir?::,  vol.  c.  1.  Tie  pr.iofcr.  c.  13.  Adv.  Prax.  c.  2.  Orig.  do  prine. 
Prooem.  §  4ss.— .1.  Iltihn,  Bibl.  d.  Syinb.  u.  Glli-cihi  d.  Ap.  Kath.  Kirclio.  Brest.  I'Ui. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  73.  IGNATIUS,  POLtCARr,  PAPIAS.  73 

more  extended,  and  probably  in  their  most  abridged  form.  But  even  the 
iatter  more  authentic  portions,  though  regarded  as  a  fabrication  of  the  mid- 
dle of  the  second  century,  give  us  an  authentic  representation  of  the  high- 
wrought  feelings  of  a  martyr,  and  of  a  general  desire  to  secure  the  Christian 
unity  of  the  congregations  to  which  they  were  addressed,  by  bringing  them 
together  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop.  Its  general  characteristics 
are,  a  spirit  formed  under  the  combined  influence  of  Paul  and  John,  a  prac- 
tical opposition  to  the  system  of  the  Docetae,  and  a  conception  of  Christian- 
ity as  something  -wholly  internal,  and  independent  of  historical  evidence.  (") 
The  recently  discovered  Syriac  version  of  his  epistles,  and  especially  of  his 
epistle  to  the  Ephesians,  presents  us  with  a  much  more  concise,  but  a  no  less 
hierarchical  text.  {!>)  The  epistle  of  Pohjcarp  to  the  church  of  Philippi, 
written  soon  after  the  martyrdom  of  Ignatius,  with  reference  to  that  event 
and  to  various  circumstances  connected  with  that  church,  is  a  modest  and 
spiritual  work,  which  refers  to  Paul,  and  in  some  passages  reminds  us  of  the 
first  epistle  of  John.  ('■)  Pa2)ias  (d.  about  103),  bishop  of  Ilierapolis,  in  his 
account  of  the  facts  in  tlio  life  of  our  Saviour,  has  recorded  those  things 
which  he  had  learned  from  the  lips  of  such  as  had  had  intercourse  with  the 
apostles.  Having  been  in  early  youth  a  pupil  of  John,  he  took  a  peculiar  plea- 
sure in  the  living  word ;  and  it  was  only  when  he  was  judged  by  an  ago 
whose  spirit  had  become  essentially  dilierent,  that  he  was  accused  of  pos- 
sessing a  very  contracted  mind.  ('/) 

§  74.     Ecclesiastical  Literature  and  Ileresy. 

J.  G.  liosenmueller,  de  clir.  Theol.  orig.  Lps.  17S6.  Marheinecke,  Ursprung;  u.  Entwickl.  <1. 
Ortliod.  u.  Ileterod.  in  d.  ersten  3  Jalirh.  (Daub.  u.  Creuzer,  Studien.  1S08.  vol.  III.)  B.  J.  Ililgem, 
Krit  Darst.  d.  Ilärcsen  u.  d.  Ortliod.  llauptriclit.  v.  SLandp.  d.  Kath.  aus.  Bonn.  1887.  1st  vol. 

The  sole  object  of  the  gospel  was  to  awaken  and  to  satisfy  the  religious 
spirit  of  man,  by  an  exhibition  of  a  true  religious  spirit.  But  when  it  came 
among  a  people  highly  educated  in  science,  and  was  pressed  by  opponent?, 
this  spirit  was  obliged  to  seek  for  a  more  definite  consciousness  of  its  princi- 
ples.   Its  opponents  consisted  principally  of  those  who  attempted  to  form 

a)  Polyc.  Ep.  c.  13.  Iren.  V,  28.  Orig.  in  Luc.  Horn.  6.  (voL  III.  p.  933.)  Eiieeh:  II.  ecc  III 
86.  M.  J.  Wocher,  die  Br.  d.  h.  Ign.  übors.  n.  erklärt  Tub.  IS'29.— ,/:  DaUaeus,  do  scriptis.  quae  sut 
Dion,  et  Ignatil  noium.  circuinferuntur.  Gen.  IGCC.  4.—Baur.  in  d.  Tub.  Zeit.schr.  1V>SS.  P.  3.  p.  1*»» 
J.  E.  Ch.  Schmidt,  d.  doppelte  Rec.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  (Ilenke's  Mag.  vol.  III.  p.  91ss.  abbreviated  in  bia 
KGesch.  Tb.  L  p.  200s.)  G.  C.  NeU,  Vers.  ü.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  an  Polyk.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  IsSO.  P.  4.)— 
K.  Meier,  d.  dopp.  Rec.  d.  Br.  d.  Ign.  (Stud.  u.  KriL  1S36.  P.  'i.)—J.  Pearson,  Vimliriac  Ei)p.  S.  Ign 
ncc.  J.  VoDJiii,  Epp.  CanUibr.  1G72.  4.  (CoUler.  PI*,  app.  Tb.  II.  P.  II.  p.  230ss.)  Hol/i/;  Anfänge  d. 
Kircbe.  vol.  I.  p.  715»s.  Uutlier  in  Illgen's  ZeiU-clir.  1S41.  P.  A.—  Ch.  JJii«teidieck,  qu.ie  do  Ignatla- 
naruin  cjip.  autbcntla,  duorumquo  tc.xluuui  rationo  bucusque  prolatae  sunt  scntcnliao  cnarrantnr. 
Gott.  1S43.  4. 

h)  Tlie  ancient  Syriac  version  of  Uie  epistles  of  S.  Ign.  to  S.  Polyc.  tlie  Eplieslans  and  Rmnans, 
collected  from  tbo  writings  of  Sevcrus  of  Anliocb,  Tluiotb.  of  Alexandria,  and  otbers.  by  William 
Vureton.  Lond.  1845. 

c)  lien.  Ill,  8.  Emeh.  II.  ecc  III,  30.  V,  20.  Wucher,  Br.  d.  apost  Väter  Clein.  n.  Polyc.  übera. 
ni.  Coin.  Tiib.  lo^'O.  Reasons  in  Opposition  to  its  Qenuincncsa:  S<:McegU,;  Naclinpost  Zeita.  vol 
IL  p.  154ts. 

d)  Aoyiwv  Kvpianüu  i^riyricTis.  Li>st  except  an  inconsiderable  fragment  Iren.  V,  33.  Euiel. 
H.  ecc.  111,39.  comp.  3(j.  Cliron.  ail  Olymp.  '.'JO.  Grabe,  Splcil.  Patr.  P.  II.  p.  34ss.  Munter,  Frngmni 
Pair.  giMec.  ll.ifn.  1763.  Fa.sc  I.  p.  l&ss.  Comp.  Ilexs,  Bibl.  d.  beil.  Gcscli.  vol.  I.  p.  297ss. 


~4  ANciKNT  ciirijcn  msToKV.   I'Ki;.  I.   div.  ir.   a.  d.  ioobi2 

Biicli  ,a  historical  oiiilxxliiiioiit  of  its  nature  as  would  aflbrd  no  room  for  the 
religion  of  the  sjiirit,  and  of  those  Avho  aimed  at  such  a  .«f)eculativo  refine- 
ment as  threatened  to  destroy  every  historical  element  in  Christianity.  Tho 
former  j)roceeded  ^om  the  schools  of  Judaism,  and  the  latter  from  those  of 
heathenism.  Tlio  principles  which  finally  ohtained  the  ascendency,  and  for 
that  reason  only  became  those  of  the  Catholic  Church,  moved  on  with  con- 
scious security  between  both  these  extremes,  althougli  theological  science  was 
at  ditleront  periods  attracted  more  to  the  one  side  than  to  the  other.  Chris- 
tianity was  at  first  regarded  as  embracing  so  wide  a  range,  that  Justin  did 
not  hesitate  (Ap.  I.  c.  46.)  to  consider  Socrates,  and  all  those  who  had  lived 
up  to  the  light  of  reason,  as  Christians.  But  the  more  the  Church,  during 
its  severe  conflicts,  became  conscious  of  its  true  nature,  the  more  decidedly 
was  every  thing  opposed  to  it  separated  from  it  as  a  IltreKy,  i.  e.  as  what 
ought  to  have  been  and  claimed  to  be  Christian,  and  yet  really  was  not.  In 
this  way  it  may  have  happened,  that  instead  of  an  unchristian  party,  only  a 
vanquished  minority  was  sometimes  excluded.  The  literature  of  this  period 
was  sophistical,  and  neither  creative  in  its  essential  character,  nor  attractive 
in  its  style.  The  energy  of  faith  which  theological  science  then  exhibited, 
was  sufficient  to  supply  the  place  of  both  these  qualities,  but  could  not  call 
them  into  existence. 

§  75.     Ehionism.     Cont.  from  §  3.j. 

Gieseler,  Naz.  u.  Ebion.  (Stäudlin's  u.  Tzscliirner's  Arch.  vol.  IV.  Part  2.)  Ilaae,  ü.  d.  Empfäng- 
er d.  Br.  an  d.  Hebräer.  (Winer's  u.  Engelli.  Journ.  vol.  II.  P.  3.)  Z.  Lange,  Beitrr.  z.  ült  KGesch. 
Lps.  1S26.  vol.  I. — Baur  and  Schwegler  (before  §  29.)  On  the  other  hand:  A.  SMiemanji,  die 
Clercentinen  nebst  den  verwandten  Schäften  u.  dor  Ebionitismiis.  Ilamb.  1S44. 

As  the  whole  power  and  development  of  the  Church  was  established 
among  nations  subject  to  Greek  refinement  and  civilization,  the  Jewish  por- 
tion of  the  Christian  community,  in  its  seclusion,  began  to  be  regarded  as  a 
mere  sect,  and  the  old  name  of  yazarencs^  by  which  Christians  in  Palestine 
had  been  distinguished,  as  well  as  that  of  Ehionitcs,  {a)  which  was  probably 
quite  as  ancient,  and  had  been  applied  to  the  congregations  at  Jerusalem  and 
Pella,  became  simply  designations  of  particular  sects.  Justin  Qj)  made  a  dis- 
tinction between  those  Jewish  Christians  who  were  satisfied  with  their  own 
observance  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and  those  who  demanded  that  converts  from 
heathenism  should  observe  the  same  law  as  a  necessary  condition  of  salva- 
tion. The  former  he  recognized  as  brethren,  though  even  at  that  early  pe- 
riod sucb  a  recognition  had  ceased  to  be  universal  among  his  fellow-Chris- 
tians ;  but  the  latter  he  looked  upon  as  incapable  of  salvation.  Origen  («•) 
found  a  type  of  the  Ebionites  in  the  blind  man  who  prayed  to  the  son  of  Da- 
vid, Eusebius  (<7)  looked  upon  them  as  persons  who  were  deluded,  but  not 
wholly  estranged  from  Christ,  and  Epiphanius  was  the  first  to  pour  upon  thera 
the  vials  of  that  wrath  which  all  heresies  provoked  from  him.  Even  at  thia 
early  period,  however,  there  were  not  many  Jewish  Christians  beyond  the 
borders  of  Syria  and  Palestine.     It  is  not  impossible  that  a  congregation  at 

a)  Epiyhan.  haer.  30, 17.    On  tho  other  hand :  Tertul.  de  praescr.  c.  83. 

I)  C.  Tryph.  c.  47.      e)  In  Matth.  torn.  16.  (Th.  III.  p.  "33ss.)      rf)  H.  ecc.  Ill,  87. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCXniKES.    §  75.  EBIONISM.    §  TO.  G  KOSTICISXT.  75 

Rome  Avas  the  only  one  composed  exclusively  of  thera.  But  many  even  of 
these  had  renounced  circumcision  and  all  that  was  essential  to  their  position, 
and  retained  nothing  but  an  empty  protest  against  the  apostolic  authority  of 
Paul.  Attempts  at  an  accommodation  "with  this  party  on  the  side  of  the 
great  Church,  Avould  not  therefore  seem  probable,  nor  have  we  any  accounts 
of  such  attempts  from  contemporary  -n-riters.  Even  the  Christianity  of  Paul 
had  an  acknowledged  basis  in  the  JcAvish  system,  and  not  only  were  some 
fragments  of  the  Mosaic  law  unintentionally  preserved  in  the  habits  and 
customs  especially  of  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  but  others  were  restored  in 
order  to  promote  certain  hierarchical  ends.  The  second  epistle  of  Peter,  and 
the  union  of  the  names  of  Peter  and  Paul  in  the  watchword  used  at  Pome,  may 
have  been  occasioned  by  those  Jewish  Christians  who  needed  such  a  recon- 
ciliation with  the  general  Church.  (<)  Irenaeus  was  the  first  who  reckoned 
the  Ebionites  indiscriminately  among  heretics.  Their  doctrine  respecting 
Jesus  was  the  same  with  that  taught  by  Cerinthus ;  they  adhered  to  the  Mo- 
saic law,  used  only  one  gospel,  Avhich  was  that  according  to  Matthew,  and 
rejected  the  authority  of  Paul  as  an  apostate.  (/)  Origen  and  Eusebiiuj  dis- 
tinguish between  two  different  classes  of  Ebionites,  which  Avere  agreed  in 
their  opposition  to  the  progressive  creed  of  the  Church,  but  ditfered  from 
each  other  in  their  Jewish  representations  of  the  Messiah.  The  one  regard- 
ed Christ  as  the  son  of  Mary  and  Joseph  ;  the  other  looked  upon  him  es  born 
of  the  virgin  through  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  acknowledged  him  to  be  a  super- 
human, but  not  a  divine  being,  (y)  Jerome  was  the  first  who  appropriated 
the  name  of  Nazarenes  exclusively  to  that  party  which  held  to  the  higher 
view  of  the  nature  of  Christ,  and  were  most  tolerant  toward  the  G«ntilo 
Christians,  and  he  declares  that  they  were  united  together  in  the  most  de- 
lightful fraternal  affection.  (A)  "When  he  wrote,  they  still  maintained  their 
synagogues,  in  which  were  found  Elders  and  Overseers;  but  in  the  sofenth 
century  they  had  completely  dwindled  away,  unable  to  maintain  their  jiOsi- 
tion  between  the  parties  then  contending  for  supremacy,  and  to  hoiU  of 
which  they  professed  adherence. 

§  76.     I.   Gnosticism. 

I.  Iren.  adv.  baereses.  Tertul.  de  praescriptionibas  liaereticornm.  Epi])h.  adv.  Iiaereses,  and 
TIteodoret,  haereticorum  fabb.  articles  relating  to  the  subject  All  the  ecclesiastioiil  vritcrs  of  this 
period,  especially  Clement  and  Origen  in  particular  passages. — Plotir.us,  irphs  roh;  ytoiiniKovs. 
(Knncad.  II.  lib.  9.)  ed.  G.  IL  Ihigl.  llalisb.  1S82.     Comp.  Stud.  u.  Krit  lS-34.  P.  2. 

II.  JIiiMuet,  Dss.  previae  to  his  edit,  of  Irenaeus.  Moshemii  de  rcb.  Christ  an»(»  Const,  p.  8.S3S& 
[translated  into  English  by  li.  S.  Vkhil.  Lond.  1S13.  2  vols.  8.  and  by  Dr.  Murdock.  New  York. 
1S50.]  {Miaitfr,)  Vers,  ü-  d.  kirchl.  Alterthiimer  d.  Onostikcr.  Ansb.  1T90.  K.  A.  h:tcahl,  de  doctr. 
gnostica.  Ileidclb.  1S18.  Xeander,  genot  Entw.  d.  gnosL  Systeme.  Brl.  1318.  Swi  ilso  his  Hist  of 
* 

<)  SchxoegUr,  nachapost  Zeita.  vol  I.  p.  490ss. 

/)  I,  30.  (The  dilHcuIty  of  the  passage  is  to  bo  removed  not  by  correction,  bu  by  punclnation) 
Consentiunt  quidon»  munduin  a  Peo  factum,  ca  autcm,  quae  sunt  erga  Dominun.,  non  similiter:  ul 
Cerinthus  et  Carpocrates  opinantur. 

g)  Orig.  c.  Cels.  V,  CI.  65.    Eiiseh.  XI.  eve.  Ill,  27. 

/()  In  Jesni.  VIII,  9.  1.3.  XXIX,  20.  XXXI.  Css.  comp.  Ep.  ad  Aug.  112.  (al.  S9.)  Ei>iph.  h.icr. 
29,  7ss.  On  the  other  linnd:  Aiigunt.  c.  Faust  XIX,  IS.  with  reference  to  the  Xazarenci  s-iys: 
In  ea  perversitate  manserunt,  ut  et  gentcs  cogorent  jiidaizare. 


76  ANCIKNT  CHUUCII   IIISTOUV.     PKU.   1      HIV.  II.     A.   1).   100-31*. 

the  Clir.  IU-1.  [Torroy's  Trniisl.  vol.  I.  pp.  ^00-478.]  J.ücl-e,  0.  d.  Onost.  Sy.ttcmo  ii.  wan  nfiiicrll«! 
«laffir  pctlian  U.  (Tlicol.  ZAt-rhr.  Hrl.  ISIO.  vol.  I.  Foct.  2.)  Gietfler,  ('liiircli  Hist.  [Davl-lson  i 
Trnnsl.  Ediiib.  18-1Ö.  vol.  I.  §  44.]  and  In  Hallo  Lit  Zelt  1823.  N.  104."^?.  J.  Matter,  Hl.»t.  crU.  da 
gnostlclBmc.  Par.  (1828.)  1843.  2  Tb.  J.  J.  Schmidt,  ü.  d.  YerwandtÄcb.  d.  gnost  thco.s.  Leiircn  m. 
d.  licliglonssystomend.  Orients,  vorz.  des  IJiiddhalsm.  Lps.  1828.  (Comp.  Gieseler  In  d.  Stud.  u.  Krlt 
1880.  vol.  I.  p.  873s8.)  Mijhler,  Vers.  ü.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Gnostic.  Tub.  1531.  4.  limtr,  d.  chrlstl.  GnosU 
In  goscliichtl.  Entw.  Tub.  1S85.  and  Stud.  u.  Krit  1837.  P.  8.  JiiiumgarUn-Cruiiius,  Com^.  d. 
DOesch.  vol.  I.  p.  31s8.  Ritter,  Gcscli.  d.  clir.  Phil.  Ilamb.  1841.  vol.  I.  p.  lOÖss.  [£".  Burton,  \n<\. 
Into  tlio  Heresies  of  Uio  Apcst  Age.  IJanipt  Loctt  Oxf.  1S29.  An  Kpltoiiie  of  tlie  Hist  of  Phil, 
traiisl.  from  the  French  by  C.  S.  Henry.  Now  York.  1841.  2  vols.  12.  Per.  III.  §  1.  Tennemann' a 
Manual  of  the  H.  of  Phil,  transl.  by  A.  Johnson.  Oxf.  1832.  8.  .;:  P.  P.tttr,  in  Kitto's  C'ycl.  of  Bibl. 
Lit  art  Gnosticism.  J.  D.  Maurice,  IHst  of  Philosophy,  during  the  first  six  centuries.  Lond.  18.>4.] 

No  sooner  had  Oriental  become  mingled  with  Ilellenistic,  and  especially 
•with  Plutonic  speculations,  than  the  old  problem  of  speculative  philosophy 
respecting  the  derivation  of  the  finite  from  the  infinite,  became,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  profound  consciousness  Avhich  the  age  then  possessed  of  its  in- 
fernal distractions  and  longings,  the  object  of  an  extensively  ramified  system. 
The  name  Gnosis  was  applied  to  an  extraordinary  insight  into  divine  things, 
beyond  the  system  of  faith  which  the  people  commonly  received  on  author- 
ity. The  commencement  of  Gnosticism  may  be  discovered  even  in  the  time 
of  the  apostles,  (a)  but  its  influence  never  became  suflBciently  developed  to 
appear  dangerous,  until  since  the  reign  of  Trajan.  (?/)  Its  usual  fundamental 
principles  were ;  a  God  with  no  connection  whatever  with  our  world,  and  a 
matter  entirely  underived  from  and  independent  of  the  Deity  ;  a  revelation  of 
the  unknown  deity  by  means  of  an  intermediate  divine  being,  whose  contact 
with  matter  gave  existence  to  our  world,  and  all  its  series  of  events ;  a  re- 
demption of  whatever  is  divine  but  confined  in  the  material  world,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  personal  interference  of  a  divine  being  in  the  affairs  of  the 
world.  Wherever  the  pecuhar  principles  of  Gnosticism  gained  the  ascend- 
ency, the  intermediate  divine  being  became  individualized  in  a  descending 
series  of  celestial  natures  (alävei),  (c)  from  the  lowest  class  of  which  proceeded 
the  Creator  of  the  world  (Srjjuioi-pyos),  and  from  the  highest  the  Redeemer. 
Gnosticism,  like  New-Platonism,  was  obliged  to  enter  deeply  into  the  popu- 
lar religion  of  that  period,  and  to  become  a  philosophy  of  the  three  great 
forms  of  religions  then  in  conflict.  It  even  went  still  further,  and  aimed  to 
become  a  particular  form  of  religion  itself.  Its  oriental  element  was  derived 
from  Persia,  and  was  a  dreamy  blending  of  sense  and  allegory.  Simon  and 
Cerinthus  had  already  shown  how  it  could  be  brought  into  alliance  with  Ju- 
daism, but  where  no  feehngs  of  piety  prevented,  its  advocates  very  naturally 
recognized  their  Demiurge  in  the  representations  of  Jehovah  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. On  becoming  involved  in  the  powerful  movements  of  Christianity, 
Its  principles  Avere  in  some  measure  accommodated  to  those  of  the  gospel. 
and  never,  indeed,  found  full  development  until  it  became  connected  with 

a)  §  82.  37.  yet  comp.  C  C.  Tittmann,  de  vestidis  Gnostieor.  in  N.  T.  fmstra  quaesitis.  Lps.  177S 
jtransl  and  publ.  in  Contribb.  to  For.  Theol.  Lit  New  York.  1S27.  8.]  J.  Horn,  Bibl.  Gnosis.  Hann. 
iS05.— P<i«i"S,  die  drey  Lehrbriefe  v.  Jo.  Ileidelb.  1829.  Banr,  die  sogen.  Pastoralbrr.  d.  Ap.  Pau- 
lus. Stuttg.  1835.  On  the  othir  hand:  M.  Baumgarten,  die  Aectheit  d.  Pastoralbrr.  verthetdigt 
Berl.  1837. 

I)  Hegesipp.  in  Emel.  II.  ecc.  IIL  32.  IT,  22.     Clem.  Strom.  Til,  17.  (p.  898.) 

c)  In  accordance  with  the  system  of  Aristotle,  de  coelo  I,  9. 


CUAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  T6.  GNOSTICISM.    §  77.  SATURNINUS.  77 

tliat  faith.  In  the  God  of  the  Christian  system,  its  votaries  recognized  theii 
own  perfect  God,  in  Christ  their  redeeming  Aeon,  in  the  Christianity  which 
he  rcalhj  preached  their  secret  traditions,  and  in  the  faith  proclaimed  by  the 
Church,  the  natural  mode  of  representation  in  which  these  became  adapted 
to  the  popular  mind.  Its  ethical  system,  in  which  the  greatest  contempt  for 
the  world  was  expressed,  harmonized  with  the  most  rigid  requirements  of  the 
Church,  and  only  a  few  of  its  parties  were  so  demoralized  as  to  justify  licen- 
tiousness, on  the  ground  of  an  exaltation  above  the  terrestrial  law  of  the 
Demiurge.  The  founders  of  the  different  Gnostic  parties  have  been  made 
known  to  us  in  history,  but  we  are  nowhere  informed  of  him  who  originated 
the  great  system  common  to  them  all.  The  predominance  of  the  Oriental, 
the  Hellenistic,  the  Christian,  or  the  Jewish  element,  presents  us  with  a  con- 
venient principle  in  accordance  with  which  these  Gnostic  systems  may  natu- 
rally be  classified. 

§  77.  II.  Syrian  Gnostics. 
1)  Saturnimis,  who  lived  at  Antioch  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  taught  that 
there  was  opposed  to  the  good  Deity  (n-arijp  ayvuxTros)  a  wild,  tempestuous 
kingdom  of  evil,  under  the  dominion  of  Satan.  From  the  former  emanated 
the  spiritual  world  of  Aeons.  At  its  lower  confines  were  placed  tlie  seven 
planetary  spirits  («yyeXoi  KoarnoKpdTop€s).  Far  away  from  their  divine  source, 
but  battling  with  the  kingdom  of  darkness,  these  formed  the  world  of  sense, 
and  made  man  according  to  their  obscure  recollections  of  the  image  of  God. 
But  the  work  which  they  had  thus  formed,  helplessly  collapsed,  and  could 
not  stand  erect  until  the  unknown  Father,  pitying  them,  sent  into  it  a  spark 
of  divine  life.  In  opposition  to  this  new  race,  Satan  formed  another  after  his 
own  image.  To  redeem  the  more  exalted*  race  from  the  power  of  Satan  and 
of  the  planetary  spirits,  one  of  the  highest  Aeons  (vovs),  as  Christ,  assumed 
the  semblance  of  a  body.  That  men  may  be  redeemed,  they  must,  on  their 
part,  abstain  from  every  thing  which  brings  them  under  the  power  of  matter. 
The  followers  of  Saturninus,  for  this  reason,  abstained  from  marriage,  and 
many  of  them  even  from  flesh.  («)  After  a  brief  period,  nothing  is  known 
respecting  them.  2)  The  Disciples  of  John,  in  the  second  century,  looked 
upon  John  the  Baptist  as  the  true  Messiah,  though  others  regarded  liim  as  an 
angel  in  human  form.  Among  the  Simonians,  he  was  supposed  to  have  been 
the  teacher  of  Simon.  Though  nothing  was  known  of  the  Nazoraeans  (Men 
daeans,  Zabians)  until  they  were  discovered  by  missionaries  in  Persia  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  their  peculiar  Johannic  system  of  Gnosticism  could  only 
have  originated  when  a  particular  party  professed  adherence  to  John,  and 
when  Gnosticism  was  in  its  forming  state.  They  believed  in  a  kingdom  of 
darkness  as  well  as  of  light,  in  a  formation  of  the  world  and  a  struggle 
with  the  powers  of  darkness  by  an  ambiguous  intermediate  being  (Fetahil) ; 
that  Judaism  was  the  work  of  gloomy  planetary  spirits ;  that  the  redeeming 
Aeon  appeared  to  John,  and  that  Jesus  was  a  false  prophet,  anointed  by  the 
planetary  spirits.  Baptism  they  regarded  as  an  act  of  consecration  to  be  an- 
nually repeated,  and  daily  ablutions  were  practised  as  a  religious  duty.  (/') 

fl)  Tre-n.  1,  24.    Spiph.  hacr.  23. 

I)  I.  Acts  IS,  25. 19,  2-7.     Clement.  Ri'coga  I,  54.  GO.  and  Ilomll.  II,  23s8.     ITieron.  in  Aggeuni 


78  ANCIENT  CHURCH   HISToliV.    I'KI:.   I.    DIV.  II.    A.  I).  100-312. 

§78.     III.  HfUcnigtie  OnosHcs. 

1)  JJdsi/icIcs,  wlio  lived  at  Alexandria  in  the  time  of  Hadrian,  believed 
that  from  the  ineffable  God  {?S(6s  afjfiTjTos)  proceeded  certain  images  of  him- 
self according  to  the  numeral  relations  of  astronomy.  The  first  of  tlieso 
were  seven  celestial  powers  (Hwafxtis).  who,  with  the  being  from  whom  they 
sprung,  constituted  the  first  sjiiritual  kingdom  (oipavöi).  From  this,  in  a 
gradually  descending  series,  proceeded  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  other 
spiritual  kingdoms.  The  mystical  watchword  Abraxa»,  represents  the  God 
revealed  in  these  three  hundred  and  sixty-five  spiritual  kingdoms,  in  distinc- 
tion from  Jiim  who  js  the  Inefi^iible.  {«)  The  seven  angels  belonging  to  the 
lowest  of  these  spiritual  kingdoms,  the  first  among  whom  is  the  God  of  the 
Jews  {apx<^i')i  created  this  world  out  of  matter,  and  bestowed  upon  the  Iiu- 
man  race  inhabiting  it  all  earthly  endowments,  together  with  all  the  spirit- 
ual powers  which  they  themselves  possessed.  To  effect  the  deliverance  of 
this  spiritual  power  from  its  bondage  to  matter,  the  first-begotten  celestial 
power  iyovs)  united  himself  with  Jesus  at  his  baptism.  Though  this  Jesus 
was  a  perfect  man,  he  needed  an  expiation  for  his  own  sake,  and  it  was  he 
alone  who  suffered  and  died.  The  Archon  was  from  the  first  only  an  uncon- 
scious agent  of  divine  providence,  and  he  no  sooner  discovers,  from  the  words 
of  Jesus,  the  actual  design  of  God,  than  he  submitted  himself  to  it  with  de- 
vout reverence.  An  entrance  into  the  kingdom  of  the  Redeemer,  is  effected 
by  a  spiritual  surrender  of  the  soul  to  him  {nlcms),  and  is  by  no  means  in- 
compatible with  a  denial  of  him  who  was  crucified.  The  BasiUdeans^  who 
existed  late  in  the  fourth  century,  appear  only  to  have  embraced  this  doc- 
trine of  spiritual  freedom  in  a  still  more  decided  form,  and  to  have  claimed 
an  elevation  above  all  positive  religious  rites.  Qi)  2)  Valentine^  who  went 
from  Alexandria  to  Rome  about  140,  and  died  in  Cyprus  about  160,  has 
given  us  a  most  ingenious  representation  of  Platonic  ideas,  in  his  fanciful 
scheme  of  the  universe.  In  the  depths  of  the  Great  First  Cause  (^ii'Sor, 
TT/aoTrdrop),  existed  Self-consciousness  (iwoia)  and  Silence  (o-ty//).  This  con- 
cealed God  reveals  himself  in  three  series  of  Aeons,  in  the  names  of  the  In- 
effable, in  certain  images  of  God,  and  in  the  original  types  of  all  spiritual 
life,  which  emanate  from  him  in  pairs  (o-i'^vyoi),  and,  in  contrast  with  empty 
chaos  (Ktfcüfia),  collectively  represent  the  fulness  of  the  revealed  divine  life 
(7rXi';/jcd/ia).  Every  thing  in  the  Pleroma  has  its  individual  properties  assigned 
to  it  by  Measure  and  Limitation  (ö^os).  But  Sophia,  the  Aeon  most  remote 
from  the  great  Original,  languished  on  account  of  its  passionate  longings  tc 


c  1.  Part  6.—T{rnafU  a  Jemt  narratio  origiiiis,  rituutn  ct  errorum  Christianorum  S.  Joannis.  Eoiil 
1G52.  Codex  Kazaraeus.  liber  Adami  appellatus,  syriace  transcriptus,  lat  redditus  a  -Vot  Xorherg. 
Lund.  1S15S.  3  vols.  4.— II.  Tyclisen,  In  the  Deutsch.  Mus.  17S4.  vol.  II.  p.  414.  Ge-^eiiiii-i,  Art  Z.i- 
bier,  in  the  proofslieets  of  the  Encyclop.  1S17.  L.  E.  Burckhavdt,  les  Nazoroens  ou  Mandai-Jahia. 
Strasb.  1S40. 

a)  Bellermann,  die  Gemmen  der  Alten  mit  d.  Abraxas-Bilde.  Berl.  ISlTss.  P.  3.  Gieseier,  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S30.  P.  2.  p.  403ss. 

h)  The  original  is  scattered  throughout  Cleiiieut's  Stromm.  and  in  the  SiSa<rKa\ta  avaToKiKT) 
ascribed  to  him.  The  figurative  an«!  farciful  side  and  its  degenerate  state  in  Ire».  I,  24,  Oss.  II,  16. 
2.    Epiph.  haer.  24. 


CII  4.P.  IV.    DOCTEINES.    §  78.  VALENTINIAXS.  79 

be  reunited  with  its  Source.  This  Wisdom,  the  Achnmoth^  {;■)  agitated  by  the 
intensity  of  its  desires  and  wandering  away  from  the  Plcroma,  communica- 
ted life  to  matter  and  gave  birth  to  tho  Demiurge.  The  Litter  formed  tlio 
world  out  of  chaos  in  such  a  way  that  the  divine  idea,  though  correctly,  is 
inadequately  and  feebly  represented  in  its  actual  scenes  and  events.  To  re- 
store harmony  to  the  Plcroma,  a  new  emanation  of  a  pair  of  Aeons  {Xpitrrot 
and  llviv^a  (lyiov)  takes  place,  and  from  all  the  Aeons  proceeded  the  Aeon 
Jesus  (2q>ti)^),  by  whom  the  universe  Avas  to  be  properly  formed  and  re- 
deemed. It  was  by  this  Jesus  that  tho  Demiurge  was  unconsciously  inspired, 
so  as  gradually  to  form  the  Avorld  according  to  the  type  of  the  divine  Plcro- 
ma. Hence  the  Demiurge  was  often  astonished  at  his  own  work,  and  his 
creatures  shrunk  from  and  adored  those  very  things  which  tlic  higher  spirit 
created  in  them.  For  although  heathenism  was  the  kingdom  of  matter  and 
Judaism  of  the  Demiurge,  individuals  were  raised  uj)  by  the  Soter  in  both, 
Avho,  under  the  excitement  of  divine  powers,  and  but  half  understood  by 
themselves  or  their  age,  pointed  forward  to  the  future.  Conscious  of  the  un- 
satisfactory nature  of  his  present  system,  the  Demiurge,  under  the  impression 
that  he  was  himself  the  supreme  Deity,  and  under  the  influence  of  an  obscure 
presentiment,  promised  his  beloved  people  that  he  would  send  them  aMes.siah. 
This  Messiah  he  furnished,  according  to  his  ability,  with  jjsychical  powers. 
At  the  baptism  of  this  Messiah,  the  Soter  became  united  witli  him.  Miracles 
and  prophecies  were  needful  to  induce  psychical  men  to  confide  in  the  psychi- 
cal Messiah,  but  the  simple  power  of  truth  was  sufficient  to  collect  all  men 
of  a  pneumatic  nature  around  the  true  Saviour.  The  end  of  the  world  is  to 
be  a  still  higlier  restoration  ((iTroKurao-rao-ty),  for  then  the  Soter  will  introduce 
the  Achamoth  as  his  bride,  together  with  all  pneumatic  Christians,  into  the 
Pleroma,  the  Demiurge,  in  peace  and  joy  as  tho  friend  of  the  bridegroom, 
will  rule  in  the  midst  of  all  psychical  Christians  on  the  confines  of  the  Ple- 
roma, and  all  matter  will  return  to  its  original  nothingness.  The  Valentinian 
was  the  most  influential  of  all  the  Gnostic  parties,  and  with  various  modifica- 
tions, continued  in  existence,  especially  in  Rome,  until  some  time  in  tho 
fourth  century.  (</)  It  is  said  that  the  school  of  Ptolemaeu«,  (e)  a  flourishing 
branch  of  tho  same  party,  represented  the  Aeons,  which  Valentino  had  in 
fact  only  described  as  the  forms  by  which  the  Deity  was  developed,  more 
definitely  as  real  persons.  (/)  In  his  epistle  to  Flora,  {g)  (of  who.se  unity  and 
Gnostic  genuineness  we  need  not  yet  despair),  (Ji)  he  attempts  to  vindicate 
tho  creation,  and  the  Testament  of  the  Demiurge,  who  is  regarded  as  a  be- 
ing of  mere  justice,  from  either  of  the  extremes  by  which  they  had  been  as- 
cribed to  the  supreme  God  or  to  the  Devil.  With  an  evident  attempt  to 
bring  his  views  into  nearer  correspondence  with  the  Catholic  syst^'Ui,  he  ac- 
cordingly finds  in  this  lact  a  reason  for  a  partial  abolition  and  a  partial  pre- 


d)  Tlioy  are  the  principal  subject  of  Irena^H».    Some  particulars  niny  be  foun.l  In  Clement.     T>-r- 
till.  adv.  Valentinianos.     Epijjh.  liacr.  81.    Jlür.tei;  Oilae  gnosticae,  lliebnice  et  Int.  Iliifn.  1S12. 

e)  Iren,  pnief.  a.l  lib.  I.  §  2.     /)  Terttil.  adv.  Val.  c.  4.      g)  Communieiiteil  by  Fpip/i.  liaer.  r>8. 
h)  A.  Stiefeii.  dc  rtolemael  ad  Floram  op.  1".  I.  Jon.  ISW.     On  the  otiier  liand,  in  apolo{,'.v :    //! 

Roesel,  in  the  .Append,  to  tlic  2d  vol.  of  tho  2d  edit,  of  Ncander's  Hist,  of  the  Chr.  Kel. 


so  ANflKNT  CIIUKCH  HISTOUY.     VKV..  I.     DIV.  II.    A.  T).  100-812. 

aervation  of  tho  Mosaic  linv  in  conscqucnco  of  its  fulfilment  by  CLrist. 
3)  Tho  Opiaten,  whoso  origin  may  i)erhap8  bo  discovered  in  a  Jewish  sect 
livinp  in  Efrypt  before  the  time  of  Christ,  professed  to  believe  that  the  Son 
of  mnn  Avns  an  emanation  from  tho  Original  Source  of  all  existence,  and  that 
from  liotli  of  the."©  proceeded  tho  Mother  of  lifo  (nffv^ia  dyiov).  This  being 
liaving  espou.sed  tho  former  original  typo  of  mankind,  gave  birth  to  Sophia 
and  Christ,  /.  c.  the  principle  of  Creation  and  of  Redemption.  "When  Sophia, 
tho  imperfect,  adventitious  offspring  of  this  connection,  a.spired  to  be  like 
God,  she  was  hurled  into  the  great  abyss,  and  there  gave  birth  to  Jaldabaoth, 
/.  e.  tho  Son  of  Chaos,  (i)  the  Creator  of  tho  world  and  the  God  of  tho  Jews. 
With  the  assistance  of  his  planetary  spirits,  tho  latter  now  made,  after  his 
own  image,  man,  whom  he  indued  with  life  and  invested  with  authority  to 
rule  over  divine  things  in  his  spirit.  But  by  this  very  act  he  had  divested 
himself  of  his  most  important  power,  and  soon  saw  with  dismay  that  his 
creature  had  become  superior  to  himself.  To  prevent  man  at  least  from  at- 
taining the  consciousness  of  divinity,  he  commanded  the  latter  not  to  eat  of 
tho  tree  of  knowledge,  and  then,  filled  with  wrath,  threw  himself  into  tho 
abyss,  where  ho  produced  another  image,  the  Serpent-Spirit  (»j0id/iop^or). 
But  Sophia,  now  delivered  from  her  fallen  state  in  consequence  of  the  birth 
of  tho  Creator,  sought  once  more  to  attract  to  herself  and  to  purify  tho  spirit- 
ual power  in  the  world.  She  availed  herself  of  the  enmity  of  the  Serpent- 
Spirit  against  its  parent,  to  induce  man  to  transgress  tho  commandment 
which  had  been  given  him.  According  to  this,  what  is  related  in  the  Jewish 
books  as  a  Fall,  was  in  fact  a  transition  to  a  higher  mental  state.  In  great 
wrath  the  Creator  now  threw  men  down  to  the  lowest  material  world,  and 
harassed  them  with  all  the  temptations  and  pains  incident  to  matter.  Indi- 
vidual persons  endowed  with  high  intellectual  powers,  are  raised  up  by  So- 
phia, but  she  struggles  in  vain  to  break  the  bonds  which  confine  men,  until 
the  Aeon  Christ  unites  himself  witb  the  psychical  Messiah,  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  Creator's  enmity,  was  crucified.  Finally,  Sophia,  with  all  her 
spiritual  followers  among  men,  will  be  received  back  into  the  Pleroma,  and 
the  God  of  the  Jews,  gradually  deprived  of  all  his  spiritual  powers,  o-ill  be 
swallowed  up  in  the  empty  abyss  of  matter.  Tho  Serpent,  who  had  been 
the  means  of  man's  first  exaltation  and  therefore  had  been  cursed  by  the 
Creator,  was,  in  accordance  with  his  two  natures,  both  honored  and  feared. 
One  Ophitic  party  went  so  far  in  their  hostihty  to  the  Jews,  that  they  paid 
honor  to  the  most  abandoned  characters  mentioned  in  sacred  history  as  their 
highest  examples,  and  were  therefore  called  Cainitcs.  Others,  on  account 
of  their  disapprobation  of  such  extravagance,  were  called  Sethitcs.  The  pe- 
nal code  of  Justinian  shows  that  the  Ophites  were  not  extinct  even  in  the 
sixth  century.  (Jc) 

4)  Carpocrates  and  his  son  Epiphanes,  Platonists  of  Alexandria  and  con- 
temporaries with  Valentine,  described  the  Primal  Being  as  the  great  Unity 
(Moi'är)  toward  which  all  finite  things  are  striving  to  return.     But  tho 

k)  Iren,  I,  30.  Orig.  c  Cels.  VI,  24ss.  Epiph,  haer.  Zl.—Mosheim,  Gesch.  d.  Schlangenbruder. 
(Vers.  e.  unpartb.  Ketzcrgosch.  Hclmst  1746. 174Ö.  4.)    G.  11.  F.  FuUiner,  do  Opbitli  Eint  1S34.  4. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  7S.  VALENTINIAXS.    §  79.  MAKCION.  81 

earthly  spirits  («'/yyfXot  Koa-nonoioi)  Avlio  have  fallen  away  from  this  nnitj 
are  continualh-  obstructing  this  etFort  by  religious  enactments,  the  most  per- 
fect specimen  of  -which  is  the  Jewish  law.  A  few  wise  men  like  Plato  and 
Pythagoras,  by  means  of  some  reminiscences  of  a  lost  state  of  blessedness, 
have  sunk  back  into  the  divine  unity.  The  same  was  true  of  Jesus,  who 
overthrew  the  Jewish  law.  His  image  was  therefore  honored  by  the  side  of 
the  statues  of  other  great  sages,  in  the  temple  of  the  deified  youth  Epiphanes", 
in  the  island  of  Cephalonia.  Tlie  justification  advocated  by  Carpocrates  is 
not  to  be  attained  by  works,  but  by  love  and  faith,  i.  e.  by  a  complete  sur- 
render to  the  attraction  of  the  great  Unity,  in  the  presence  of  which  nil 
self-interest,  and  even  all  separate  existence  must  disappear.  In  this  state 
the  mind  is  exalted  above  all  need  of  precepts  or  moral  rules.  {I) 

§  79.     IV.  Gnostics^  in  an  especial  seme,  Christian. 

1)  Iren.  I,  2".  Tertul.  adv.  Marcion.  I.  V.  AioAoyo?  iffpt  ttjj  fh  äfhi/  opbrjs  irlartus, 
(4tli  cent.)  eil.  W^tsten.  B.is.  1GT4.  4.  &  Orig.  0pp.  Tli.  I.  p.  S0:3ss.  EpipJi.  baer.  41  Exnig.  (.')th  cent) 
IJarst  d.  marc.  Syst.  A.  d.  Armen,  v.  Xeumann.  (Ziitsclir.  f.  hist  Tlieol.  1&34.  vol.  IV.  Sect  1.)— 
,1.  Hahn,  Antitheses  Marcionis,  liber  deperditus,  quoad  fieri  i)otnit  restitutus.  Eegiom.  IS'23. — Jfahn, 
de  gnosl  Marcionis  antinonii.  Regiom.  lS20s.  2  P.  4.  lihode,  Prolejrg.  ad.  quaest  do  Ev.  Apostoloque 
Mara  denuo  Institnendam.  Vrat  1834.  P.  I. 

2)  Iren.  I,  2S.  Cle/n.  Strom.  III.  p.  54Ts.  55-3.  Epiph.  haer.  46. 

.3)  Euseb.  IT.  ccc.  IV,  30.  Praep.  Ev.  VI,  10.  Epiph.  haer.  b6.—Aiigiistin.  baer.  35.— i^!  Strum, 
Hist  Bard,  et  Bardesanlstar.  Vit  1710.  4.  Ilahn,  Bard,  snosticus  Syrorum  primus  liymnologus.  Lps. 
1310.  C.  Kitehner,  Bard,  numina.astralia.  Ilildbargh.  1S33. 

1)  Marcion  made  his  appearance  at  Rome  as  early  as  before  139,  (a)  filled 
Avith  exalted  views  of  the  glory  of  Christianity,  and  fresh  from  a  contest 
with  the  remnants  of  Judaism  in  the  churches  of  Asia  Minor.  He  had  been 
excommunicated  {h)  by  his  own  father,  the  bishop  of  Sinope,  perhaps  in  con- 
sequence of  the  conflict  of  his  youthful  passion  with  an  inexorable  ecclesias- 
tical discipline.  He  availed  himself  of  a  connection  with  Cerdo,  a  Syrian 
Gnostic,  to  form  a  theoretical  system,  in  which  a  strong  contrast  was  pre- 
sented between  the  law  and  the  gospel,  and  between  the  period  before,  and 
that  after  Christ.  He  made  a  distinction  between  three  great  powers  {npxai\ 
viz.,  the  holy  original  Being  (3fös  dya3oy),  the  righteous  Creator  (ßrjjxiovpyui 
SixMior),  and  the  material  world  {vXtj)  with  its  wicked  ruler  {nomjpüs,  8iußo\os.] 
The  celestial  relations  of  these  ])rinciple3  to  each  other  were  not  carried  out 
in  his  theory.  With  the  limited  power  in  his  possession,  the  Demiurge 
created  a  world  like  himself,  and  from  its  inhabitants  the  Jewish  nation  were 
selected  as  the  objects  of  his  peculiar  favor.  To  them  ho  gave  a  law,  by 
which  justification  was  to  be  obtained  by  works  alone,  and  in  connection  with 
them  maintained  an  impotent  struggle  with  the  empire  of  evil.  Prompted 
by  infinite  love  to  man  the  good  God  then  had  compassion,  and  by  the  spirit- 
ual manifestation  of  Clirist  revealed  his  own  nature,  wliich  had  before  been 
entirely  concealed.     All  this  occurred  on  a  sudden,  and  with  no  prepai'ation. 

I)  Clem.  Stroa  "^XI.  p.  Slls,"».  Iren.  I,  2.".  r.uwh.  11.  ccc.  IV,  7. — Geieniu.i,  da  Inscriptlono  Pboe- 
nicio-Graeca  in  Cyrc».<ilc.-a  nuper  reporta  a<l  Carpocratlanornni  haero-iin  portinonto.  Hal.  1835.  4.  Aa 
to  their  spuriousness  comp.  Kupp.  Kp.  crit  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1^33.  P.  2.)  Gexeniim  in  d.  H;ill.  L.  Z.  1S.S5. 
p.  \(i1.—Ful(lner,  do  Carpocratianls.  (HlgensS  Denk-schr.  d.  hist,  theol.  Gesellscli.  Lps.  1S24.  p.  ISOea.) 

a)  Just.  Apol.  I.  c  20.     I)  Epiph.  baer.  42.  28. 
6 


82  ANCIKNT  ClirilCll   illSToKV.     I'Ki:.  I.    DIV.  IF.     A.  1).  100-812. 

Those  wlio  l)clievc  in  Clirist,  und  froui  a  voluntary  love  to  God  live  a  holy  life, 
.sli.ill  rocoive  i)frlect  blessedness  in  liis  celestial  kingdom,  wliile  all  others  be« 
long  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Demiurge,  and  by  his  riglitcous  sentence,  accord- 
ing to  their  works,  shall  find  a  limited  degree  of  blessedness  or  i)erdition. 
That  tlie  ages  before  might  be  placed  on  an  equal  footing  with  those  after 
Christ,  our  Lord  was  supposed,  during  his  sojourn  in  the  world  of  the  dead, 
to  have  offered  salvation  to  the  heathen  and  to  all  who  had  been  lost  under 
the  Old  Testament,  on  condition  that  they  would  believe  on  him ;  while  all 
the  truly  pious  of  the  ancient  dispensation,  like  the  people  of  that  nation  on 
earth,  were  so  habituated  to  the  administration  of  the  Demiurge,  that  they 
were  kept  back  from  faith  in  him.  (c)  Maroion  tliought  he  found  evidence 
of  the  character  of  the  Creator  from  the  condition  of  the  world,  from  the 
sensuous  nature  of  the  Avhole  representation  given  of  Jehovah  in  the  Old 
Testament,  and  from  the  obvious  distinction  between  the  real  Christ  and  the 
Messiah  held  forth  in  prophecy.  He  professed  to  form  his  scheme  of  Chris- 
tianity upon  a  literal  interpretation  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  he  would 
acknowledge  nothing  as  Scripture  except  a  collection  of  the  epistles  of  Paul 
(6  (möcTToXoi)  and  a  gospel  of  our  Lord  similar  to  that  of  Luke.  Ecclesiasti- 
cal tradition  since  the  time  of  Irenaeus,  accuses  Marcion  of  having  expunged 
from  his  text  of  even  these  sacred  writings  whatever  was  supposed  to  be 
inconsistent  with  his  theological  views,  ((I)  but  on  the  other  hand  it  concedes 
that  he  suffered  enough  to  remain  to  render  those  Scriptures  irreconcilable 
with  his  system,  without  the  most  violent  process  of  interpretation.  The 
question  therefore  has  necessarily  been  raised,  whether  he  did  not  use  an  older 
gospel  than  any  which  we  now  have,  and  one  of  which  Luke's  is  only  a  re- 
vision ?  (e)  It  must  however  be  confessed  that  the  authorities  in  favor  of  the 
superior  originality  of  Marcion's  gospel  are  as  yet,  when  taken  in  detail,  of 
very  doubtful  validity,  and  that  those  ecclesiastical  fathers  who  assert  that 
he,  in  like  manner,  corrupted  the  epistles  of  Paul,  (/)  in  forming  such  an  opinion 
must  certain!}-  have  had  the  authentic  documents  before  them.  Besides,  if 
iTarcion  in  his  extravagant  view  of  the  dissension  at  Antioch  (Gal.  2,  llss.) 
could  look  upon  the  other  apostles  as  Jewish  perverters  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ,  he  may  have  felt  justified  by  omissions,  or  by  exjjlanations,  in  Chris- 
tianizing, according  to  his  view  of  the  phrase,  every  gospel  belonging  to  the 
Scriptures,  inasmuch  as  no  documents  in  the  possession  of  the  Apostolic 
Church,  without  some  alteration,  would  correspond  with  his  ultra-Pauline 
notions.  Ilis  ethical  doctrines  constituted  a  vigorous  system  of  asceticism 
which  he  enforced  by  his  own  example,  and  if  any  one  felt  unable  to  comply 
with  its  requisitions,"  the  alternative  was  to  remain  a  catechumen,  (g)    He 


c)  Iren.  I,  27.  3. 

d)  A.  ITith»,  d.  Ev.  Marc,  in  s.  iirspr.  Ge'^t.ilt.  Kuiiigbb.  1S23.  (,7/iilo.  Cod.  npocr.  Tli.  I.  p.  401ss.) 
j-y/ii!S(l.  de  canone  Marc.  lb.  lS2i.—Ch.  E.  Beckn;  Examen  crit,  dc  TOvang.  de  Marc  Sü-asb.  1S3T. 

r.  1. 4. 

e)  IfilM'h!,  d.  Ev.  M.irc.  ii.  d.  kan.  Er.  des  Lu-.  Tub.  1846.  B<uir  in  Zellors  thcol.  Jahrb.  1S46.  P.  4. 
/)  On  tlio  other  hand :  Ldffler,  Marcionem  Panli  Epp.  et  Lucae  Ev.  adulteras.-c  dubitatur.  Traj.  et 

Viadr.  17--S.  (Conimtt,  theol.  cd.  Velthttfifu  Scv.  Tli.  I.  p.  ISOss.)  Schellhiff,  de  Marc  Panlinaruin  Epp. 
emendatorc.  Tub.  1795.  4.    Against  Tertullian's  assertion  th.!!  M.arc!on  omitted  tlic  cliief  doctrines  ii 
Col.  I,  15-17.  we  certainly  liave  no  other  .ilternative  tlian  to  suppose  tli.it  that  father  invented  them. 
g)  ITi'er.  ad  Ga!.  C.  (i.  Epipli.  42,  4.  Comp.  Tertul.  de  praescr.  41. 


CUAP.  IT.    DOCTRINES,     g  TO.  TATIAN,  BAEDESAXES.     g  SO.  CLEMENTINES.    83 

rejected  all  mysteries,  and  allowed  women  to  administer  baptism.  Ilis  life 
was  spent  in  efforts  to  establish  a  congregation  of  those  Avhom  he  was  accu.s- 
tomed  to  call  his  companions  in  hatred  and  in  persecution.  The  Marcionites 
continued  as  an  ecclesiastically  organized  party  until  some  time  in  the  si.xth 
century.  Many  divisions  however  existed  among  them,  since  the  speculative 
tenets  which  he  left  in  an  incomplete  form  were  perfected  in  various  ways 
by  additions  from  the  different  Gnostic  systems,  and  many  among  the  Gnos- 
tics endeavored  to  get  nearer  to  the  Church  by  joining  their  communion, 

2)  Tatian  also  seems  to  have  found  no  way  to  justify  his  gloomy  views 
of  the  world,  but  by  a  dualistic  theory.  His  Demiurge  Jehovah  had  obscure 
impressions  by  which  he  became  conscious  of  a  dependence  upon  tlie  orifi- 
nal  source  of  light.  He  gave  offence  to  his  brethren  of  the  Church  by  main- 
taining that  Adam  must  have  been  finally  lost.  He  prescribed  a  system  of 
abstinence  as  the  best  means  of  disengaging  oursciVes  from  the  world  after 
the  example  of  our  Saviour.  A  party  of  Encratites,  calling  itself  by  the 
name  of  Tatian,  or  by  that  of  his  pujjil,  Severus,  existed  as  late  as  in  the 
fourth  century. 

3)  Bardesanes  (Bar  daizon),  who  resided  at  Edessa  (about  170),  would 
seem  from  his  place  of  residence,  as  well  as  from  some  of  his  Gnostic  formu- 
lae, which  strongly  remind  us  of  Valentine,  to  have  properly  belonged  to  the 
number  of  the  Syrian  Gnostics.  Bat  the  story  of  his  change  of  faith  at  an 
earlier  or  later  period  is  not  as  well  authenticated  as  the  general  oi)inion  that 
he  was  not  prevented  by  his  Gnosticism  from  denouncing  in  a  very  practical 
manner  certain  extravagances  of  the  Gnostic  schools,  from  asserting  man's 
internal  freedom  in  opposition  to  all  necessary  control  of  fate,  {It)  and  from 
being  a  strenuous  defender  of  Cln-istianity,  and  a  distinguished  instructor  of 
the  Syrian  Churches, 

§  80.     V.  Judaizing  Gnostics.     Comp.  §  35.  75. 

Crednev,  ü.  Essäcr  u.  Ebioniten.  (Winers  Zcitschr.  f.  wiss.  Theol.  IS'2".  P.  28.)  Idem,  die  Evv.  d. 
Juilenclir.  (Beitrr.  z.  Einl.  in  d.  bibl.  Schrr.  Hal.  1$32.  Vol.  I.  p.  2GSss.)  Schneckenburgei;  ü.  e.  über- 
schncn  Pankt  in  d.  L.  d.  Ebion.  v.  d.  Person  Jesu.  (Tub.  Zeitschr.  1S30.  P.  I.  p.  114ss.)  B<iui\  d. 
Ebionitar.  orig.  et  doctr.  ad  Essenis  repi'tendsL  Tub.  1S31.  4.  Idem,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeit.-^ciir.  1S31.  P.  4 
1S3G.  P.  3. 1S33.  P.  3.  &  chr.  Gnosis,  p.  300s9.  Schliemann  (§  75.)  Comp.  Baur\n  ZellcrVtlieoL  JaJirb. 
1844.  P.  3.  ScJtu-egler,  naehap.  Zcita.  vol.  I.  p.  3C3ss.  [^1.  Ililgeiifeld,  kriu  Unters,  ü.  d.  Evv.  Just  d. 
Clem.  HoiJi.  u.  Mareitms.  Halle.  1S50.  S.] 

In  the  Clementine  Homilies  an  attempt  is  made  to  reconcile  tlio  Ebionito 
form  of  Christianity  with  that  maintained  by  Paul,  by  .'showing  that  Judaism 
and  Christianity  were  essentially  alike.  TIicso  Homilies  wore  written  in  a 
lively  and  im])rcssivo  style,  and  i)rofess  to  present  us  with  the  doctrinal 
and  polemical  discourses  of  the  ajiostle  Peter,  addressed  principally  to  Simon 
Magus,  but  interwoven  with  the  romantic  history  of  Clement,  the  ostensible 
author,  (./)  The  doctrine  inculcated  in  them  respecting  God,  is  rigidly  mono- 
theistic, but  all  created  existences  are  developed  in  contrasted  forms,  which 


/()  rifpi  fluapfxfvrji.     Frasrments  in  OreUi,  do  falo.  Tnr.  1S24.  p.  2fl2ss, 

o)  Ta  K\r)u.(vria,  tliree  prologues  and  nineteen  (orl.Lrinally  twenty)  Hondlies.  Tn  CoM-n:  P.  apfk 
Th.  I.  p.  SOTss.  Comp.  D.  v.  Colin,  ClenientiiKi  in  Erscli.  u.  Grubers  Encycl.  A'ul.  XTIH.  p.  86s3. 


84  ANCIENT  ClILnciI   IIISTOltY.    VF.V..   I.    IJIV.  II.    A.   I),   lf.o-,31'.'. 

however  nro  not  alisoliite,  aii<l  in  tlieir  earthly  state  are  related  as  male  an<l 
female  (a-vCvyim.)  Tlic  Orif^'inal  JJein^'  lias  made  a  division  of  the  world,  and 
assigned  it  to  two  principles  wliicli  proceeded  from  himself.  To  one  of  the-e 
called  Satan,  ho  has  committed  the  present  dispensation  of  things,  and  to 
Christ  (also  called  (To(j)ui,  rri/f  C/xa  ayiov,  v'tos  ^(ov)  the  future  beyond  it,  al- 
though Satan  even  now,  as  an  avenging  power,  advances  the  cause  of  good- 
ness, and  the  world  has  never  been  destitute  of  some  men  of  the  future  age. 
Moreover  Christ  became  incarnate  in  Adam,  and  revealed  the  primitive  re- 
ligion which  had  been  corrupted  by  Satan  through  the  woman.  To  restore 
it,  Christ,  whose  influence  pervades  all  human  alfairs,  appears  ngain  in  the 
persons  of  the  patriarchs  and  Moses,  changing  merely  his  form  Avith  the 
name.  The  revelations  thus  given,  however,  were  much  obscured  by  the  Old 
Testament  prophets,  who  having  been  born  of  women  (Matth.  11,  11.),  pro- 
claimed partial  error.  Once  more  Christ  appeared  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  to 
re-establish  the  primitive  religion  and  make  it  wiiversal.  Of  course  the 
genuine  religion  of  Moses  which  had  been  perpetuated  as  an  esoteric  doc- 
trine, and  genuine  Christianity,  could  not  be  opposed  to  each  other.  To  es- 
cape from  the  power  of  Satan's  kingdom,  men  must  live  an  ascetic  life,  and 
receive  from  the  earth  nothing  but  the  bare  necessaries  of  existence.  The 
use  of  flesh  and  wine  was  prohibited,  but  marriage  was  recommended.  The 
Homilies  were  composed  or  revised  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century, 
at  Rome,  with  the  view  of  reconciling  Jewish  Christianity,  then  declining  in 
that  city,  with  the  general  Church,  by  means  of  an  Essenic-Gnostic  theory, 
and  of  vindicating  that  form  of  Christianity,  not  only  from  the  Gnostic  ha- 
tred of  the  Jews,  but  from  the  prophetic  system  of  Montanism.  While  Peter 
is  exalted  as  the  true  apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  the  careful  silence  which  they 
maintain  with  respect  to  Paul,  renders  it  probable  that  in  the  person  of  Si- 
mon Magus,  not  only  Marcion  but  Paul  himself  may  be  aimed  at  in  some  re- 
proaches which  would  admit  of  such  a  reference,  (h)  They  presuppose  the 
existence  of  a  sacerdotal  system,  of  a  cliair  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome,  and  of  a 
patriarchate  of  James  at  Jerusalem.  The  adaptation  of  the  Uomilies  to  the 
promotion  of  ecclesiastical  interests  probably  occasioned  a  revision  of  them, 
to  make  them  conform  to  the  views  of  the  Catholics,  and  to  meet  the  altera- 
tions which  the  heretics  were  supposed  to  have  i)reviously  made  in  one  of 
the  sacred  books,  (c)  It  is  impossible  now  to  determine  whether  tlie  Homi- 
lies were  the  literary  composition  of  a  single  individual,  or  contain  an  expres- 
sion of  a  distinct  form  of  Ebionism  then  in  Rome.  But  the  Ebionites  whom 
Epiphanius  describes  (d)  as  existing  in  his  times,  with  their  synagogues  in  the 


h)  Horn.  XVII,  19.  II,  17.  Even  in  the  Epistle  of  Peter  prefixed  as  a  Prologne:  Tivts  rüv  öirb 
f^vwy  rh  Si'  e/xov  v6,utnoy  a-mSoKiuaffav  Kripvyfia,  rov  (X^pov  apdpwnov  avouov  Tiva  ^-ai 
(pKvapdSrj  irpocT-qKtxfjLfvoi  SiSaffKaXiav.  But  in  opposition  to  this  reference  first  proposed  by 
Baur,  comp.  XUdner,  KGesch.  p.  242. 

c)  Trcsorvcd  in  tlie  Trans,  of  Kuflnns:  S.  Clementis  Kccognitiones  (avayvwa-fis  of  the  first 
qnarter  of  the  third  cent.)  cd.  Coteler.  Th.  I.  p.  4Söss.  E.  G.  Geradorf,  Lps.  1S;33.  The  original  Titid 
perhaps  also  of  the  Homilies  w.is  irtpioZoi  (jrpäf«is)  Uirpov  or  KATjjUf^"^-  '^^^  \^iest  revision 
and  compilation  of  tbe  pseudo-Clementine  writings:  irtp\  Twf  irpd^fwv  sjrtSjjuiä»'  t«  rov  IleTooi 
iirtrouii,  ed.  CoteUr.  Th.  I.  p.  749ss.    d)  Uacr.  80.  comp.  19, 1. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTIIINES.    §  SO.  CLEMENTINES.    EBI0NITE3.  85 

ancient  abodes  of  the  Essenes,  and  in  Cyprus,  maintained  the  same  principles 
respecting  the  division  of  the  world,  the  various  transmigrations  of  the  prin- 
ciple which  they  call  Christ,  with  the  semi-Gnostic  peculiarity,  according  to 
which  this  principle  had  no  connection  with  the  son  of  Mary  and  Joseph 
until  his  baptism,  the  corruption  of  the  Old  Testament  by  a  series  of  spurious 
prophets,  and  the  necessity  of  a  similar  asceticism.  Although  they  still  re- 
quired circumcision  and  the  observance  of  the  Jewish  Sabbath,  while  the 
Ilomilies  demanded  only  baptism,  their  national  separation  does  not  neces- 
sarily imply  that  they  did  not  tolerate  Gentile  Christians,  and  even  the  Ilonii- 
lies  allow  a  special  pre-eminence  to  circumcised  believers,  (e)  The  only  thing 
indicating  the  ancient  grudge  felt  by  Jewish  Christians,  appears  in  their  idle 
legend  respecting  Paul.  (/)  The  gospel  commonly  received  by  the  Ebionitos 
was  used  both  among  them  and  in  the  Homilies,  and  many  things  indicate  that 
the  work  of  Clement,  with  regard  to  the  travels  of  Peter,  which  they  pos- 
sessed, was  of  a  kindred  origin  with  that  of  the  Ilomihes.  Epijjhanius 
thought  that  this  phase  of  Ebionism,  which  he  looked  upon  as  best  exhibited 
in  the  persons  of  Ebion  and  Elxai,  originated  in  the  time  of  Trajan,  from  a 
combination  of  the  Ebionites  with  the  Elkesaites  and  Sampsaeans.  He  says 
the  Elkesaites  sprung  originally  from  a  branch  of  the  Essenes  (Oa-arjvoi),  and 
according  to  their  own  explanation,  their  name  was  given  them  because  they 
believed  that  the  divine  power  was  concealed  in  the  bodies  of  its  human  sub- 
jects, (g)  The  name  of  Sampsaeans  was  given  because  those  who  were  so 
called  turned  their  faces  in  prayer,  not  toward  Jerusalem,  but  toward  the 
rising  sun.  (h)  The  Elkesaites  are  mentioned  by  Origen  as  a  Jewish  sect, 
even  in  his  time,  (i)  The  ascetic  system  of  the  Ebionites,  taken  in  connection 
with  the  fact  that  they  believed  that  the  mission  of  Christ  was  merely  to 
abolish  the  sacrifices,  has  very  much  the  appearance  of  Essenism.  But  if  at 
an  early  period  they  extravagantly  extolled  celibacy,  (k)  their  subsequent  en- 
couragement of  early  marriages  shows  that  those  views  of  life  which  ordina- 
rily prevailed  among  the  Jews  had  finally  gained  the  ascendency  over  rigid 
Essenism.  The  independent  position  however  which  the  latter  maintained 
with  respect  to  the  Old  Testament,  gave  it  a  much  better  prospect  of  con- 
tinuance as  a  Jewish  system,  than  that  which  ordinarily  was  received  among 
the  Jews. 

§  81.  VI.  Influence  of  Gnosticism  ttpon  the  Cliurch. 
It  was  jirincipally  through  the  influence  of  the  Gnostics,  that  the  arts  and 
sciences  were  introduced  into  the  Church,  that  the  Churdi  itself  became  con- 
scious of  its  true  character,  that  tlie  Jewish  element  in  Cliristianity  was  re- 
pressed, and  that  its  vast  importance  in  the  alfairs  of  the  worhl,  and  of  God's 
kingdom,  became  appreciated.      It  is,  however,  difficult  to  estimate  their 

If)  In  the  Contestatio  prefixed.  {CoUler.  Th.  I.  p.  «08.)  /)  Kpiph.  lia  r.  30, 15. 

H)  Ilaer,  19,  2:  5iä  rb  \))\.  ('^H  or  bx^  Ka\oiabat  hvvauiv,  Hal  (^CS)  KfKaXvu^tvov. — 
I7eilejie>ininff,  ü.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Elkcsnilen.  (AiijienJ.  1.  to  his  Orison.  Vol.  II.  [liitucAl,  in  Niedner'i 
Ci-itsclirift  for  Sept.  1803.] 

/()  Ifaer.  53,  2:  So.uvf'äioi   (pixrivfvovTai  'HAia/coj  (rroin 'IJIITV 

«)  In  Euseb.  II.  ecc  VI,  33.    A)  Kpi/Ji,  hacr.  30,  2. 


86  ANCIICNT  ClirKCIl  IIISTOUV.     I'Ki:.  I.     IMV.  ir.     A.  p.  100-;312. 

number  or  tlioir  iiitliiciicc.  We  do  not  often  find  evidence  tlmt  in  any  par- 
ticular locality  tlieir  number  Avas  superior  to  that  of  the  orthodox,  and  yet 
some  of  them  were  to  bo  found  in  almost  every  place,  and  in  animation  and 
spirit  their  writers  excelled  those  of  the  Church.  The  minds  of  tlio  Greek? 
■vvcro  attracted  by  tlicir  striking  opposition  to  Judaism,  the  intellect  of  all 
men  was  gratified  by  tlieir  promise  of  a  dominion  over  matter  and  their  inde- 
pendent development  in  the  direction  of  a  perfect  knowledge,  the  fancy  was 
stimulated  by  the  boldness  of  iheir  heaven-storming  systems  and  by  the  op- 
portunity of  contributing  something  without  much  trouble  to  fthe  foz*mation 
of  them,  and  even  the  Church  could  not  but  admire  the  contempt  which 
they  inculcated  for  the  world.  But  the  teachers  of  the  Catholic  Church  were 
impressed  Avith  the  conviction  that  it  was  essential  to  the  very  nature  of 
Christianity  that  it  should  be  a  religion  for  the  people,  that  all  true  religion 
was  something  more  than  a  speculation,  and  that  piety  itself  required  that 
the  revelation  which  God  had  made  in  Judaism  and  in  Christianity,  and  indeed 
in  all  human  history,  should  be  one  in  its  principles.  They  therefore  placed 
themselves  in  direct  hostility  to  the  exorbitant  pretensions  and  the  allure- 
ments of  the  Gnostics.  The  arbitrary  forms  which  the  fancies  of  the  Gnos- 
tics had  constructed,  could  not  long  resist  this  united  opposition,  especially 
when  the  additional  power  of  the  New  Platonists  was  brought  against  them. 
Even  in  the  third  century  Gnosticism  had  lost  all  creative  energy,  in  the 
fourth  it  was  completely  powerless,  and  in  tlie  sixth  only  a  few  vestiges  of  it 
remained. 

§  82.     Maniahaeisin. 

I.  1)  All  accounts  given  in  the  Greek  Church  refer  back  to;  Archelai  (Bishop  of  Ciscar,  about 
278.)  Acta  dispulationis  cum  Manete.  {Zacagni,  Coll.  monument,  vet.  Eccl.  gr.  et  lat  Rom.  lOOS.  4. 
and  Mansi  Th.  I.  p.  ll'20ss.)  The  Oriental  accounts,  later  indeed,  but  derived  from  oridnal  ancient 
documents,  are  in :  Ilerhelot,  Bibl.  oriental.  Par.  1607.  f.  art.  Mani  &  Silv.  de  Sitcy,  Memoires  sur  di- 
verses antiquites  de  la  Perse.  Par.  1793.  4.  p.  42ss.  Fragments  of  Mani's  writings,  especially  Epistola 
fundamenti,in:  Fahricii  Bibl.  gr.  Th.  V.  p.  2S4ss.  2)  Titus Bo»trensis{i.\iovLtZ6Q),  Kara.  Wavixa'^uv. 
{Canisii  Lection,  ed.  Basnag.  Th.  I.)  Epiph,  haer.  66.  Augunthnis  :  Contra  Ep.  Manichaci.  C.  Fortu- 
natum,  C.  Adiuiantum,  C.  Faustum  1.  83.  De  .actis  o.  Felice  Man.  1.  2.  De  natura  boni.  (Tli.  VIII.)  De 
gen.  c.  Man.  De  morib.  Ecc.  cath.  et  morib.  Man.  (Th.  I.) 

II.  Beausohre,  Hist,  de  Manicliee  et  du  Manichoisme.  Amst.  1734ss.  2  vols.  4.  A.  A.  Georgil  Al- 
phabetum  Tliibetanum.  Rom.  1762.  4.  Reichlin-Melilegg.  Theol.  d.  Manes.  Frkf.  1825.  A.  V.de  Weg- 
nern,  Manichaeor.  indulgenfiao  c.  brevi  Manichaeismi  adumbrat.  Lps.  1S27.  Gieoeler,  ü.  Reichlin- 
Meldegg,  Wegnern  &  Neander.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S2S.  P.  3.)  Bmir,  d.  man.  ESyst.  Tub.  1S31.  (Comp. 
Schneckenburger  in  d. -Stud.  u.  Krit  1S33.  P.  3.  and  Ziiigerle  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalschr.  1841.  p.  574ss.) 
F.  C.  Trechsel,  ü.  Kanon,  Kritik  u.  Exeg.  d.  Manlch.  Bern.  1882. 

The  religious  conflicts  which  took  place  on  the  confines  of  the  Eastern 
world  finally  gave  birth  to  Manichaeism.  The  history  of  its  origin  is  founded 
upon  traditions  and  uncertain  documents.  On  the  re-establishment  of  the 
Persian  empire  (after  227)  under  the  Sassanj^es,  the  Magusaean  sect,  which 
had  defended  the  doctrine  of  absolute  Dualism,  and  various  foreign  systems 
were  driven  from  the  kingdom.  Mani,  a  Magian  of  this  sect,  having  dis- 
covered many  joints  of  agreement  between  the  doctrines  of  Mithraism,  of  Bud- 
daism,  of  Gnostic  Christianity,  and  the  principles  of  his  own  paternal  faith, 
believed  himself  called  to  combine  these  popular  religions,  especially  Parsism 
and  Christianity,  into  one  universal  religion.     He  pi'esented  himself  before 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  S2.  MANICIIAEISM.  87 

the  Christians  as  the  Paraclete  and  an  apostle  of  Christ.  Rejected  by  them 
and  persecuted  by  the  Magians,  he  is  said  to  have  been  flayed  alive  under 
Baharam  (272-5). — Manichaeism,  as  it  existed  in  the  fourth  and  fifth  centu- 
ries, accounted  for  all  events  which  have  taken  place  in  the  world  on  dualistic 
jjrinciples.  God  in  his  kingdom  of  light,  and  the  Demon  with  his  kingdom 
of  darkness,  were  directly  opposed  to  each  other — good  and  evil  being  in 
their  nature  identical  with  light  and  darkness.  After  long  internal  conflicts 
among  themselves,  the  different  powers  of  the  demoniac  kingdom  became 
united  in  their  opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  light.  The  primitive  man,  who 
was  the  first-born  of  God,  and  who,  in  connection  with  the  four  pure  elements 
contended  for  the  kingdom  of  light,  was  overthrown,  and  was  afterwards  de- 
livered, but  a  portion  of  his  light  was  wrested  from  him  and  borne  down  to 
the  abodes  of  darkness.  God  then  brought  into  existence  through  the  agency 
of  the  Mother  of  life  (^wi/  Trvevfia)^  the  present  universe,  that  it  might  bo  a 
new  receptacle  of  this  lost  light.  The  vital  power  of  this  universe  is  the 
light  retained  in  the  bonds  of  darkness.  Two  new  heavenly  powers,  Christ 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  then  proceeded  from  God,  that  they  might  redeem  it 
from  its  imprisonment.  The  first  is  the  Sun  and  Moon,  and  the  other  is  the 
Air,  which  attract  toward  themselves  all  the  powers  of  light  in  the  earth. 
To  retain  these  in  his  possession,  the  Demon  formed  man  after  the  image  of 
the  primitive  man,  combining  in  him  as  in  a  microcosm  the  clearest  light 
with  his  own  darkness.  From  hira  descended  the  race  of  man,  into  whose 
souls  the  light  penetrated.  But  although  they  were  endowed  with  an  inhe- 
rent liberty  to  continue  as  they  were,  in  spite  of  the  necessity  of  evil  in  na- 
ture, they  soon  fell  under  the  temptations  of  matter  and  the  illusions  of  the 
Demon  (Judaism  and  Heathenism).  Christ  himself  then  appeared  on  earth, 
and  merely  endured  the  semblance  of  suflfering,  and  is  regarded  in  this  system 
as  the  type  of  all  imprisoned  light  (Jesus  passibilis).  By  his  doctrine  and  his 
attractive  power  he  commenced  the  process  of  liberating  the  light  from  its 
bondage,  but  even  the  apostles  misinterpreted  his  instructions  by  giving  them 
a  Jewish  sense.  The  Scriptures  possessed  by  the  Church  have  been  partially 
corrupted  by  the  Demon,  and  pai-tially  composed  by  unknown  writers. 
Mani  came  to  reveal  the  secret  relations  of  the  universe,  and  to  secure  the 
means  of  human  freedom.  Complete  truth  can  therefore  bo  found  nowhere 
except  in  his  writings.  In  the  end  there  will  be  a  complete  separation  be- 
tween the  light  and  the  darkness,  when  the  powers  of  darkness  will  have  be- 
come conscious  of  their  inability  to  contend  with  the  light,  and  will  resume 
their  strife  with  each  other.  The  Manichaeans  assumed  the  name  of  a  Church, 
which  possessed  a  hierarchical  form  of  government,  and  consisted  of  two 
great  classes.  The  first  was  composed  of  the  perfect  (electi,  pcrfocti),  who 
alone  possessed  a  knowledge  of  the  mysteries ;  and  the  second  was  made  up 
of  the  Catechumens  (auditores),  who  were  instructed  principally  in  mythical 
allegories  relating  to  the  philosophy  of  religion  and  of  nature,  and  were  al- 
lowed to  hope  for  pardon  for  their  participation  in  the  business  and  pleasures 
of  life,  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  the  perfect,  for  none  but  the 
perfect  undertook  the  duties  of  self-mortification  (signaculum  sinus,  oris  et 
rnanus),  and  were  sustained  by  the  others  principally  on  olives.     Their  pccn- 


83  ANCIENT  (^IlUnCII    lUSToUV.     rKK.  I.     DIV.  II.     A.  1).  10f>-312. 

liar  views  of  nature  demanded  tliat  baptism  should  bo  performed  in  oil,  and 
in  some  congrcj^ations  they  jrave  occasion  to  an  abominalile  mingling  of  the 
olomoiits  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  Tho  forms  of  -worship  practised  by  the 
Auditors  were  simple.  Sunday  was  observed  as  a  day  of  fasting,  and  the 
anniversary  of  Mani's  death  was  celebrated  as  the  great  festival  under  the 
name  of  tho  Feast  of  tlie  pulpit  (ßniJta).  The  Manichaeans  were  still  in- 
creasing in  number  in  the  fourth  century,  and  were  then  scattered  in  every 
part  of  tlie  Oriental  world,  and  in  Africa,  Sicil}',  and  Italy.  Many  persons 
of  noble  minds  were  attracted  by  tho  promise  which  tlieir  system  held  out, 
that  it  could  solve  all  mysteries,  and  exalt  man  above  the  various  parties 
which  then  distracted  the  world.  Even  then,  however,  they  were  persecuted 
with  fire  and  sword  by  the  heathen  emperors,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  a 
Persian  sect.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  their  debasement  in  a 
corrupt  indifference,  by  a  pretended  exaltation  above  all  outward  things,  they 
sunk  in  the  sixth  century  beneath  the  equal  hatred  of  the  Magians  and  the 
liishops.  Still  we  find  some  vestiges  of  a  secret  and  solitary  Manichaeism 
even  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

§  83.  Historico-Ecdcsiastical  Theolorjy. 
The  ecclesiastical  literature  of  the  second  century  was  partly  of  a  devo- 
tional character,  and  partly  consisted  of  controversial  writings  against  pagans 
and  Gnostics.  Especially  in  the  conflicts  with  the  latter,  a  Christian  theolo- 
gy was  formed,  in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  hold  fast  the  historical  ba- 
sis of  Christianity  as  the  common  property  of  all,  and  to  apprehend  its  prac- 
tical relations  in  a  scientific  manner.  Hence  all  philosophy  was  studiously 
declined,  and  true  Christianity  was  thought  to  consist  whollj^  in  its  historical 
traditions  and  documents,  and  those  obvious  truths  which  could  be  easily 
coiupreliended  by  the  people.  The  representatives  of  this  tendency  were 
Ireuaeus  and  TertuUian,  Avho  also  indulged  in  the  expectation  of  a  millennial 
kingdom  nigh  at  hand.  («)  Irenaeus  was  a  disciple,  and  perhaps  also  a  com- 
panion of  Polycarp,  during  the  journey  of  that  martyr  to  Rome,  and  was  a 
bishop  of  Lyons  (177-202).  He  was  a  perspicuous,  judicious,  and  philosoph- 
ically educated  instructor,  with  youthful  recollections  reaching  back  to  apos- 
tolic times,  and  now  came  forward  as  the  opponent  of  the  Gnostic  specula 
tions.  As  his  writings  were  regarded  almost  in  the  light  of  foreign  produc- 
tions in  the  country  where  he  resided,  they  soon  became  little  known,  and 
were  at  an  early  period  lost,  {b)  The  only  literature  which  the  Latin  Church 
possessed,  consisted  entirely  of  translations,  until  the  appearance  of  Quintus 
Septimius  Florens  TertuUianus.  He  was  at  first  a  heathen  rhetorician,  and 
an  advocate  in  Rome  (about  190),  but  afterwards  a  presbyter  in  Carthage, 
his  native  city  (d.  220).  His  character  was  severe,  gloomy  and  fiery,  but  by 
great  exertions  he  achieved  for  Christianity,  in  the  Punic-Latin  dialect,  a 
literature  in  which  an  animated  rhetoric,  a  sound  and  vivid  conception  of  the 

a)  Iren.  V,  8-3.     TeHul.  adv.  Marc  HI,  23. 

V)  With  the  exception  of  a  ftw  epistles  and  fragments,  nothing  remains  but  his  5  b(X>ks  against 
the  Gnostii*,  tAf^-yo?  koI  ävarpoTr))  ttjs  tI/fi<5onViou  •yv(i;<Tft>is,  in  an  old  Latin  translation,  the 
Ist  Book  and  a  fi-w  iVniriiunts  in  the  (>nj.'ina1.  0pp.  ed.  Grabe.  Oxon.  1702.  J/ii,<.s«e7,  Vat.  1710.  Yen 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRIXES.    §  S3.  TEETULLIANUS.     §  St  CYPEIANUB.  89 

ideal,  profound  feelings,  and  legal  intelligence  contended  for  the  supremacy. 
He  placed  a  liigh  estimate  upon  that  consciousness  of  God  which  he  contend- 
ed might  be  found  in  the  depths  of  every  soul,  but  he  was  fond  of  contrasting 
with  proud  irony  the  foolishness  of  the  gospel  with  the  worldly  wisdom  of 
his  contemporaries,  and  the  incredibility  of  the  divine  miracles  with  the  or- 
dinary imderstanding  of  the  world,  (c)  His  writings  are  partly  controver- 
sial, and  in  these  he  exhibits  the  utmost  confidence  in  the  catholic  views,  in 
opposition  to  those  of  Pagans,  Jews,  and  Heretics,  and  partly  devotional. 
They  are,  however,  so  written,  that  the  devotional  element  constantly  ap- 
pears in  the  former,  and  the  polemic  in  the  latter,  in  behalf  of  a  strict  moral- 
ity and  discipline,  {d)  The  Montanistic  views  are  perceptible  in  them  all, 
but  they  become  prominent  and  hostile  to  the  Eomish  Church  in  proportion 
to  the  degree  in  which  the  latter  withdrew  ita  countenance  from  Montanism, 
for  the  Roman  Church,  rather  than  Tertullian,  experienced  a  change  of  sen- 
timent on  that  subject,  (c)  And  yet  the  Avestern  portion  of  the  Church  con- 
tinued so  tolerant  toward  Montanism,  that  some  female  martyrs  adhering  to 
that  system  in  the  African  Church  have  always  continued  to  be  acknowledged 
as  saints,  (/)  and  Tertullian  finally  became  so  prominent,  that  he  is  regarded 
as  the  actual  type  of  the  Latin  theology.  That  theology  was  then  disinclined 
to  any  philosophical  theories  respecting  divine  things,  and  was  entirely  occu- 
pied with  questions  relating  to  the  condition  of  the  Church,  and  matters  in- 
dispensable to  salvation, 

§  84.   Thascius  Caecilianus  C[rpriaitus. 

I.  0pp.  Ci/pnani  ed.  liigaltiut.  Par.  164S.  f.  Fell.  Oxf.  1GS2.  f.  ed.  3.  additae  sunt  Dss.  Cypr. 
Dodwelli.  (Oxf.  1684.)  Amst.  ITOO.  f.  P>aluz.  Par.  172G.  f.  GoMhorn.  Lps.  lS3Ss.  2  P.  Vita  Cypr.  per 
Pontiinn,  ejas  Diaconum  (Cypr.  0pp.)  Among  the  actis  niartyrii  the  two  older  bcijinning,  Cum 
Cypr.  and  Itnper.  Valeriano. — II.  Pectmuy),  Annales  Cyprianici  before  Fell's  edit  If.  F.  Schmieder, 
Ü.  Cypr.  Sclir.  v.  d.  Einh.  d.  Kirche.  Lp?.  1S22.  K  W.  Itetiberff,  Cypr.  nicli  s.  Leben  u.  Wirkeu. 
Gütt.  1S31. 

The  Church  of  his  times  is  well  represented  in  the  life  of  Cyprian.  Ilav 
ing  enjoyed  as  a  rhetorician,  and  perhaps  also  as  an  advocate  in  Carthage,  all 
the  pleasures  of  heathenism,  he  became  impressed  with  a  consciousness  of  the 
vanity  of  his  life,  and  sought  deliverance  in  the  Church  (246).  Although,  in 
the  excitement  of  a  new  birth  by  bai)tism,  he  had  sold  his  possessions,  and 
distributed  them  among  the  poor,  a  sufficient  amount  of  real  estate  and  rcve- 

1734.  2  P.  f.  L.  III.  c.  1-4.  in  grnccum  serni.  restltuta  per  IT.  G.  J.  Thiersch.  (Stnd  n.  Krlt  1S42. 
P.  2.)  Iren,  fragmni.  anecdota  ed.  C.  JA  /'/;'/;  Hftg.  Com.  1TI5.  (Synt  dss.  Stuttp.  1T20.)  Comp. 
Eaueh.  IL  ccc.  V,  4*.  20.  26.— I/.  Dodirfll,  Dss.  In  Ir.  Ox.  16S9.  Mnimuet,  Dss.  ]>racviae  in  Ir.  llhros. 
A.  Stieren,  de  Ir.  adv.  Iiaere.«e3  operis  fimtibus,  indole,  doctr.  et  dignitiito.  Gott.  1S30.  4.  Idem,  Iron 
In  Ersch.  u.  Grubcr's  Encyel.  p.  II.  vol.  X.XIII.    ./.  Jf.  Prat,  Hist,  de  S.  Irenee.  Lyon  ct  Par.  1S43. 

c)  Apologet  c.  17.  I)e  poenitent  c  1.  Do  virgg.  vel.  c.  1.  L)o  resurr.  c.  8.  C.  Marc.  I,  10s.— Dn 
came  Ch.  c.  5.  Pe  praeseript  c.  7.  Adv.  Ucrmog.  c.  8. 

(/)  Opp.  ed.  Pigiiltiux.  Par.  (1035.  1011.)  1C04.  f.  Sender  et  Schüt:.  Hal.  1770ss.  6  Th.  Leopold 
Lps.  lS39.'^s.  4  P.— ^.  Neander,  Antignosticns,  Geist  des  Tert  u.  EInl.  in  dess.  Schrr.Berl.lS25 
Hall.  L.  Z.  1S2.5.  N.  271ss.)     [Antigno.sticiis,  Ac.  trnnsl.  by  J.  E.  liojland.  Lond.  1S5I.  vol.  II,  S.] 

e)  Tertul.  adv.  Praxean.  c.  1.  De  virgg.  vel.  c.  Is.  De  pudic.  c.  1.  Comp,  llieron.  cutal.  c.  08. — ./ 
G.  ffdß'inann,  Tertul.  omnia  in  niontanismo  scripta  videri.  Vit  173S.  4.    J.  A.  yOsstlt,  de  vera  nctat« 
scriiitor.  Tert.  Hal.  (17.'j7.)  170S.    (Opp.  Fa'^c.  III.  Hal.  1S17  ) 
//;  Vulesius,  Acta  SS.  Perpetuae  et  Felielt  Par.  1664. 


00  ANCII'.NT  ClIIKCII  llISTdKV.     rj;i:.  I.     liIV.  H.     a.  I».     100-312. 

nnes  roinained  in  liis  i)Osscs.siun  to  enable  liirn  to  puirorni  splendid  acts  of  be- 
noficenco  in  the  nccoinplif-liment  of  liis  plans.  He  enjoj'ed  the  instructions, 
but  his  heart  never  became  imbued  with  the  profound  sentiment«  of  Tertul- 
lian,  and  his  zeal  was  wholly  expended  in  the  administration  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Church.  All  his  Avritings  were  drawn  forth  by  i)assin^'  events,  and 
by  their  siiiii»lo  and  ardent  eloquence  they  exerted  a  considerable  influence 
on  those  events.  The  leading  thought  in  all  his  writings  is,  that  tlie  Church, 
being  one  in  Christ,  should  be  governed  as  a  single  kingdom  hy  the  bishops 
appointed  by  Christ.  He  refused  the  hishopric  of  Carthage  to  which  he  had 
been  elected,  until,  in  spite  of  an  opposing  jiarty  of  presbyters,  he  recognized 
in  the  tumultuous  exi)ressions  of  the  poi)ular  will  the  mandate  of  God  (248). 
Ilis  i)lans  for  the  enforcement  of  ecclesiastical  discipline  were  suddenly  inter- 
rupted by  the  persecution  under  Decius.  lie  fled  (250),  but  from  his  place 
of  refuge  he  continued  arbitrarily  to  govern  his  church  by  means  of  rescript» 
and  vicars,  and  apologized  for  the  little  attention  he  paid  to  the  counsel  of 
his  co-presbyters  and  the  will  of  the  people,  by  referring  to  the  necessities 
of  the  times.  A  great  multitude  of  those  who  had  fallen  in  time  of  persecu- 
tion afterwards  begged  that  they  might  bo  readmitted  to  the  Church. 
Cyprian  at  first  refused  to  do  this  with  extreme  Montanistic  severity.  But 
the  power  of  pardon  in  such  cases  was  generally  conceded  to  the  confessors, 
who  in  the  present  instance  exercised  it  without  regard  to  his  views.  A 
power  thus  abused  he  refused  to  acknowledge.  The  hostile  presbyters,  led 
on  by  Felicissbmts,  whom  thgy  had  ordained  a  deacon,  now  stirred  uj)  the 
offended  confessors  and  those  who  had  formerly  relapsed,  until  an  insurrec- 
tion against  his  authority  was  eftectod.  They  represented  that  it  ill  became 
one  who  had  himself  fled  like  a  hireling,  to  exalt  himself  above  those  who,  in 
times  of  persecution,  had  exhibited  some  signs  of  human  infirmity,  and  least 
of  all  those  who  had  then  heroically  maintained  their  constancy.  They  de- 
posed Cyprian,  and  chose  Fortunatus,  one  of  their  own  number,  in  his  place. 
Cyprian  apologized  for  his  flight,  by  pleading  that  he  Avas  led  to  it  by  a  divine 
revelation,  and  declared  that  ever}-  one  who  resisted  his  authority  was  a 
rebel  against  Christ.  After  Easter,  in  the  year  251,  he  returned  to  his 
charge,  and  at  a  synod  of  the  African  bishops  represented  his  own  cause  as 
the  common  cause  of  the  episcopacy.  "With  this  view,  the  synod  put  down 
the  opposition  of  the  presbyters.  With  respect  to  those  who  had  relapsed, 
he  obtained  a  moderate  decision,  which  enjoined  that  they  should  not  be 
given  over  to  despair,  nor  admitted  to  pardon,  except  in  immediate  danger 
of  death,  or  after  a  long  and  thorough  repentance.  Accordingly,  when  a 
pestilence  was  prevalent,  and  during  the  incursions  of  the  barbarians,  ho 
freely  administered  to  them  consolation  and  assistance.  The  intimate  con 
nection  which  he  had  ordinarily  maintained  with  the  Eoman  Church,  and 
which  had  been  strengthened  by  a  common  interest  in  opposition  to  the  Xo 
vatians,  was  interrupted  (after  253)  by  the  controversy  respecting  the  bap 
tism  of  heretics.  In  opposition  to  the  Eoman  bishop,  Cyprian  contended, 
that  truth  was  to  be  ascertained,  not  by  an  appeal  to  usage,  but  to  reason  ; 
that  each  bishop  was  equal  in  authority  to  every  other ;  that  the  laws  of  nc 
province  were  a  uniform  model  for  those  of  another,  and  that  a  diversity  of 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTEINES.    §  S4.  CYrEIANUS.    §  So.  CLEMENS  ALEX.  9 1 

usages  was  not  inconsistent  Avith  the  general  unity  of  tlio  Cliurcli.  Stephen 
refused  to  receive  the  African  messengers  whom  lie  sent  to  Rome.  Cypriau 
appealed  to  the  Asiatic  hishop3,  in  whose  name  Finnilian,  bishop  of  Caesa- 
rea, wrote  an  epistle  full  of  bitter  derision  of  tho  arrogant  pretensions  of 
the  Eoman  bishop.  In  a  synod  convened  at  Carthage,  the  African  bishops 
unanimously  protested  against  Rome  (§71).  While  these  things  were  tran- 
spiring, Valerian  published  his  edict  against  the  Christian-s.  Cyprian  had 
now  become  too  conspicuous  to  find  safety  in  another  flight.  Having  ac- 
knowledged himself  a  Christian  and  a  bishop,  ho  was  banished  by  the  pro- 
consul to  Curbi,  but  he  was  afterwards  permitted  to  return  to  his  garden  at 
Carthage.  After  a  year's  respite,  sentence  of  death  was  pronounced  against 
him  as  an  enemy  to  the  Roman  gods,  ana  ihe  chief  of  a  criminal  association, 
lie  was  accordingly  beheaded  on  the  fourteenth  of  So[)t.  258.  No  obstruc- 
tion, however,  was  offered  to  his  admiring  friends,  as  they  performed  the 
last  offices  of  atiection  to  him  in  his  death,  and  as  they  did  honor  to  his  life- 
less remains. 

§  85.     I.  T7ie  School  of  Alexandria. 

n.  K  F.  Guerike,  de  schola  quae  Alexandrine  floruit,  cateclietica.  Ilal.  lS24s.  2  P.  C.  F.  G. 
Ifanselbach,  de  scliola,  quae  Alex,  floruit,  oat.  Stettin.  Iy26.  P.  I.  comp.  Matter,  de  IVcole  d"Ali'xnn- 
drie.  Par.  (1S20.)  1840.  2  Th.  liitter,  Geseh.  do  tliristl.  Phil.  vol.  I.  p.  421ss.  [Epitome  of  the  Hist 
of  Phil,  trausl.  from  the  I'rencli  by  C.  S.  Henry,  vol.  I.  pp.  207-220.  Keander,  Hist  of  the  Chr. 
Kol.  transl.  by  J.  Torrey.  vol.  I.  pp.  526-55T.] 

About  the  middle  of  the  .second  century  arose  in  Alexandria  an  ecclesias- 
tical school,  under  the  superintendence  of  tlie  bishop,  after  the  model  of  the 
schools  of  philosophy.  Sooner  or  later,  it  was  unavoidable  that  the  science 
and  literature  of  Greece  should  become  enlisted  in  the  service  of  the  cause 
of  Christ,  {a)  This  had  already  been  unintentionally  commenced  by  the 
Apologists,  but  it  was  now  consummated  from  a  direct  purpose  and  prefer- 
ence in  the  Alexandrian  school.  Among  those  who  i)resided  over  this  school, 
was  Fautacmis  (about  180),  j)reviously  a  Stoic,  and  since  immortalized  by 
nis  pupils,  (h)  Titus  Flavins  Clemens.,  probably  from  Athens,  did  not  embrace 
Christianity  until  mature  years,  and  after  exhausting  all  tho  advantages  of 
Greek  and  Christian  culture,  he  professed  to  have  found  in  Pantaenus  a  cor- 
rect interpreter  of  the  Scriptures.  He  first  became  the  assistant  and  then 
the  successor  of  his  chosen  teacher  in  the  management  of  the  school  (about 
191-202),  until  just  before  the  persecution  under  Scverus,  when  lie  betook 
himself  to  the  house  of  one  of  his  pupils.  The  last  trace  we  have  of  liim 
was  at  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  211.  In  a  work  which  he  divided  into  three 
parts,  according  to  the  successive  steps  of  Conversion,  Discipline,  and  Free 
Insight,  he  has  collected  in  a  motley  form,  princi|)ally  from  tho  trea- 
sures of  Grecian  wisdom,  Avhatevcr  is  favorable  to  Christianity,  contended 
against  every  thing  hostile  to  the  gospel  in  Gnosticism,  determined  with 

«)  {Soweerain)  Le  Platonisme  dövoiK>.  Colojr.  (Ainstcrd.)  1700.  3fo»hem.  de  tnrbnts  per  rec.  Pin- 
-on.  Ece.  Ilelmst  1725.  On  the  otlier  liand ;  Jialtii»,  defense  des  S.  P^re.»,  accuses  de  Platonisme. 
Par.  1711.  4.  Jieil  do  doctorlbiis  vet.  Ece.  culpa  corrnptae  per  Plat  sententlas  Theologlae  liberaiidbi 
Lps.  1793ss;.  22  Cinmt  4.  (0pp.  cd.  GohUtori).  Lps.  IS^I.  Th.  II.) 

I)  Euiteb.  n.  ece.  V,  10. 


02  AN'CIKNT  ClIUUCH  IIISTUUV.     I'KU.  I.     IJIV.  II.    A.  I).  100-312. 

miicli  lihcrnlity  mid  niodenitioii  many  controversial  question.s  in  ccclc.'^ia.'itical 
ethics,  and  in  an  anitnatcd  and  supgcstivc  form  lias  ventured  only  to  hint  at 
his  peculiar  views,  (c)  Ori'jcn,  horn  at  Alexandria  (1H5),  was  the  son  of 
Leonides,  whoso  martyrdom  (202)  he  was  prevented  from  sharing  by  tho 
gentle  violence  of  his  mother,  who  controlled  his  passions,  and  educated  him 
witli  pious  care.  With  a  soaring  spirit,  a  firm  character,  and  an  iron  dili- 
gence ('Afid/itiiTJof,  XfiXiceWfpof),  he  soon  made  himself  master  of  the  Alex- 
andrian learning,  and  a  scribe  well  instructed  unto  the  kingdom  of  heaven. 
Tho  youth  of  eighteen  years  was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  President  of  the 
School,  and  continued  to  live  in  poverty,  refusing  all  compensation  from  his 
pupils,  and  practising  the  utmost  abstemiousness.  Before  ho  renounced  h\? 
early  views  of  the  literal  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  in  a  moment  of 
bold  enthusiasm,  ho  yielded  a  literal  obedience  to  one  of  their  supposed  re- 
quirements, (d)  His  superior  development  appears  to  have  received  as  much 
assistance  from  the  lectures  of  Ammonius  Saccas  (e)  as  from  the  writings  of 
Clement.  Tho  instruction  of  the  children  of  his  school  ho  coinmitted  to  an 
assistant,  while  ho  conducted  the  more  advanced  pupils  through  the  whole 
range  of  Grecian  studies,  to  the  intellectual  comprehension  of  the  Scriptures, 
and  to  the  philosophy  of  Christianity.  His  irregular  ordination  as  a  presby- 
ter at  Caesarea  (228),  afforded  a  pretext  for  the  manifestation  of  the  aver- 
sion which  his  bishop,  Demctrhts,  entertained  toward  him,  and  he  was  ac- 
cordingly thrust  out  of  the  Church  (231).  This  episcopal  violence,  however, 
was  respected  only  by  those  who  took  no  interest  in  scientific  investiga- 
tions. Origen  continued  to  live  sometimes  in  learned  leisure  at  Caesarea, 
and  sometimes  in  foreign  countries  on  business  connected  with  the  Church. 
Ho  died  at  Tyre  (254),  luiving  previously  confessed  his  faith  with  unshaken 
constancy  during  the  Decian  persecution.  By  his  employment  of  the  Alex- 
andrian Philology  in  the  criticism  and  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  he 
became  the  acknowledged  master  of  a  scientific  method  of  scriptural  investi- 
gation, by  the  grammatical  as  well  as  the  allegorical  style  of  explanation. 
His  work  on  the  Principles,  is  the  first  attempt  to  comprise  the  princiiiles  of 
Christianity  in  a  single  scientific  work.     Only  a  part  of  his  writings  havo 

c)  Aoyos  irpoTpe-mtKhf  irphi"E\\rivai,  'natSaywy6s,  ^Tpu/iarels.  ITomily :  Tis  o  aw^o 
fi.(vos  irXovaios  ;  cd.  C.  Segaar,  Traj.  1S16.  More  candid  and  bolder  are  the  Glosses  upon  tlia 
Scripture?,  viroTviziiicrdi,  wbich  are  lost  with  tlie  exception  of  a  crippled  exiilanation  of  the  Cath. 
EpistJes,  under  the  title  of  Adumbrations.  Perhaps,  also,  tlie  (k  rwi/  irpoipriTiKwi'  eKXoyai 
belonged  to  this  work.  Hymnus  in  C.  Salvatorcm,  ed.  r.  Piper,  Gott,  1&35.  0pp.  ed.  Sylburff, 
lleidelb.  1592.  f.  and  often.  PotUr,  Ox.  1715.  f.  Yen.  1757.  2  Th.  f.  Pocket  edition  in  the  3d  part  of 
the  Bibl.  sacra,  ed.  P.  Klotz,  Lps.  1S;31-S4.  4  Th.—HoßUde  de  Grnot,  de  Clem.  S.  de  vi,  quam  Phil, 
pr.  inpr.  platonioa  habuit  ad  Clem,  informandum.  Gron.  IS'26.  CoUn,  Clem,  in  Ersch.  u.  Gniber"s 
Encycl.  vol.  XVIII.  p.  4ss.  Daehne,  de  yvwan,  Clem,  et  de  vestigils  neoplatonicae  phil.  in  ca  ol>- 
viis.  Lps.  1S:31.  F.  P.  EyUrt,  Clem.  als.  Phil.  u.  Dichter.  Lps.  1S32.  Baur,  Chr.  Gnosis,  p.  602ss. 
Kling,  Bedeutuns;  de«  Clem.  f.  d.  Entst.  d.  chr.  Theol.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S41.  P.  4.)  [Art.  Clem,  in  W 
Smith's  Diet,  of  Bio?,  and  Mythol.  Kew  York.  1S52.  2  vols.] 

d)  Mutt.  19,  12.  comp.  5,  29s.  Euseb.  IT.  ccc.  YI,  3.  comp.  23.  Orig.  in  Matth.  torn.  1.5.  (Th.  IIL  p. 
6."lss.)  comp.  5oAHife<-;\  Ori^.  ü.  d.  Grundlehren  d.  GIaubenswi.ss.  Stuttg.  ISJo.  p.  XXXIIIss.  Or 
the  other  hand:  Engelhnrdt,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  ISSS.  P.  1.  p.  157ss. 

e)  IT.  A.  nHgl,  der  Bericht  d.  Porphyr,  ü.  Orij:.  Bepensb.  1S35.  Redepenning,  App.  2.  to  vol.  I 
I.  Krüger,  fi.  das  Yerli.  d.  Orig.  zu  Amm.  Sacc.  (Illgons  Zeitschr.  1843.  P.  1.) 


CTIAP.  IV.     DOCTRINES.     §  So.  ALEXANDRIAN  THEOLOGY.     §  ST   OEIGEN.     93 

come  down  to  modern  times,  some  of  them  in  a  Latin  translation  by  Jiußnus, 
and  others  in  extracts  by  the  orthodox  -writers  of  his  age.  (/)  Clement 
reached  Christianity  through  philosophy,  Origen  reached  philosophy  through 
Christianity.  The  former  proceeded  in  the  style  of  an  eclectic  jdiilosopher, 
in  whose  conception  of  a  complete  gnostic  the  Stoical  ideal  predominated, 
with  its  calm  tranquillity  derived  not  from  the  human  but  from  the  divine 
spirit ;  the  latter  showed  a  more  decided  predilection  for  Plato.  Both  grasped 
after  a  knowledge  which  should  comprehend  the  universe,  but  their  efforts 
were  characterized  more  by  a  literary  fondness  for  philosophy,  than  by  philo- 
sophical depth,  as  they  developed  the  religious  ideas  involved  in  tlie  facts  of 
Christianity,  smoothed  away  the  difficulties  which  must  attend  a  one-sided 
and  purely  historical  conception  of  it,  and  elevated  it  above  the  extremes  of 
Judaism  and  of  Gno.sticism,  even  though  its  truths  were  received  in  a  limited 
form.  Taken  together,  their  doctrines  constituted  one  comprehensive  whole, 
whose  form  was  a  philosophy  of  Christianity,  whose  substance  was  the  free- 
dom of  the  mind  in  its  everlasting  activity,  and  whose  source  was  the  Deity 
himself. 

§  86.  II.     Characteristics  of  the  Alexandrian  Theology. 

1.  Philosophy  was  to  the  Greek  what  the  law  was  to  the  Jew,  an  in- 
structor showing  the  need  of  Christ,  and  proposing  a  proper  pattern  of 
righteousness.  God  has  revealed  his  true  nature  in  appropriate  methods, 
through  the  Logos  to  all  nations,  {a)  The  highest  revelation  he  has  ever 
made  of  himself  is  in  Christianity,  by  means  of  which  many  a  retired  vil- 
lage has  become  an  Athens.  The  position  of  the  faith  of  the  common  people 
is  that  in  which  a  merely  historical  Christianity  is  received  on  the  authority 
of  others  (ttio-tis),  but  the  higher  position  of  the  perfect  Christian  is  that  in 
which  truth  is  contemplated  with  a  free  insight,  and  a  full  consent  of  the 
mind  {yvüxrii).  The  doctrines  of  the  Gnosis  were  described  as  those  secret 
traditions  which  originally  proceeded  from  Christ,  but  they  were  in  fact  the 
free  scientific  speculations  respecting  well  established  ecclesia.*tical  tradi- 
tions. Qj)  The  Scriptures  were  looked  upon  as  the  result  of  divine  inspira- 
tion, though  in  different  degrees,  and  it  was  thought  that  every  part  of  them 
should  receive  a  signification  worthy  of  God.  "Where  such  a  meaning  was 
not  supplied  by  the  mere  words,  the  hidden  sense  was  devolopod  from  the 


/)  1)  For  tlie  restoration  of  the  Septua^nt  Revision  of  the  t<;st  of  the  O.  T.  and  Ifa  tmnslatlon»: 
TO  «{airAcl.  llexajilor.  quae  supcrsunt  ccl.  B.  de  ilontfaitson.  Par.  1713.  8  Th.  t  C.  /■'.  Rihrdt, 
Lps.  lT69s.  2  Th.  2)  Scholiao  arjufiuxTftr,  commentaries  rjfio«,  ami  practical  cxfK)!>Itli>n9,  «J/iiXi'ai 
on  most  of  the  sacred  books,  only  a  few  loss  liniM>rtant  parts  of  which  are  preserved  In  Ruflnus  and  Je- 
lome.  8)  Ucfi]  apxüy,  1.  IV.  Half  of  the  3d,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  4th  vol.  are  extant  in  the  Greek, 
the  remainder  Is  in  I'ufin's  LaL  version,  cd.  K  li.  linlfpfnning.  Lps.  1S36.  4)  Kara  KtKcrov. — 
0pp.  cd.  <7.  et  r.  V.  Delarue.  Par.  1788.'«.  4  Th.  f.  J.ommaU»ch,  Ber.  1S31-44.  17  Th.— //hW»im, 
Origeniana,  prefixed  to  his  edit,  of  tlie  Commentaries,  (Par.  1079.)  and  In  the  4th  vol.  of  tlie  edit,  of 
Delarue.  G.  ThomaKiuK,  Ori?.  Nnrnb.  1*17.  E.  li.  Itedepenning,  Ori?.  Leben  n.  Lelire.  Jlonn. 
1S41-6.  2  pts.     [Article  from  tlic  IJritisli  Quart  P.ev.  in  Eclectic  Map.  of  .lanuary,  1S46.  pp.  Sl-101.] 

n)  Clem.  Strom.  1.  p.  2.S1.  VI.  \\  7C1.     On  the  otiier  side:  V.  p.  020.  VI.  p.  757. 

I))  Meander,  de  fldei  gnoseosque  idea  see.  Clem.  Ileidlb.  ISll. 


di  an<'Ii:nt  ciifiifir  histokv.   i'Ki;.  i.   div.  ii.   a.  d.  1(10-312. 

letter  by  means  of  allegorical  interpretations,  (c)  2.  God  is  linaited  only  by 
hU  own  Avill,  and  is  inHcrutablc  to  bis  creatures,  yet  be  bas  revealed  biniself 
not  only  by  means  of  tbe  Logos,  wbicb  be  voluntarily  and  from  all  eternity 
ncnt  fortli,  and  -wbicb  is  at  tbc  same  time  God  and  tbe  all  pervading  reason, 
but  also  by  means  of  tbe  Holy  Spirir,  tbe  personal  source  of  all  sanctification. 
Botb  of  tbese  are  develoj)mcnts  of  tbe  divine  essence,  and  altboiigb  essentially 
Bubordinato  to  tbe  absolute  Deity,  tbey  constitute  a  unity  Avitb  bira.  By  tbo 
agency  of  the  Logos,  who  must  therefore  have  existed  before  it,  God 
created  tbe  Avorld  of  spirits,  all  of  whom  were  originally  equal  in  dignity  and 
power,  but  as  God  is  eternally  active,  tbe  scries  of  worlds  by  which  be  is 
developed  can  have  neither  beginning  nor  end.  8.  The  spirit  alone  is  worthy 
of  confidoncc,  matter  is  tbe  form  in  which  evil  is  manifested,  and  yet  it  is  the 
vessel  in  which  the  spirit  must  be  purified.  Each  world-sphere  is  adapted  to 
that  peculiar  state  of  the  spirits  inhabiting  it,  which  has  been  produced  by 
the  exercise  of  their  moral  freedom.  Even  the  present  condition  of  man 
must  have  been  produced  by  something  voluntarily  done,  involving  him  in 
guilt.  The  Fall  of  man  spoken  of  by  Moses,  is  an  allegorical  representation 
of  a  fall  anterior  to  man's  present  earthly  existence,  in  which  he  is  doing 
penance  for  what  he  then  did,  and  passing  through  a  process  of  purification. 
Moral  freedom  continues  an  inalienable  attribute  of  fallen  man,  unimpaired 
even  in  death.  4.  The  Logos,  that  he  might  fully  reveal  himself  in  Christ 
assumed  an  ethereal  body,  by  means  of  a  human  soul  (^v^'i).  The  plan  of 
Christianity  being  the  same  with  that  of  the  moral  universe  in  general,  of 
course  embraces  all  intellectual  beings  in  all  worlds.  To  those  who  are  in  an 
inferior  stage  of  moral  improvement,  Christianity  is  a  redemption,  but  to 
those  who  are  perfect  it  is  a  free  fellowship.  ((T)  5.  There  is  to  be  no  resur- 
rection of  the  flesh,  but  a  development  of  higher  organs,  (e)  not  an  earthly 
but  a  celestial  kingdom  of  Christ,  not  an  everlasting  punishment  in  hell,  bat 
on  the  other  hand  every  thing  wliieh  has  fallen  from  God  shall  at  some  period 
be  restored  to  its  original  source  {n-rroKaTtuTracris   rdv  Triiirajj'). 

§  87.     in.  Influence  of  Origen. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Church  were  defended  by  Origen  in  a  variety  of 
ways.  It  was  through  his  influence  that  the  expectation  wliich  then  prevailed 
with  respect  to  a  near  approach  of  Christ's  second  advent,  and  a  millennial 
Kingdom,  bpgan  to  be  regarded  as  heretical,  or  at  least  fanatical.  For  centu- 
ries his  influence  upon  tbe  whole  Church  was  powerful,  by  means  of  his  writ- 
ings and  a  circle  of  followers  which  gathered  around  him,  and  formed  a 
seminary  of  eminent  teachers  and  bishops  for  the  Church.  He  was  himself, 
however,  well  aware  that  his  doctrines  were  not  suitable  for  the  common 
mind,  and  his  views  of  Christian  science  allowed  him  intentionally  so  to  write 
that  his  language  was  unintelligible,  and  even  conveyed  error,  to  all  but  tlie 


c)  J.  A.  Ernenti.  de  Orig.  interpretationis  grainrn.  auctore.  (Opp  crit  Lncrd.  17C4  p.  2SSs5.)  ('.  Ii. 
ITdgenhach,  Ob«s.  ctrca  Orig.  niethodum  interpret  S.  Sc.  Bas.  lS-28.  Conipi  {Illrzel)  in  Winers  kriL 
Jonrn.  ISiJ.x  vol.  III.  part  4. 

r/)  Oi-Uj.  in  Jo.  toin.  I.  (Th.  IV.  p.  üi.;     e)  Orig.  Opp.  Th.  I.  p  35s. 


CHARIT.    DOCTRINES.    §  ST.  DIOXYSIÜS.    §  8S.  AFKICANUS,  IIII'POLTTÜS.    95 

initiatöd.  (a)  Jl'is  ideal  tendency  to  go  beyond  historical  traditi<jns  and  those 
pccnliarities  which  so  strongly  contrasted  Avith  ■\vliat  was  common  iu  the 
Church,  were  sure,  sooner  or  later,  to  call  forth  opposition.  Tlie  first  objec- 
tions urged  against  him  were  of  the  vaguest  character,  and  generally  of  a  per- 
sonal nature,  or  founded  on  gross  exaggerations.  Methodius,  Bishop  of  Tyre 
(d.  311),  finally  attacked  his  doctrines  respecting  the  development  of  worlds, 
the  resurrection  and  the  freedom  of  the  wiU.  {J>)  Ilis  discii)les  made  every 
effort  to  vindicate  the  honor  and  orthodoxy  of  their  illustrious  master.  The 
orthodoxy  of  some  of  his  views  was  shown  hy  comparing  them  with  the  in- 
definite creeds  of  that  day,  and  others  Avero  excused  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  advanced  only  as  hypotheses.  Even  when  in  prison  the  learned  Para- 
l>]iilus  of  Caesarea  wrote  an  apology,  which  was  afterwards  sealed,  as  it  were, 
with  his  own  blood  (309),  and  was  completed  by  Emclius.  (c)  Among  Lis 
immediate  pupils,  Dionysius,  his  successor  in  the  office  of  instructor  after  233 
and  Bishop  of  Alexandria  after  248,  has  rej)resented  especially  tlie  depart- 
ment of  ecclesiastical  learning,  with  great  zeal  for  the  Church,  but  with  much 
liberality  with  respect  to  genuine  science,  (<iZ)  and  Gr&gorius,  after  214,  Bishop 
of  Xeo-Oaesarea,  and  surnamed  Thuuinaturgus  by  the  orthodox  of  subsequent 
times,  represented  Origen"s  i)ractical  ascetic  tendency,  {e) 

§  88.     A]}pendix  to  the  Literary  Hintory. 

A  pious  veneration  for  Christian  antiquity  has  usually  preserved  with 
much  care  the  names  of  some  writers  who  are  not  fairlj'  entitled  to  a  plave 
in  history  by  their  character  or  influence.  Athenagoras^  according  to  some 
uncertain  accounts,  the  predecessor  of  Pantaenus  in  Alexandria,  wrpte  with 
considerable  philosophical  talent  a  defence  of  the  doctrine  of  the  resurrec- 
tion (about  1 80).  (rt)  Julius  African  us,  a  presbyter  at  Nicopolis  (Emmaus)  and 
a  friend  of  Origen,  though  more  advanced  in  age  (d.  about  232),  was  a  learned 
annalist,  and  by  some  extant  letters  appears  to  have  been  a  judicious  critic  of 
the  Scriptures.  (I)  Hii^iJolytus,  a  bishop,  and  a  contemporary  of  Origen,  was 
.said  by  Eusebius  and  Jerome  to  have  left  valuable  writings  in  explanation  of 
tlie  Scriptures,  and  in  refutation  of  heretics,  (c)     The  titles  and  fraguients  of 

")  Orig.  c.  Cels.  Ill,  79.  Stromin.  VI.  in  Tlievon.  Apol.  I.  a<lv.  Ruf.  c.  IS. 

V)  Ile/jl  acacTTacreair,  Trepi  töiv  •yivr\TÜiv,  irepl  aure^tivffiov.  Frnsm.  in  Epii'h.  liaer.  C4. 
Phot.  cod.  2.34,  200.  comp.  Socrnt.  II.  ccc.  VI,  13. 

c)  .Viiologiae  pro  Oiig.  lib.  VI.  üroek  Fni^'.  iu  Phot.  coil.  IIS.  The  fir.'it  bonk  is  in  KiiUn's  trans- 
huion. 

d)  Fragments:  Rom.  ITOT.  f.  GaUanil.  r.ibl.  PP.  Tli.  III.  p.  4Slss. 

e)  Eis  'Cipiyfvy\v  TTpuartxuvriTiiihi  Kal  TTavqyvptichs  \nyo^.  'EniffJoKi)  kukoi  tm).  His  life 
by  Gregorius  Nyss.  from  narratives  supplied  by  bis  jrrandmotlier.  0pp.  c.  vitn  cd.  O.  VoKsiim^  Mos. 
11301.  4.  Fra;,'ments  of  liis  writings  in  An(/.  Maii  X.  Coll.  Tli.  VII.  P.  I.  p.  ITOss.  C^nnp.  Eusiib.  H. 
eco.  VI,  30.  VII,  14. 

«)  riepi  h.i'0.(TTäa«t!^  ruf  viKpitiv,  ed.  liecltenherg,  Lps.  1G>5. 

h)  'S.povnypa'püiv  irfi/T«  a^rovZä.a^laTa.  'ErriiTT.  TTfpl  Tf,s  Kara  'S.ovaä.vvu.v  iaropias 
written  to  Origen,  witli  tlio  reply  of  tlie  latter,— 'Eitktt.  -rrphs  'Api<TT(i5r]v,  a  barinony  of  tbc  ge- 
nealogies of  .Jesus.  Poiith,  Rcll«!.  sacr.  vol.  II. 

c)  Ei(n,'h.  H.  ccc.  VI,  20,  22,  40.  Ifieron.  catal.  c.  Gl.  P/iut.  cod.  121.  Eheiljexn  in  .lostWKnu  BlbL 
or.  vol.  III.  P.  I. 


96  ANCIENT  CIIUKCII  HISTOIiy.    I'KR.  I.    VIV.  II.    A.  I).  100-312. 

his  works  aro  thought  by  many  to  indicate  an  oriental  character,  and  a  de- 
frreo  of  oduciitlon  soinowiicro  between  that  of  Origen  and  that  of  Ircnacns.  (il) 
lUit  his  statue,  found  in  the  A(/cr  Veraniis,  near  Kome  (1551),  with  tlie  Eas- 
ter cycle  en^Tiived  njjon  his  cathedra  and  a  catalogue  of  his  writings,  imply 
that  lie  must  have  resided  in  the  vicinity  of  Kome,  and  tliat  tlie  Portus  Ro- 
maniis  mentioned  as  his  bishopric,  must  have  been  the  port  near  Ostia,  (e) 
Yet,  as  Prudentius  had  sung  the  martyrdom  of  a  highly  esteemed  Novatian 
l)resbyter,  who,  in  view  of  death,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Chnrch,  and  after 
his  execution  near  the  mouths  of  the  Tiber,  had  been  conveyed  to  the  Roman 
catacombs,  (/)  and  in  the  time  of  that  poet  had  been  honored  with  a  mag- 
nificent martyriuni,  and  a  great  annual  festival  at  Rome,  the  discoverers  of 
this  statue  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  martyr  was  the  same  person  as  tho 
ecclesiastical  writer,  (g)  Later  martyrologies,  however,  indicate  that  the  mar- 
tyr came  to  Rome  from  Antioch,  where  a  lively  interest  existed  in  favor  of 
ISTovatianism.  (Ä)  Zactantivs  Finnianus,  an  Italian  preceptor  to  the  prince 
Crispus,  in  whose  misfortunes  he  was  probably  involved  (d.  about  330),  com- 
menced, during  his  residence  as  a  rhetorician  at  Nicomedia,  in  the  midst  of 
the  last  persecution,  his  treatise  on  the  nature  and  achievements  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  contrast  with  those  of  Heathenism.  In  this  work  he  has  shed  all 
the  rhetorical  splendor  of  his  age  upon  the  gospel,  and  has  acquired  the  ap- 
pellation of  a  Christian  Cicero.  His  belief  in  a  principle  of  evil  appointed 
by  God,  and  of  equal  rank  with  Christ,  and  in  a  millennial  kingdom,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  lingering  shadow  of  the  preceding  century.  (/) 

§  89.    Apocryphal  Literature. 

Among  the  Jews,  the  heathen,  and  the  Christians  of  this  period,  it  was 
thought  that  the  truth  might,  without  impropriety,  be  defended  by  means  of 
what  was  untrue.  The  lives  of  their  heroes  and  saints  especially  might  be 
embellished  as  much  as  they  pleased,  and  the  credit  of  such  compositions 
might  be  aided  by  attaching  to  them  some  celebrated  name.  In  tliis  way  was 
produced,  within  the  Church  as  well  as  beyond  its  pale  an  apocryphal  litera- 
ture, composed  partiallj'  of  harmless  fictions  and  popular  legends,  and  partially 

d)  Ifippol.  0pp.  ed.  Fabricius.  llanib.  ITlCss.  2  vols.  f. 

e)  E.  J.  Ximmel,  de  Hip.  vita  et  scriptls.  P.  I.  Jen.  1S39.  Z.  F.  W.  Seinecke,  Leben  u.  Sehir.  d. 
Hipp.  (Illgen's  Ziitschr.  1S42.  P.  3.)  On  the  other  side:  0.  G.  üaenell,  de  Hipp.  Gott  1S3S.  4.  as 
Bishop  of  Bostra. 

/)  Peristeph.  hym.  1 1. 

g)  According  to  Winkelmann,  Werke,  ed.  by  Meyer  &  Schulze,  vol.  XVII.  p.  334.  the  statue  be- 
longed to  the  time  of  Alex.  Severus — certainly  too  early— according  to  Platiier,  in  d.  Bescreib.  d. 
Stadt  Rom.  by  Platner,  Bunsen,  &  oth.  vol.  2.  p.  829.  the  latest  period  Tras  that  of  the  6th  cent  [See 
JBuiisen's  Hipp.  &  his  Age.  Lond.  1S53.  C.  Wordsicorth,  H.  &  the  Church  of  Eome,  4.  Lend.  1SÖ3.  and 
articles  in  the  Jan"y  Nos.  of  the  Edinb.  &  English  Reviews  for  1S53.] 

1i)  The  combined  evidence  thus  obtained  may  be  seen  In  Gieseler,  [Eccles.  Ilist  transl.  by  Da- 
vidson, Edinb.  vol.  I.  p.  249.  note  9.] 

i)  Institutlonum  div.  1.  VII.  De  mortibns  perseculorum.  De  ira  Dei.  De  opificio  Dei,  vel  de  forma- 
tione  hominis.  0pp.  ed.  Bünemann.  Lps.  1739.  Lebrun  et  Lenglet  Dufresnoy,  Par.  1745.  2  Th.  4. 
O.  F.  Fritzsche,  Lps.  1842. — i.  2  P.— ^  G.  Ph.  Ammon,  Lact  opiniones  de  rel.  in  systema  redactae, 
dss.  IL  Erl.  1S20.  IT.  J.  Spyker,  de  prctio  Instjtutionibns  Lact  tiibucndo.  Lugd.  1S2Ö.  L.  Jlamknechi, 
itudes  sur  Lact  Strassb.  1S37. 


OIIAr.  IV.    D0CrEINE3.    §  S9.  APOCRTPHAL  WRITINGS.  97 

of  intentional  forgeries,  (a)  "Writings  of  the  former  kind  liave  been  so  tho- 
roughly revised  by  the  Gnostics  and  Maiiichaeans,  that  their  origin  and  pri- 
mary design  can  no  longer  be  determined  with  any  certainty,  and  even  their 
dogmatic  character  is  for  the  most  part  indeterminate  and  contradictory.  In 
this  respect  they  are  a  fair  exemplification  of  the  age  which  gave  them  birth. 
Even  in  those  rare  instances  in  which  the  deception  was  discovered  and  cen- 
sured by  the  Church,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Acts  of  Paul  and  Theckla,  written 
under  the  impulse  of  a  warm  affection  for  Paul,  and  an  almost  poetical  sen- 
timent in  behalf  of  the  duty  of  self-sacrifice,  the  work  remained  for  a  long 
time  in  circulation  among  the  Churches,  (h)  1)  Among  those  called  Acts  of 
the  Apostles  may  be  noticed  a  cycle  of  histories  pretending  to  give  an  account 
of  the  miracles  wrought  by  the  apostles,  collected  and  revised  so  as  to  favor 
the  interests  of  Manichaeism,  by  some  one  under  the  name  of  Leuciiis  Cha- 
rinus.  (c)  2)  Jewish  imitations  of  earlier  prophetic  visions  were  sometimes 
used  by  Christians  with  their  own  interpretation,  and  sometimes  counterfeited 
by  Jewish  Christians,  to  show  the  completion  of  the  Messianic  proj)hocies  by 
facts  taken  from  the  life  of  Jesus,  {d)  3)  Some  lost  prophecies,  ascribed  to 
Ilystaspes,  an  ancient  Persian  seer,  gave  to  the  Asiatic  Christians  a  prophet 
of  the  Messiah,  from  their  own  native  region,  (e)  4)  The  Si/hillijie  Oracles 
were  written  by  many  different  authors  in  the  course  of  several  centuries.  (/") 
The  oldest  of  them  were  composed  by  heathen  and  Jewish  writers  to  sub- 
serve their  own  peculiar  views,  and  in  many  instances  probably  as  a  poetical 
amusement.  But  the  principal  part  of  them  consisting  of  reproaches  against 
heathenism,  and  predictions  of  its  approaching  overthrow,  were  written  by 
Christians,  probably  not  so  much  to  oppose  and  alarm  their  enemies,  as  to  en- 
courage their  friends.  By  those  apologists,  however,  who  were  conversant 
with  pagan  literature,  they  were  made  use  of  as  divinely  inspired  writings. 

a)  Iren.  I,  26.—Mo8heim,  de  causis  snppositt  Hbror.  Inter  Clirist  (Dss.  ad  H.  ecc.  pert  Th. 
I.  p.  217ss.) 

b)  Tertul.  de  hapt.  c.  17.  Acta  S.  Puuli  et  Thocklae,  ed.  Grabe,  Splclleg.  Th.  I.  p.  Slss.  [Apocr. 
New  Test  Lond.  1521.] 

c)  Twv'AiToaTÖKüiv  ■iT(pi6^oi.  Phot  c(k1.  114.  Acti  S.  Thomae,  ed.  J.  C.  Viilo,  Lps.  ISM. 
Apokr.  Ew.  s.  Leben  Jesu.  p.  13s. 

d)  Fahricius,  Codex  pseudcpigr.  V.  T.  cd.  3.  Ilainb.  1712s.  2  Th.— The  book  of  Knoch  the  Pro- 
pliet,  trans,  from  an  Ethiopia  MS.  by  A'.  Lnurence.O^f.  (1?21.)  WiZ.  A.  G.  Iloffinnn,  Am  Buch  He- 
noch in  Uetiers.  mit  Commentar.  Jena.  1S.3.3-S.  2  Abth.  [Lond.  Clirist.  Observer,  (in  Littell's  Rel.  M.i?. 
1329.)  Book  of  Enoch.  M.  Stuart,in  Bibl.  Rcpos.  for  Jan.  1S40.  pp.  86-136.]-E7.rae  1.  IV.  (Fabric.  Tli. 
1. 178ss.)  Versio  Aethioplca,  lat  angliccqiie  rcddlta  a  H.  Laurence,  Osf.  1920.— Ai  Siad^xai  rüv 
5w5€/to  naTpiapx^f,  ed.  Grabe,  Spicil.  Th.  L  p.  145ss.  Comp.  C.  I.  Kitzach,  do  testani.  XII.  Patr. 
Vit  1810.  4.— Asccnsio  {avaßaTiKiv)  Isaiao  vatis,  opu.sc  apud.  Aethlopas  compertum,  c.  v*rs.  lat. 
anglicannque  ed.  R.  Laurence,  Oxon.  1S19.  Gieseler,  vetiis  translntlo  lat  vlslonis  Jcsal.no  Ott  pracf. 
ot  notis  ill.  Gott  1S32.  4.  comp.  XiUach  tn  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S30.  P.  2.  Lücke,  Elnl.  z.  Apok.  p.  12J^ss. 
Gfrorer,  Gesch.  d.  Urchr.  vol.  I.  1.  p.  05s9. 

«)  Fr.  Walcfi^  dc  Ilysta'spc.  (Comm.  Soc.  Re?.  Gott  Th.  L  p.  3s8.) 

/)  Sibylllnorum  Oraenlorum  1.  VIIL  cd.  Sercatiun  GiiUaeit»,  Amst  1099.  4.  On  th^  see  also  I. 
XL-XIV.  inAngeli  Mnji  Seriptonmi  vetf.  nova  cullecllo.  Rom.  1^2^.  4.  Th.  III.  p.  S.—Iileek.  ü.  Ent't. 
a.  Znsammens.  d.  Sib.  Orak.  (Theol.  Zcitschr.  Brl.  1S19.  P.  1.  2.)  [Pavld  BlondeU,  Treatise  of  the 
Slbylls.  Lond.  ICCL  f.] 


98  ANCIENT  CllflXII  msTOUV.    PER.  I.    DIV.  11.    A.  I).  lofJ-312. 

§  90.     Suhordinailonists  and  Monarchians. 

I.  All  neoonnt.s  of  the  >r()n(irclilri.is  nrc  derlvcfl  from  the  fmrty  hostile  to  and  finally  vfctoriotif 
nvci  thoin,  as  e.  g.  TertuUian,  -who  hated  them  n.s  opponents  of  Montanism  ;  E[/ijih<iniun  ami  Tlteo- 
doret,  who  rc^iarded  tliem  with  flic  prejudices  of  the  Athanaslan  party;  and  Kuneliug,  the  most  liii- 
[inrllal,  hut  not  unaffected  by  the  spirit  and  views  of  the  a?e. 

II.  Martini,  Vrnpn.  Gesch.  d.  doprna  v.  d.  Gotth.  Ch.  In  d.  ersten  4  .Talirli.  liost.  ISW.  vol.  7. 
iSMeiennarher,  ü.  d.  Gegcns.  zw.  d.  Sabell.  ii.  Äthan.  Yorst.  v.  d.  Trinität  (Tlicol.  Z(it«chr.  Tri.  1S22 
P.  3.  p.  iOriss.)  Jleinichen,  do  Alogls,  Theodotianis,  Artomonitl.«.  Lps.  1829.  L.  Lavge,  Gesch.  u. 
Lehrbepr.  d.  Tnltarlcr  vor  d.  Nie.  Synode.  (Beitr.  z.  KGesch.  vol.  II.)  Lpz.  1531.  Jilem,  Abh.  in 
Illgen's  Zcitschr.  1S.32.  vol.  II.  Vt  2.  p.  ITss.)  1883.  vol.  III.  Pt.  ].  p.  65s.s.  Pt  2.  p.  ITSss.  Comp. 
Gieeeler  In  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S.33.  P.  4.  p.  12ir.s.  Bavr,  d.  chr.  Lehre  v.  d.  Dreielnipkelt  n.  Mensch- 
werd.  in  gesch.  Entw.  Tub.  1841.  Th.  I.  p.  132ss.  G.  A.  dfeier,  d.  Lehre  v.  d.  Trin.  in  hist.  Entw. 
Ilamb.  u.  G.  1S44.  vol.  1.  p.  74ss. 

The  wliole  effort  made  by  the  Clmrch  of  tliis  period  to  rise  above  the 
religion  of  mere  feeling  to  the  possession  of  clear  ideas,  -wa-s  now  concen- 
trated in  the  inquiry,  Who  was  Christ  ?  The  ansAver  of  the  Jews,  declaring 
that  he  was  the  Son  of  God,  reminded  the  Greeks  of  the  sons  of  deities  in 
their  mythology,  (n)  As,  however,  the  doctrine  of  the  divine  unity  was 
considered  indispensable,  and  as  Christians  could  not  feel  that  the  essential 
glory  of  Christ  was  adequately  expressed,  when  it  was  said  in  Jewish  phrase, 
that  he  was  anointed  and  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost,  the  attention  of  all  was 
turned  to  the  philosophic  theory  of  the  Loffos,  regarded  as  that  by  which 
God  contemplated  his  own  nature,  and  revealed  himself  in  the  universe  as 
far  as  it  is  an  image  of  the  divine  life.  Two  parties  sprung  up  after  the 
middle  of  the  second  century,  neither  of  which  hesitated  to  call  Christ,  in  a 
Hellenistic  sense,  not  only  a  Son  of  God,  but  God  himself.  One  of  these  be- 
lieved that  the  Logos  had  an  existence  before  our  world,  and  was  an  exact 
image  of  the  Deity,  but  a  subordinate  person.  The  popular  expres.sion  with 
respect  to  the  generation  of  this  Logos,  must  have  been  understood  as  im- 
plying either  with  the  Gnostics,  that  it  was  an  emanation  from  the  divine 
essence,  or  with  the  Alexandrians,  tliat  it  was  an  eternal  procession  from  it 
by  an  exercise  of  the  divine  will.  According  to  this  view,  the  Holy  Spirit 
was  regarded  as  an  actual  person,  but  one  so  subordinate  and  so  little  regard- 
ed, that  many  who  looked  upon  the  Son  as  a  person,  held  that  the  Spirit 
was  merely  a  power  of  God,  or  a  mode  of  his  operation.  This  relation  of 
the  divine  economy  has  been  denominated,  since  the  time  of  Tertullian,  the 
Trinifi/.  The  otJicr  party,  either  from  its  regard  to  the  doctrine  of  the  divine 
unity  (fiompxia),  held  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  but  born  of  the  virgin  by 
the  power  of  the  divine  Spirit,  and  exalted  to  be  the  Lord  of  the  whole 
Church,  or  from  a  regard  to  Christ's  dignity,  believed  that  he  was  a  revela- 
tion and  manifestation  of  God  on  earth,  (b)  Those  who  held  to  this  last 
view,  were,  by  their  opponents,  called  Pairijyassiani.  Justin  informs  us, 
that  even  in  his  day  it  was  not  regarded  as  inconsistent  with  Christianity  to 
hold  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  and  Tertullian  reluctantly  testifies,  that  in 
his  vicinity  this  was  the  common  sentiment,  (c)     The  first  kind  of  Monarch- 

fl)  Justin.  Apol.  L  c.  21.    C.  Tryph.  c,  69.    Comp.  Plinii  Ep.  X,  96. 

I)  Athf)iii(r.  Lcg.it  c.  10.  In  Justin,  c.  Tiyph.  c.  12S.  The  distinction  between  the  two  kinds 
jf  Monarchianism  :  Orig.  in  Jo.  tom.  2,  2. 

c")  Jut/in.  c  Tryph.  c.  49.     Tertul.  adv.  Prax.  c.  3. 


CHAP.  IV.    DOCTRINES.    §  90.  6UBOEDIXATIONI5TS  &  MOXAECHIANS.         90 

fanism  has  ahvays,  since  that  time,  been  rejected  as  often  as  it  has  made  its 
appearance,  inasmi;ch  as  no  one  would  then  presume  to  think  of  Christ  in 
less  exalted  terms  than  those  in  which  the  Gnostic  heretics  represented  him. 
But  even  where  no  such  a  rejection  took  place,  it  naturally  followed  that  no 
one  had  any  great  timidity  in  denying  a  mere  man.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
Monarchians  of  the  second  class  were  regarded  in  many  parts  of  the  Church 
as  orthodox,  and  were  not  generally  very  seriously  opposed,  until  an  assault 
was  made  upon  them  by  persons  at  a  distance,  which  was  repelled  by 
an  appeal  to  apostolical  traditions,  and  to  the  Holy  Scriptures.  But  the 
Subordinationists,  whose  vieAvs  were  more  conformable  to  those  of  the  com- 
mon people,  gradually  gained  upon  public  sentiment,  and  by  various  means 
at  the  command  of  the  hierarchy,  utterly  destroyed  even  the  second  kind  of 
Monarchianism,  which  had  been  rendered  suspicious  by  the  ease  with  which 
it  was  confounded  with  the  first.  By  ingenious  references  to  reason  and 
revelation,  the  views  of  the  triumphant  party  respecting  the  Logos  were 
made  to  correspond  with  the  philosophy  of  tliat  period. 

1)  Epiphanias  speaks  of  a  party  in  Asia  Minor  (about  170)  whom  he  wit- 
tily calls  Alogi,  because  they  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  Logos  and  the  gos- 
pel by  John,  together  with  the  doctrine  of  the  Millennium  and  the  book  of 
Revelations.  They  were  probably  the  same  persons  as  those  mentioned  by 
Irenaeus  as  having  rejected  the  gospel  by  John,  and  the  idea  of  the  pro- 
phetic gifts  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  evident  that  they  were  opposed  to  the  Mun- 
tanists,  but  we  are  left  in  doubt  whether  they  took  offence  at  the  word  Lo- 
gos merely  as  a  learned  expression,  or  whether  they  were  really  Monarchians., 
as  they  were  regarded  by  Epiphanius.  (^Z)  2)  Praxeas,  distinguished  as  a 
confessor  in  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  and  sent  from  Asia  Minor  to 
Rome  to  induce  the  churches  in  the  latter  city  to  refuse  all  felloAvship 
with  the  Montanists,  taught  without  molestation  the  second  kind  of  Mo- 
narchiauism,  respecting  the  incarnation  of  one  divine  Spirit  in  Christ.  In 
Carthage,  however,  he  was  accused  of  heresy  by  Tertullian.  (< )  But  Thc- 
odotus^  the  Tanner,  who  came  about  the  same  time  from  Byzantium  to  Rome, 
and  began  to  propagate  the  first  kind  of  Monarchianism,  was  driven  from 
the  Church  by  Victor^  Bishop  of  Rome.  His  party  was  distinguislied  for 
secular  learning,  made  use  of  the  Scriptures  as  of  a  merely  liuman  jiroduc- 
tion,  and  Avas  at  one  time  powerful  enough  to  elevate  one  of  their  own  num- 
ber to  the  See  of  Rome  itself.  It  Avas  not  long,  hoAvever,  before  their  bishop 
Avas  attacked  by  persons  sent  by  God,  or  by  episcopal  influence,  and  com- 
pelled to  abdicate.  From  this  party  proceeded  another  Theodotus,  a  money- 
broker,  Avho  became  the  head  of  the  Melchizedecians^  Avho  are  said  to  have 
honored  Melchizedek  as  a  heavenly  Redeemer,  superior  to  the  eartldy.  Ar- 
tcmon  Avas  also  excluded  from  tlie  Church  of  Rome,  for  maintaining  that  the 
established  doctrine  of  the  Churcli  had  ahvays  been,  that  the  Redeemer  A\-aa 
no  more  than  a  man,  and  that  this  had  never  been  perverted  or  changed  until 


(7>  Kpiph.  haer.  51.  54.  3.    Iren.  Ill,  11.  comp.  EuKfh.  11.  ccc.  ATI,  25.—.)/:  Jft^iM.  hist.  kr\l 
Aufklär.  d.  8treiti?k.  d.  Aloger.  Q.  d.  AiM.k.  Frkf.  ii.  Lps.  ITS'». 
e)  Tertnl  adv.  Praxean. 


100  ANCIKNT  CIiniCH  HISTORY.     PKR.  L     DIV.  II.    A.  P.  lOO-.OlÜ. 

tlio  time  of  Zci)liyrimis,  ^vho  then  occupied  the  episcopal  chair  (201-218).  (/) 
8)  Koetits,  of  Smyrna,  and  probably  a  presbyter  in  Ej)hesus,  was  excluded 
(about  230)  from  liis  diurch  as  a  Patripassian.  That  he  should  have  repelled 
this  accusation  in  such  decided  terms,  is  only  to  bo  explained  on  the  ground 
that  ho  held  to  the  second  kind  of  Monarchianism.  (,'/)  To  this  also,  Bcryl- 
lu8,  of  Bostra,  professed  adherence.  He  denied  that  our  Saviour  had  any 
personal  existence  prior  to  the  incarnation,  or  tliat  there  was  in  Christ  a  di- 
vine nature  distinct  from  that  of  the  Father.  lie,  however,  conceded  that 
the  Godhead  of  the  Father  dwelt  in  the  person  of  Jesus.  Under  the  instruc- 
tion of  Origcn,  he  finally  renounced  these  view.s,  and  embraced  another  sys- 
tem of  faith.  (/<)  Salellhis,  a  presbyter  of  Ptoleraais  (250-200),  expressed 
the  same  doctrine  in  terms  still  nearer  those  commonly  used  in  the  Church. 
According  to  him,  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit,  were  only  the  difler- 
ent  forms  in  which  the  supreme  Unity,  which  unfolds  itself  in  human  atfairti 
as  a  Triad,  reveals  himself  to  men.  In  the  Pentapolis,  his  doctrine  was  re- 
garded as  orthodox,  until  Dionysius,  of  Alexandria,  brought  against  him  the 
prelaticaJ  authority,  and  the  stores  of  learning.  But  when  the  latter,  in  the 
course  of  the  controversy,  carried  the  doctrine  of  Origen  so  far  as  to  assert 
that  the  Logos  was  created  by  the  Father,  was  unequal  to  him  in  nature,  and 
began  to  exist  in  time,  Bionysius,  Bishop  of  Rome,  maintained  against  him 
a  doctrine  which  the  Alexandrian  bishop  would  not  have  denied,  that  the 
Son  had  an  eternal  existence  in  the  Father,  (i)  4)  Paul  of  Samosata,  after 
260  Bishop  of  Antioch,  appears  to  have  effected  a  union  of  the  two  kinds  of 
Monarchianism,  although  the  first  was  decidedly  predominant  in  his  system. 
He  maintained  that  Jesus,  as  a  man,  was  begotten  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
that  the  divine  Logos  which  tlien  began  personally  to  exist,  had  a  peculiar 
connection  with  him.  The  Syrian  bishops  were  violently  opposed  to  their 
Metropolitan,  conspired  against  him  at  three  different  Synods,  and  at  An- 
tioch, in  the  year  269,  proclaimed  his  deposition.  Their  enmity  seems  to 
have  been  much  excited  by  his  political  position  and  worldly  honors,  (I)  and 
it  was  not  until  the  year  272,  when  the  imperial  power  co-operated  with 
them,  that  their  act  of  deposition  was  carried  into  effect.  The  fall  of  this 
powerful  bishop  decided  the  fate  of  the  Monarchians,  who  are  henceforth 
mentioned  only  as  isolated  individuals,  and  as  heretics  already  condemned 
(SabeUiani,  Samosateniani.)  In  the  public  acts  of  this  Synod,  the  Sabellian 
form  of  expression,  according  to  which  the  Son  is  of  a  nature  similar  to  that 
of  the  Father  (öfiooCaios  rä  naTpi),  was  also  condemned.  (?) 


/)  Tertal.  de  praescr.  append,  c.  5S.  .F««e&,  H.  ecc.  T,  28.  Epiph.  haer.  54.  65.  Theodorti. 
Haeret.  fubb.  II,  4ss. 

g)  IHppolyt.  fls  tV  aipeciv  Notjtou  rtvos.  (Ed.  Fabric.  Tli.  II.  p.  5ss.)  Epiph.  haer.  57. 
Thiocloret.  Ill,  3. 

h)  Eneeh.  II.  ecc.  VI,  83.  comp.  20.  Uieron.  catal.  c.  60.  comp.  OHg.  0pp.  Th.  IV.  p.  6J5.— 
Ullman}},  de  Beryllo  Bostreno.  Hamb.  1835.  4.  comp.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S86.  P.  4.  p.  lOTSss. 

i)  Emeh.  II.  ecc.  VII,  6.  Athanas.  Ep.  de  sententia  Dionysii.  (Th.  I.  p.  545ss.)  Gallandii  Bib. 
PP.  Th.  III.  p.  495.  vol.  XIV.  App.  p.  IIS.  B^iml.  Ep.  210.  Epiph.  baer.  62.  Thtodoret.  II.  9 
\Schleiermaeher,  transl.  by  M.  Stuart,  in  Blbl.  Repos.  vol.  T.  p.  265-353.  VI.  p.  1-SO.] 

K)  Euseb.  II.  ecc.  VII,  27-30.  Epiph.  haer.  65.  A.  Maji  N.  Coll.  Th.  VII.  P.  1.  p.  6S.  299ss.— 
Ehrlich,  de  errorlbus  Pauii  Sam.  Lps.  1745.  4.  J.  B.  Schwab,  de  P.  Sam.  vita  atque  doctr 
Ilerbip.  1S3!>. 

t)  Athanas.  de  synod.  Arim.  et  Seleuc.  c  48.  (Th.  I.  p.  917.)    JTilar.  de  synod,  c  S6. 


SECOND    PEEIOD. 

FROM   CONSTANTINE    TO    CIIAKLES    THE    GREAT. 

§  91.  General  Vietc, 
neathenism  was  now  destroyed  and  Christianity  became  the  religion  of 
the  State.  The  eifort  to  attain  a  more  perfect  intellectual  apprehension  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  Christian  system,  produced  a  great  agitation  both  of  the 
Church  and  of  the  empire.  The  Churc!i  and  the  State  exerted  a  reciprocal 
and  mutually  pervading  influence  upon  eaoli  other,  and  by  blending  together 
the  political  and  dogmatic  interest,  an  unfavorable  result  was  produced  in 
both.  The  rights  of  the  congregations  were  still  enforced  in  almost  all  in- 
stances by  popular  insurrections  and  intrigues  at  court.  The  unity  of  the 
Church  was  carried  out  by  sacrificing  the  independence  of  its  several  parts, 
and  the  whole  became  subject  to  the  two  great  bishops  residing  at  old  and 
new  Kome.  The  power  of  the  monks  nearly  equalled  that  of  the  clergy. 
Grecian  and  Christian  usages  and  morals  were  blended  together,  and  nm- 
tually  corrupted  one  another.  From  the  midst  of  these  doctrinal  conflicts, 
and  from  the  fanaticism  of  the  Desert,  a  class  of  characters  was  produced,  in 
which  the  Holy  Ghost  allowed  the  spirit  of  the  times  to  attain,  on  a  grand 
scale,  the  end  for  which  it  indefinitely  longed.  At  the  close  of  this  struggle, 
the  State  was  distracted  by  another  relating  to  images.  Christianity  gave  a 
final  glory,  an  internal  life  and  a  consolation  in  misfortune  to  the  Roman 
empire,  but  could  not  prevent  its  overthrow.  A  new  and  simple  faith  ob- 
tained a  victory  over  Christianity  by  means  of  the  sword,  and  closed  against 
it  its  own  native  East.  Greece  alone  continued  Roman,  and  gradually  sunk 
with  its  Church  into  a  long  apparent  dcatli.  The  German  nations  broke 
into  the  Western  Empire,  but  soon  bowed  themselves  before  the  cro?s,  and 
gave  to  the  Church  a  new  life.  The  period  naturally  falls  into  two  divisions 
of  nearly  equal  length :  tlie  Churcli  of  the  Roman  empire,  to  which  the  ad- 
jacent oriental  countries  belong,  and  the  Church  among  the  Germanic  na- 
tions, to  which  the  Roman  bishopric,  from  the  time  of  Stephen  II.,  was 
transferred. 


DIVISION  I.-TIIE  IMPERIAL  CHURCH. 

g  9'2.     Original  Authorities. 

1)  Eiisel).  (§  1-1.)  El's  T'bv  ßlov  KwvcttvlvtU'uv.  1.  IV.  Vit«  Constant,  ct  Paneprrtcns,  ed.  11  fin' 
<c/i«H.  Lps.  ISoO.  Ilistoriao  ceo.  Etisebii.  I.  IX  Rufino  intorprcte  sell.  Ipsius  liufini,  cd.  Ciicci- 
ari.  Rom.  1741s.  2  Th.  4.  Ilistoria  ccc.  Scriptures  graeci,  c  notis  Valexii  cd.  G.  I}fa<Un(r,  Cantftbr. 
1720.3  Th.  f.    Xicephorus  Callistius,  ikkKtio:  luTopia,  cd.  Fronton  U  Piic,  Tar.  IG.*?!!.  2  Tb.  £ 


102  ANCIENT   CIIUKCII   II1ST0I:Y.     TKI:.   II.     DIV.   I.     A.   D.  »I2-S0O. 

2)  .Vi/Z/dV// ,SVivr/,  lllst.  furra,  cil.  I/ofmeister,  Tig.  ITOS.  (0pp.  cil.  I/ieron.  a  Prnto,  Vc-ion.  ITll» 
2  Til.  f.  noffxaAlo;'  s.  Cliroiilcoii  i)asclialo,  od.  Car.  du  Fiesne  Dom.  du  Gange.  Par.  16-)8.  f.  LiUl. 
Dindorf,  l\onn.  ]S:!2.  2  Tli.  Theophanea  Confessor,  Xpovoypacpla,  c  notis  Goari  ct  ComheßslU 
Tar.  Jljß.'i.  Ven.  1729.  f.  8)  Ammianus  Marcellinus,  Eerum  gest.  1.  XXXI.  ed.  Ernesti.  Lp-s.  1778. 
1S:J5.  Zosimus,  iffTopia  vfa,  e<i.  Jieitemeier.  Lps.  1784  Im.  ßekker,  llonn.  18-37.  [TUe  Greek 
Kccles.  Histories  by  Euscb.  Theod.  Socrat  Sozom.  and  Evagrius,  have  been  newly  translated  and  pub- 
Iblicd,  with  lives  of  the  autbors,  In  6  vols.  Svo.  Lond.  1842-C.] 

Most  of  the  public  original  documents  are  contained  in  the  acts  of  coun- 
cils and  the  imperial  codes.  EiiseMits  was  influenced  in  the  history  of  his 
own  times  at  least  by  gratitude,  {a)  His  Ecclesiastical  History  was  freely 
translated,  and  continued  to  the  time  of  the  translator  by  Rufinus  (395).  (J) 
Among  the  Greeks  it  was  continued  by  the  advocate,  Socrates  ScJioJasticus 
(306-439),  and  Ilcrmias  Sozomcnns  (323-423).  The  former  was  a  candid  and 
plain  writer ;  the  latter  was  full  of  monastic  notions,  and  wrote  in  a  florid 
style.  Both  were  completed  by  Theodoretiis.,  bishop  of  Cyrus,  with  a  great 
abundance  of  theological  learning  (325-427).  (c)  All  of  these  were  com- 
posed in  the  spirit  of  the  ascendant  party  in  the  Church.  The  Ecclesiastical 
History  of  Philostorghis  (300-425),  is  a  panegyric  upon  the  vanquished  par- 
ty, and  is  preserved  only  in  the  extracts  made  by  Photius.  Evo(jrlus.,  a  dis- 
tinguished advocate  of  Antioch,  continued  the  history  of  the  Catholic  Church 
(431-594)  with  special  attention  to  political  circumstances,  and  an  extreme 
passion  for  orthodoxy.  Extracts  from  Socrates,  Sozomen,  and  Theodoret, 
are  preserved  in  a  manuscript  work  of  Tlieodorus  Lcctoi\  and  fragments  of 
his  continuation  of  Socrates  (until  518)  have  been  preserved  by  Nicephorus. 
The  history  oi  Nicei^Jiorus  Callistius  (which  at  first  consisted  of  twenty-threo 
books,  and  reached  to  the  year  911,  but  now  consists  of  only  eighteen  books, 
extending  to  the  year  GIO),  was  compiled  in  the  fourteenth  century  from 
older  historical  writings  and  original  documents  in  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 
It  was  written  in  an  elegant  style,  and  its -sentiments  are  honestly  expressed, 
but  it  is  characterized  by  servility  and  superstition.  Sidpiciiis  Scvo-us,  at 
first  a  lawyer,  and  afterwards  a  presbyter  in  Gaul,  wrote  a  concise  summary 
of  imiversal  history  (until  400)  with  a  strong  ecclesiastical  spirit,  but  it  is 
important  only  for  what  relates  to  his  own  times,  and  to  events  occurring  in 
his  own  vicinity.  The  Easter- Chronicle  (written  until  354,  under  Constan- 
tius,  but  with  later  additions  until  028,  under  Heraclius)  is  principally  a  cal- 
culation of  the  passovers  from  the  beginning  of  the  world,  but  it  is  enlivened 
by  a  chronicle  in  Avhich  many  singular  documents  and  accounts  are  communi- 
cated in  a  simple  style,  and  in  an  ecclesiastical  spirit.  Theopliancs  Confessor 
wrote  a  continuation  of  an  older  chronicle  down  to  his  own  time  (285-813), 
and  with  much  learning  made  use  of  original  documents  which  would  other 
wise  have  been  lost.  His  work  is  pervaded  by  the  spirit  of  a  monk  and  of 
a  martyr  to  his  zeal  for  image  worship.  Among  the  last  of  the  heathen  his- 
torians, Ammianus  JlarcelUmis,  in  those  portions  of  his  history  of  the  em- 
pire which  are  extant  (libb.  14-31.  353-378),  has  recorded  the  ecclesiastical 
events  of  that  period  with  the  impartiality  and  sound  common  sense  of  a  sol 

a)  Socrat  II.  ecc.  1, 1. 

I)  E.  J.  Kiinmel,  do  Paif.,  Eus.  intcrprete  I.  II.  Ger.  153S. 

c)  F.  A.  Jlo'.z/iausen,  dc  funtibiis,  quibus  Socr.  Soz.  et  Tlieod.  usi  sunt  Goctt.  1?25.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    VICTORY  OF  CIIKISTIANITY.    §  93.  CO^'STANTINE  &  UI5  «OXS.   103 

di?r,  and  Zosimits,  a  court  officer  iintler  Tlicodosius  IT.,  has  described  (in  de- 
tail 284-410)  with  minute  art  tlie  dark  shades  in  the  character  of  the  Chris- 
tian emperors. 


CHAP.  I.— VICTORY  AXD  DEFEAT  OF  CnRISTLiXITY. 

J.  G.  ITdffmann,  ruina  snpcrstitionis  pajanae.  Tit.  1738.  4.  S.  T.  liüdiger,  de  statu  ijaganorum 
sub.  Imp.  Christ,  post.  Const  Vrat.  1825.  Beugnot.  (before  §  46.) 

§  93.     Constantine  and  his  .Sons. 

I.  'Whatever  relates  to  them  in  EnBeh.  and  Zosimits. — II.  ^fartini,  d.  Einfiii  i.  d.  chr.  Rel.  aU 
Staatsrel.  durch  Constant  Munch,  1813.  4.  J/rtJiso,  Leben  Const  Brcsl.  1S17.  KM^  de  commuta- 
tione,  quam  Const  auctore  societas  chr.  subiit  Traj.  ad  Kh.  1818.  4  {Hug)  Denksehr.  s.  Ehrenrctt 
Const.  (Zeit=chr.  f.  d.  Geistlichk.  d.  Erzb.  Freyburg.  IS'29.  P.  8.)  Arendt,  \l  Const  u.  s.  Verb.  z. 
Cliristenth.  (Tub.  Qiiartalschr.  1S34.  P.  3.)  [Eafieh.  J'ainp/tilits,  Life  of  Const  In  4  books.  New 
transl.  Lond.  18-15.  8.] 

As  fast  as  he  could  wisely  do  so,  and  by  all  the  means  which  an  absolute 
monarch  can  bring  to  bear  upon  his  favorite  plans,  Constantino  gradually  be- 
stowed upon  the  Church  security,  wealth,  privileges,  and  every  thing  wliich 
could  make  it  attractive.  By  the  arts  of  state  policy,  the  contest  be- 
tween the  rulers  of  the  Eastern  and  "Western  division  of  the  empire  had 
been  identified  with  that  between  the  ancient  gods  and  the  crucified  Re- 
deemer. No  sooner  had  this  been  decided  by  the  complete  destruction  of 
Licinius  (323),  than  Constantine  openly  expressed  a  desire  to  see  the  whole 
Roman  world  once  more  united  in  one  common  religion.  He,  however,  free- 
ly acknowledged  the  right  of  all  those  who  desired,  to  pereevere  in  their  ad- 
herence to  the  obsolete  superstition.  Only  a  few  temples  in  the  East  wero 
despoiled,  that  their  ornaments  might  be  used  to  adorn  the  new  Christian 
Rome;  some  others  were  destroyed  on  account  of  the  immoralities  practised 
in  them,  {a)  and  a  law  against  sacrifices  Q>)  was  probably  directed  merely 
against  such  immoralities,  or  was  never  executed.  The  emperor  still  re- 
mained Pohtifcx  JIaximxis,  and  some  of  his  enactments  indicate  that  he  hon- 
ored, or  at  least  feared  the  magical  arts  of  the  old  paganism,  (c)  Political 
interests  seemed  imperatively  to  require  that  Christianity  should  bo  estab- 
lished as  the  religion  of  the  State,  that  those  religious  questions  which  were 
then  producing  innumerable  divisions  might  be  decided.  That  Constantino, 
however,  acted  in  these  measures  from  a  sincere  attachment  to  Christianity, 
is  evident  from  what  he  did  before  the  chivalrous  emperor  had  degenerated 
into  the  tyrant,  and  from  his  interest  in  those  ecclesiastical  matters  with 
which  the  mere  policy  of  tlio  ruler  could  have  liad  no  connection.  The 
same  sig^  which  had  originally  given  liim  the  victory  (Labaruin,  312),  (</) 
had  also  conducted  him  to  univcnsal  dominion,  and  ho  therefore  regarded 
himself  as  tlie  favorite  of  Heaven,  c.nllod  to  secure  an  equal  dominion  for  the 

a)  Emeh.  Vita  Const  II,  55-00. 

h)  Acconlinfc  to  a  reference  which  Constnns  made  to  It  (e)  and  Eiixeh.  Vita  Const  II,  4."). 
c)  Constit  de  haruspicinae  nsu.  a.  3'2I.  L.  1.     Cu<l.  Theod.  do  pnizan.  (XVI,  10.)    Zosinx.  II,  29. 
<7)  £■(/«.»/>.  Vita  Const  I,  27-31.     /.'/c/kh^  de  iiiorlib.  c.  44.    ä3<>»i.  I,  3.    L'ujin.  I,  0.    Comp 
yii:(irii,  Piinejryr.  Const,  c.  11. — IMnkhen,  Excurs.  I.  iid  Vitain  Const 


104  ANciKNT  ciiriicir  iiistoiiy.  I'ki:.  ir.  imtkuial  ciiuncii.  a.  d.  3i2-8oa 

cross  of  Christ.  And  yet  lie  wns  r.ot  restrained  from  desecrating  that  verj 
cross  liy  liarids  dct'iily  iiiil)riic<l  in  blood,  in  the  blood  of  his  own  son  (320) 
That  he  rcniaincd  anioiif:  the  catechumens,  and  never  received  baptism  until 
the  year  in  which  ho  died  (337),  is  accounted  for  by  a  reference  to  a  super- 
stitious opiuion  then  prevalent  among  many  Christians.  Not  only  has  the 
Church  from  gratitude  conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  the  Great,  but  even 
heathenism  has  given  him  a  place  among  its  divinities.  "While  acquiring  and 
maintaining  his  authority,  he  won  many  battles,  formed  a  system  of  govern- 
ment wliich  acted  with  all  the  regularity  of  an  artificial  machine,  built  a 
metropolis  for  the  world  in  a  position  the  most  admirable  of  any  on  earth, 
and  lived  to  experience  and  to  deserve  many  misfortunes.  In  one  respect  lie 
was  certainly  great  or  fortunate,  for  when  seated  in  the  highest  position  then 
attainable,  he  seems  to  have  understood  what  the  necessities  of  his  age  re- 
quired. Ilis  sons  followed  out  and  even  extended  the  political  system  and 
favorite  plans  he  had  bequeathed  to  them.  The  temples  were  closed,  and 
those  who  should  venture  to  sacrifice  were  threatened  with  death,  (e)  In 
Eome  alone  an  asylum  for  the  ancestral  gods  was  allowed  to  remain,  as  a 
special  fiivor  solemnly  conceded  to  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  people.  (/) 

§  94.     Juliamis  Apoatata. 

I.  Juliani  0pp.  (Misopogon,  Caesares,  Orationes,  Epp.)  et  CyrilU  Al«e.  c.  Julian.  1.  X.  ed.  Span- 
hem.  Lps.  1G96.  2  Th.  f.  Jul.  Epp.  Accedunt  fragm.  breviora,  ed.  Ueijler,  Mog.  1S2S.  The  series  ol 
Christian  lampoons  begins  with  Grtgorii  Ka-.  in  Julian,  apost.  invcctivae  duae.  The  pagan  panc- 
gvrics  with  Lihaniiis,  especially  with  his  Oratio  parentalis.  A  true  and  fair  account  in  Ammian. 
Marc.  XXI.-XXV,  3. 

II.  //.  P.  a  Tfenke,  de  Theol.  Jul.  Ilelmst.  1777.  4.  (0pp.  1802.  p.  353ss.)  A.  Leander,  Jul.  u.  s. 
Zeitalter.  Lps.  1S12.  (Scldossers  Eec  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  Jan.  1S13.  p.  121ss.)  Idem.  [II.  of  the  Chr. 
Uel.  and  Church,  vol.  II.  pp.  36-67.]  C.  If.  ran  Iferwerden,  de  Jul.  rel.  chr.  hoste  eodemque  vin- 
dice.  Lngd.  1S2T.  G.  F.  Wiggers,  Jul.  d.  Abtr.  (lUgen's  Zeitschr.  1S37.  vol.  VII.  p.  1.)  IT.  Schuhf, 
do  phi),  et  morib.  Jul.  Strals  18-39.  4.  F.  S.  Teuffel,  de  Jul.  Imp.  christianismi  contemtore  et  osorc. 
Tub.  1S44.  [A  short  account  of  the  Life  of  Jul.  the  Ap.  Lend.  16S2.  12.  Life  of  Jul.  Lend.  16S2.  S. 
Two  Orations  of  J.  transl.  Lond.  1793.  S.] 

Julian  had  been  educated  for  the  Christian  priesthood,  but  he  had  learned 
to  regard  Christianity  as  a  tissue  of  subtle  formulas,  and  as  a  religion  of  sla- 
very. The  victory  it  had  acquired  over  the  religion  of  his  ancestors  he  as- 
cribed to  the  violent  measures  of  him  who  had  been  the  murderer  of  his 
father's  family.  By  an  acquaintance  "witb  the  poets  of  antiquity  and  the 
philosophers  of  heathenism,  which  he  had  acquired  in  secret,  he  found  what 
seemed  to  him  a  higher  life.  Having  attained  the  throne  by  a  bold  use  of 
favorable  circumstances  (3G1),  he  looked  upon  himself  as  destined  by  the 
gods  to  bring  back  the  delightful  times  of  antiquity.  His  religious  views 
were  of  the  New-Platonic  school,  and  in  his  restoration  of  paganism,  he  in- 
tended to  ingraft  upon  it  aU  the  excellencies  of  Christianity.  Christians 
were  removed  from  civil  oflices,  condemned  to  rebuild  the  temples  which  had 
been  destroyed,  and  excluded  from  aU  professorships  in  which  the  national 

e)  Const-intis  Lex  adv.  sacrif  a.  841.  L.  2.  Cod.  Tluod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  10.)  Comhintii  Kesrr. 
ad  Taurum.  a.  853.  ibid.  L.  4. 

/)  L.  3.  Cod.  Th-ecHl.  de  pagan.  (XVL  1;'.) 


CHAP.  I.    VICTORY  OF  CIIRISTIAXITr.     §  94.  JULIAN.     §  05.  PAG  \NISM.     1  0  J 

Uterature  was  taught,  (a)  Even  the  claims  of  justice  were  conceded  in  such 
a  way  as  to  favor  his  hostile  design ;  all  sects  -were  tolerated,  all  banished 
bishops  were  recalled,  and  tlie  Jews  were  invited  to  rebuild  their  sanctuary. 
Those  who  had  remained  heathen  now  began  to  lift  up  their  heads,  and  the 
ever  venal  multitude  returned  to  their  deserted  temples.  These  very  etibrts, 
however,  merely  showed  how  well  Constantino  had  understood  the  age  in 
which  he  lived.  The  ridicule  and  hatred  of  the  Christians  Julian  met  with  tlie 
weapons  of  a  philosopher  rather  than  with  those  of  a  universal  ruler.  In 
his  controversies  with  the  Galileans,  lie  endeavored  especially  to  show  that 
they  were  condemned  by  their  own  sacred  books  when  they  deified  a  de- 
ceased Jew,  complied  with  the  new  custom  of  honoring  otlier  deceased  per- 
sons, and  renounced  Judaism.  (//)  The  virtues  he  exhibited  in  his  official  duties 
procured  peace  and  esteem  even  from  tho.se  who  personally  disliked  him,  and 
those  ditferenccs  which  existed  between  him  and  his  people  did  not  make 
him  a  tyrant.  The  more  beautiful  traits  of  the  Greek  national  spirit  could 
not  be  developed  in  him,  but  he  was  nevertheless  a  hero  and  a  philosopher 
on  the  throne,  and  a  pious  and  virtuous  man  in  private  life.  Even  his  de- 
clamatory vanity  was  connected  with  his  high  regard  for  the  free  judgment 
of  his  people.  After  a  busy  reign  of  twenty  months  as  sole  emperor,  and 
after  a  restless  but  fruitless  life,  he  fell  while  yet  a  youth  in  a  battle  with  the 
•  Persians  (363).  Though  he  passed  away  like  a  flying  cloud,  he  was,  with  the 
exception  of  Athanasius,  the  greatest  man  of  his  century. 

§  95.     Fall  of  Paganism. 

After  Julian,  the  empire  was  governed  by  Christian  emperors,  hut  hea- 
thenism continued  undisturbed  in  its  civil  relations  until  the  reign  of  Theo- 
dosius  I.  This  monarch  having  conquered  the  Goths  and  suppressed  the 
heretics,  felt  bound  also  to  persecute  the  pagans  (381).  It  was  at  this  time 
also  that  Gratianus  had  the  altar  of  Victory  removed  from  the  hall  of  the 
Roman  senate.  It  was  in  vain  that  Symmachus,  in  the  name  of  the  senators, 
implored  that  an  altar  with  which  the  early  and  happy  recollections  of  so 
many  venerable  fathers  were  connected,  and  already  so  dear  even  to  the  ten- 
derest  youtli,  might  bo  spared.  In  vain  did  he  plead  in  tlio  name  of  the 
eternal  city  itself,  that  in  tlie  present  uncertain  condition  of  things,  tlie  usages 
of  their  ancestors  might  be  respected,  and  a  religion  under  which  they  liad 
conquered  the  world  might  not  be  exterminated,  {a)  In  the  exercise  of  his 
power  as  sole  ruler  (392),  Tlieodosius  proclaimed  every  form  of  idolatry  a 
crime,  and  everj-  attcmi)t  to  learn  tlio  secrets  of  tlio  future  by  anim.'d  sacri- 
fices, high  treason.  (A)  Those  enthusiastic  teachers  who  relied  wholly  upon 
the  spiritual  jOwer  of  the  gospel  to  overcome  all  its  opponent'*,  were  out- 
numbered by  tlio  zealots  who  urged  the  emperor,  as  a  matter  of  conscience, 

a)Jul.'Ex>.  42.  Ammian.  Marc.  XXII,  10.  Orot>ii,  Hist.  VII,  80.  The  mlsumlerstnndini;  iu 
Soco?«.  V,  IS.    Socrnt.  Ml,  \1.     7  heoilorct.  \Uft  ece.  III,?. 

h)  Marquis  (VArgenn,  Duft-nsc  ilu  pngaiil?iiio  jior  I'Einp.  Julli^n.  Eer.  17C4.  cd.  3.  1TC9. 

a)  Syinmuchi  1.  X.  Ep.  CI.  (Kil.  Puri-uii,  Xeost.  Nein.  1C29.) 

&)L.  12.  Cod.  Theod.  de  pagan.  (XVI,  W.)—Stiiffl-en,  de  Theodosii  M.  In  rem  clir.  niiTiUs. 
Liigd.  1S2S. 


lOG  ANciKNT  ciHTHc;ii  iii.sr(»i:v.  i'Kk.  ii.  imi-khial  ciiuiicii.  a.  d.  S12-S00. 

to  destroy  itii-xnnisin  by  tiro  and  sword.  Tlie  populace  were  excited  by  vio- 
lent monks  to  rise  atjainst  tlio  temples.  It  Avas  to  no  purpose  that  Lihanius 
eloquently  interceded  for  those  edifices  which  he  had  just  assisted  Julian  to 
embellish.  ('•)  A  few  of  the  more  beautiful  ancient  temples  were  saved,  to  be 
converted  into  churciies.  "When  the  mysterious  Serapion  at  Alexandria  was 
destroyed,  and  the  statue  of  the  god  v;as  broken  to  pieces,  the  Egyptians 
expected,  according  to  an  ancient  prophecj',  that  the  world  would  sink  back 
into  its  original  chaos,  (d)  Philosophy  sought  consolation  in  magical  arts, 
and  hojics  were  entertained  that  the  power  of  Christianity  was  destined  to 
extinction  during  the  year  399.  (r)  The  heathen  oracles  withheld  their  re- 
sponses, and  the  Sibylline  books  were  consumed  in  the  flames.  Before  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  idolatry  was  completely  exterminated  in  every 
part  of  the  Eastern  empire.  In  the  West,  where  the  continual  incursions 
of  the  barbarians  rendered  the  emperor's  authority  less  effective,  it  was  found 
impossible  wholly  to  put  down  the  worshij)  of  the  gods,  to  whose  vengeance 
the  devastation  of  the  empire  was  ascribed.  Hence,  after  Rome  had  been 
plundered  by  the  barbarians,  Augustine  (42G)  and  Orosius  (417)  found  it  ne- 
cessary, by  labored  apologies,  to  prove  that  Christianity  was  not  responsible 
for  the  calamities  of  the  times,  the  former  taking  the  ground  that  the  whole 
history  of  the  world  was  only  a  development  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  con- 
ditioned by  the  opposition  of  men.  (/)  The  great  multitude  indeed  followed* 
where  fortune  and  power  led  the  way,  but  Augustine  found  by  experience, 
as  Libanius  had  intimated,  that  it  was  easier  to  exclude  the  gods  from  the 
temples,  than  from  the  hearts  of  the  people,  and  that  Jesus  was  not  often 
sought  for  from  disinterested  motives,  {g)  Heathenism  maintained  its  ground 
only  here  and  there  in  some  remote  districts  (paganismus,  3G8),  where  it  was 
protected  by  the  rustic  simplicity  and  honesty  of  its  votaries,  in  particular 
individuals  or  families  of  an  exalted  character,  and  in  the  schools  of  philoso- 
phy. A  few  philosophers  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  frantic  zeal  of  the  Christian 
populace.  The  learned  and  amiable  Ilypatia^  who  presided  over  the  Xew- 
Platonic  school  of  Alexandria,  was  horribly  murdered  in  a  church,  not  with- 
out guilt  on  the  part  of  Cyril  the  bishop,  (a)  Heathenism,  however,  from 
its  very  nature,  could  never  attain  ascendency  by  its  martyrdoms.  Jus- 
tinian I.  destroyed  its  last  intellectual  hold,  by  abolishing  the  schools  of  phi- 
losophy, and  he  annihilated  even  those  secret  vestiges  of  it  in  Piome  which 
had  become  concealed  under  an  inditYerence  to  all  external  forms  of  wor- 
ship. (/)     Photius  alone  preferred  a  voluntary  baptism  of  blood  in  defence 


c)  Orat  ad  Theodos.  virtp  rwv  UpSiv.  0pp.  ed.  Heiske.  Th.  II.  More  complete:  Novus  S.  Pa- 
tru;n  Ornec.  Saec.  IV.  delectus,  rec.  Z.  de  Sinner.  Par.  18-12. 

(i)  liußni,  n.  ecc.  II,  22-80.    Sncrat.  V,  16. 

e)  Sozom.  VI,  35.    A-ugustin.  de  Civ.  Dei.  XVIII,  53. 

/)  ^ii(7"s<.  de  CivitateDei.  1.  XXII.  c.  comment  Jo.  L.  Vi  vis  et  Coqmiei,  Ilamb.  1G62.  2  Th. 
J.  van  Goenf!,  de  Aug.  Apolojeta  sec.  II.  do  Civ.  Dei.  Ainst  ISSS.  Pauli  Oroaii  adv.  Tajranos  bjs- 
torlar.  L.  VII.  (Ilormcsda  nmndi,  Moestltia)  rec.  Siff.  ITuverl:a7np,'Lus<^.  1738.  4.  T/i.  de  Jfoorner. 
de  Oros.  vita  ejusque  Hist,  libris.  Ber.  1844. 

(7)  Liban.  0pp.  vol.  II.  p.  17T.  Aug.  SeTm.  G2.  in  Ev.  Jo.  tr.  25, 10.  h)  Socrat.  VII,  15.—  Wems 
dor/,  de  Hyp.  pliilosopha  D.ss.  IV.  Vit  1748.  4.  Jliindt,  IIyp.itia.  (Verm.  Schriften.  Ludwigsb 
182S.  vol.  I.) 

i)  rrocopii,  nut.  arcana  c.  11.   Theophun.  Chronogr.  ad  ann.  522.    Comp.  Aijaihiae  ^i^t  II,  30. 


CHAP.  I.  VICTORY  OF  CHEISTIAmTY.  §  95.  MALN'OTTES.  §  9G.  MASSALIANS.  1  07 

of  freedom,  to  a  constrained  baptism  in  behalf  of  Christianity ;  and  the 
Mainottcs,  in  their  mountain  homes,  defended  at  the  same  time  their  0A\-n 
liberties  and  the  ancient  gods  of  Sparta.  So  many  religious  phra-ses  and  fes- 
tivals connected  with  idolatry  were  preserved  at  Rome,  that  it  may  more 
properly  be  said  to  have  been  incorporated  into  the  life  of  the  Church  than 
abolished.  The  last  adherents  of  the  ancient  faith  were  found  in  the  seventh 
century,  inhabiting  some  remote  valleys  of  the  Italian  islands. 

§  96.     Massalians  and  Ilijpsistarians. 

L  Epiph.  haer.  SO.  Cyrill.  Alev.  de  adoratione  in  spiritu  et  verit,  I.  III.  (I'ar.  Th.  I.  p.  92.) 
Gregor.  Naz.  Orat.  XVIII.  §  5.  (0pp.  p.  333.)    Gregor.  Xi/ss.  adv.  Ennom.  1.  II.  (Tb.  II.  p.  44i>.) 

II.  UUmann,  de  Ilypsistariis.  llcidelb.  1823.  4.  On  tbe  other  side:  Boehmer,  de  Hyps.  I'raefa- 
tus  est  Neander.  Berol.  1S24.  together  with  various  replies. 

Many  persons  had  no  confidence  in  the  ancient  gods,  who  nevertheless 
had  no  faith  in  Christ.  These  were  indifterent  about  what  might  be  the  re- 
sult of  the  great  struggle  for  religion,  or  without  professing  adherence  to  any 
particular  Deity,  they  contented  themselves  with  the  most  general  forms  of 
piety.  The  more  sincere  portion  of  this  class  longed  for  some  religious  fel- 
lowship, and  therefore  associated  themselves  together.  Accordingly,  the 
JIassalians  of  Syria  and  Palestine  (Eiichites,  Euphemites,  2eotrf,3f(j.  and  in 
Africa  Coelicolae),  conceded,  indeed,  that  there  might  be  many  gods,  but 
actually  worshipped,  in  their  splendidly  illuminated  oratories,  at  morning 
and  evening  twilight,  only  One  universal  Euler.  The  Hypsistarians  (v^iarM 
Sew  TTpoa-Kvi'ovvTfs)  of  Cappadocia  can  be  reckoned  in  the  same  class  with 
them,  only  on  the  ground  that  both  were  worsliippers  of  but  one  God,  for 
their  peculiar  sentiments  respecting  the  eating  of  meats  and  the  Sabbath  in- 
dicate that  they  must  have  been  a  kind  of  jjrosdytes  of  the  gate.  That  they 
ever  had  any  connection  with  Parsism,  is  very  doubtful.  The  indilleronce 
of  the  former  class  and  these  latter  sects  of  the  fourth  century  must  have 
disappeared,  after  a  few  generations,  before  the  internal  and  external  power 
of  Christianity. 

§  97.  Christianity  luidcr  the  Persians. 
Christianity  made  no  very  great  progress  in  Persia,  on  account  of  the 
newly  awakened  national  si)irit,  the  volatile  character  of  the  people,  and  the 
superficial  knowledge  then  i)0ssessed  by  Christians  of  the  Persian  system  of 
religion.  In  the  fourth  century,  however.  Christian  congregations  existed 
in  every  part  of  that  country  under  the  Metropolitan  of  Seloucia.  But  in 
consequence  of  the  hatred  felt  against  them  by  the  priestly  caste,  who  were 
bound  together  by  the  closest  bonds,  and  some  suspicions  of  a  political  na 
ture  awakened  against  them,  they  became  victims  of  a  persecution,  after  84;3, 
wliich  raged  almost  without  interruption  for  a  whole  century,  and  nearly  an- 
nihilated the  Church,  (a)  No  parties  bearing  the  name  of  Christian  could 
find  an  asylum  there,  except  those  whicli  had  been  expelled  from  the  Roman 
empire.  Chosrocs  II.  conquered  Jerusalem  (614)  and  put  to  death  all  Chris- 
tians Avhom  he  found  in  Palestine.    Ilcracliua  restored  the  holy  city  to  free- 

a)  Eimeli.  Vita  Const  IV,  9-13.    Sozom.  II,  9-14.    Socr.  VII,  13-21.     Theodortt.  V,  3S.  AcU 
Martvr.  Orient,  ct  Oceid.  cd  S.  E.  As8e7minus.  lloni.  1T4S.  f.  P.  I. 


108  ANciicNT  ( ini:ci[  hi.stouy.  i-ki;.  ii.  i.Mri;i:iAL  church,  a.  d.  8i2-8oa 

dorn,  and  triumphantly  reinstated  tlio  cross  in  its  former  glory  (C21-628) 
Armenia  fell  at  last  beneath  the  ])Ower  of  the  Persians  (429),  but  its  Chris- 
tianity was  more  heroically  defended  than  its  freedom,  (h) 

§  98.  Ahyssinia  and  the  Diaspora. 
The  preservation  of  two  young  men  belonging  to  the  murdered  crew  of  a 
Grecian  vessel,  was  the  occasion  of  the  conversion  of  the  Abyssinians.  One 
of  these,  named  FnnncntiKS,  obtained  influence  at  court,  received  episcopal 
ordination  from  the  hands  of  Athanasius  (327),  and  lived  to  see  the  whole 
nation  professing  the  Christian  faith,  (a)  Cosmas,  the  Indian  traveller,  found 
(before  535)  Christian  congregations  at  three  diflerent  points  along  the  coast 
oi  the  Last  Indies.  Thomas  was  honored  by  them  as  their  apostle,  but  they 
must  have  been  originally  composed  of  mercantile  colonies  from  Persia.  (//) 
The  existence  of  a  church  at  Chumdan,  in  China  (after  636),  witli  all  that  is 
related  of  it,  is  proved  only  by  a  record  discovered  by  the  Jesuits,  (c)  Ara- 
bia was  furnished  with  an  apostle  with  many  rich  gifts  by  the  Emperor  Con- 
Btantius.  But  wherever  Christianity  became  prevalent  in  that  country,  it 
was  violently  assailed  by  the  Jews.  "Whole  nomadic  tribes  received  baptism 
at  once  from  the  hermits  of  the  desert,  but  probably  without  much  inquiry 
into  the  nature  of  Christianity,  or  further  practice  of  its  precepts. 

§  99.     Mohammed. 

I.  The  Koran  :  arab.  et  lat.  ed.  Maraccius.  Patav.  1698.  f.  Petersb.  ITS".  4.  Flügel.  Li>s.  (1834.) 
IS41.  4  Ahulfeda,  (14th  cent)  Hist,  anteislamica,  arab.  et  lat  ei.'Fleincher,  Lp#.  1S31.  De  vita 
Muhamedis,  arab.  et  lat  ed.  Gngtiier,  O.xon.  1723.  f.  (The  1st  Part  of  Abulfeda's  Ann.  Moslemici, 
arab.  et  lat  ed.  Reiske,  Ilavn.  lTS9ss.  5  Th.  4.)  Comp.  J.  v.  Ilatnmer  in  the  Wiener  Jahrb.  1S35. 
vol.  69.  January,  &c.  [The  Koran;  transl.  from  the  Arab,  into  Engl,  by  G.  Sale.  Lond.  lS-29.  1844. 
2  vols.  8.  Selectiims  from  the  K.  with  an  interwoven  comm.  transl.  from  the  Arab,  with  notes,  etc. 
by  E.  W.  Lane.  Lond.  1844.  8.] 

II.  J.  Gagnier,  la  vie  de  Mah.  Amst  1732.  2  Th.  G.  Bmih,  Life  of  Mob.  New  York.  1532.  12. 
\_W.  Irving,  Mob.  and  his  Successors.  New  York.  1852.  2  vols.  8.  S.  Ockley,  Hist  of  the  Saracens, 
comprising  the  lives  of  M.  and  his  successors,  &c.  4  ed.  Lond.  1847.  8.  A.  Spret^ger.  Life  of  Mob. 
Allahabad.  V2.]—Garcin  de  Tossy,  Doctrine  et  devoirs  de  la  rel.  musulmanc.  Par.  1S26.  Ch..  För- 
ster, Mahometanisme  unveiled.  Lond.  1S29.  2  vols.  8.  iMttinger,  z.  Theol.  des  Korans.  (Tub.  Zeit- 
sclir.  1831.  P.  2.)  J.  V.  Zfammer-PurgstaU,  Mob.  d.  Prophet  Lps.  1887.  Comp.  Umhreit,  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.  G.  Weil,  Moh.  de  Proph.  Stuttg.  1843.  [TT.  IT.  Xeole,  The  Mohani.  Sys- 
tem of  Theology.  Lond.  1828.  ^.I—Tychsen,  quatenus  M.  aliarum  rell.  sectatores  toleraverit? 
(Cmmtt  Soc.  Goett  Class.  Hist  Th.  XV.  p.  152ss.)  Mohler,  Verb,  in  welchem  naeh  d.  Koran  J.  C. 
zu  M.  steht  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1830.  P.  1.)  A.  Geiger,  was  hat  M.  aus  dem  Judenth.  aufgenommen  ? 
Bonn.  1833.  C.  F.  Gerock,  Christologie  d.  Koran.  Ilamb.  1839.  [//  Prideaiix,  Nature  of  Imposture 
In  the  Life  of  M.  Lond.  8vo.  II.  Martyn,  Controv.  Tracts  on  Chr.  and  Mahommedanism.  ed.  -S 
I.ee.  Lond.  1824.  8.  J.  B.  White^  Comparison  of  Moham.  and  Chr.  Banipton  Lectt  Lond.  S.  TI'  T. 
Thompson,  Pract  Phil,  of  the  Mohammedans,  transl.  from  the  Per.  of  Jany  Muh.  Asäad.  Lond 
1839.  8.    Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  BibL  Lit  vol.  I.] 

The  Arabians  were  a  free,  warlike,  and  imaginative  people,  subsisting 

V)  Elisaeus,  History  of  Vartan,  transl.  by  Neumann,  Lend.  1830.  4  p.  123s.  Saint  Martin. 
(§  63.  note  d.)  Th.  I.  p.  306ss.  Th.  II.  p.  472ss. 

a)  Uufn.  I,  ^.—Johi  Ludolß  Uist  Aethiopica.  Frcf  1681.  f  III,  2.  and  Cmtr.  ad  U.  Aeth.  ih, 
1691.  C  p.  5S;3ss. 

V)  Cosmas,  Toiroypaipia  xpic^TiaviK^.  {Montfaucon,  Collectio  nova  PP.  graec.  P.ir.  1706.  f.  Th. 
IL)  L.  IlL  p.  178.  1.  XL  p.  3:36.  comp.  P?ii!ostorg.  Ill,  14. 

c)  Kircheri  China  illustrata.  Horn.  1667.  f.  p.  43s& 


CHAP.  I.    VICTORY  OF  CIIßISTIANITV.     §  93.  MOII.VMMED.  109 

opon  their  flocks,  and  with  only  a  few  commercial  towns.  "With  no  literary 
cultivation,  they  took  great  delight  in  a  poetic  language.  From  the  most 
ancient  times,  the  Caaba  at  Mecca,  originally  consecrated  to  the  worship  of 
the  one  God,  had  been  the  national  sanctuary,  but  more  recently  each  tribe  had 
possessed  a  deity  for  itself.  Judaism,  Christianity,  and  Parsism,  had  severally 
found  entrance  into  Arabia,  and  it  was  not  uncommon  for  them  to  be  com- 
bined or  exchanged  the  one  for  the  other.  Mohammed  (b.  571)  belonged  to 
the  race  of  Ishmael,  the  tribe  of  the  Koreish,  and  the  family  of  Ila.'jhem, 
whose  business  it  was  by  inheritance  to  take  charge  of  the  Caaba.  lie  was 
originally  a  merchant  and  a  herdsman,  of  a  quiet  temperament,  with  very 
little  indication  of  his  future  cliaracter,  though  frequently  lost  in  religious 
reveries.  All  at  once  he  began  (611)  to  proclaim:  "There  is  no  God  but 
God,  and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet."  On  this  fundamental  principle  was 
constructed  a  system  of  faith  and  morals,  which  combined  together  the  four 
forms  of  religion  prevalent  among  his  peojjle.  Mohammed  was  acquainted 
with  these  only  as  he  had  found  them  in  his  intercourse  with  men — Judaism 
in  its  Talmudic,  and  the  life  of  Jesus  in  its  apocrj'phal  form.  His  professed 
object  was  to  re-establish  the  religion  of  Abraham,  the  great  ancestor  of  his 
nation ;  and  as  he  regarded  Judaism  and  Christianity  as  divine  revelations, 
he  in  the  Koran  honored  their  founders  with  legends  of  their  miracles.  His 
opinion  respecting  what  he  called  the  later  corruptions  of  these  systems,  be- 
came gradually  more  intolerant,  and  was  aggravated  with  respect  to  the 
Jews  by  motives  of  personal  hatred.  It  became  still  more  developed,  as  he 
advanced  beyond  the  idea  of  a  national  toward  that  of  a  universal  religion — 
an  Islam,  without  which  there  was  no  salvation.  His  system  of  religious 
ethics  demanded  stated  seasons  and  forms  of  prayer,  fastings  and  ablutions, 
almsgiving,  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca,  an  earnest  contention  for  the  faith,  and  a 
willingness  to  die  in  its  behalf.  A  confidence  in  the  doctrine  of  an  absolute 
l>redestination,  raised  the  courage  of  a  brave  pecide  by  inducing  them  joy- 
fully to  surrender  themselves  to  the  will  of  the  Almighty.  He  prohibited 
his  followers  the  use  of  wine,  but  indemnified  them  by  an  unrestrained 
allowance  of  sexual  pleasures.  The  prospect  of  sensual  enjoyments  in  an- 
other world  gave  the  finishing  stroke  to  this  system,  and  adapted  it  suleh'  to 
man's  sensuous  and  intellectual  nature.  He  then  presented  it  to  liis  fellow- 
men  with  all  the  peremptoriness  of  a  direct  revelation  from  heaven,  and  in 
all  the  fanciful  richness  of  the  popular  poetry.  Few  in  his  native  city  were 
disposed  to  put  confidence  in  his  messnges,  and  he  was  even  obliged  to  escape 
the  swords  of  his  fellow-citizens  by  flying  (July  15th,  622,  Iledschra)  to  Me- 
dina. By  bold  predatory  exi)editions  from  this  jdace,  ho  conquered  a  part 
of  Arabia,  and  the  remaining  portion  was  convinced  by  his  success  that  ho 
was  indeed  an  apostle  of  God.  His  personal  appearance  was  remarkably  pro- 
possessing;  he  was  eloquent,  enthusiastic  in  jdety,  as  well  as  artful  in  policy, 
80  bold  in  his  measures  that  he  even  resorted  to  assassination  to  etFect  them, 
yet  ordinarily  just  and  magnanimous  enough  to  bo  esteemed  by  an  adoring 
people  as  a  messenger  from  God.  In  his  private  life  he  was  faithful,  sincere, 
and  temperate,  though  addicted  to  women.  "When  first  called  of  God  to  his 
work,  he  could  neither  read  nor  write  ;  his  travels  could  nave  given  no  great 


110  ANCIKNT  CIIfnCH  HISTOllV.    riJ:.  H.    I  MI'KIIIAL  CIiriKir.    A.  I).  312  900. 

iiiformjitioii,  nn<l  most  of  uliat  lio  knew  lie  Lad  .'irqiiired  at  Mcfca,  to  wliich 
pilfrriiiiK  resorted  from  tlio  Avliole  oriental  world,  lie  jirofesscd  to  receive  lii« 
revelations,  as  occa.«ion  called  for  tliein,  from  tlic  lii)s  of  the  angel  Gabriel, 
in  inspired  language,  tliougli  in  the  day  of  his  prosperity  they  wore  not  witli- 
ont  a  reniarkalilo  adaptation  to  his  desires.  They  were  preserved  sometime? 
in  popular  tradition,  and  sometimes  in  detached  manuscript  fragments,  until 
two  years  after  his  death,  when  they  were  collected  as  hol}'  scriptures  (Al- 
koran)  by  Ahuhrl-r.  This  prophet,  poCt,  priest  and  king  of  Arabia,  died  (032) 
in  the  midst  of  his  plans  of  conquest,  from  the  effects  of  a  slow  poison  given 
liim  to  test  his  i>rophetic  powers. 

§  100,     Victories  of  Mam. 

Oelgner,  des  effets  de  la  rel.  de  M<il).  pendant  le8  trols  prem.  sii-cles.  Par.  ISIO.  Mit  Zds.  de« 
Verf.  V.  E.  D.  M.  Frkf.  1810.  J.  J.  Dölünger,  Muh.  Kel.  nach  Ihrer  EntAvlck,.  n.  ihrem  Einflnsw. 
Munch.  1S3S. 

To  his  successors  the  C<(li]>h<i^  Mohammed  left  the  assurance  tliat  God  had 
given  them  the  world  to  be  conquered  for  Islam.  This  sj-stem  had  even  then, 
in  its  various  sects,  been  developed  in  some  splendid  forms  of  life.  The  Ro- 
man empire  had  become  debased  by  effeminacy,  and  the  oriental  Church  was 
split  np  into  factions.  But  a  religious  enthusiasm  which  has  seized  the 
sword,  cannot  be  overcome,  at  least  by  ordinary  armies,  and  Christianity  had 
hitherto  been  far  from  cultivating  the  military  virtues.  The  Arabians  suc- 
cessively conquered  Egypt  and  Syria  before  640,  Persia  before  C51,  and  the 
African  provinces  before  707.  "With  extreme  difficulty  Constantinople  with- 
stood the  storm.  The  conditions  on  which  the  patriarch  Sophronius  had  sur- 
rendered Jerusalem  (637),  were  generally  complied  with  by  the  Saracens,  so 
far  as  they  refen-ed  to  the  Christian  population.  Christians  were  tolerated 
in  the  exercise  of  their  religion  on  the  payment  of  a  poll-tax.  but  many  of 
them  renounced  their  faith,  and  followed  the  fortune  of  their  conquerors. 
Mohammed  defended  Jesus'from  the  attempts  of  Christians  to  deify  him,  and, 
according  to  a  prevalent  tradition,  Christ  is  at  his  second  advent  to  become 
the  last  Caliph.  The  efforts  of  the  Christian  apologists  were  confined  princi- 
pally to  a  defence  of  the  divinity  of  Christ,  and  of  the  doctrine  that  God 
could  not  be  the  author  of  evil.  The  only  reply  of  the  Mussulmeu  was  with 
their  swords. 


CHAP.  XL— THEOLOGY  AND  SCIENCE. 

§  101.     Conflicts  and  Sources  of  Ecclesiastical  Life. 

As  the  various  parties  became  developed  within  the  Church,  the  latter 
was  necessarily  urged  to  a  more  precise  determination  of  the  essential  arti- 
cles of  its  faith.  The  unity  of  the  Church,  which  had  been  externally  estab- 
lished, operated  unfavorably  to  an  unrestrained  diversity  of  opinions.  No 
sooner  had  the  common  external  enemies  of  the  Church  been  overcome,  than 
its  consciousness  of  essential  unity  becatne  so  obscured  by  the  rancor  of  indi- 
vidual parties,  that  not  onJy  elements  foreign  to  Christianity,  but  some  of 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.    §  101.  CONFLICTS,  SOl'ECES.  1  1  1 

the  mere  modes  in  which  real  Christianity  was  received,  were  rejected  by  tho 
Church.  Indeed  it  was  for  a  long  time  uncertain  which  of  the  parties  in 
this  contest  would  prove  to  be  the  Catholic  Church.  The  passions  of  the 
peojile  and  of  the  government  were  enlisted  in  the  conflict.  The  nutural  de- 
velopment of  the  ecclesiasticiü  si)irit  was  determined  by  mechanical  majori- 
ties and  imperial  decisions.  Tlic  Oriental  Church  endeavored  to  fathom  tlie 
mystery  of  tho  divine,  while  tlie  Western  attempted  rather  to  explore  the 
abyss  of  the  human  nature.  Tho  whole  literature  of  the  Church  was  in- 
volved in  these  theological  disputes,  which  became,  especially  in  the  East, 
central  objects  in  the  history  not  merely  of  tlio  Church,  but  of  the  empire. 
Tradition  and  the  Scriptures  were  as  usual  regarded  as  tlie  standard  of  au- 
thority, but  Avhile  individuals  sought  salvation  only  in  the  word  of  God,  tlie 
living  voice  and  opinion  of  the  Church  became  in  practice  more  and  more  in- 
fluential. Yincentius  of  Lirinvm  (d.  about  450)  proposed  that  the  tradition 
which  could  plead  in  its  behalf  the  established  usage  of  the  primitive  Church 
and  imivers;il  consent  as  the  conditions  of  its  proper  organic  progress,  in  op- 
position to  all  heretical  innovations  and  ecclesiastical  rigidity,  should  be 
regarded  as  the  warrant  and  the  standard  of  the  true  faith.  {<t)  Those  por- 
tions of  the  sacred  Avritings  which  had  been  suljects  of  suspicion  at  an  early 
period,  were  still  opposed  by  many  in  the  time  of  Eusebius.  (J)  But  the 
unity  of  the  Church  rendered  it  indispensable  that  all  portions  should 
1  e  agreed  respecting  its  sacred  writings,  and  accordingly  near  the  close  of  the 
jburth  century  the  disputed  books  were  almost  universally  received.  "Wo 
have,  however,  no  well  authenticated  law  on  the  subject  of  the  canon,  with 
the  exception  of  a  decree  i)assed  by  an  African  synod,  wliich  seems  to  have 
been  adopted  in  other  countries  as  a  part  of  the  common  law  of  the  Church. 
Various  translations  were  in  use  among  the  Latin  portions  of  the  Church ; 
one  of  these,  the  Itala^  used  at  Rome,  was,  at  the  request  of  the  Bishop  Da- 
masus,  amended  by  Jerome^  and  in  connection  with  a  version  of  the  receiveil 
text  of  the  Old  Testament,  maintained  its  position  and  found  acceptance  in 
spite  of  mucli  opposition. 

I.  The  Aki.vx  Coxtroverst. 

L  1)  Itospertiiig  Pome  frajriiH'iit*  Ol"  tlie  writinsä  of  A  rinn :  Fithn'cii  Hllil.  2t.  Tti.  VIII.  i>.  ;<iiiK 
e<p.  Ep.  ml  Eiisob.  Nicoin.  (in  Kpiph.  liacr.  CO,  C.  Thtodaret,  H.  ccc.  I,  5.)  Kp.  ml  Aloxandr.  it 
fra^m.  from  the  QiKfia  (in  Atluin.  d.  Synoil.  Arirji  et  Polciic.  0pp.  Th.  I.  p.  S>5v)  rhilimiorgiuii 
(§92.)  Fra-.'iiifnt.i  Ariatior.  .iboiit  .OS^.  {Ang.  Miji  N.  Coll.  Rom.  1^2?.  Tli  III.1  S)  Partakln-  tlio 
least  of  a  i>artisan  character:  Athiina.iiuiy  f'tiseliiiiit,  and  Sucraifi.  A  partisan  Irratiso:  Kj>ij>h. 
hacT.  C9.  73.  7.-)s. 

II.  »'.ifc/i.  Hist.  (].  Ketzereien,  vol.  H.  III.  Tiiira»ii,  Storla  critica  flella  vita  «11  Ario.  V.-n.  IT^t'. 
{fititrk')  Vers.  e.  Ge.<cli.  <1.  Arlanlsm.  Rrl.  17^:1.  Möl.Ur,  Äthan.  «1.  riros«o  n.  <I.  Kirch.-  seiner  Ait. 
Mainz.  l-;27.  2  vols.  /„  FMngf.  in  Illgens  Z.ltsehr.  1S.'?4«.  vol.  IV.  pt  2.  vol.  V.  pt  1.—  Wrh^i;  1!<"<||. 
tutio  verae  chronoloe.  rernm  ex  controv.  .Vrlanis  inde  ab  a.  S.'.'i  usc^ne  ad  n.  .Vxl  exortarum  Krcf.  l^'.'T. 
— F.  f?.  .Brn/r,  d.  chr.  L.  V.  d.  nr<luini?k.  n.  Mensi'hw.  Oottps.  Ti'ih.  1<5(I.  Th.  I.  p.  .SOiVs.  H.  A. 
Meier;  L.  v.  d.  Trin.  vol.  I.  p.  134:13.    J.  A.  Vomer,  Enlwicklungsgescli.  d.  L.  v.  d.  IVrnm  Chr.  In  d. 

o)  Commonllorlr.nl  i>ro  calh.  fldel  an'i<|nilate  et  nnivorsifate  ailv.  profanas  omnium  haer.  novl- 
totes.  Deiilio  ed.  f/<-r:ng.  Vrat  1830. 

?/)  II.  ere.  III.  .3.  Vf,  2."):  6ao\o-yovfifv:i,  i.vTi\(yöfX(i<x,  vö^a. 


1  12  ANCIENT  CllUnClI  HISTORY.   VKll.  II.    IMI'KKI.VL  CllUnCII.   A.  ]).  312-SOO. 

ersten  4  Jiihrli.  1S1.').  I'jirf,  II.  [J.  JT.  Kneman,  Tlio  Arians  df  the  4th  cent.  Ixind.  1S39.  8.  J.  Whit- 
aker,  llint,  of  Ariivnlstn  illsdo^itMl.  I.,on(l.  1791.  8.  IK  B^rrimann,  Aa  hist.  Accoutit  uf  controverslts 
on  the  Trinity,  iu  8  i<crinons.  Lend.  172.').] 

§102,     The  Synod  of  Nicaen.     325.     Cont.  from  %Q0. 

T.  Etuteh.  Vita  Con.st,  III,  Css.  The  Creed :  TJieodoret,  I,  12.  Socrat.  I,  8.  Respecting  its  com- 
position :  Eiifteh.  Otesnr.  Ep.  ad  Caesnrienscs.  Athanan.  Ep.  do  dccretls  syn.  Nie.  &,  Ep.  ad  Afros. 
Oelasii  Cyziceni  (about  47G)  "S.vvrayfxa  röiv  Karary^v  iv'HiKaia.a.y'iau  avvoQovirpaxßfVTwv. 
{ilanal  Th.  II.  p.  759ss.)    [Landon,  Manual  of  councils.  Nicaoa.  pp.  4.30— 3S.] 

II.  F.  O.  Iftinaencamp,  Hist  Arianae  controv.  ab  initio  usque  ad  syn.  Nlcaenani.  Marb.  1S45. — 
Jttig.  Hist.  Cone.  Nie.  Lps.  1713.  4. — Miin-icher,  ü.  d.  Sinn  d.  nie.  GlanbensformeL  (Ilenlces  N.  Mag. 
vol.  VI.  p.  334ss.)  EiMnschmidt,  d.  Unfcblbark.  d.  Cone,  zu  Nicäa.  Neust  1830.  [./  ÄVj.v«,  Athana- 
fius  &  the  Council  of  Nice.  Lond.  185.3.  8.  If!  A.  Ifammnnd,  Definitions  of  faith  &  canons  of  Disc 
of  the  6  oecumenical  councils,  «&  code  of  the  univer.  Church,  and  apost  canons.  Lond.  1843.  New 
York.  18«.  12.] 

The  contradiction  involved  in  the  idea  of  a  God  existing  at  the  same  time 
■with  another,  or  of  a  God  subordinate  to  another,  was  yet  to  be  declared  and 
overcome.  Arius,  a  presbyter  of  Alexandria,  maintained  that  the  Son  was 
at  some  period  created  out  of  nothing  by  the  divine  ■will,  that  he  "was  the 
first  of  all  creatures,  and  the  Creator  of  the  "world,  that  he  was  endo-wed  ■nith 
the  highest  natural  gifts  in  the  highest  state  of  development,  and  that  he  vras 
not  truly  God,  though  he  might  be  so  called.  Arius  had  been  educated  at 
Antiocb,  "was  eloquent  in  prose  and  verse,  a  skilful  logician,  though  not  biased 
by  any  predominant  intellectual  tendency,  and  a  rigid  ascetic  in  his  habits  of 
life.  Proceeding  from  the  ground  of  the  ordinary  doctrine  of  the  Church, 
he  attempted  to  find  some  clear  idea  which  should  at  once  be  consistent  with 
Monotheism,  and  opposed  to  Sabellianism,  His  Bishop  Alexander,  produced 
in  opposition  to  his  views  (after  318)  the  other  side  of  Origen's  doctrine,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Logos  was  from  eternity  begotten  from  the  essence  of 
the  Father,  and  was  consequently  equal  to  the  Father.  At  a  synod  held  at 
Alexandria  (321),  Arius  was  deposed  and  excommunicated.  But  the  people 
and  many  of  the  oriental  bishops  attached  themselves  to  his  party ;  many 
perhaps,  like  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia,  not  so  much  because  they  shared  in  his 
sentiments,  as  because  they  looked  upon  them  as  harmless,  and  others,  like 
Eusebius  of  Caesarea,  because  they  regarded  such  subjects  as  lying  beyond 
the  bounds  of  human  knowledge  or  of  divine  revelation.  The  emperor  Co7i- 
stantine,  having  made  many  fruitless  efforts  to  induce  the  parties  to  give  up 
what  then  seemed  to  him  a  useless  controversy,  summoned  a  general  assem- 
bly of  bishops  at  Nicaea,  principally  for  the  settlement  of  this  question. 
More  than  250  bishops,  almost  exclusively  from  the  East,  came  together. 
Both  Arius  and  Alexander  were  in  a  minority,  since  most  of  the  bishops 
dreaded  in  the  former  an  exaggerated  system  of  subordination,  and  in  the 
latter  a  covert  Sabellianism,  or  an  open  Tritheism.  But  Alexander's  friends, 
through  the  influence  of  the  court  bishop,  Eosius  of  Cordova,  induced  the 
emperor  to  embrace  their  cause,  and  dictated  the  decision  on  matters  of  faith. 
The  only  embarrassment  which  they  experienced  arose  from  the  readiness 
with  which  the  Arians  subscribed  all  their  articles,  until  the  expression  as- 
serting that  the  Son  was  of  the  same  essence  with  the  Father  (tm  Trarpl  o^ioo'v- 
o-tor)  was  proposed  and  rejected,  and  became  henceforth  the  watchword  of  the 


CHAR  II.     DOCTRINE.     §  102.  ARIANISM,  XICAEA.    §  103.  ATI!  AN  ASICS.      I  I'd 

new  orthodoxy.  Most  of  tho  opposing  bishops,  out  of  reverence  for  the 
imperial  authority,  or  for  the  sake  of  peace,  on  finding  that  it  could  be  inter- 
preted so  as  to  harmonize  with  their  views,  gave  in  their  subscription  to  this 
creed.  Arius  was  banished  to  Illyria,  and  was  accompanied  by  only  two 
Egyptian  bi.shops.  Three  months  afterward.^,  EuseUus  of  Nicomedin^  who 
had  promptly  subscribed  not  only  the  creed  but  the  condemnation  of  Arius. 
was  compelled  to  share  his  fiite.  The  Emperor  commanded  that  all  the  writ- 
ings of  Arius  should  be  burned ;  all  who  would  not  surrender  his  works  were 
threatened  with  death,  and  his  followers  were  to  be  regarded  as  the  enemies 
of  Christianity.  It  was  for  this  reason  that  the  latter  were  sometimes  called 
PorjjJiyrians. 

§  103.  AtJianasius  and  Arius. 
A  controversy  thus  decided  by  the  mere  authority  of  an  incompetent  and 
unstable  sovereign  was  sure  speedily  to  bo  renewed.  Äthananiun  five  months 
afterwards  was  made  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria,  and  became  the  leader  of 
the  Nicaean  party,  which  even  when  a  deacon  he  had  completely  governed  at 
Nicaea.  By  his  enemies  he  has  been  described  as  a  tyrant ;  by  the  emperors 
he  was  sometimes  persecuted,  sometimes  honored,  and  always  feared ;  and  by 
the  Egyptians  he  was  beloved  as  a  friend  of  the  people,  and  venerated  as  a 
saint.  During  twenty  of  the  forty-six  years  which  ho  spent  in  the  episcopal 
oflSce  he  Avas  a  fugitive  for  his  life,  or  in  banisliment.  His  life  was  often  pre- 
served through  the  fidelity  of  his  friends,  who  Avere  ready  to  die  for  him.  The 
great  object  of  his  life  was  to  contend  for  tho  divine  dignity  of  Christ,  and 
in  this  for  all  that  was  essential  to  Christianity,  in  opposition  to  a  new  hea- 
thenism, (rt)  The  Arians  regarded  themselves  as  the  special  advocates  of  the 
divine  unity,  and  an  intelligible  fwrm  of  thought.  Conatantine  finally  recurred 
to  his  earlier  view  of  the  uselessness  of  this  controversy,  and  was  satisfied 
with  a  creed  drawn  up  by  Arius  in  the  most  general  terms  (328),  At  a  synod 
convened  at  Tyre  (335)  Athanasius  was  deposed  and  banished  to  Gaul.  Arius 
died  on  the  very  day  in  which  he  went  in  solemn  procession  from  the  impe- 
rial palace  to  the  church  of  the  apostles  (336),  according  to  his  enemies  the 
victim  of  a  divine  judgment,  but  according  to  his  friends  poisoned  by  magical 
arts.  (&)  Euschius  of  Kicomedia^  after  338  Bishop  of  Constantinojile,  again 
became  the  leader  of  the  party  which  had  been  the  true  majority  at  Nicaoa,  . 
and  taught  that  the  Logos  was  from  eternity  begotten  of  the  substance  of  tho 
Father,  and  was  similar  in  nature  (o/xoioi^o-toy)  but  subordinate  to  the  Father. 
This  party,  then  called  the  Eusehian,  and  at  a  later  period  tho  Scminrian^ 
embraced  those  who  had  been  known  as  Arians,  and  had  the  complete  ascend- 
ency in  the  East,  (c)  but  tho  West  had  been  pained  over  by  the  personal 
energy  and  [)rcsenco  of  Athanasius.  An  attempt  was  made  to  reconcile  both 
portions  of  the  imperial  Church  at  a  synod  convened  at  Sardica  (847),  but  so 

a)  Collections  for  a  biography  of  Athanasius  may  be  found  in  tho  cillt.  of  his  works  by  JA>»i(/5i«- 
ton,  and  in  TUlenumt,  Th.  VHI.  Mdhler  (bef.  §  102.) 

I)  Socnit.  I,  33.  Sosom.  I,  29s.  Honorable  &  trnc;  Athanan.  Kp.  ml  Scrap.  (0pp.  Th.  I.  p.  670s8.) 
Ad  Episcc.  A  eg.  et  Lib.  §  19. 

c)  Esp.  at  the  Synods  of  Antloch,  341,  and  Ancyra,  35S.  Äthan,  de  synuJis  §  22ss.  SocniU  II 
lOss.    Epiph.  bacr.  7-3. 

8 


114  ANCIKNT  ClIUltrH  llISTonV.   VVM.  II.    IMrEIlIAL  ClimCIf.    A.  T>.  r?i:i-SOO. 

unsuccessful  was  it  that  tlic  two  iiartics  came  to  a  complete  rupture  with  each 
other,  and  the  oriental  lield  distinct  sessions  in  the  neigliborinfifcity  of  7V(j%v- 
popolü.  Constantivs  was  compelled  to  restore  Athanasius  to  the  see  of  Alex- 
andria by  a  throat  of  war  from  Lis  brother,  but  as  soon  as  he  became  the 
solo  ruler  of  the  empire  (353)  he  had  tho  cathedral  of  Alexandria  taken  by 
storm,  and  endeavored  also  to  eradicate  tho  Nicaean  faith  from  the  Western 
portions  of  the  Church.  The  occidental  churches  were  compelled  to  condemn 
Athanasius  and  accept  of  a  Semiarian  creed  at  synods  held  at  Arelate  (353), 
at  Mediolanum  (355),  and  at  Äri7ninum  (359).  After  these  triumphs  a 
schism  in  the  dominant  party  became  developed  subsequently  to  the  second 
synod  of  Sirmium  (357),  in  the  contentions  between  the  Eusebians  and  the 
decided  Arians.  Among  the  leaders  whose  names  they  bore,  Acacius,  Bishop 
of  Caesarea  endeavored  at  first  to  conceal  this  schism,  by  refusing  to  ac- 
knowledge any  of  the  controverted  articles,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
unscriptural,  (d)  but  Aethts  and  Funomius,  in  accordance  with  the  assertion 
that  the  divine  nature  could  be  as  easily  understood  as  the  human,  carried 
out  the  views  of  Arius  with  greater  acuteness  and  logical  consistency,  and 
denied  that  Christ  possessed  any  divine  nature  (apofioios,  'Avofioioi).  (e)  After 
the  death  of  Constantius  (361)  the  Athanasian  party  attained  once  more  its 
natural  strength  in  the  "West.  In  the  East  Valens  (364-78)  was  so  furious 
against  it  that  he  spared  not  even  the  Semiarians.  The  result  w%as  that  the 
latter  adopted  views  much  nearer  those  of  the  Athanasian  party  (after  366.) 
The  struggles  of  these  various  parties  were  maintained  quite  as  much  by  the 
weapons  of  court  intrigue  and  insurrection  as  by  proofs  derived  from  the 
Scriptures,  from  tradition,  and  from  logic.  Synods  were  arrayed  against 
synods,  and  force  was  opposed  to  force.  Athanasius,  whose  last  years  had 
been  spent  in  peace  among  his  own  people,  died  about  873,  while  the  conflict 
was  yet  unabated. 

§  104.  Minor  Controversies. 
1.  MarceJhis,  Bishop  of  Ancyr'a,  and  a  leader  of  the  ^N'icaean  party,  repre- 
■sented  the  Logos  as  the  eternal  Avisdora  of  God,  Avhich  became  the  only  begotten 
Son  of  God  first  at  the  Incarnation,  and  after  the  day  of  judgment  will  once 
more  become  one  with  the  Deity.  Pliotinvs,  Bishop  of  Sirmium,  regarded  the 
man  Jesus  as  the  Son  of  God,  only  as  far  as  he  was  ordained  to  bring  the  di- 
vine kingdom  to  its  complete  realization,  and  as  he  was  filled  by  the  Spirit 
and  was  a  power  of  God.  The  deposition  of  Marcellus  (336)  was  regarded 
in  the  West  as  a  martyrdom  for  the  Athanasian  cause.  The  doctrine  of  Pho- 
tinus  was  condemned  by  the  Eusebians  at  Antioch  (after  345),  and  he  was 
himself  deposed  at  Sirmium  (about  351),  but  even  the  Athanasian  party 
liastened  to  relieve  themselves  of  the  reproach  of  his  opinions  by  a  rejection 
of  them  at  the  Synod  of  Mediolanum  (347).  («) 


d)  Philostorg.  lY,  12.    Soorat  II,  40.    Sosom.  IV,  22. 

«)  Philostorg.  Ill,  15-lT.  Epiph.  haer.  "iG.—P/iilonforg.  TI,  1-4.  VaUsius  J»d  Socrat.  V,  10 
Fabricii  Bibl.  gr.  Th.  VIII.  p.  2G2ss.— C.  P.  TI'.  Klose,  Gesch.  u.  Lehre  des  Eunom.  Kiel.  lS.9e. 

a)  Fraguients,  esp.  wepl  vworayri^.  M.ircelli.ina  ed.  IT.  G.  Rettberg,  Goett.  1794.  Against  lilm 
Euseh.  Ciies.   kxto,  MapKfWov   and  Trspl  ttjx  iKKXTiffiaffriKrj?  äeo\.   (both  sfter  Eitneb.  Do 


CHAP  IL   DÖCTPJXE.    §  lu4  MACKDONIANS.    §  105.  1st.  SYN.  OF  COKSTTLE.   115 

2.  Tlie  doctrine  of  tlie  Holy  Spirit  from  its  very  nature  necessarily  par- 
ticipated in  the  fortune  of  that  of  tlie  Logo?,  but  as  no  ecclesiastical  party 
was  formed  with  the  special  object  of  de^'elojiing  it,  it  remained  in  an  indefi- 
nite state.  "When  the  Eusebians  clianged  their  ground,  but  retained  the  Se- 
miarian  doctrine  respecting  the  Spirit,  Athanasius  perceived  the  necessity  of 
maintaining  his  equality  with  the  Son,  and  gave  to  those  who  opposed  his  views 
the  a])peUation  of  (after  3G2)  fighters  against  the  Holy  Ghost  (jrufvuaTOfxaxoi) ; 
but  when  Macedonius  of  Constautiriople  became  a  leader  of  the  Semiarians, 
they  were  called  Macedonians.  The  views  of  the  Church  however  still  re- 
mained unsettled,  and  many  learned  men  looked  upon  the  Spirit  as  an  opera- 
tion of  God,  others  as  a  creature,  others  as  God,  Avhile  others  still  from  defe- 
rence for  the  Scriptures,  formed  no  conclusion  on  the  subject,  (h) 

.  3.  The  more  distinctly  the  divine  nature  of  Christ  Avas  recognized,  the 
less  were  men  willing  to  regard  the  humanity  in  connection  with  it  as  pro- 
perly represented  by  a  sensuous  nature.  Wlien  therefore  ApoUinaris,  Bishop 
of  Laodicea,  a  philosopher  who  had  been  classically  educated,  and  was 
then  a  friend  of  Athanasius,  distinctly  proposed  (after  3G2)  the  opinion  which 
had  extensively  prevailed  in  the  primitive  Church,  but  which  was  then  prin- 
cipally favored  by  the  Arians,  that  the  Logos  connected  himself  only  with  a 
human  body  and  an  animal  soul,  with  which  he  sustained  the  same  relation 
as  was  ordinarily  borne  by  the  human  spirit  (vovi),  he  met  with  opp  ^sition  in 
many  ways,  (c) 

§  105.     The  Synod  of  Constantinople  and  the  Holy  Trinity. 

The  Emperor  Theodosius  /.,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  Nicaean  creed, 
during  his  protracted  and  powerful  reign  triumphantly  accomplislied  what 
had  long  been  the  consistent  eifort  of  the  Church.  He  first  proclaimed  that 
none  but  those  who  received  the  Nicaean  creed  should  bear  the  name  of 
Catholic  Christians,  and  denounced  their  opponents  as  deluded  and  ba.se  here- 
tics, who  must  ultimately  endure  the  divine  as  they  would  speedily  tlie  im- 
perial indignation,  (rs)  But  when  he  entered  Constantinople  (380)  he  found 
Gregory  of  Nazlamen^i  the  bishop  of  tiie  Nicaean  party,  preaching  in  a  con- 
venticle belonging  to  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  This  bishop  he  brought  at  the 
head  of  Ids  legions  into  the  Church  of  the  Apostles,  and  drove  tlic  Arians  out 
of  all  the  churches  of  the  East.  To  legalize  these  violent  proceedings  a  coun- 
cil Avas  called  together  sA  Constantinople  (381.)  (J)   This  second  general  synod 


monst.  ov.  Par.  1628.  f.)  Cyrilli  ITieroa.  Cat.  XV,  27-83.  For  liirn :  Äthan.  Apol.  c.  Ariaii.  §  21-35. 
About  him :  Epipli.  haer.  72 — Äthan,  de  synodis,  §  26s.  Socrai.  II,  19.  I/ieron.  cntal  c.  107. — Klose, 
Gesch.  u.  Lehre  d.  Marc.  u.  Phot.  Hainb.  1S'!7. 

h)  Basil,  Ep.  113.  Äthan. :  ad  Pallad.  (Tli.  I.  p.  9.52.)  ad  Pcrapion.  (Th.  I.  p.  ICCss  )  Ejiiph.  jiaer. 
74.     Gregor.  Nag.  (3S0)  Orat  87.  Comp.  UUmann,  Greg.  p.  378ss. 

c)  p-riigiiicnts  of  ApoUinaris  in  :  Gregor.  Ni/m. ;  Theodoret^  liner,  fabb.  IV,  S.  A.  Leontiun  Bi/zant. 
«dv.fraudesApollonarigtaruinl.il.  (Gallandii  Bib).  Tli.  XII,  p.  70öss.)  PrinclpHl  work  in  opposi- 
tion:  Gregor.  Kyss.  Ad-yos  a.i'Tipl>i}TiKhi  TTfibs  ra  'AiroWiyapiov.  {Gallandii  Bibl.  Tli. 
VI.  p.  517ss.) 

(()  L.  2.  Cod.  IVieod.  de  fide  oath.  (XVI,  1.) 

?/)  J/rt«.siTh.  III.  p.  52Iss.  liußn.  II,  2).  Socrat.  V,  6*s.  Tlieodoret.  V,  'is.—  1'ümann,  Gregor 
V.  Naz.  p.  ir;4.«s.  ÄM/X-«i,  Theod.  p.  142s8. 


I  IG  ANCIKNT  CIIUKCII  IIISTOI'.Y.    VVAl.  II.   IMI'KIilAL  CHURCH.   A.  D.  312-80a 

haviiif^  been  diniinislied  by  the  witlidruwal  of  the  Macedonians,  consisted  of 
150  bisliops  chosen  under  the  arbitrary  dictation  of  tlie  emperor.  The  Ni- 
caean  creed  was  revised  and  clothed  in  sucli  terms  as  had  become  established 
during  Uio  more  recent  controversies,  and  in  this  new  form  was  confirmed  by 
them.  The  Ennominns,  Macedonians  and  Apollinarians  were  condemned  sis 
heretics,  (c)  The  Arians  were  tolerated  in  the  "West  under  Valentinian  II., 
until  TJieodosius  obtained  their  suppression  as  the  price  of  his  a-s-istanco 
against  tlic  usurper  Maximus  (388).  With  the  fifth  century  they  completely 
disappeared  in  all  parts  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  synodal  edicts  of  the  vic- 
torious party  declared  that  the  Son  and  Spirit  were  co-equal  with  the  Father 
in  the  divine  Unity.  In  the  theological  discussions  held  from  the  time  of 
Athanasius  to  that  of  Augustine,  the  views  of  all  parties  were  gradually  so 
accommodated  and  carried  out,  that  the  contents  of  the  apostolic  creed  were 
exalted  to  the  speculative  idea  of  the  Trinity  consisting  of  three  divine  per- 
sons in  the  unity  of  the  divine  nature.  In  this  form  the  doctrine  was  pro- 
claimed as  a  theological  mystery.  The  article  which  declared  that  the  Spirit 
proceeded  also  from  the  Son  (filioque),  was  generally  adopted  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  at  a  synod  of  Toledo  (589)  it  was  incorporated  in  the  confession 
of  faith.  It  was  not  very  difierent  from  what  had  been  vaguely  taught  by 
the  Greek  ecclesiastical  writers  of  the  fourth  century,  but  it  did  not  awaken 
attention  and  opposition  among  the  Greek  churches  as  an  interpolation  in  the 
Nicaean  creed,  until  some  time  in  the  eighth  century,  (d)  In  the  creed  bear- 
ing the  name  of  Athanasius,  which  has  generally  been  received  in  the  West 
since  the  seventh  century,  and  has  evident  marks  of  the  character  of  the  Latin 
Church  of  the  fifth  century,  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  expressly  set  forth, 
and  its  reception  is  made  a  condition  of  salvation,  (e) 

§  106.     Ecclesiastical  Literature. 

With  the  exception  of  the  cloister  and  the  desert  the  most  celebrated 
school  for  the  education  of  the  teachers  of  the  Church  was  at  Athens.  («) 
A  few  of  these  might  have  taken  a  high  rank  among  sophists  and  rhetoricians, 
but  in  consequence  of  the  serious  character  of  Christianity  they  became  ec- 
clesiastical fathers.  They  regarded  their  classical  attainments  generally  with 
mingled  sentiments.  The  twilight  of  ancient  poesy  even  then  cast  a  lingering 
radiance  over  the  Church.  When  Julian  excluded  all  Christians  from  the 
schools  of  ancient  literature,  the  two  Apollinarii  hastened  to  resolve  the  con- 
tents of  the  Scriptures  into  a  series  of  epics,  tragedies,  and  Platonic  dia- 
logues, (b)  Prudentius  (d.  about  405)  in  the  evening  of  his  political  life, 
that  he  might  do  something  for  eternity,  wrote  some  songs  adapted  to  his 
times  and  to  the  conflicts  and  triumphs  of  the  Church,  but  exhibiting  less 

c)  Suiceri  Symb.  Nicaeno-Const  expositum.  Traj.  ad  Kh.  1718.  4 

d)  Augmtin.  de  Trin.  IV,  20.  Cone.  Tolet.  symb.  &  can.  2.  {MimiTh.  IX.  p.  OSl.)  Euaeh. 
de  ecc.  Theol.  Ill,  4.  Epiph.  Ancor.  ^  9.  (Th.  II.  p.  U.y-J.  G.  Walc\  Hist,  eontrov.  de  proces-^n  Sp 
8.  Jen.  1751.    Ziegler,  Geschichtsentw.  v.  dogma  v.  11.  G.  (Theol.  Abb.  GOtt.  1791.  vol.  L  p.  20-lss.) 

e)  WaUrland,  Crit.  Hist  of  the  Äthan,  creed.  Cimb.  (1724.)  1723. 

a)  Archly,  f.  Gesch.  by  Schlosser  4-  Bercht,  1833.  toI.  I.  p.  217s3. 

b)  Socrat  III.  16.  Sozom.  V,  13.  probably  thence  X/jkttos  iraffxa.!'. 


CHAP.  IL    DOCTEIKH.     §106.  SCHOOLS  OF  ALEXANDRIA  &  ANTIOCH.        1  17 

poetical  than  rhetorical  character,  (c)  Two  schools,  situate«!  the  one  at  Alex- 
andria and  tlie  other  at  Antioch,  were  especially  remarkable  for  the  ditlorent 
manner  in  which  they  treated  the  Scriptures.  la  the  former  prevailed  an  al- 
legorical system  of  interpretation  and  a  bold  spirit  of  speculation,  both  of 
which  had  been  exemplitied  in  Origen,  though  his  peculiarities  were  in  some 
instances  exchanged  for  what  was  common  in  the  Church,  and  in  others  were 
abandoned.  In  the  latter,  tlie  simple  signification  of  the  words  was  more  par- 
ticularly investigated,  tlie  circumstances  of  the  original  writers  and  speakers 
were  better  appreciated,  the  divine  was  more  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  human,  and  a  merely  formal  use  was  made  of  philosophy,  and  this  more 
after  the  method  of  Aristotle,  (d)  I.  From  the  Alexandrian  school  proceeded 
those  who  represented  the  theology  of  their  century :  Athanasiiis^  a  didactic 
rather  than  an  exegetical  writer,  who  ingeniously  and  enthusiastically  reduced 
all  Christianity  to  the  simple  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ ;  (< )  and  the 
three  Cappadocians,  Gregory  of  Xyssa  (d.  about  394),  who,  next  to  Origen, 
was  most  distinguished  for  his  scientific  profundity  and  originality,  (/)  his 
brother,  Basil  the  Great,  Metropolitan  of  Caesarea  (d.  379),  equally  zealous 
for  science  and  monasticism,  but  more  remarkable  for  his  talents  in  the  ad- 
ministration of  ecclesiastical  atl'airs,  (g)  and  the  abused  friend  of  his  youth, 
Gregory  of  Xazianzen  (6  '^(okoyo^,  d.  390),  by  inclination  and  fortune  so  tossed 
between  the  tranquillity  of  a  contemplative  life  and  the  storms  of  ecclesia.-;ti- 
cal  government,  that  he  had  no  satisfaction  in  either,  neither  a  profound 
thinker  nor  a  poet,  but  according  to  the  aspirations  of  his  youth  an  orator, 
frequently  pompous  and  dry,  but  laboring  as  powerfully  for  the  triumph  of 
orthodoxy  as  for  genuine  practical  Christianity.  (/()  Next  to  these  wore  En- 
sebh(s  of  Caesarea  (d.  340),  whose  simjjle  but  not  artless  stylo  was  like  that 
of  one  whose  knowledge  was  abundant,  who  was  fond  of  peace,  and  disin- 


c)  0pp.  e<L  ITeinsius.  Amstel.  16i37.  12.  CellariM,  Ilal.  nOS.—.Viddeldorpf,  do  Pruil.  ct  Thco- 
logia  Prud.  ISiSss.  2  P.  (Illgcns  Zeitscbr.  1S32.  vol.  II.  part  2.  Abli.  5.)  For  other  references  seo 
I/age's  Lfben  Jesu.  p.  33. 

d)  Munter,  d.  Antioch.  Schule.  (Stäudlins  u.  Tzschirners  Arch.  vol.  I.  P.  1.) 

e)  His  writings  were  occasioned  by  his  circumstances.  They  were  partly  controversial  in  behaJf 
of  Christisnit_v,  the  Nieene  faith  and  himself  personally,  and  partly  devotional  for  the  promotion  of 
monasticism.  0pp.  ed.  J?,  de  Montßmcon,Va,T.  ICSOss.  3  Tb.  f.  Giiistinitini,  P»«nv.  et  Ljvs.  17TT. 
4  Th.  f.  [His  select  treatises  against  the  Arians  in  two  vols,  and  his  IIistoric.il  Tracts  In  one  vol.  have 
been  pubL  in  the  "Lib.  of  the  Fathers  anterior  to  the  division  of  the  East  &  WosL"  transl.  by  im-m- 
b^i-s  of  the  Engl.  Church.  Oxon.  1S30. — His  orations  were  transl.  by  Parker.  LoniL  1713.  S] 

/)  Ao-yos  KaTrixT)TtKhs  A  fxeya^.  Polemical  writings  ajjainstEunondus  &  .\pollinnrl»,  Iloinlllo« 
&  Ascetic  tracts.  0pp.  ed.  J/or^/iiK«,  Par.  1015.  2  Th.  Append,  add.  <?/•«■/««•>•,  P«r.  lOlS.  ncnwllc- 
tine  ed.  (Par.  17Sl>.  Th.  I.)  interrupted  by  the  Hevolutlon.  Jjitcly  found  and  relating  to  tho  Arians  ifc 
Maccd.  inyl.  Maji  Pcrr.  vett.  Coll.  Rom.  1S84.  Th.  VIII.— X  P.  lle>jn»,  do  Gr.  Xyss.  Lug«!.  B. 
1S3Ö.  4.    J.  liiipp.  Greg.  v.  N.  Leben  u.  Meinungen.  Lps.  l^U. 

17)  Asainst  Eunnmius,  on  the  Holy  Spirit,  Homilies  .fe  Letter'^.  0pp.  ed.  Pronto  Diienttn,  Par. 
K.IS.  2  Th.  f.  Garnier,  Par.  1721ss.  rep.  /..  de  Si'nnfr.  Par.  KJOs.  3  Tii.-J.  K.  Ffixxtr,  do  vita  n.-us. 
Groning.  1S2S.  AVosv,  Pas.  d.  0.  Strals.  18%  A.-Tuhnius,  Has.  M  plotlnirans.  Hem.  1S;?S  4.  Ani- 
m.advv.  In  Ba.s.  opp.  Bern.  1342.  Fasc.  I.  [On  Solitude,  transl.  by  litirksdoU.  Lond.  1 075.  8.  A  Sei. 
Pas^^ages  from  Basil.  Lond.  ISIO.  8.] 

h)  Apolosnes  for  his  offlc  al  errors,  Eccle."».  discourses  of  all  kinds  EpLstle^  Poems  Opp.  cd.  More'- 
Uii-%  Par.  1G30.  2  Th.  f.  Cleiiiencet,  Par.  1773.  Th.  I.  0>i!ll,iu.  Par.  ISIO.  2  Th.  C  [Ills  Panegyric  on 
Maccabees  is  transl.  by  Collier.  Lond.  1710.  '^.]—nim(inn,  Greg.  v.  Xaz.  Dnrmst.  1?25  [Trans!.  Into 
Engl,  by  O.  F.  Cox,  Lond.  1851.] 


1 18  ANCiKNT  ciu;k(;ii  iii.sTOiiV.  TKi:.  n.  iMi'i;i:iAL  ciiuiicii.  a.  i>.  312-800. 

clincd  to  the  new  lurnmliio  of  oiiliodoxy,  (/)  and  the  blind  l)l<hjinv.n  (d.  395) 
in  spirit  and  in  fact  the  last  faithful  follower  of  Origen.  (Z)  In  the  Latin 
Church  were :  Uilarim^  Bishop  of  Poictiers  (Pictavium,  d.  3G8),  in  his  ac- 
tions, suübrinfifs  and  writings,  the  Athanasius  of  the  "West ;  {I)  Amhrosius. 
Arclibishop  of  Milan  (.'!74-'.)7),  a  zealous  praefect  even  in  the  Church,  fot 
■whoso  freedom  and  orthodoxy  he  contended,  fearing  tlic  Lord  of  all  more 
than  the  sovereign  of  this  "world,  and  more  influential  by  his  simplifying  imi- 
tations of  Greek  models  than  by  any  thing  original  in  his  -works.  (///)  IL  Lu- 
ciamts,  a  presbyter  of  Antioch,  whose  Scriptural  learning  acquired  additional 
honor  by  his  death  (311),  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  Antioch- 
ian  school.  Busebius,  Bishop  of  Emisa  (d.  300),  whose  classical  ültainments 
and  eloquence  were  acknowledged  even  by  his  opponents,  was  a  Semiarian 
only  so  far  as  he  defended  the  indefinite  terms  of  the  primitive  creed  as  more 
scriptural  in  doctrine  than  the  later  speculations,  (n)  Cyrillus,  with  various 
changes  of  fortune  (350-86),  was  Bishop  of  Jerusalem  and  a  Eusebian,  but  he 
obtained  the  honor  of  canonization  in  consequence  of  his  acknowledgment  of 
the  Nicaean  creed,  though  he  never  used  it  in  his  popular  instructions,  (o) 
JSphrem  (d.  at  Edessa  about  378)  became  the  principal  instructor  of  the  Sy- 
rian Church  (propheta  Syrorum),  by  transplanting  into  it  the  Greek  learn- 
ing. (^>)  Diodoriis^  Bishop  of  Tarsus  (378 — about  9-i),  and  llieodorus^  Bishop 
of  Mopsuestia  (893-428),  both  of  whom  had  been  at  an  earlier  period  pres- 
byters at  Antioch,  developed  the  peculiarities  of  their  school  in  the  most  de- 

0  narToScTTT)  IcrTopla,  Chronicoa  ed.  Morus.  Amst.  1653.  f.  completed  from  the  Armenian  ;  ed. 
hyAucher,  Ven.  ISIS.  2  Th.  4.  in  Greek  &  Lat.  ed.  A.  Majus.  (Scrr.  veterum.  Col.  Th.  VIII.)  Upoira- 
paffKev)]  evayye\iKri,  1.  XV,  ed.  Vigerws,  Par.  1628.  f.  Ucinichen,  Lps.  1S423.  2  Th.  Gah/ord, 
Oxon.  1S43.  4  vols.  'Airö5ei|is  6^077.  1.  XX.  (I.-X.)  c.  n.  Montacutii,  Tar.  162S.  f.  (The  parts  de- 
fective in  the  1st  &  10th  B.  are  completed  in  Fabricii  Delectus  arg.  et  syllabus  scriptt.)  Comment 
on  the  Psalms  &  Isaiah.  Comp.  Fahricil  Bibl.  Gr.  Th.  YII.  p.  oOöss.  J.  Hitter,  Eus.  de  divinitate  C. 
placita.  Bon.  1823. 

X-)  L.  de  Spiritu  S.  in  the  transl.  of  Jerome.  (0pp.  Th.  IV.  P.  I.)  L.  adv.  Manichaeos.  {Combeßsii 
Auctiiar.  gr.  PP.  Th.  II.)  L.  III.  de  Trinitato.  (ed.  MingarelU,  Bonon.  1769.  f)  E.^positio  VII.  canon:- 
carnm  Epp. ;  the  transl.  of  which  was  procured  by  Cassiodorus  through  Fpifihayiius  Scholast.  and 
the  orig.  test  of  which  Lücke  has  partially  restored  by  means  of  Matthaei's  Scholi.ie :  Quaestiones  ac 
vindiciae  Didymianae.  Gott.  1829-82.  4  P.  comp.  Com.  ü.  Br.  d.  Job.  p.  299ss.  P.  v.  Cvlln,  Did.  in 
Ersch.  u.  Grub.  Enc.  vol.  XXIV. 

l)  De  Trinitate  1.  XII.  L.  ad  Constantinara.  De  synodis  adv.  Arianos.  De  synodis  Ariminensi  et 
Seleucensi.  Comment,  on  Psalms  &  Matth.  0pp.  ed.  Benedictt.  (Constant)  Par.  1693.  Maßet,  Veron. 
1730.  2  Th.  f.  Oherthin;  Wire.  1735ss.  4  Th.  A.  3f,iji  Scrr.  veterum  Col.  Th.  VI. 

m)  Hexaemcron.  De  officiis  1.  III.  De  fide  1.  V.  De  S.  Spirttu  1.  Ill,  92.  Epistles.  0pp.  ed.  Bene- 
dictt. Par.  16S6-90.  2  Th.  t  Gilbert,  Lps.  18393.  2  V.—F.  Bohringer,  die  K.  u.  ihre  Zeugen  o.  KGesch. 
in  Biographien.  Zur.  1S45.  vol.  I.  pt  8.  [Ambroses  Christian  Offices  have  been  transl.  by  Humphreys, 
Loud.  1637.  4.] 

n)  Hieran,  catal.  c.  91.  comp.  119.  Soorat.  II,  9.  Sozcm.  Ill,  G.—Eiiseh.  Opusca  (3  Discourses 
&  excget  &  dogra.  fragments)  ed.  Augu^ti,  Elberf.  1829.  Evidence  that  the  Discourses  belong  to  a 
certain  Euseb.  of  Alex,  of  the  4th  or  6th  cent.  &  information  T3specting  the  genuine  writings:  77ülo. 
Ü.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Eus.  v.  Alex.  u.  des  Eus.  v.  Em.  Hal.  18;52. 

o)  Catechoses  (about  347.)  0pp.  rec.  Toiitlee,  Par.  1720.  Yen.  176.3s.— (7ö«n,  Cyr.  in  Ersch.  u.  Gru- 
bers Encykl.  vol.  XXII.  p.  14Sss.  J.  J.  van  VoUenlioven,  de  Cyr.  Hier,  catechesib.  Amst.  1837.  [St 
Cyril  's  Lectures,  3  cd.  in  Lib.  of  the  Fathers.    See  note  #.] 

p)  Comment  on  tlio  O.  T.,  Devotional  treatises.  Homilies,  Hymns.  0pp.  ed.  J.  S.  Asseman.  Eom 
1732SS.  6  Th.  f.  Auscrw.  Sclirr.  ncbers.  v.  P.  ZingerU,  Insbr.  IS-SOss.  5  vols.— C  a  Lengerke :  d« 
Ephraomo  Sc.  S.  interprete.  Hal.  1823.  4.  De  Ephr.  arte  hermeueutica.  Regiom.  1S31.  [•/  Aiiüeuen 
Lib.  d.  Eph.  Syr.  Lps.  1853.  S.] 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTitlNE.     §  IOC.  THEODORE  OF  MOPS.     §  lOT.  STXES.  EPIPII.   1  19 

cided  form.  The  first  was  destitute  of  classical  education,  and  the  last  inter- 
preted the  Old  Testament  "without  an  acquaintance  with  the  Hebrew ;  but  by 
his  bold  separation  of  the  human  element  in  the  writings  of  inspired  men, 
in  opposition  to  the  common  views  of  the  Church,  he  incurred  the  suspicifm 
and  finally  the  condemnation  of  the  Greek  Church,  though  in  the  more  re- 
mote East  he  has  always  been  honored  as  the  Interpreter,  (y)  Arius  was  a 
pupil  of  Lucianus,  and  indeed  most  of  the  Eusebians  were  educated  in  the 
Antiochian  school.  But  as  even  this  school  could  not  have  si)rung  up  with- 
out the  influence  of  Origen,  to  whom  the  Arians  no  less  than  the  Athanasians 
appealed,  the  opposition  of  the  two  schools  was  princii)ally  of  a  scientific 
cliaracter,  and  produced  no  suspicion  in  the  Church  until  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century.  It  was  a  conflict  between  the  allegorical  and  the  historical 
method  of  interpi-etation,  between  ecclesiastica}  '3hilosor)hy  and  ecclesiastical 
biblical  theology. 

II.  The  Op.igexistic  Coxtrcverst. 

§  107.     Synesim^  E2)iphanius  and  Hieronymus. 

Those  doctrines  which  had  been  left  undetermined  by  the  Apostles'  Creed 
and  the  various  ecclesiastical  controversies,  Avere  freely  agitated  in  many  ways 
as  late  as  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  (a)  Syneshts,  a  faithful  discii»le  of 
Ilypatia,  was  made  Bishop  of  Ptoleniais  (410-31),  notwithstanding  the  reluc- 
tance with  which  he  resigned  the  leisure  of  a  private  life,  and  his  open  avowal 
that  his  philosophical  opinions  were  inconsistent  with  the  popular  ftiith.  (^o 
In  consequence,  however,  of  the  exclusive  respect  then  paid  to  ecclesiastical 
orthodoxy  and  an  ascetic  life,  a  strong  party  was  gradually  formed  in  oppo- 
sition to  Origen,  or  rather  to  the  free  theological  investigation  occasioned  by 
the  cultivation  of  Grecian  learning.  At  the  head  of  this  party  stood  Epiplia- 
nius  of  Palestine,  the  perfect  model  of  a  monkish  saint.  In  the  year  3(37  he 
was  made  Bishop  of  Constantia  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  where  he  died  in 
403.  (c)  In  a  not  altogether  pure  narrative  of  events  which  he  professes  to  have 
taken  place  in  Ids  day,  and  in  his  work  against  the  heretics,  he  has  brought  a 
confused  mass  of  historical  knowledge  into  the  service  of  a  passit)nate  but 
pious  zeal,  (d)  Having  in  these  works  placed  Origen  in  the  list  of  heretic.««,  (e) 
he  demanded  of  the  leaders  of  the  Alexandrian  school  in  Palestine,  John, 

g)  Hinron.  catal  c.  119.  Socrat  VI,  8.  A  cntilogueof  flie  writings  of  DIotlonis  (prlnclnally  lost 
as  yet):  Astemnni  Bibt  orient  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  29.— A.  Mnjo:  N.  Coll.  Rom.  1332.  vol.  VI.  p.  1». 
Spicil.  Iloiiian.  Ilotn.  ISIO.  Th.  IV.  p.  490s.s.  Thcoilorl  quae  snpersunt  omnia  eil.  A.  F.  »  Wegneni, 
Til.  I.  Oomnitr.  In  proplictas  VII.  Ber.  1S">4.— /'.  L.  Sifffit.  Tliood.  Mops.  VeterlsT.  ixibrl.'  Interiire- 
tandi  viiidex.  P.cgiom.  1S-2T.  0.  Fridol.  Fritzsche,  (l»»Jh.  M.  vita  ct  scrlptis.  llnl.  IS*-. 

«)  Comp.  Hii^run.  prooem,  in  1.  XVI II.  in  Ksniam 

V)  0pp.  cd. /'«■Mr/iM,  Par.(lC12)]CI0.  f.  C.  r/ii/o,  Commtr.  In  Pyn.  liymnum  II.  v.  1-2».  Hal 
1S42.  4.  [Select  Poems  of  Syn.  transl.  by  IT.  Ä  linjil.  I^)nd.  1S14.  i\—Aem.  Th.  Ctdimcn,  de  Syn. 
PliUosoplio.  Libyao  pentnp.  Mctropolita.  Ilavn.  1S31. 

<■)  f-pij>h.  liacr  51,  80. 

d)  Tlavdpiov,  adv.  liaercscs,  prefixed  to  the  'AyKvpurSi,  do  lido  sermo.  0pp.  ed.  Petavliis.  Pai 
1822.  2  Th.  f.  Comp,  l/leron.  catal.  c.  114.  Socrai.  VI,  10.  12.  Sozom.  VI,  32.  VII.  27.  VIII,  14s. 

e)  llaer.  44.  Of  a  similar  character:  C.  II.  E.  LominaUich,  de  originc  et  progrcssu  haeroJis  Orl 
geiiianae.  L]is.  1S4C.  P.  I.  4. 


120  ANCIKNT  CIIfKCll  IIISToltV.    VIA:.  IF.    IMI'KKIAL  CIIL'IiCH.    A.  I).  SI2  SOO. 

Bisljop  of  Jerusalem,  Hieron\  miip,  mid  Kufliiiis,  tliat  they  should  Biistain  hi» 
opinion  f.'J'Ji).  Ifieronymi/s  (Joroinc)  of  Stridon  (about  331-420),  after  many 
conflicts  in  tlio  world  and  in  the  desert,  i)resided  over  a  coinitany  of  hermit« 
and  pious  Uomaii  ladies  at  Bethlehem.  In  a  dream  he  was  once  permitted 
to  choose  whether  ho  would  become  a  Ciceronian  or  a  Christian.  He  then 
abjured  all  worldly  literature,  though  be  never  seems  to  have  taken  the  vow 
in  a  very  rijrid  sense.  His  spirit  Avas  active,  his  knowledfro  extensive,  his 
policy  worldly,  and  his  enthusiasm  intense  for  all  that  was  then  esteemed  for 
sanctity.  Though  destitute  of  profound  tliouglit  or  feolintr,  he  was  the  means 
of  introducing  Greek-ecclesiastical  and  Hebrew  learning  into  the  "Western 
portion  of  the  Church.  In  his  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  the  Alexandrian 
tendency  was  predominant,  but  the  Antiochian  interpreters  were  consulted, 
and  all  kinds  of  sentiments  are  rapidly  and  cautiously,  learnedly  and  conve- 
niently thrown  together.  (/)  At  one  time  Origen  was  extolled  above  all 
human  authors,  and  the  suspicions  which  many  entertained  respecting  him 
Avere  imputed  to  a  malignant  jealousy  of  liis  reputation,  (g)  but  it  was  charac- 
teristic of  a  nature  like  that  of  Ilieronynius,  afterwards  to  abandon  him. 
This  produced  a  rupture  between  Ilieronymus  and  Eufinus,  in  consequence 
of  which  their  characters  are  utterly  blackened  in  each  other's  writings,  (h) 
Hvßnits  withdrew  to  Aquileia  (d.  410),  where  he  endeavored  to  spread  the 
fame  of  Origen  in  the  West  by  translations  from  his  Avorks,  and  to  save  these 
from  imputations  of  heresy  by  alterations  of  them,  (i) 

§  108.     Chrijsostom. 

I.  Opp.  ed.  B.  de  ifontfaitcon  ;  Par.  1718-38.  13  Tli.  f.  rep.  Par.  1S34-39. 13  Th.  4.  Comp.  Fahridi 
ßibl.  Th.  VIII.  p.  454SS.  [Most  of  the  Homilies  on  the  N.  T.  arc  transl.  i-  publ.  in  the  Lib.  of  the 
Fafliers,  see  §  IOC,  note  e.  His  treatise  on  Compunction  is  transl.  &  publ.  by  Veveer.  Lond.  1723.  8. 
and  that  on  the  Priesthood,  by  Bunce,  Lond.  1759.  S.] — PMadii  Episc,  Ilclcnopolit.  Dial,  de  vita 
Jo.  Chrys.  ed.  Bigot,  Par.  16S0.  4.  and  in  Montfuucon,  Th.  XIII.  Socrat.  VI,  3-18.  Sozom.  VIII, 
7-20.    AVritings  of  Ilieron.  &  Theophil.  in  Hier.  Opp.  Vallarsi,  Th.  L  Ep.  SGss. 

II.  Stilting,  de  S.  Chrys.  (Acta  Sanct,  Sept.  Tli.  IV.  p.  401ss.)  A.  Xeamler,  d.  h.  Joh.  Chrj-s.  n. 
d.  Kirche  bes.  des  Orientes  in  dessen  Zeita.  BrI.  (lS'21s.)  lS32ss.  2  vols.  [Joh.  Chrys.  ik  the  Oriental 
Church  in  his  times,  from  the  Germ,  of  Neander,  by  Stnpleton,  Lond.  1S33.  8.]  Buhringer,  d.  K.  n. 
ihre  Zeugen,  vol.  L  Abth.  3.     [Art.  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  I.] 

Most  of  the  Egyptian  monks  in  their  controversies  with  the  followers  of 
Origen  residing  among  them,  described  God  as  a  pure  spirit,  and  could  form 
no  conception  of  Ilim  Avho  made  man  after  his  OAvn  image  except  in  a  hu- 

f)  Commentaries,  Literary  history,  Chronology,  nistories  of  saints,  Satires,  Epistles,  &c  Opp.  ed. 
Erasmus,  Bas.  1516ss.  9  Th.  f  &  oft.  Jfirtimiai/,  Par.  lC9.3ss.  5  Th.  f.  Valhirgi.  A'er.  1734si  11  Th. 
4.  A'en.  17C6ss.  11  Th.  4.  [Sei.  Epp.  of  Jerome,  transl.  into  Engl.  Lond.  1630.  4.  Epistle  to  Xepotian 
transl.  Lond.  1715.  8.]— For  him.  M(irtiana^\a\i(^<\e  S.  Jerome.  Par.  170G.  4  Slilting,  de  S.  Hier. 
(ActaSanct  Sept  Th.  VIIL  p.  41Sss.)  Against  him :  Clericus,  Qnaestt  lliernnymianae.  Anist  1700. 
Of  him:  jPficreZsio/u,  Hieron.  Ilavn.  1797.  D.  v.  CtiW»,  Hier,  in  Ersch.  n.  Grub.  Encykl.  Sect  II. 
vol.  VIII. 

g)  Ilieron.  Opp.  vol.  IV.  Th.  II.  p.  6S.  480.— Ep.  57.  ad  Theopli. 

/i)  Ilieron.  Epp.  8S-41.  liufin.  Praef.  a'd  Orig.  dc  princ.  &  Apol.  S.  Invectivarum  in  Hier.  1.  U 
nieron.  Apol.  adv.  Ruf.  I.  II.  &  (a  rejoinder  to  Itufin's  lost  answer)  Kesponsio  s.  Apol.  1.  III. 

i)  Ti/runnii  liiißni  Oii[>.  eA.  VaUdrsi.XeT.  1745.  f.  Th.  I.— JAn*.  de  /?«'>«/•<,  Monumenta  Ecc 
Aqnilejonsis.  Argent  1740.  f.  p.  SOss.  &  de  Hujino.  Ven.  1754.  4.  J.  ff.  JTarzuUini,  de  Turannii  Kuf 
Ode  et  rel.  Patr.  ISJS.  Ciicciari  it  Kimmtl.  (%  92.  n<i;e  b.) 


CHAP.  II.     DOCTKINK.     §  lOS.  TUEOPIIILÜS.     CHRYSOSTOM.  121 

man  form  (:intliropomorphites).  77i€Op7iilug,  the  crafty  and  violent  Bishop 
of  Alexandria  (385— il2),  who  had  hoon  an  admirer  of  Origen,  suddenly 
became  convinced  that  he  wa.s  a  heretic  in  consequence  of  some  oflenccd 
received  from  the  followers  of  that  teacher,  and  some  threats  from  the  An- 
tbropomorphites,  who.se  fanaticism  he  wished  to  render  subservient  to  his 
purposes.  He  passed  sentence  of  condemnation  upon  the  memory  of  Origen 
(399),  and  was  sustained  in  his  decision  by  the  Roman  Church,  (a)  Those  of 
the  monks  who  favored  Origen  were  much  abused  by  him,  but  found  a  pro- 
tector in  John,  Bishop  of  Const^aiitinoiile,  ealle>.l  in  subsequent  ages  Chn/sox- 
tom.  Contrary  to  the  wishes  of  Thcophilu.s,  as  well  as  his  own,  he  was  taken 
from  Antioch,  and  (after  398)  presided  over  the  church  at  Constantinople. 
Theophilus  was  summoned  by  the  Emperor  to  the  capital,  where,  after  be- 
coming thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  state  of  aflairs,  he  contrived  to  ob- 
tain the  po.sition  of  judge  instead  of  defendant.  C'kri/sostom,  with  sincere 
Christian  earnestnea*,  had  carried  out  the  intelligent  metliod  of  Scriptural 
interpretation  pursued  in  the  school  of  Antiocli,  and  tlio  rhetorical  i)rinciples 
of  Libanius,  and  had  exemplified  in  his  own  life,  as  far  as  was  possible  for 
any  man,  the  ideal  of  the  priesthood,  which  in  his  youtliful  fervor  he  had  de- 
scribed, (i)  llis  habits  were  strictly  monastic,  ho  was  poor  with  respect  to 
himself,  but  rich  in  his  benefactions  to  the  poor,  and  mild  in  disposition,  but 
terribly  eloquent  in  opposition  to  all  courtly  extravagances.  I3y  the  Empress 
Eudoxia  and  her  dependants  such  a  man  was  soon  doomed  to  destruction. 
At  the  synod  of  The  Oah  (403),  after  many  confused  and  absurd  accusations, 
Theophilus  pronounced  against  him  a  sentence  of  deposition  and  bani.sh- 
ment.  The  lamentations  and  threats  of  the  people  were  powerful  enongh  to 
effect  his  speedy  recall,  but  the  Empress,  like  a  modern  Ilerodias,  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  having  him  banished  to  Pontus.  (40-i)  Innocent  I.  pleaded  his  in- 
nocence in  vain,  (c)  Praising  God  for  all  tliat  had  taken  place,  he  died  in 
extreme  distress  (Sept.  14,  407).  The  body  of  the  saint  was  brought  back  t<> 
Constantinople  (438)  in  a  triumphal  procession,  {d)  The  goodness  of  Cliry- 
so.stom  was  highly  honored  by  an  age  which  forgot  and  misunderstood  the 
splendid  talents  of  Origen. 

III.  The  Pelagian'  Coxtroveksy. 

I.  1)  The  polemical  wrilincs  of  Aii'jn^tiuf :  Opp.  Th.  X.  c.M.  Bcnollctt  Ilitron.  Kpp.  -W.  .-ul 
Ctesli)hontein.  Dlall.  adv.  I'dagianos  1.  III.  (Tli.  IV.  P.  II.)  Orosii  Ai«)lo;:ftl«-iis  contra.  IVl.  Ac- 
count of  the  controversy  in  I'ale.'tino.  ^\'^.  ("pp.  c<l.  Havcrkamp,  Ltisi).  IT.IS.  4.)  Mitriu»  Mfrcator, 
Comnionitoria.  420,  4:M.  (Opp.  ed.  TinUu:.  Par.  1CS4.)  2)  Frasinrnt-s  of  PdngiuK  k  CirUitliin  may 
be  found  in  these  polfiiiioal  writings  »id  8omo  tn^atlso»  of  IVladu^  have  liven  prcsorvo«!  hocnii*« 
tlii'y  wore  mistaken  for  works  of  Ilieronymus.  Doforo  tlie  controver:«y :  Kxi>«»ltt.  In  Vf>[K  Paiiltnai 
(Ilicr.  Ojip.  Th.  V.  p.  9259s.)  In  the  time  of  the  controversy:  Kp.  nd  Demotrliulom  (<<il.  Semler,  II«!. 
1775.)  &,  Libel),  ndci  ad  Innoc.  I.  (Hier.  Opp.  Th.  V.  p.  12.'!W.)  Fracment«  of  the  iM>lem.  troatlvs  of 
Jittiaiiiin  of  E.-lanum  in  Au^-ustlnc  Sc  Mercatur.  8)  Ori^nal  docuincnts  in  August.  Opp.  Th.  X. 
3/ansi  Th.  IV. 

II.  G.  J.  VoSHti  H.  de  contruversii«,  qiias  Pel.  (^nwjue  rollqiilao  movorunt  Lnpl.  1GIS.  4.  nuct.  ed. 


a)  J/iiHsiTh.  III.  p.  970SS. 

h)  Ufpl  Itp-jKTvfrji  1.  YI.  cd.  J.  A.  Ji^ngtl,  Stiittg.  1725.     /-<v),  Ixdris.  IS-'M.  [traii-1.  Ir.'.u  Y.nA  by 
Bunce,  Lond.  17.W.  S.]     Uebers.  v.  Ha«clb.ieh.  Stral.«i.  1^20.  v.  Ritter.  Hrl.  1^21. 
c)  .Vanü  Til.  III.  p.  lOOÖss.    rf)  S»ci;tt.  Vit.  44.     XUej.h.  XIV,  43. 


122  ANilKNT  ClirUCII  IIISTOUV.    I'Ki;,  II.    IMIM.niAL  CIIUKCII.   A.  V.  3I2-WO. 

G.  Vosn.  Aiiist.  1C:.5.  4.  XortKii  H.  IVl.-igiaim.  I'at.  Km«,  f.  (Opp.  Veron.  1729.  Th.  I..)  Cnrnerii  Y><* 
VII.  quibu»  Intoyra  coiitliietiir  l*cln(,'liin(>r.  lllst.  (In  his  edit,  of  Mercator.  I'ar.  1G73.  Th.  I.)  G.  F 
Wiggeis,  pragrii.  Darstell,  des  Aiipiistliii.-iniis  u.  relauianisin.  I5rl.  l^■21.  vol.  I.  Ilanib.  ISy'i.  vol.  IL 
[An  Hist  rroscntatlDH  of  Ausiistinlsm  &  Vv\.  from  tlie  Gonn.  of  O.  V.  'Wl^'^.'ers  by  G.  B.  Kimrton. 
\nilovor.  1S40.  6.  Art.  in  Cliiisf.  Spcct.  on  Karly  II.  of  Thcol.  vol.  IV.  p.  Ü'Jlss.  lor  the  year  1832. 
Princeton  Thcol.  Rssays.  vol.  I.  p.  fenss.  An  aide  Hist,  of  Au^'ustinlsm  has  been  written  in  French 
in  Taris,  by  ^f.  Ponjalo'.]  J.  G.  Voi(/l,  de  thcoria  Aufrustiniana,  Scmipcl.  ct  Syncrj,nst,  GoetL  1S20. 
T.i-nt-.en,  dc  rd.igianor.  doctr.  principiis.  Colon.  1S33.  J.  L.  Jaeobl,  d.  Lehro  d.  Pelagiu.s.  Lpz.  1S4.3. 

§  109.  Pclagianisyn  and  Augustiimm. 
The  Irecdoin  of  man  is  identical  with  liis  dependence  upon  God,  but  when 
we  reflect  upon  the  subject  both  tliese  relations  appear  vei-y  different.  In 
their  controversies  with  the  Montanists  and  Manichaeans  the  Greek  fathers 
gave  special  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  human  freedom.  The  Latin 
Church,  which  liad  been  much  aftected  by  Tertullian's  Montanistic  spirit, 
gave  greater  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  man's  dependence,  and  its  writers, 
without  denying  tlie  innocence  of  children  or  the  Ireedom  of  adults,  demon- 
strated the  necessity  of  divine  grace  in  opposition  to  human  freedom,  by 
proving  that  ever  since  Adam's  fall  the  nature  of  man  has  been  continually 
depraved.  Pelagius  and  Coelestius^  pious  monks,  driven  by  the  incursions  of 
the  barbarians  from  Britain  (Bretagne  ?),  their  native  country,  first  to  Rome 
(409),  and  afterwards  to  Africa  (411),  that  they  might  promote  the  interests 
of  morality,  were  especially  zealous  for  the  freedom  of  tlie  will.  In  oppo- 
sition to  the  views  then  prevalent  in  Africa,  they  maintained  that  man's  na- 
ture was  not  corrupted  by  the  fall  of  Adam,  and  that  even  where  Christian- 
ity was  not  known  men  might  render  themselves  by  the  power  of  their  own 
wills  proper  subjects  of  divine  grace.  They  acknowledged,  however,  that 
men  received  much  assistance  from  the  Church,  where  it  could  be  obtained, 
and  that  those  who  Avere  subjects  of  the  kingdom  of  Christ  participated  in 
more  exalted  blessings.  Augustine  perceived  that  if  this  doctrine  were  con- 
sistently carried  out,  men's  confidence  in  redemption  and  in  the  Church,  as 
indispensable  to  salvation,  would  be  seriously  endangered.  In  behalf  of 
these,  therefore,  he  maintained  his  theories  of  Original  Sin  and  Predestina- 
tion^ alleging  that,  "  in  consequence  of  Adam's  fall  man's  nature  has  been 
burdened  with  an  infinite  guilt,  and  is  incapable  of  good  by  its  own  power. 
By  divine  grace,  therefore,  without  man's  co-operation,  and  through  the  in- 
strumentality of  the  Church,  a  new  life  is  imparted  to  some,  while  others  are 
abandoned  by  divine  justice  to  their  own  corruption,  and  from  all  eternity 
were  ordained  to  condemnation." 

§  110.    Augustinus. 

I.  Opp.  edd.  Benedidini,  Tar.  1G79-1T00.  11  Th.  f.  (recus.  c.  app.  aericw.)  Antn.  KOOss.  12  Th.  f. 
(Ven.  1729SS.  12  Th.  f.  IToGss.  IS  Th.  4.)  Par.  1835-9.  11  Th.  ^—rosHcUus,  vita  Ang.  &  Indicnlus  Ope- 
rum  (about  432)  ia  the  tditt  of  his  works.  The  life  of  Aug.  by  an  anon,  writer  (ed.  Cramer,  Kil.  1S32.) 
was  compiled  from  the  Confessions  &  Possidins.  Gennadius,  de  viris  illustr.  c  3S. 

II.  C.  Biiulemann,  d.  h.  Aug.  BrL  1S44.  vol.  I.  Bohringer,  d.  K.  n.  ihre  Zeugen,  vol.  I.  Abth.  3. 
K.  Branne,  Monnika  u.  Augustin.  Gremma.  1S46.  [Augustine's  City  of  God,  transl.  Lend.  1620.  f. 
Meditations  by  Stanhope.  Lond.  1745.  &  Confessions  by  Wattii,  Loud.  1C31  12.  His  Confessions.  3  ed, 
rovi?e<l  by  Pus-eij  (&  republished  in  Boston,  1S42.  12.),  in  vol.  L  Sermons  in  vols.  16  &  20,  &  Com- 
ment on  Psalms  in  vols.  24  &  25,  and  on  John  in  vol.  2G  of  the  Lib.  of  the  Fathers.  See  §  106,  note  e. 
P.  Schaff,  Life  &  Labors  of  St.  Aug.  from  the  Germ,  by  T.  0.  Porter.  New  York.  1SS4.  12.] 

Aurelius  Augustinus  was  born  at  Tagaste  in  Numidia,  Nov.  13,  354.     His 


CHAP.  IL    DOCTRD^E.    §  löT.  AUGUSTINE.  123 

Oiind  liad  been  deeply  imbued  during  cliildbood  witb  tbe  principles  of  Cbri^;- 
tianity,  throiigb  t)ie  instructions  of  his  mother  Monica.     But  when  only  n 
youth  of  seventeen  years  he  studied  the  Roman  classics,  and  gave  himself  up 
to  worldly  pleasures.      Cicero's   eloquent  pleadings  for  the  value  of  Phi- 
losophy re-awakened  his  desire  for  something   more   certain  and   eternal. 
The  Scriptures  were  too  simple  for  his  glowing  tancy.     Scduco<l  by  the  prom- 
ise of  tbe  Manicbaeans  that  complete  truth  would  bo  revealed  to  all  whose 
reason  independently  investigated  its  own  depths,  lie  continued  for  nine  years 
under  their  instruction,  when  be  became  satisfied  that  he  had  been  deceived, 
and  doubted  whether  any  truth  could  be  known.    But  on  his  acquaintance 
with  New-Platonism  another  life  seemed  open  to  his  pursuit.     As  an  in- 
structor in  eloquence  he  visited  Rome  in  383  and  Milan  in  385,  still  devoting 
himself  to  the  enjoyment  of  sensual  pleasures.     Prompted  by  some  recollec- 
tions of  early  childhood  he  was  induced  to  listen  to  Ambrose  sinijdy  as  an 
orator,  that  he  might  compare  the  Platonic  wisdona  with  the  gospel.     Then 
commenced  in  his  heart,  principally  through  the  influence  of  the  writings  of 
Paul,  a  severe  struggle  between  the  temporal  and  the  eternal,  the  progress  of 
wdiich  was  much  assisted  by  the  prayers  and  tears  of  his  motiier.    In  a  sud- 
den transport  of  his  feelings  be  became  satisfied  of  his  own  miraculous  con- 
version, and  on  Easter-night,  38Y,  he,  with  his  natural  son,  was  baj)tized  by 
Ambrose.     lie  immediately  resigned  his  professorship  of  rhetoric  and  re- 
paired to  his  uative  city,  where,  with  a  company  of  devout  associates,  he  lived 
in  retirement  from  the  world  until  ho  was  ordained  in  Hippo  Begins  (Bona), 
first  a  presbyter  (391),  afterwards  an  assistant  bishop  (395).   Then  commenced 
bis  ecclesiastical  life,  and  tbe  AfVican  churches  were  subsequently  governed 
by  his  intellectual  energies.     Ilis  influence  became  predominant  in  evorv 
part  of  the  West,  and  bis  fame  bad  extended  througli  the  whole  Church, 
when  be  was  for  three  months  besieged  in  his  own  city  by  the  Vandals,  and 
died  August  28,  430,  singing  the  Penitential  Psalms. — Ilis  earlier  writings 
treat  of  Rhetoric  and  Philosophy,  and  are  for  the  most  part  lost.     His  theo- 
logical writings,  consisting  of  devotional,  doctrinal,  and  especially  controver- 
sial treatises,  are  diffuse,  full  of  repetitions,  artificial,  and  often  insijiid  by  . 
mere  plays  upon  words.    Ilis  interpretations  of  Scripture  exhibit  no  extensive 
knowledge  of  languages,  or  historical  accuracy,  {it)     And  yet  all  bis  Avorks 
are  characterized  by  an  exuberance  of  intellectual  life,  a  profound  knowledge 
of  the  human  heart,  and  an  all-controlling  love  to  God  bre;iking  forth  in  the 
most  impassioned  forms  of  speech.     lie  never  shrunk  from  a  thoiiglit,  how- 
ever startling,  and  in  his  writings  ho  has  freely  expressed  the  most  liberal,  as 
well  as  tbe  most  tremendous  concejitions  wliich  over  rose  in  an  inquiring 
spirit,  according  to  the  exigencies  of  his  train  of  rciisoning.    In  his  Confes- 
sions (about  400),  with  tbe  i)roud  self-abasement  of  a  saint,  as  it  were  in  a 
confessional  before  God,  ho  has  freely  described  himself  in  big  intellectual 
nakedness.  (Ji)    Ilis  i^e<rrtc?a</o7W  (about  429)  contain  indeed  a  severe  criti- 


rt)  jr.  iV.  Clausen,  Aiiijustinus  S.  Scr.  Intcrprcs.    Ilnfh.  1S2S. 

I)  Coiifessioiuiin  I:  XIII.  pracf.  Meander,  Bor.  1S2-3.  od.  Bruder,  Lp."«.  1837.    Trnnsl.  »s  an  cxci-l 
!eiit  work  of  devotion  into  the  various  langunses  of  Europe.    [Koviseil  fVom  a  former  Enpl.  tran»l.  bj 


124  AXCIKNT  CIIUUCII  IIISTOUV.    I'Ki:.  II.    IMI'KUIAL  CUVllCU.   A.  I).  812-Wo. 

clsni  on  liis  writings  by  liis  own  liaiid  ;  but  it  is  evident,  also,  tbat  they  were 
intended  to  recall  or  mitigate  whatever  in  his  earlier  works  wa.s  favorable  tc 
the  Pelagians.  In  his  writings  against  the  Manichaeans  lie  had  given  promi- 
uence  to  some  sentiments  favorable  to  the  freedom  and  goodness  of  the  hu- 
man will.  In  liis  controversy  with  the  Donatists  the  idea  every  where  j>rc- 
vailing  is,  that  of  a  Clmrch  which  is  the  only  source  of  truth  and  certainty. 
In  his  oAvn  life  there  had  been  the  most  direct  contrast  between  the  opera 
tions  of  sill  and  of  grace,  and  his  exalted  piety  took  pleasure  in  uncondition 
ally  rejecting  himself  that  he  might  live  wholly  upon  God's  grace  in  Christ. 

§  111.  Victory  of  Augustinism. 
The  controversy  commenced  with  personal  reproaches  against  Cocleiiti't.*, 
At  a  synod  held  at  Carthage  (412)  he  was  expelled  from  the  Church,  wlien 
he  betook  himself  to  Ephesus,  and  Avas  there  ordained  a  presbyter.  Pelagius 
had  previously  gone  to  Palestine,  where  he  was  opposed  by  Jlieronymus  on 
the  ground  of  his  being  a  follower  of  Origen.  Augustine,  at  first,  in  a  very 
respectful  manner,  by  writing,  and  through  Orosius^  his  messenger,  opened  a 
controversy  with  him.  At  a  synod  convened  at  Diospolis  in  Palestine  (415), 
ho  was  accused  of  maintaining  that  men  could  live  without  sin,  but  his  con- 
demnation was  prevented  by  John^  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  The  African 
Church,  however,  convinced  by  Augustine  of  the  danger  which  threatened 
the  cause  of  truth  through  him,  condemned  him  at  the  Synods  of  Milete  and 
Carthage  (416),  and  was  sustained  in  its  decision  by  the  concurrence  of  Inno- 
cent I.  Zosimii.%  the  successor  of  Innocent,  entirely  mistaking  the  impor- 
tance of  this  controversy,  at  first  gave  protection  to  the  Pelagians  (417),  but 
afterwards,  when  the  African  Church  and  the  imperial  court  demanded  tlieir 
condemnation,  with  a  similar  ignorance  he  denounced  them  in  his  Epistola 
tractatoria  (418).  Julianus  of  Eclamim  and  eighteen  other  bishops  were  de- 
posed and  driven  from  Italy  as  Pelagians.  These  generally  took  refuge  at 
Constantinople,  where  I^esforius,  in  accordance  with  the  general  spirit  of  the 
Oriental  Church,  received  them.  This  gave  occasion  for  a  connection  of  their 
cause  with  that  of  the  heresy  of  Nestorius,  in  consequence  of  Avhich  the  Pe- 
lagians were  condemned  with  the  Nestorians  at  the  general  Synod  of  Ephe- 
sus (431). 

§  112.     Semipelagianis7n. 

Jo.  Geffcken,  TTist.  Setnipelacrianismi  antiqnissima  (till  434)  Goctt.  1S26.  4.  Wilder/!,  Angnstinis- 
inus  u.  Pelagianismus,  vol.  II.  (fill  5'29.)  [Seebcf.  §  109.  Also  .in  Essay  of  Prof.  Wiggers  in  Xied- 
ner"s  Zeitschr.  for  Jan.  1S54.] 

The  Greek  Church  had  never  taken  any  real  interest  in  this  controversy, 
and  even  at  a  later  period  it  simply  taught  that  human  nature  had  been  ren- 
dered infirm  in  consequence  of  Adam's  lidl.  But  even  in  the  Western 
churches  the  whole  system  of  Augustiuism  had  never  been  sincerely  and 
openly  accepted  by  the  public  mind.  Augustine  himself  received  informa- 
tion that  an  intermediate  opinion  had  been  propagated  among  the  monks  of 

E.  B.  Pitieij,  &  publ.  in  the  Lib.  of  die  Fa'hcrs  (sec  §  106,  note  e.)  vol.  I.  Oxf.  1J40.  &  ropuW.  Bos 
ton.  1S42.1 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTRINE.     §  112.  SEMU'ELAGIANS.     CASsIAN.     FAUSTUS.       125 

Massilia,  principally  through  the  influence  of  John  Cassianm  (a),  a  disciple  of 
the  Desert  and  of  Chrj-so.stoni.  According  to  tliis  view  (afterwards  called 
Semipclagianisni),  themoral  power  of  man  has  indeed  been  enfeebled,  but 
not  destroyed,  in  consequence  of  Adams'  fall,  and  henco  divine  grace  and  hu- 
man freedom  conspired  together,  and  acted  in  concert  with  each  other  in  the 
work  of  man's  salvation.  This  doctrine,  which  conceded  as  much  to  tlio 
Church  as  to  the  free  moral  nature  of  man,  and  without  which  there  seemed 
to  be  no  special  advantage  in  a  monastic  life,  obtained  great  favor.  Thd 
Church,  however,  had  too  decidedly  committed  itself  on  the  side  of  Angai- 
tine,  the  authority  of  this  father  was  then  too  great,  and  the  reasoning  by 
wliich  his  doctrines  were  sustained  was  too  irresistible,  to  permit  a  general 
and  open  departure  from  his  principles.  In  the  West,  therefore,  there  was 
always  an  obscurity  and  instability  of  sentiment  on  this  subject.  In  Gaul 
Semipelagianism  was  decidedly  in  the  ascendant.  Acting  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Synod  of  Arelate  (472),  Fuusti/s,  Bishop  of  lihegium,  but  pre- 
viously Abbot  of  Levius,  drew  up  a  Semipelagian  confession,  which  was  sub- 
scribed by  all  the  bishops  at  the  Synod  of  Lyons  (475),  (i)  From  policy  and 
a  pious  regard  for  Augustine,  the  sacred  name  of  that  father  was  not  men- 
tioned, but  this  was  only  to  assail  with  greater  recklessness  the  character  of 
his  followers.  A  sect  of  Fredestinariam,  distinctively  so  called,  never  ex- 
isted except  in  the  imaginations  of  their  opponents,  and  an  extreme  defence 
of  predestination  professing  to  have  been  put  forth  at  that  time,  is,  if  not  a 
Jesuitical,  at  least  a  Pelagian  work,  (r)  In  Africa  and  Koine  a  tendency  to 
Augustinism  prevailed,  and  through  liomish  influence  at  the  Synods  oi  Arau- 
sio  (Orange)  and  Valentia  (529)  a  decision  was  obtained  in  favor  of  the  ex- 
clusive operation  of  divine  grace,  ((T)  although  predestination,  which  must 
necessarily  be  inferred  from  this,  was  evidently  evaded.  As  both  ])artic3 
therefore  shrunk  from  extreme  views  the  controversy  never  produced  an  ac- 
tual schism  in  the  Church,  although  sometimes  a  monk  or  a  presbyter  was  op- 
pressed by  his  bishop,  now  in  the  name  of  Augustine,  and  again  in  defence 
of  human  freedom.  But  just  as  Augustine  has  been  regarded  as  a  saint  by 
the  whole  Church,  Cassian  and  Faustus  have  always  been  honored  as  saints 
in  their  own  country. 

a)  De  institntiscocnoblorum  1.  XII.  Collationes  Pstrum  XXIV.  Do  inwirn.  Clirlstl  mlv.  Nestor. 
1.  VII.  0pp.  c(l.  Alarchis  Gazaeua,  DuacL  ICIC.  3  Th.  auct  Atrebatl.  162S.  f.—  Wijjj/ers,  do  Jo.  C'-u»\ 
Masslliciise  ciiiin.  III.  Rost.  1S24S.4. 

i)  De  gratia  Dei  ct  humanae  mentis  liboro  arbltrlo.  (BIbl.  PP.  Liigd.  Tli.  VIII.)  J/.imi"  Th.  VIL 

p.  100"»3. 

c)  In  tbe  2d  voL  of  the  Predestlnatus.  Ed.  Sirmond,  Par.  IWa  &  Gallandii  Tb.  X.  i>.  SMa- 
Wiggera,  vol.  II.  p.  329s8.    [Xeander,  Hist  vol.  II.  p.  Wis«.] 

d)  ifami  Th,  VIII.  p.  711s».  [Laudon'a  Man.  of  Council»,  p.  *iT.] 


I2G  ANCIENT  CHURCH  HISTOKV.    rKII.  11.   IMI'KKIAL  CHUKCH.   A.  I).  812-800. 

IV.    COXTÜOVEÜKIES    IIKSPECTING    THE    TwO    NaTUIIES    OF    ClIIM.ST. 

1.  Lilterali  (Arclildloc.  Garth,  about 553)  Brevlarium  cniisap  Ncstorlanorum  et  Eutyclilan.  Kil 
G'lrneriun.  Par.  1C75.  and  in  Jfanni  Th.  IX.  p.  C5!).S8.  {Gelasiua  I.  f)  Breviculus  Hist.  Kulyclilan- 
Istanim  8.  go«ln  do  nomine  Acacil.  (Manni,  TU.  VII.  p.  106' 68.)  Lfontiim  ByznnlinuK :  dc  sectis 
actio  6-10.  Contra  Kiityelilnnois  ct  Ncstorian.  (GdUandii  Th.  XII.  p.  C21p.s.  6.JSss.)— II.  M'ulcJi, 
Ketzerlilst  Th.  V.-AIII.  Baur,  L.  v.  d.  Drcioinipk.  vol.  I.  p.  e03si?.  vol.  II.  Durner,  Entwick- 
lungs^.'0.«ch.  d.  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  Stuttg.  ISGO.  p.  50ss.  \R.  J.  y^ Xhtrfurce,  On  the  Incarnation  ol 
T.  C.  2  P(l.  Lond.  1S49.  Thilad.  1849.  p.  151ss.] 

§  118.     The  Ncalorkni  Controversy. 

I.  Orip.  Pociimcnts  in  3f(in.si  Th.  IV.  p.  607?.«.  Th.  V.  VII.  p.  241s.«.  Jfariits  Jfercator,  do 
haoresi  Nest.  (Opp.  vol.  II.)    Socrat  VII,  29ss.    Eragr.  I,  7s.s. 

II.  Juhlonslci,  Do  Nestorianismo.  I5er.  1724.  4.  Gengler.  ü.  d.  Verdaminiing  d.  Nest.  (Tub. 
Quartalschr.  1835.  P.  2.)— Sal  ig,  de  Eutychianismo  ante  Eutychen.  "Wolfi-nb.  1723.  4. 

The  doctrine  of  a  divine  nature  in  Christ  had  now  forced  its  -way  to  a 
general  acceptance,  and  tliat  of  his  human  nature  had  always  been  taken  for 
granted ;  but  -when  men  reflected  upon  the  relation  Avhicb  these  sustained 
toward  each  other,  they  were  in  danger  of  either  asserting  their  unity  so 
strictly  that  the  human  nature  was  Avholly  lost  in  the  Deity,  or,  to  secure  the 
existence  of  the  human  nature,  of  maintaining  its  separation  so  rigidly 
that  the  unity  of  Christ's  person  would  be  destroyed.  The  natural  tendency 
of  each  school  induced  the  Alexandrian  to  adopt  the  former,  and  the  An- 
iiochian  the  latter  extreme.  Accordingly,  when  Xcstorius,  originally  a  pres- 
byter at  Antioch,  but  after  428  the  Metropolitan  of  Constantinople,  full  of 
zeal  for  orthodoxy,  and  according  to  the  customary  language  of  his  school, 
carefully  distinguished  in  opposition  to  Apollinaris  between  the  two  natures 
of  Christ  (Mary  being  called  xp'-o'totukos,  not  'äeorÖKos.  and  the  relation  of  the 
natures,  awücfieia  and  fVoiVr^o-if),  so  that  the  qualities  (idiüfj-aTa)  co-operated 
in  the  accomplishment  of  man's  redemption,  Ci/ril  of  Alexandria  (412-444:), 
the  nephew,  and  in  every  respect  the  successor  of  Theophilus,  advocated  a 
union  of  natures  ((^v<ri/cr)  fvwa-n)  so  complete,  that  the  peculiarities  of  each 
were  predicable  of  the  other.  These  opposite  views,  sustained  respectively 
by  the  two  great  eastern  bishoprics,  and  by  the  schools  of  Alexandria  and 
Antioch,  from  their  peculiar  nature,  alforded  ample  occasion  for  misunder- 
standings and  unhappy  inferences.  Both  parties  were  charged  Avith  having 
destroyed  all  faith  in  man's  redemption ;  Nestorius  by  his  assertion  of  the 
doctrine  of  two  independent  natures,  and  Cyril  by  his  denial  of  the  human 
nature  of  Christ.  Cyril  succeeded  in  arraying  the  Roman  Church  against 
Nestorius,  by  connecting  the  controvcr.ey  Avith  the  Pelagian.  ISTestorius  was 
condemned  at  the  Synods  of  AJc.randrla  and  liome  (430),  and  Cyril  pub- 
lished his  doctrines  in  twelve  Anathemas,  to  which  Xestorius  opposed  twelve 
others,  (a)  A  general  assembly  of  the  Church  was  convened  by  Tlteodosius 
II.  at  EphcKxts  (431),  in  which  Cyril  and  his  bishops  pronounced  condemna- 
tion upon  Nestorius  before  the  Syrian  and  Greek  bishops  had  arrived.  On 
the  arrival  of  these  bishops  they  chose  John  of  Antioch  for  their  president, 
and  deposed  Cyril.     The  latter,  however,  well  knew  how  to  gain  the  favor 

a)  3Iiinsi,  Tb.  IV.  p.  1067ss.  p.  1099ss,    Mxtenscher,  Colin,  DGesch.  vol.  L  p.  290s8. 


CHAP.  II.    DOCTEINE.    §  113.  JIESTOPJANISM.     §  114  EUTYCIIIANISM.        127 

of  the  emperor,  and  to  produce  dissension  among  the  bishops  of  the  opposite 
party.  lie  even  became  reconciled  to  John  of  Antioch,  having  finally  con- 
sented to  subscribe  (433)  the  articles  of  faith  which  that  prelate  had  induced 
his  party  to  adopt  at  Ephesus,  (A)  in  which  the  two  natures  of  Christ  were 
especially  distinguished.  In  such  a  strife  of  mere  intrigues,  Nestorius,  with 
his  monastic  learning  and  want  of  practical  tact,  was  no  match  for  his  op- 
ponents. He  was  soon  deserted  by  all  parties,  and  died  in  wretchedness 
(about  440),  with  his  character  misunderstood  and  his  doctrine  misrepresent- 
ed. The  only  advocate  of  his  opinions  by  Avhich  the  conflict  Avas  continued, 
was  the  theological  school  of  Edesm^  a  branch  of  the  Antiochian,  and  this 
gradually  witlidrew  to  Persia.  Under  its  influence,  the  Persian  churches 
persevered  in  their  opposition  to  the  Synod  of  Ephesus,  and  under  the  name 
of  Chaldean  Christians,  or  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  as  they  Avere  called  in 
India,  or  ITestorians,  as  they  were  called  by  their  opponent.?,  they  became 
numerous,  and  carried  far  into  Asia  the  principles  of  Christian  beneficence 
and  Grecian  refinement.  But  even  in  the  imperial  Church,  a  disposition 
friendly  to  Nestorianism  Avas  continued,  especially  under  the  influence  of 
/Ö«.«,  Bishop  of  Edessa  (436— i57),  and  the  learned  Thcodoret.  (c) 

§  114.     Tlie  Eutychian  Controversy. 
Acts  in  Mansi  Tb.  VI.  VII.    Emgr.  I,  9ss.  II,  2. 

The  controA^ersy  which  had  been  thus  violently  and  deceptively  settled 
burned  faintly  still,  Avith  Alexandria  and  Palestine  on  the  one  side,  and  Con- 
stantinople  and  Asia  on  the  other.  When,  therefore,  Eufychcs,  an  archiman- 
drite of  Constantinople,  obstinate  in  his  dispo.sition,  but  Avell  versed  in  the 
Scriptures,  taught,  in  direct  opposition  to  Nestorianism,  that  every  thing  hu- 
man in  tlie  nature  of  Christ  Avas  absorbed  by  his  divinity,  and  became  one 
nature  Avith  it,  Flavianvs,  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  had  him  condemned  at 
a  synod  of  his  diocese  (448).  (a)  Leo  the  Great  approved  of  this  decision  in 
an  epistle  in  Avhich,  though  he  maintained  that  the  two  natures  of  Christ  acted 
in  perfect  harmony,  he  clearly  distinguished  between  Avhat  Avas  divine  and 
what  Avas  human  in  the  life  of  Jesus.  (A)  Dloscunts  of  Alexandria  (4r4-ir-ol), 
Avho,  in  defending  Eutyches,  felt  that  he  Avas  equally  defending  his  predecessor 
Cyril,  succeeded  at  the  general  synod  of  Ephesus  (449),  through  the  influ- 
ence of  an  excited  populace,  in  justifying  Eutyches  and  deposing  Flavian. 
We  are  assured  by  the  emiieror  Theodosius  II.,  that  the  decision  Avas  obtained 
in  a  perfectly  legal  manner,  on  the  basis  of  the  prior  decrees  of  Ephesus  and 
Nicaea.  But  on  the  sudden  death  of  the  emperor  (450),  the  general  feeling 
of  displeasure  at  the  violent  proceedings  of  Dioscurus  found  a  public  ex- 
pression. The  empress  Pulchcria  and  her  husband  Marcianvs  convoked  a 
General  Council  at  Chalcedon  (451),  Avhose  decision  Avas  secured  by  the  mode 


//)  Mansi  Tli.  IV.  p.  8T8.  comp.  7S18.  803s8. 

c)  AMemani  Do  Syris  Nestoriatiis.  (IMhl.  Orient.  \Um.  17'2S.  f.  Tli.  HI.  T.  II.)  KJ edjfsu  L. 
inart'aritae  lie  vorit.  flilei.  (.1.  Mnji  N-  Coll.  Tli.  X.  1'.  II.)  [A.  Grant,  Hist,  of  the  XostoriftDS. 
New  York.  I'irno.] 

a)  The  Act.s  in  tlie  Actio  I.  of  Chalce<l<in.    JOinn  Th.  A'l.  p.  C40ss.     [Landon,  p.  IGTss.] 

6)  Ep.  fu\  Flnvianuni.    Leo)i.  0pp.  edil.  £.illei-ini.  Ep.  2S. 


128  ANCiKNT  ciii:i:cn  iiistoky.  pki:.  ii.  iMri:i:iAL  ciiuitcir.  a.  i>.  812-800. 

in  -wliicli  it  -was  constituted.  Dioscurus  was  deposed,  Eutyches  was  con- 
demned, not  only  Ibas  and  Theodoret,  but  even  Cyril  were  declared  or- 
thodox, and  tlio  doctrine  of  the  Cliurcli  was  established  on  the  basis  of  the 
Ilonian  epistle :  Two  natures  are  Avithout  confusion  but  inseparably  united  in 
tlie  one  person  of  Christ.  The  Synod  of  Ephesus  has  ever  since  been  regard- 
ed as  the  Kobber-Synod  (a-vvoSos  Xrja-rpiKr}).  (c) 

§  115.     The  MonopTiysitcs.     The  Contest  respecting  CJialcedon. 

Acts  In  ifansi  Th.  VII.  p.  4S1-IX.  p.  700.  Zeontius  Jii/z.  de  scctis  liber,  actio  5-10.  and  Contra 
Eufychlanos  et  Ncstorian.  1.  III.  {Gallnndii,  Bibl.  Th.  XII.)  Writings  and  Frajrments  of  the 
Party  Leaders  in  A.  Mitji  N.  ColL  1S33.  Th.  VII.  P.  I.  and  Spicil.  Eom.  Tli.  III.  X  Ecagr.  II,  5ss. 

The  Alexandrians,  who  gave  special  prominence  to  the  divine  nature  in 
Christ,  and  yet  were  unwilling  to  connect  themselves  with  the  Eutychian 
party,  felt  much  aggrieved  by  the  action  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon.  They 
were  called  by  their  opponents  Monophy sites,  and  these  opponents  were 
called  by  them  Nestorians  and  Dyophysites.  The  controversy  was  at  first 
conducted  by  insurrections  of  monks  and  of  people,  and  in  Palestine  was 
attended  with  bloodshed,  but  in  Alexandria  and  Antioch  each  party  set  up 
its  rival  bishop«.  The  emperor  Leo  I.  (457—474)  sustained  the  decisions  of 
Chalcedon,  though  with  a  judicious  moderation.  Peter  FuUo  (yva(pevi)  hav- 
ing assumed  the  oflBce  of  Bishop  of  Antioch,  and  introduced  into  the  liturgy 
a  Monophysite  formula,  which  asserted  that  God  had  been  crucified  (thence 
called  Theopaschites),  was  expelled  by  the  emperor.  In  the  revolutions 
which  then  took  place  so  frequently  in  the  imperial  palace,  ecclesiastical  con- 
troversies were  made  subservient  to  political  intrigues.  "When  the  emperor 
Zeno  Isauricits  was  overthrown  by  Basiliscvs  (476),  the  latter  strengthened 
his  party  by  gaining  over  the  Monophysites,  and  published  a  circular  in 
which  he  condemned  the  Synod  of  Chalcedon.  (a)  The  insurrection  in  Con- 
stantinople by  which  Zeno  was  restored  to  his  throne  (477),  was  under  the 
direction  of  the  Catholic  patriarch  Acacius.  The  Monophysites,  however, 
had  exhibited  so  much  power  under  the  usurper,  that  the  emperor,  by  the 
advice  of  the  patriarch,  endeavored  to  reconcile  them  by  publishing  a  creed 
called  the  Henoticon  {h)  (482),  in  which  the  disputed  articles  were  entirely 
avoided.  Felix  II.,  the  Roman  bishop,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  those 
zealots  who  were  opposed  to  this  fellowship  with  the  Monophysites,  and 
excommunicated  Acacius  (484).  But  even  the  more  rigid  portion  of  the 
Monophysites  in  Egypt  withdrew  from  their  own  patriarch,  who  had  been 
so  easily  pacified  (thence  called  \\Ki^a\oi).  Though  both  parties  equally 
reviled  the  Henoticon,  it  was  the  means  of  external  peace  in  the  Oriental 
Church,  and  Anastasius  (491-Ö18),  who  attempted  to  free  the  state  from 
both  parties,  was  equally  hated,  threatened  and  calumniated  by  both.  Justin 
I.  (518-527)  decided  against  the  Monophysites  and  expelled  their  bishops, 
but  in  Egypt,  where  their  cause  was  popular,  he  was  politic  enough  not  to 
assail  them.    In  Alexandria,  however,  they  fell  out  among  themselves,  for 

c)  Lercahl,  die  sogen.  Eäubersynode.  (Illgen's  Zeitschr.  vol.  VIII.  P.  1.)    [London,  p.  286. 113.] 
a)  Ecagr.  Ill,  i.      h)  Ibid.  Ill,  14.    Berger,  Henotica  Orient  Vit  1723.  4. 


CHAP.  IL     DOCTRINE.     §  115.  SEVERIANS.     §  IIG.  JUSTINIAN  I.  [OQ 

tho  Severia?is,  so  called  from  Severus  their  leader,  the  expelled  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  who  ■was  rather  inclined  to  confound  the  divine  with  the  human 
nature,  and  acknowledged  that  the  principal  attribute  of  the  latter  was  the 
corruptibility  of  the  body  of  Christ  (therefore  reproached  as  ^?5apTo\ärpai), 
were  opposed  to  the  Julianists  (^A(ji'äapTo8oKT]Tai),  the  followers  of'  Julian  of 
JIalicarnassus,  who  taught  that  there  was  such  an  absorption  of  the  human 
nature  into  the  divinity  that  nothing  mortal  remained,  (c) 

§  IIG.     Justinian. 

Proeopius  (cl.  about  552),  especially  his  military  LiKtory,  and  bis  hist,  of  tbe  court:  'Av/kSoto, 
riist  arcana,  ed.  OrelU.  Lps.  1S27.  Contin.  of  tho  Imp.  Hist  552-559.  by  Agathias,  cd.  Niehuhr. 
Bon.  1828.  (Corpus  Scrr.  Byzant.  P.  III.  1S29-44. 

Justinian  /.,  in  the  course  of  his  long  and  frequently  brilliant  reign 
(527-565),  by  the  successful  weapons  of  his  generals  restored  the  Roman 
dominion  in  Africa  and  Italy  to  its  former  splendor.  Dutiful  toward  the 
Church,  temperate  even  to  monastic  strictness,  covetous  and  yet  prodigal, 
active  in  many  departments  of  business,  and  untiring  in  his  diligence,  though 
moderate  in  natural  talents,  he  Avas  eager  to  acquire  the  reputation  of  a  mas- 
ter in  every  kind  of  human  knowledge.  Even  while  burdened  with  tho 
cares  of  his  despotic  reign,  ho  digested  from  the  treasures  of  Eoman  juris- 
prudence a  code  of  civil  law  which  has  been  ever  since  the  source  of  legal 
science  for  all  civilized  nations.  He  then  attempted  in  like  manner,  as  a 
theologian,  to  annihilate  aU  heresies,  reconcile  all  parties,  and  establish  a 
true  system  of  orthodoxy  for  all  future  time.  But  while  he  loaded  the 
Church  with  gifts,  he  increased  the  distractions  of  both  Church  and  State  by 
his  creeds,  and  efforts  to  establish  uniformity.  In  all  these  he  doubtless  be- 
lieved that  he  was  guided  by  his  own  sagacity,  while  he  was  really  the  mere 
tool  of  court  divines  and  eunuchs.  Ho  was  disposed  to  favor  the  Council 
of  Chalcedon,  but  Theodora  well  knew  how  to  direct  his  edicts  so  that  they 
generally  were  favorable  to  the  Monophysites.  This  woman,  having  shame- 
lessly spent  her  youthful  beauty  amid  all  tho  dissipations  of  Constantinople, 
was  exalted,  by  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  to  bo  the  sharer  of  his  power  over 
the  empire,  and  the  sole  mistress  of  himself.  On  the  throne  she  was  tyran- 
nical, but  her  disposition  was  lofty  and  her  morals  were  irreproachable. 
1.  On  finding  that  the  discussions  which  he  had  ordered  between  tlie  Catho- 
lics and  the  Monophysites  were  of  no  avail,  {a)  the  emperor  hoped  to  win 
the  latter  by  allowing  them  to  use  their  formula  asserting  siini)ly  tliat  one  of 
the  sacred  Trinity  was  crucified  (503).  But  while  this  only  embittered  the 
feelings  of  the  Catholics,  it  was  not  enough  for  the  Monophysites.  Anthi- 
mus  (535),  tho  Monophysitic  patriarch,  Avho  had  been  appointed  through 
Theodora's  influence,  was  removed  the  next  year  by  the  Catholic  party,  and 
Vigiliris,,  who  had  been  assisted  in  his  attainment  of  the  Koman  see  (538) 
with  the  secret  understanding  that  he  Avould  favor  the  Monophysites,  found 


c)  Gieseler,  Monophysltarum  vett.  varlae  de  Chr.  personn  opiniones  inpr.  ex  Ipsonim  effatis  recen» 
Dditls  lllustr.  Oott.  183.5.  3S.  2  P. 

a)  CoUatio  Catholicor.  c.  Severianis  a.  5:M.     {Jldnii  Tli.  VIII.  p.  SlTss.) 

9 


130  ANCIKNT  CliriiCIl   IIIST(»l:V.   I'Ki:.  11.    IMI'KRIAL  CIIUUCII.   A.  I).  , ",1^-800. 

no  (lilTiciilly  in  nUsdlviii','  iiiraself  from  his  oath,  (h)  2.  Tlie  nariic  of  Oviger 
was  dear  to  ii  monastic  party  in  tho  East,  not  so  iiinch  for  liis  scientific  char- 
acter ns  for  the  relation  of  liis  system  to  tlie  Monoj)li3-site.'?.  This  party 
gained  fj;reat  inihionce  at  court  by  means  of  Theodorus  Ascidas^  Metropohtan 
of  Cacsafca  in  Cai)pndocia.  Tlie  Catholic  party,  liowever,  found  means 
through  Mennas,  tlie  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  to  procure  from  the  empe- 
ror a  condemnation  of  Origcn,  3,  Theodoras  soon  revenged  himself  by  con- 
vincing tlic  emperor  that  tho  Monophysites  Avould  be  reconciled  to  the 
Cliurcli  by  a  sentence  of  condemnation  upon  Theodore  of  Mopf,v.entin^  the 
instructor  of  Nestorius,  Theodorct  of  Cyrris  and  Ihas  of  Edesso^  the  princi- 
j)als  of  the  Antiochian  school.  Tho  errors  of  these  teachers  liaving  been 
collected  (about  544)  into  three  chapters  (tria  capitula),  "were  accordingly 
condemned  by  Justinian,  {r)  Though  tlie  Monophysites  were  much  delighted 
with  this  act,  they  were  on  that  account  no  more  partial  to  the  Council  of 
Clialcedon,  The  Catholics,  on  the  other  hand,  looked  upon  it  as  a  direct 
assault  upon  that  council.  To  quell  these  discussions,  Justinian  convoked 
the  fifth  CEcumenical  Council  at  Constantinojile  (553),  which,  in  compliance 
with  tho  imperial  theology,  condemned  the  three  Antiochian  teachers,  {d) 
YigiUus,  who  at  first  led  the  West  in  its  opposition  to  this  proceeding,  lost 
the  glory  of  his  martyrdom  by  frequent  vacillations  and  concessions.  Pela' 
gius  became  his  successor  in  consequence  of  his  acknowledgment  of  the 
imperial  synod  (555).  A  large  portion  of  the  Western  bishops  now  broke 
olf  connection  with  Eome  as  well  as  Constantinople,  and  the  liberty  of  the 
Church  found  some  bold  champions  not  only  against  the  despotism  of  the 
emperor,  but  the  pliant  disposition  of  the  Roman  bishop,  (e)  4.  The  last 
attempt  of  Justinian  to  draw  over  the  Monophysites,  was  made  when  he  had 
(564)  the  doctrine  of  the  Incomiptilility  of  Christ's  body  adopted  as  an 
article  of  the  authorized  creed.  He  had  just  commenced  the  work  of  ex- 
pelling those  Catholic  bishops  who  resisted  him,  when  the  Church  was  deliv- 
ered from  tlie  confusion  produced  by  his  zeal  for  the  faith  by  his  death,  {f) 

§  117.  The  Edict  of  Peace  and  the  Monophynte  Church. 
Xo  sooner  had  Justin  II.  reach  the  throne,  than  he  issued  an  edict 
(565),  (rt)  in  which  he  admonished  aU  Christians  to  unite  with  him  to  pro- 
mote the  glory  of  the  Redeemer,  and  to  contend  no  more  about  words  and 
persons.  The  apostolic  Catholic  Church,  however,  was  at  the  same  time 
assured  that  its  present  position  would  be  maintained.  The  arbitrary  man- 
ner in  which  the  imperial  laws  for  the  regulation  of  faith  had  for  some  time 
been  enforced,  rendered  such  a  request  from  an  emperor  peculiarly  grateful 
to  the  public  mind.    The  successors  of  Vigilius  were  now  more  zealous  in 

^)  Liherati  Breviar.   c.   22.      Tiyilii  Ep.   ad  Justin.    {Jfaitsi  Th.   IX.  p.   S5.)  ad   Mennam. 
[J  bid.  p.  8S.) 

c)  Jiixtiii.  ad  Mennam  adv.  impium  Orig.  (Jfaiisi  Tb.  IX.  p.  4S7ss.  couip.  895ss.) 

d)  Acts  in  Jfunsi  Tli.  IX.  p.  157ss. 

<■)  Esp.  Fiiciindtis  JTerinitineiisis  (abont  5JS)  pro  defensione  trium  cspitt  1.  XII.  (0pp.  ed.  J. 
Sirmoml.  Par.  1629.     GalUnulii  Th.  XI.) 

/)  Kragr.  IV.  SS-40.     Kalch.  Ketzergofch.  vol.  X.  p.  STSssw 
a)  Ecagr.  V,  4.    Xic€i>h.  XVII.  85k 


CHAP.  IL    DOCTiJINE.     §  117.  MONOPHTSITES.     §  118.  MONOTHELITES.       131 

enforcing  the  authority  of  the  fifth  oecumenical  council  in  the  West,  than 
he  had  formerly  heen  in  opposing  it.  It  was  not,  however,  generally 
acknowledged  until  subsequent  centuries,  when  it  was  not  opposed,  because 
the  subjects  in  dispute  were  nearly  forgotten.  In  the  East,  each  party 
retained  possession  of  all  that  it  had  obtained.  In  opposition  to  the  Catholic 
patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  was  sustained  entirely  by  the  emperor's  power, 
the  Monophysites  possessed  a  patriarch  of  their  own  (after  536),  and  consti- 
tuted the  Egyptian  national  Church  of  the  Copts^  with  which  was  connected 
the  Ethiopic  Church,  (h)  The  Armenians  availed  themselves  of  the  occa- 
sion Avhen  the  Ilenoticon  was  enacted,  to  renounce  the  authority  of  the  Synod 
of  Chalcedon,  and  thus  in  the  sixth  century,  when  they  were  subject  to  the 
Persian  yoke,  they  entirely  renounced  all  connection  with  the  Church  of  the 
empire,  {c)  The  apostolic  zeal  of  Jacob  Baradai  (541-578)  gave  the  Mono- 
physites of  Syria  and  Mesopotamia  a  permanent  ecclesiastical  constitution, 
and  the  name  of  Jacobites,  {d)  These  disruptions  from  the  imperial  Catholic 
Church  were  gradually  confirmed  by  the  peculiar  customs  of  the  i)rovinces 
where  they  took  place,  until  by  the  conquests  of  Islam,  to  which  they  con- 
tributed, they  became  irreparable.  In  the  conquered  provinces,  the  Catho- 
lics, on  account  of  their  connection  with  the  empire  (hence  called  Melchites 
from  Ti^.td),  were  even  more  oppressed  than  the  Monophysites,  and  their 
patriarch  generally  resided  at  Constantinople. 

§  118.     The  Monothelite  Controtersy. 

I.  Orig.  Documents  in  J/imsJ  Th.  X.  p.  8G3-11S0.  Th.  XI.  p.  190-1023.  Anastasii  Bibüotliccarii  (about 
670).  Collect:mea  de  ii?,  quae  spectant  ad  Hist.  Monothcl.  e<I.  Sirmond,  Par.  1620.  and  GalUindii  Th. 
XIII.  mcephori  (Patriarch  of  Constant  d.  S2S),  Breviarium  Hist.  (6ii2-769.)  ed.  Petaviiis,  Par.  1G16. 

II.  F.  Comhejidii,  Hist,  liacr.  Monothelitarum.     In  liis  Anctuar.  PP.  Par.  1648.  II,  3. 

"While  the  emperor  Ileradius  (after  622)  was  re-establi.shing  the  power 
of  the  empire  in  Syria  and  Armenin,  he  endeavored  to  reconcile  the  Mono- 
physites with  the  imperial  Church,  by  conceding  that  although  there  were 
two  natures  in  Christ,  there  was  but  one  manifestation  of  will  (fvepytia  ^fav- 
SpiKi]).  Cyrus,  who  had  been  appointed  by  the  emperor  patriarch  of  Alex- 
andria, succeeded  by  this  expedient  in  gaining  over  the  Severians  of  his 
diocese  (633).  But  when  SopJironnis,  a  monk  of  Palestine,  and  aftor  634  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem,  who  happened  tlicn  to  be  in  Alexandria,  excited  a  violent 
opposition  to  it,  the  emperor  published  a  creed  ("E/cSfo-tr,  G38)  (a)  composed  by 
Sergiu.t,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  and  approved  by  Ilonoriu»,  tlie  Roman 
bishop,  (//)  which  assumed  that  there  was  but  one  Christ  and  one  will  (Jv 
^iXrjiJLa).  In  this  he  had  more  regard  to  the  final  adjustment  of  the  contro- 
versy, than  to  the  victory  of  the  imperial  party.    But  in  such  nn  age,  a  dis 

putc  thus  awakened  was  not  easily  set  to  rest.     The  Roman  bishojjs  aftei 

# 

I)  Taki-eddini  Makritil  (d.  1441),  Hist  Coptornm  cbrist  arab.  et.  lat.  ed.  WeUfr.  Solisb.  1828 
Mich.  Lequien,  Oriens  in  IV  Patriarclmtus  dlgestiis.  (Par.  1740.  3  Th.  f.)  Th.  II.  p.  857ss. 

c)  Saint-Martin,  Mini,  sur  I'Annen.  Th.  I.  p.  829ss.  Eccl.  Armcniacne  canones  sclectL  {A. 
iftyiN.  Coll.  Th.  X.  P.  II.) 

d)  Asuemani,  ]5ibl.  orient.  Tli.  II.     I.equien  1.  c.  Th.  II. 
a)  Mansi  Th.  X.  p.  9y2s. 

I)  Ilonorii  Ep.  ad  Sergium.  (.l/iOist  Th.  XI.  p.  J.37.  comp.  579.) 


f32    ANCIKNT  CllUr.CII  IMSTOUV.   TKIt.  II.   IMI'EUIAL  CIIURCII.  A.  D.  312-«». 

John  IV.  (fiSO),  with  a  stricter  reforcnce  to  tlic  true  faith  or  tlic  injury  of 
thoir  rivals  than  to  tiio  ortliodoxy  of  their  jtredeccssorH,  placed  themselves  at 
the  head  of  the  opposition  to  tho  Monothelitcs,  and  excluded  tho  patriarch 
of  Constantino]tlo  from  the  communion  of  tho  Church.  A  law  (rvrrof)  (c) 
enacted  hy  Comtans  IF.  (G48)  was  intended  to  enforce  peace  by  an  arbitrary 
l)ro]iil)iti()n  of  tho  controversy.  But  3/artin  I.  of  Rome,  at  the  first  Synod 
of  Lateran  (C-tO),  condemned  the  Monothelites  and  both  the  imperial  laws. 
Ho  was  consequently  first  imprisoned,  then  condemned  at  Constantinople  for 
treason,  and  finally  he  died  in  great  distress.  (J)  To  allay  the  strife  which 
now  threatened  the  precarious  power  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  the  emperor 
Comtantine  Pogonatus  convoked  the  sixth  o-cumenical  synod  at  Constanti- 
nople (C80).  This  assembly,  under  the  influence  of  Afjotho^  the  Roman 
bishop,  besides  condemning  llonorius,  (/)  recognized  in  Christ  consistently 
with  tho  doctrine  of  two  natures,  and  certain  passages  of  Scripture  inter- 
preted so  as  to  conform  to  it,  two  wills  made  one  by  the  moral  subordination 
of  the  human.  The  Monothelites,  however,  obtained  one  more  transient 
victory  in  the  Greek  Church  under  rhilij)  Bardanes  (Tll-YlS).  But  after 
the  elevation  of  Anastasius  II.  to  the  throne,  they  were  generally  rejected, 
and  only  a  small  remnant  sustained  themselves  in  the  convent  of  St.  Maro  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  under  a  patriarch  of  their  own.  (/) 

§  119.  EccJcsiaKtical  Literature. 
Cbrysostom  and  Augustine  were  still  peerless  models  for  the  churches  in 
which  their  languages  were  respectively  spoken.  The  energies  of  the  Alex- 
andrian and  Antiochian  schools  were  exhausted  in  party  strifes.  Cyril  (d. 
444),  whose  natural  acuteness  was  under  the  guidance  of  his  passions,  ex- 
ceeded the  characteristic  limits  of  the  Alexandrian  spirit,  {a)  and  Theodoret.^ 
Bishop  of  Cyrus  (d.  457),  the  last  of  the  Antiochian  school,  though  a  judi- 
cious expounder  and  a  devout  historian,  could  not  escape  the  malediction  of , 
the  Church,  (b)  The  qualities  of  both  schools  appear  to  have  been  once 
more  combined  in  the  collection  of  the  Epistles  of  Isidore  of  Fdw^ium  (d. 
about  440),  who,  though  a  resident  in  Alexandria,  was  the  friend  of  Cbrysos- 
tom, aud  found  among  the  monastic  virtues  liberty  to  be  mild  in  science  and 
fearless  in  his  opposition  to  the  powerful  both  in  the  world  and  in  the 
Church,  (r)  The  writings  which  assumed  the  name  of  Dionysius  Areopagita, 
indicate  that  the  Athenian  Xew-Platonism  had  become  Christianized  near 
the  commencement  of  the  sixth  century,  and  they  have  ever  since  been  the 
model  of  those  dispositions  which  strive  to  die  to  themselves,  and  are  wait- 

c)  Man«i  Th.  X.  p.  1029s.      0)  Munai  Th.  X.  p.  S513. 

«)  Mansi  Til.  XI.  p.  556.  6'32.  731. 

/)  Leqiden,  Orions  Chr.  Tli.  III.  p.  Iss.     Walch,  vol.  IX.  p.  4T4ss.  • 

(I)  Commontarics,  Polpni.  Treatises,  Homilies,  and  Letters.  0pp.  ed.  J.  Auhert.  Par.  163S.  7  Tli.  t 
On  Matth.,  Hebrews,  and  7  dogm.  Essays  in  A.  3/aJi  Col.  Th.  Till. 

h)  Commentariea,  History  of  the  Church,  Hist,  uf  Heresies,  Lives  of  Saint*,  and  Polem.  Treat- 
ises. 0pp.  edd.  Sirmnnd  et  Garnier,  Par.  1742-84.  5  Th.  £  Schvhe  et  Xoesxelt,  Hal.  17C9-74.  5  Th.— 
EichUr,  de  Theor.  Epp.  Paulinar.  interprete.  Lps.  1S22. 

c)  Epp.  1.  IV.  ed.  liitterhuH,  Ildlb.  1G05.  f.  Epp.  ineditae,  ed.  S:hott.  Antu.  1023.  f.  All  together 
P«r.  16&S.  Ven.  174,').  f. — U.  A.  Kiemeyer,  de  Isid.  Pelusiotae  vita,  scriptis  et  doctr.  Hal.  1S2Ö.  comp 
Arch.  f.  KGesch.  1S25.  P.  2.  p.  197ss. 


CriAP.  II.    DOCTEINE.    §  119.  PIIILOrOXUS.    B0ETHIU5.    CASSIODORUS.    133 

lug  patiently  for  a  conii)lote  union  witli  tlie  Deity.  (^'T)  The  Aristotelian  sys- 
tem of  logic  was  used  in  all  tlieological  controversies.  John  Philojioiain 
(middle  of  the  6th  century),  ihe  acute  expounder  of  Aristotle,  and  the  inde- 
pendent Christian  philosopher,  but  an  adherent  of  the  Monophysites,  declared 
himself  in  the  Greek  Church  decidedly  partial  to  this  tendency,  though  not 
unfriendly  to  many  doctrines  of  Platonism.  He  was  accused  of  Tritheism, 
because  the  ideas  entertained  by  the  Church  on  the  subject  of  the  divine 
nature  and  personality  were  not  satisfactory  to  him,  and  he  took  ofience  at 
the  doctrine  of  the  resurrection,  which  he  described  as  a  new  creation,  since 
with  the  form  he  maintained  that  the  matter  of  the  body  was  gone,  (e)  The 
Koman  Church  became  acquainted  with  Aristotle  through  the  labors  of 
Ä.  M.  T.  S.  BoetJdus.  In  the  Avritings  Avhich  bear  his  name,  Aristotelian 
formulae  are  used  to  defend  the  doctrines  of  the  Incarnation  and  the  Trinity. 
But  in  prison  his  mind  had  been  raised  above  the  fear  of  death  l)y  tlie  conso- 
lations of  a  pious  heathen  philosophy,  lie  died  (524)  in  defence  of  the 
interests  of  his  native  land,  and  the  Church  has  invested  him  with  the  glory 
of  martyrdom.  By  birth,  merit,  and  success  he  resembled  the  nobler  Ro- 
mans of  the  Augustan  age,  and  indeed  he  may  be  regarded  as  the  last  speci- 
men of  the  race.  (/)  The  sciences  which  had  been  created  by  the  peculiar 
character  of  the  Greeks  and  the  Eomans,  necessarily  shared  in  tlie  decUning 
fortunes  of  those  nations.  The  last  signs  of  Ilellenic  refinement  disappeared 
in  the  sixth  century  from  every  portion  of  the  empire  except  Rome  and  Con- 
stantinople with  the  ravages  of  the  Barbarians,  of  the  Pestilence,  and  of  the 
Church  itself.  A  meagre  collection  of  traditions  was  all  that  now  remained, 
because  it  had  been  appropriated  to  her  own  use  by  the  Church.  Even 
C'aj<sioiloriis  (a  consul  and  a  monk,  d.  about  562)  attempted  to  preserve  only 
those  fragments  of  science  which  he  thought  might  be  serviceable  to  the 
Church.  {(/)  Scriptural  exegesis  consisted  entirely  of  such  compilations  from 
the  treasures  of  former  times  as  had  been  commenced  in  the  East  by  Proco- 
pius  Gazaeus  (about  520),  and  in  the  "West  by  Primasius  of  Adrymetum 
(about  550).  (Ji)    A  system  of  doctrines  had  likewise  been  formed  for  the 

d)Ylfp\  T^j  Upapxiai.  Tltpl  t5)s  (KK\f(Tta<niKJis  jfpapx'ay.  Tlfpl  btiaiv  ovoixiruv.  Wtp'l 
IxvffTiKTii  äfu\oylai.  Kpii.  XII.— Opp.  ed.  CorJeriiis,  (Antu.  lö:U.)  Par.  lG-14.  2  Th.  f.  Con^liintini, 
Ven.  KS.'is.  2  Tli.  f.  Uebers.  ni.  Abhli.  v.  Km/dhardt,  Sul/.b.  1S2.3.— ,/;  DalUm,  de  scriptLs  qii.ie  .<iib 
Ign.  et  Dion.  A.  nouini.  circuinfer.  Gen.  ICOtJ.  4.  Kngelhardt ;  De  Dion.  Plotinizante.  KrI.  IviO.  De 
orig.  scriptor.  Areop.  Erl.  1S22.  A.  I/e/jlerii:/!,  i\.  clir.  .Mystik  in  ilircr  Entwickl.  u.  ihren  Denkuialen. 
Goth.  1S42.  2  \o\i.—BitumQarUn-Ciii''iiin.  tie  Dion.  A.  Jen.  1S23.  Kovised  in  Opp.  tbeol.  Jen.  ISvJC. 
p.  2G5SS.     On  tlio  other  si.le :  liitUr,  Giscli.  d.  clir.  Pliil.  vol.  II.  p.  519. 

e)  Respectir.g  liiin:  Jo.  DainuHc.  de  baere«.  c.  S3.  Pliot.  c.  21-23.  55.  75.  Kicfph.  XVIII.  45-19. 
Leont.-Byz.  de  sccli?,  act.  5. — S<:har/enhurg,  de  Jo.  I'liil.  Tritlieismi  defensore.  Lps.  17Ö?.  (Coninu 
tlieol.  cd.  Vtlthuxen,  etc.  Tli.  I.)     Trecfmel,  Jo.  Phil.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  l'-35.  P.  1.) 

/)  Cotnnientaries  nnd  translations  of  Aristotle — Do  diinbiis  nat.  et  una  persona.  Quod  Trinitaa 
sit  units  Deu."«,  eto. — De  consolatlonc  pbilosophiae,  ed.  /fe//rec/tt,  Curlno.  1"'.'7.  and  often.  Uebers.  v. 
FreiUig,  lüira.  1704.— Opp.  od.  KoUi,  IJa.".-  157(ls.— (Gervalsc)  111st,  dc  IJoOce.  Par.  1715.  2  Th. 
Ilexjne,  Censura  BoCtliil.  (Opuscc.  Tli.  VI.  p.  143s-<.)— /'.  //cjnc/,  lloeth.  (Erscb.  u.  Grubcr's  EncykL 
vol  XI.  p.  2S3ss.)     GuHl.  Baur,  de  IJoCtbio.  Darinst  1S41. 

(7)  De  artibiis  .ic  diseiplinis  liboraliiiin  lilt  Institiitio  ad  dlv.  lectlones.  Hist  Ecclcsiae  tripartita. 
Variae  Epp.— Opp.  ed.  Gavet.  liothoinug.  1C79.  Yen.  1729.  2  Tli.  t.—Stumllin,  ft.  Casslod.  (Jkrchiv.  f. 
KGescb.  1K25.  p.  259fs.  3Slfs.) 

h)J,F.  S.  AugHStin,i\e  citcnis  PP.  graecis  in  N.  T.  II;d.  17G2.  (Xoef^dti  Commentt.  »d  IL 
ere  Hal.  1S17. 


134    AXCiKNT  fiiri:ni  fiistoky.  pki:.  ir.  i.\iri:i:iAL  ciiui:cir.  a.  d.  .•512-800. 

Latin  Chiircli  (!)  from  sentences  taken  from  the  more  ancient  fatliers  hy  7»/c?ö. 
rwj»,  Bishop  of  Ilisprih's  (d.  GBO),  and  another  more  complete,  and  on  account 
of  its  application  of  Aristotelian  formulae  more  scientific,  was  compiled  for 
the  (Ireek  Clnirch  by  the  monk  JoJin  Damascenvs  (d.  754).  The  latter 
also  collected  together  the  various  decisions  "which  had  been  given  by  th« 
Church  in  its  earlier  religious  controversies,  and  thus  settled  these  disputes 
for  his  Church  for  a  thousand  years  after  him.  (I)  A  Roman  catalogue  of 
apocryphal  and  rejected  works,  which  had  been  gradually  enlarging  from  the 
time  of  Ilormisdas  (514-523),  and  had  finally  become  essentially  fixed  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  exhibits  the  contracted  spirit  as  well  as  the 
state  of  criticism  at  that  time,  for  even  some  of  the  more  ancient  fathers  are 
rejected  as  apocryphal  because  they  were  inconsistent  with  some  Roman 
assertions,  or  did  not  correspond  with  the  later  orthodoxy.  (?) 


CHAP.  III.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

Bibliothcca  juris  can.  veterls,  op.  Guil.  et  Ilenr.  JmMli,  Par.  16C1.  2.  Tli.  f.  SpiMer,  Geseh.  »J. 
can.  Eechts  bis  a.  d.  falscli.  Isidor.  Ha!.  177S.  (Works,  ed.  by  WächUr,  Stnttg.  1S27.  vol.  l.)— Planck; 
Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Gesellscliafts-Yerf.  vol.  I.  p.  276fs.  Hase,  de  jure  ecc.  P.  I.  p.  82ss.  P.  II.  C 
Riffel,  Gesell.  Darst.  d.  Yerh.  zw.  K.  u.  Staat.  Mainz.  1S86.  vol.  I.  p.  114ss. 

§  120.     Legislation  and  Books  of  Law. 

Ecclesiastical  laws  were  enacted  sometimes  by  synods  and  sometimes  by 
the  emperors.  The  first  idea  of  general  laws  for  the  whole  Church  seems  to 
have  been  derived  from  the  General  Councils,  with  whose  decisions  were 
soon  nnited  those  of  the  inferior  synods  and  the  canonical  institutes  of  a  few 
fathers,  which  individual  bishops  had  collected  for  their  private  direction, 
but  which  passed  into  general  use.  Such  collections  are  first  noticed  in  the 
Synod  of  Chalcedon,  where,  however,  they  possessed  no  general  authority,  (a) 
But  even  then  it  had  become  customary,  at  least  in  the  Greek  Church,  to 
regard  the  canons  of  certain  synods  as  possessing  the  authority  of  general 
laws.  This  agreement  seems  to  have  become  complete  in  the  sixth  century, 
but  it  was  not  until  the  second  canon  of  the  Trullan  Synod  (Quinisexta  692) 
that  the  constituent  parts  of  the  Greek  canon  law  which  had  long  been  in 
use,  were  recognized  as  legally  binding,  {l)  The  African  Church  at  the 
Council  of  Carthage,  419,  gave  its  sanction  to  a  collection  of  its  own  domes- 
tic canons,  (c)  which  was  gradnaUy  accepted  as  a  part  of  the  general  ecclesi- 

»■)  Sententiarum  s.  de  summo  bono  1.  III.  comp.  §  167.  note  a. 

Jc)Xl-r)-y)\  yvuxrecDS'  a)  to,  <pi\o(ro(piKd,  ß)  irepl  alpeaeuv,  y)  e/cSocris  aKptß^s  r^s  op^o- 
5oJoi>  TrlffTewi.  0pp.  ed.  2/ich.  Zequie»,  Par.  1712.  2.  Th.  f. 

l)  Threefüld  test  in  Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  153ss.  Since  llincmar  of  P.heinis  it  is  commonly  quoted 
BS  Decretum  Gelasli  (494},  thns  by  Grati.<in:  c.  3.  Dist  XV.  comp.  GieseUr,  KGcsch.  vol.  I.  Abth. 
II.  p.  8S.3S.    [Davidson's  transl.  voL  II.  p.  110.  §  114.  note  2.] 

a)  Kcspccting  collections  called  apostolic :  See  §  57.  comp.  J.  W.  Biukell,  Gesch.  des  Kirchen- 
rechts. Gioss.  1S43.  vol.  I. 

h)  Acts  and  102  canons :  J/(jji«i  Th.  XI.  p.  927-1006. 

c)  JusMli  Bibl.  Th.  I.  SOSss.    Matisi  Th.  III.  p.  C95ss. 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §  120.  TUEODOSI.VN  &  JUSTINIAN  CODES.      13^ 

ftstical  law.  Of  the  Roman  Church  of  the  time  of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon, 
we  only  know  that  in  its  collection  the  Nicaean  canons  were  mingled  with 
those  of  Sardica.  The  civil  laws,  so  far  as  they  relate  to  ecclesiastical  affairs, 
may  generally  be  found  under  their  appropriate  titles  in  the  two  collections 
of  imperial  laws  called  Codex  Theodosianus,  438,  and  Codex  Justinianciis, 
534,  and  the  Xovels  attached  to  each.  The  efforts  of  Justinian  to  give  a 
scientific  form  to  political  and  civil  law,  must  have  had  a  considerable  influ- 
ence upon  ecclesiastical  law.  John  Scholaaticus^  successively  an  advocate,  a 
presbyter  at  Antioch,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (d.  578),  arranged 
the  canons  which  he  found  in  the  ordinary  collections,  together  with  the 
second  and  third  epistles  of  Basil  relating  to  the  canons,  under  fifty  titles 
according  to  their  subjects.  (iT)  This  digest,  on  account  of  its  adaptation  to 
general  use,  as  well  as  the  reputation  of  its  author,  soon  became  a  standard 
authority  in  the  Greek  Church.  A  collection  of  civil  laws  relating  to  the 
Church,  prepared  by  this  same  John,  contains  extracts  from  the  ten  Novels 
of  Justinian,  arranged  under  eighty-seven  chapters,  {e)  Another  collection, 
embracing  the  whole  ecclesiastical  legislation  of  Justinian,  sometimes  in  full 
and  sometimes  abridged,  together  -with  an  appendix  containing  the  four 
Novels  of  Ileraclius,  has  been  crroneoush^  attributed  to  Theodore  Balsamon, 
but  really  belongs  to  the  seventh  century.  (/')  The  practical  wants  of  the 
Church  called  forth  a  work  in  which  the  civil  laws  relating  to  the  Church 
(i/o/ioi)  were  arranged  in  harmony  with  the  ecclesiastical  laws  {Kavuvd),  and 
which  has  since  been  called  the  Komocanon.  Under  the  fifty  titles  of  the 
collection  of  canons  by  Scholasticus,  the  corresponding  civil  laws  were  intro- 
duced, and  even  these  Avere  principally  derived  from  his  book,  (y)  The  peni- 
tential laws  were  systematized,  and  their  severity  was  accommodated  to  the 
mildness  of  his  age,  and  of  his  own  disposition,  hy  John  i\xQ  Faster  (vrja-TfVTt'js). 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople  (585-595).  (h)  The  old  code  of  the  Koman 
Church,  (i)  called  by  Dionysius  Translatio  2>risca^  was  gradually  increased 
and  strengthened  in  authority  after  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  by  translations 
from  the  Greek  books  of  laws.  The  incompleteness  and  want  of  arrange- 
ment which  characterized  this  work,  induced  Dionysius  Exiguus,  a  Scythian 
and  a  Roman  monk,  to  revise  it,  and  to  form  a  new  code  (498-514).  (i)  The 
first  part  contains  a  faithful  translation  of  the  principal  articles  of  the  Greek 
synodal  laws,  the  canons  of  Sardica,  and  the  African  collection.  The  second 
part  contains  all  the  decretals  which  could  then  be  found  at  Rome,  by  eight 
popes,  froiu  Siricius  (d.  308)  to  An:istivsius  IF.  (d.  498).     This  Codex  Dionijiii 


d)  JuhMU  Bibl.  Tb.  II.  p.  499-C02. 

e)  2i'vo'ya»7i;  viapwv  Ziarä^iwi/.     Uniirinlod. 

f)  Tü>v  (kkK  SiaTa^fwv  <Tv\\oy>i.  JuHMi  Blbl.  Tli.  II.  p.  1217-147S.— /'.  li.  JJiener,  de 
tollcctioniliiis  canonnin  Kcc.  graecao.  Ber.  1S27. 

0)  JmteUi  Bibl.  Tli.  II.  p.  C0.'}-672. 

Jt)  'AKo\ov^ta  Koi  ToJiT  M  4^oixo\oynviJ.fvwi:  The  existing  Koconslon  formeil  from  later 
revisions  is  in  Morini  Comm.  liist  de  discip'.ina  in  adininistr.  sacr.  pocnitentiae.  (Par.  1C51.  f.)  Von. 
1702.  f.  p.  616ss. 

J)  In  Leon.  0pp.  Th.  III.  p.  47.?S8.  and  .V-tn»»  Tli.  VI.  p.  llOSss. 

1)  Kd.  Fr.  Pi'homM,  Par.  lG-7.  f.  JiisUUi  Bibl.  Th.  I.  p.  07ss.  comp.  Balhrin.  P?.  In  Leoa 
Oi>p  Th.  III.  p.  17466. 


I3G  ANCIKNT  Clin:!  II  III>TuI;v,    WM.  IF.    IMTKIIIAL  CIIl'ItCH,    A.  I).  .';l2-Soc 

was  iiiucli  favored  l)y  tlio  pojiCH,  iiud  liccaine  a  standard  legal  aiitliority  not 
only  in  tho  lloinan  Clmrcli,  wlioso  domestic  laws  were  found  in  it,  but  in 
almost  all  tlio  West.  Later  decretals  ■\vcro  iLereforo  gradually  appended  tc 
it.  Tlio  book  of  laws  for  the  Spanish  Church  originated  in  the  first  half  of 
the  sixth  century,  and  was  probably  revised  by  Juiilore  of  Jlisjialis,  whoöc 
name  it  bears,  but  continual  additions  have  been  made  to  it  since  his  time.  (Zj 
It  contains  in  the  first  part  not  only  tlie  greater  i)art  of  the  fJrcek  synodal 
laws,  but  the  canons  of  the  Spanish  and  Galilean  councils,  and  in  the  second 
part,  besides  the  decretals  of  the  Dionysian  code,  a  few  letters  from  the 
popes  to  the  Spanish  and  Galilean  bishops.  Other  systematic  compilations 
made  during  this  period  are  of  less  importance.  They  are  the  Breviarium 
of  Fulgcntius  Fcrrandiis,  a  deacon  of  Carthage  (about  647),  a  work  which 
had  no  dependence  upon  the  Dionysian  code,  (m)  and  the  Concordia  of 
CrO'Scoiiiits,  an  African  (about  G90),  which  was  an  analysis  of  that  code 
according  to  its  contents,  (n) 

§  121.  The  Jioman  Empire. 
The  cultivation  of  the  fine  arts  had  entirely  ceased  from  the  time  of  Con- 
stantino, and  no  ornaments  could  be  found  for  his  new  city  and  his  trium- 
phal arch  in  the  very  forum  of  Rome,  but  by  spoiling  the  ancient  monuments. 
Nearly  the  whole  intellectual  energy  of  the  age  was  enlisted  in  the  service 
of  the  Church,  so  that  the  only  science  which  seemed  to  flourish  without 
ecclesiastical  influence  was  jurisprudence.  In  consequence  of  the  founding 
of  Constantinople,  the  whole  power  of  the  empire  was  directed  to  the  East, 
and  after  the  division  made  by  Theodosius  (395)  the  East  and  tlie  "West  re- 
mained permanently  separated.  But  so  perfectly  had  the  various  nations 
conquered  by  the  Romans  been  made  to  feel  as  one  people,  that  both  these 
divisions  regarded  themselves  as  only  ditferent  parts  of  the  one  great  empire. 
While  the  Germanic  nations  stormed  at  the  portals  of  the  West,  and  even 
when  they  broke  through  them  in  the  fifth  century,  the  civil  constitution  and 
the  habits  of  the  people  remained  Roman  under  the  long  dominion  of  the 
Goths  in  Italy.  The  East  was  governed  by  a  lifeless  and  rigid  mechanism, 
the  moving  spring  of  which  was  at  Constantinople.  The  extinction  of  the 
reigning  families  and  the  ascendency  of  the  army,  rendered  abortive  the  fre- 
quent eflorts  to  establish  a  popular  hereditary  monarchy,  but  the  want  of  this 
was  in  some  degree  supplied  by  the  imperial  nomination  of  colleagues  and 
successors.  But  the  majesty  of  the  Roman  people  and  the  confidence  that 
they  were  destined  to  universal  dominion  had  been  transferred  to  their  rulers. 
In  this  form  it  was  now  consecrated  by  the  Church,  and  systematically  de- 
fended by  arguments  sui)plied  l\v  jurisprudence.  Amid  all  the  agitations  pro- 
tluccd  by  dynastic  changes,  this  idea  of  an  imperial  government  ai>pointed  by 
God  for  supreme  dominion  on  earth  became  profoundly  fixed  in  the  hearts 
of  the  people. 

/)  Collcctio  canonum  Eccl.  Ilispaniae.  Mntrit.  IsOS.  f.    Epistolßc  decrctales  ac  rescr.  Eom.  Pontiil 
cum.  Mutr.  lS-21.  f.  (o<l.  A.  Oomalee.) 

?H)  Ju«Mli  Bill.  Th.  I.  p.  456SS.      n)  JiislMi  KM.  Th.  I.  Append,  p.  83s3. 


CHAP.  III.    COKSTITUTIOX.     §  l--  KKLATIONS  OF  CHURCH  &  i^TATK       137 

§  122.  Forcer  of  the  Emperor  over  the  Church. 
Tlie  emperors,  accustomed  to  exercise  the  power,  not  only  of  an  absolute 
sovereign  but  of  a  supreme  pontiff,  endeavored  to  sell  their  favor  to  the 
Church  at  the  price  of  its  ancient  liberties.  A  decisive  influence  was  gained 
by  them  in  the  right  of  nominating  the  bisliops,  especially  the  metropolitan. 
The  Church  on  the  other  hand  was  anxious  to  compel  all  its  members  to  ob- 
serve the  well  defined  and  slow  process  of  a  regular  advancement  from  the 
inferior  to  the  superior  stations,  and  disapproved  of  all  translations  of  a 
bishop  from  one  diocese  to  another,  as  nothing  less  than  spiritual  adultery. 
The  emperor  frequently  entertained  the  appeals  of  those  who  considered 
themselves  aggrieved  by  the  bishops.  A  regular  system  of  punishments  was 
then  appointed  by  the  Church  for  all  who  should  thus  appeal  from  its  deci- 
sions to  the  emperor,  {a)  The  emperors  called  together  the  general  councils 
of  the  Chui-ch,  presided  in  them  through  their  envoys,  and  published  their 
decrees  as  laws  of  the  empire.  (l>)  As  none  but  the  Catholic  Church  was  en- 
titled to  civil  privileges,  when  dilTerent  bishops  were  opposed  to  each  other, 
the  emperor  himself  was  obliged  to  decide  which  of  them  belonged  to  the 
orthodox  church.  Hence  many  laws,  even  on  matters  of  doctrine,  were 
enacted  by  them,  and  those  who  obtained  their  ends  by  court  favor  en- 
couraged them  in  this  and  commended  them  for  it.  The  imperial  edicts  were 
also  published  by  being  read  in  the  churches,  (c)  Many  bishops  who  longed 
for  the  imperial  favor  were  pliant  tools  in  the  hands  of  ambitious  rulers,  and 
the  Italian  clergy  had  some  reason  to  suspect  that  a  Greek  bishop,  for  his 
own  emolument,  could  be  induced  to  grant,  without  fear  or  shame,  any 
request  which  might  be  made  of  him.  (d)  The  emperors,  however,  were  ft'c- 
quently  the  mere  tools  of  an  ecclesiastical  party,  and  their  laws  for  the  regu- 
lation of  doctrines,  when  not  confirmed  by  the  authority  of  the  Church,  sel- 
dom survived  their  authors.  The  freedom  of  the  Church  never  wanted  bold 
and  successful  advocates,  and  though  it  was  practically  violated  in  every  pos- 
sible way,  its  legality  was  always  acknowledged  by  the  emperors  themselves,  (f) 
The  people  generally  regarded  it  as  the  highest  princij)lo  of  law,  that  God 
has  bestowed  all  power  on  earth  upon  the  monarchy  and  the  priesthood,  but 
that  he  had  assigned  to  each  of  these  certain  immovable  boundaries  whicl) 
neither  could  transgress  Avithout  guilt  and  peril.  (/) 

§  123.     Power  of  the  Church  over  the  State. 
The  severity  of  the  ancient  Roman  laws  Avas  much  mitigated  by  the  influ- 
ence of  Christianity  whenever  they  did  not  fall  in  Avith  the  prejudices  of 
the  Church,  and  thus  a  way  was  prepared  for  an  acknowledgment  of  tho 

a)  Cone.  Antioch.  can.  12.    [L<in<lon,  p.  ."J^.  can.  12.1     Conxtunt.  I.  can.  C. 

I)  Cone.  Conntant.  I.  Ep.  ml  Tlicodos.  (Jdinsi  Tli.  III.  p.  :>:>;.) 

c)  L.  20.  Coil.  Theod.  <le  rebus  cccl.  (XVI,  1.)  ot  Gothofredus  ad  li.  I. 

(1)  .Vdnsi  Th.  IX.  p.  153. 

<•-)  On  the  other  hand  Constantine's  cjilscopacy  {Euneh.  vita  Const.  lA",  24.)  w.is  roferreil  to  wltl) 
the  .same  semblance  of  argument  ns  was  used  for  the  sovereignty  of  llie  bishops:  Sozom.  .,\t. 
liußn.  I,  2. 

/)  Gela.«iiis  I.  nil  Amistasinm  a.  404.  {.U.in.ii  Tli.  AlII.  p.  31.) 


I3S      ANCIKNT  ClirUCII  IlISToUV.    I'Kl:.  II.    IMTKIilAL  nn:nCII.   A.  I>.  312-800. 

f^cnonil  ri^'hts  of  man.  (c)  Some  bishopü  went  so  far  as  to  oppo.sc  even  capitai 
punishments,  on  the  pround  tliat  their  ])arl)arity  wa.s  incon.sistcnt  with  rca.son 
and  humanity.  (!>)  The  right  of  asylum  which  liad  formerly  been  conceded 
to  a  few  of  tlio  ancient  temples  was  extended  to  all  Cliristian  churches,  and 
proved  a  serious  detriment  to  the  administration  of  ju.«tice.  But  Chryso»tom 
lived  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of  seeing  the  very  minister  who.se  exorbitant 
power  once  tlireatencd  to  abolish  this  privilege,  clinging  to  the  altar  for  his 
own  protection,  (c)  Great  political  power  Avas  acquired  by  the  bi.shops  in 
consequence  of  their  personal  influence  among  the  people,  and  the  devotion 
of  the  emperors  to  theological  controversies.  The  law  gave  them  a  certain 
right  to  superintend  the  affairs  of  the  congi-egations  both  in  town  and 
country ;  they  also  possessed  a  certain  right,  frequently  usurped  but  finally 
regulated  by  law,  of  acting  as  intercessors  for  those  who  were  unfortunate  or 
criminal,  and  a  certain  kind  of  patronage  was  conceded  to  them  for  all  2>^r- 
Bonae  mhcraMlcs.  ((T)  The  Church  undertook  the  censorship  of  the  morals 
of  civil  functionaries,  and  summoned  to  their  bar  those  who  were  above  hu- 
man enactments,  (e)  No  one  dared  to  meet  the  fury  of  a  Governor  of  the 
Pentapolis  but  Synesius  the  bishop.  AVhen  a  whole  city  had  fallen  a  sacri- 
fice to  the  wrath  of  Theodoshis  /.,  Ambrose  ventured  to  give  utterance  to 
the  monarch's  conscience,  and  the  royal  offender  was  excluded  from  the 
Church.  (/)  AVhen  an  unlimited  power  was  exercised  by  the  civil  rulers, 
the  Church  thus  became  a  safe  retreat  for  popular  freedom,  and  saints  played 
the  part  of  tribunes  of  the  people.  Sometimes  even  royal  honors  were  be- 
stowed upon  bishops,  and  Avhat  was  at  first  accorded  by  pious  humility, 
pious  arrogance  took  care  to  demand  and  retain.  From  the  truth  that  heavenly 
things  were  superior  to  earthly,  the  inference  was  drawn  that  the  hierarchy 
should  be  greater  than  the  monarchy,  and  should  have  precedence  in  earthly 
dignity,  {g)  In  his  City  of  God,  the  secular  power  is  described  by  Augustine 
as  an  irrational  despotism  which  commenced  with  a  fratricide,  and  tends  to 
subversion  that  it  may  give  place  to  the  celestial  kingdom. 

§  124.     Ecclesiastical  Jurisdiction. 

Stti/ck,  de  oris,  et  iisu  .jurisdictionis  ecc.  Hal.  1710.  4.  (Opuscc.  Th.  XIV.)  IT.  M.  I/ehfnxireit 
Ilist,  jurisd.  ecc.  Dss.  III.  17T3ss.  4.  Bruno  Schilling,  de  ori^'.  juri-sd.  ecc.  in  causis  civil.  Lps.  1525.  4. 
C  F.  A.  Jungk,  de  Oiig.  et  progressu  episcopalis  jud.  in  causis  civil,  laicoruin  usque  ad  Justinian. 
Der.  18-32. 

Although  the  sentence  of  the  episcopal  court,  in  its  capacity  of  a  court  ot 

a)  Euseb.  Vita  Const,  IV,  26.  L.  2.  Cod.  Tlieoct.  de  poen.  (IX.  40.)— C  G.  de  Rhoer,  Dissert,  de 
cfToctu  rel.  clir.  in  jurispr.  Eom.  Gron.  1T7G.  IT.  O.  de  Meyi>enhufg,  de  ehr.  rel.  vi  et  etfectu  In  ju? 
civile  (speciatim  Institt.  1.  I.)  Gotting.  1828.  4.  Troplong,  do  rinfluence  du  Christ  snr  le  droit  civi! 
des  Romains.  Par.  1S4-3. 

I)  Ambro.".  Ep.  25.  2Ö.  (al.  51.52.)  .4m(7«w«h,  Ep.  133. 184. 153.— L.  15  et  16.  Cod.  Theod.  do 
poen.  (IX.  40.) 

c)  Cod.  Theod.  de  liis,  qui  ad  Ecc  confngiunt  (IX.  45.)    Socraf.  VI,  5.    Sozom.  T  III,  7. 

d)  Cone.  Sardic.  can.  7.  Ambros.  do  Offic  II,  29.  Const.  22.  24.  27s.  80s.  C.  de  Episa 
judienti*.  (I,  4.) 

e)  Cone.  Arehtt.  n.  814.  c.  7.  Gregor.  Is.nz.  Orat  17.  (Th.  I.  p.  271.) 

/)  Synesii  Ep.  57s.  72.  SO.— /?H/f?i.  XI,  13.  Tlieodoret  V,  17.  Sozom.  VII.  24.  I^  13.  Cod.  TTteod, 
de  poen.  (IX,  40.)  Comp.  7.  L.  F.  Tafel,  do  Thessalonlca.  Ber.  18:39.  p.  XLVIIss. 

g)  Constitt.  apont.  II,  34.  Chri/sost.  de  Sacerd.  Ill,  l.—Sulp.  Severi  Vita  M.irtini.  o.  2a    ' 


CHAP.  III.  CONSTITUTION.  §  124.  ECCLE9.  JURISDICTION.  §  123.  PEOPERTV.    1  39 

arbitration  possessed  a  certain  legal  authority,  (a)  its  voluntary  jurisdiction 
was  not  much  needed  under  a  Christian  government,  and  after  the  sixth 
century  it  was  less  resorted  to.  The  claim  that  all  causes  relating  to  mar- 
riage and  to  wills  (causae  mixtae)  should  he  decided  there,  was  generally 
resisted  by  the  secular  tribunals,  but  the  obstacles  to  marriage  laid  down  in 
the  Mosaic  law  were  recognized  by  the  civil  code,  and  were  sometimes  ex- 
tended even  to  si)iritual  relationships.  Divorces  very  rarely,  and  the  marriage 
of  divorced  persons  still  loss  frequently,  Avero  permitted  by  the  episcopal 
courts.  These  first  became  the  ordinary  tribunals  for  the  clergy  in  civil  causes 
about  the  time  of  Justinian  I.,  (J)  but  the  municipal  courts  continued  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  as  at  first  in  criminal  causes  until  Valentiiiian  III.  gave  (452) 
the  plaintiff  tlie  privilege  of  choosing  before  which  of  tliese  courts  his  cause 
should  be  tried,  (c)  Justinian  I.  assigned  particular  parts  of  every  such 
criminal  cause  to  each  of  these  courts,  (d)  and  Heraclius  (623)  entirely  ex- 
cluded them  from  the  municipal  courts,  (f)  According  to  ecclesiastical  usage 
it  was  thought  unbecoming  for  a  clergyman  to  appear  in  his  own  cause  either 
as  plaintiff  or  defendant  before  a  civil  tribunal.  (/)  "When  cited  before  the 
emperor  the  bishops  would  indeed  make  their  a{)pearance,  but  a  sentence  of 
condemnation  was  not  readily  acknowledged  except  where  a  synod  concurred 
in  it.  In  all  matters  purely  ecclesiastical  the  episcopal  courts  and  synods  were 
regarded  as  the  only  competent  tribunals,  (g) 

§  125.     Church  Property. 

Jt-roinc  a  Costa  (Richard  Simon.)  Hist,  de  loriginc  ct  du  progrOs  des  revenus  ecc.  Frcf.  1GS4.  21. 
Tliomassin.  (§  9.  note  b.)  ^ 

The  clergy  were  supported,  especially  under  the  first  Christian  emperors, 
by  revenues  supplied  by  the  government,  by  a  portion  of  the  propertj'  they 
inherited  from  the  old  temples,  and  by  ecclesiastical  possessions  falling  to 
tliom  from  heretics.  Though  they  often  j)rcached  to  the  people  tliat  they  had 
a  divine  right  to  the  first-fruits  and  the  tithes,  their  preaching  was  not  much 
regarded,  {a)  But  when  Constantine  confirmed  (321)  to  the  people  a  com- 
plete right  to  devise  property  at  pleasure  to  the  Church,  such  bequests  be- 
came an  inexhaustible  source  of  wealth,  (b)  It  was  not  long  before  one 
could  scarcely  die  without  being  reminded  of  his  duty  to  the  Church,  and  a 
law  became  necessary  in  which  tlie  clergy  were  forbidden  to  solicit  such  be- 
quests (370).  (r)  As  this  wealth,  however,  was  pos.sessed  by  the  Church  in 
trust  for  the  poor,  it  was  looked  upon  with  much  afiection.  All  institutions 
of  benevolence  originated  in  the  Church,  {d)  Its  wealth  contributed  to  its 
/ower  and  freedom.    The  management  of  the  funds  was  generally  in  the 

fl)  Sozom.  I,  9.     The  legal  pa.«8npes  in  Ifase,  de  jure  ccc.  P.  I.  p.  53.'«. 
I)  Nov.  8.3.  Praof.  et  §  1.  Xoc.  12:?.  c.  21. 

c)  L.  47.  Co'l.  TlieoJ.  do  Kplsc.  (XVI,  2.)  Xnv.  1.  do  Episc.  judlclo  In  Aniani  Collectlone, 

d)  Xov.  12.3.  c.  21.  §  1.     e)  Jn.stHli  \V\h\.  Tli.  II.  p.  13Cls. 

'')  Cone.  Carth.  III.  a  397.  can.  9.  IV.  a.  419.  can.  19.  Clialc,  can.  9. 

g)  L.  1.  Cod.  Theod.  do  rcl.  (XVI,  11.)  JmUnl  Kov.  123.  c.  21.  $  2. 

«)  Bingham,  Origg.  eccl.  V,  5.     h)  L.  4.  Coil.  Thfod.  d«  Kpl.^v.  (XVI,  2.) 

c)  L.  20.  Cod.  Theod.  do  Episc.  Comp.     Ilieron.  Ep.  34.  (at.  2.)  ad  Nepotlan. 

J)  L.  C.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Eplsa  (XVl,  2.)    Gelaaii  Ep.  IX.  §  27. 


140  ANCIENT  cmuu'ii  liisroiiv.  n:i;.  ii.  imi'kkiai-  ciii"i:(;ii.  a.  n.  312-»«. 

bands  of  tlio  bisliop,  tlic  distribiition  of  tlicm  was  regulated  by  certain  i)rtj. 
eise  forms,  and  the  alienation  of  the  proj)erty  was  controlled  by  prescribed 
conditions.  Every  ctmrcli  Avas  the  legal  heir  of  all  the  property  which  it? 
intestate  clergyman  had  accumulated  from  ecclesiastical  revenues.  "Whatever 
tlio  Church  possessed  was  secured  by  an  investment  in  real  estate.  This  wag 
variously  taxed  according  to  the  disposition  and  wants  of  the  different  gov- 
ernments, but  it  was  usually  exempted  from  extraordinarj',  personal,  and  im- 
proper burdens,  (e) 

§  120.     The  Congregation  ami  the  Clergy. 

As  the  clergy  were  generally  independent  of  the  favor  of  the  people  by 
their  ecclesiastical  possessions,  the  congregations  were  entirely  shut  out  from 
all  participation  in  the  government  of  the  Church.  Sometimes  the  people 
still  gave  etFect  to  their  wishes  in  a  tumultuous  manner,  when  a  bishop  was 
chosen,  and  a  certain  influence  was  exercised  on  such  occasions  by  distinguished 
citizens,  and  was  legalized  by  Justinian  I.,  but  it  was  disapproved  of  by  the 
second  Synod  of  Nicaea  (787).  {a)  In  the  West,  however,  and  especially  in 
Rome,  the  people  asserted  their  right  to  participate  in  elections,  and  the  power 
of  the  clergy  was  too  dependent  upon  popular  opinion  to  allow  of  many  im- 
portant privileges  being  withheld  from  the  congregations.  Even  then  some 
voices  continued  to  be  raised  in  favor  of  a  priesthood  of  all  Christians  before 
God.  (6)  The  clergy  succeeded  in  throwing  off  the  burdens  Avhich  the  State 
had  imposed  upon  it,  and  a  series  of  civil  enactments  became  necessary  to 
prevent  the  entrance  of  too  many  persons  into  ecclesiastical  offices.  These 
required  that  no  person  should  be  ordained  except  to  supply  the  place  of  a 
deceased  clergyman,  and  none  who  owed  any  service  to  a  master  or  to  the 
state  without  the  consent  of  those  to  whom  it  was  due.  An  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt was  made  to  procure  a  law  by  Avhich  none  but  indigent  persons  on 
whom  the  state  had  no  claim  should  be  ordained  to  the  sacred  office.  On  the 
other  hand  the  spiritual  power  was  frequently  strengthened  by  the  ordination 
of  distinguished  philosophers,  advocates,  and  high  civil  officers.  In  such 
cases  the  law  required  that  all  landed  property  burdened  with  obligations  to 
the  state  should  be  surrendered  to  the  municipal  authorities.  The  clergy 
were  principally  supported  from  the  funds  of  the  Church,  but  even  as  late  as 
the  fifth  century  some  ecclesiastical  laws  recommended  that  they  should  sus- 
tain themselves  by  agricultural  or  other  pursuits,  {c)  In  the  fourth  century 
the  ordination  of  deaconesses  was  looked  upon  as  a  Montanistic  custom,  and 
after  the  fifth  their  office  was  in  the  West  entirely  abolished.  {(T)  The  choice 
of  all  his  clergy  came  into  the  hands  of  the  bishop,  although  the  presbyters 
once  more  augmented  their  authority  by  their  attempts  in  some  instances  to 
become  independent  pastors  both  in  town  and  country.    In  this  way  they 

e)  L.  1.  Cod.  7neo(f.  do  annona.  (XL,  1.)  L.  15.  IS.  21ss.  Cocl  Theod.  de  cxtraord.  (XI,    6.)  L.  fti* 
156S.  Cod.  Theod.  de  Kpisc. 

0)  Justin.  Kov.  123.  c.  1.  Xov.  13".  c.  2.  Cone.  NIc,  II.  can.  3. 

1)  August,  de  Civ.  Dei.  XX,  10.  Ambrosiaster  ad  Eplies.  4, 11, 

c)  Cone.  Carth.  a.  419.  can.  52.  53. 

d)  Ambroniaster  in  I.  Tiai.  3,  11.  Cone.  Epaonense,  c."vn.  21. 


CHAP.  III.     COXSTITUTIOX.     §  1'20.  CLKRGY.     §  127.  PATIUAECnS  141 

hoped  to  attain  the  position  of  the  country  bishops  who  had  been  supplanted 
ever  since  the  fourth  century,  and  that  the  episcopal  name  might  become  les5 
common  and  more  important.  Other  jjresbyters,  together  Avith  the  deacons 
as  the  clergy  of  the  bishop's  cliurch  (cathedralLs),  constituted  the  bishop's 
privy  council.  One  of  these  was  cliosen  an  Archpresbyter,  to  preside  over 
the  public  worship,  and  another  Avas  appointed  an  Archdeacon,  to  preside 
over  the  eijiscopal  court,  (e) 

§  127.     The  Patriarchs. 

D.  Blonde!,  traite  hist  do  la  Prlmaut6  en  I'cgl.  Gen.  1641.  f.  J.  Morini  Exercitt  ecc.  ct  bibl.  (D?. 
I.  (le  Patriarch,  et  Primat  origg.)  Par.  1609.  C  Janu.%  de  origg.  Patriarch,  clir.  1)^  II.  Vit  i'li.  4. 
nwmansini  I,  7-20, 

The  great  dioceses  and  prerogatives  ot  the  Bishops  of  Some,  Alexandria, 
and  Antioch  were  recognized  at  Nicaca,  on  the  ground  of  their  being  estab- 
lished upon  usage.  («)  At  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  (381)  the  Bishop  of 
N'eio  Rome  was  associated  witli  these,  in  rank  next  to  the  Roman  bishop.  (&) 
His  diocese  was  continually  increasing,  but  at  Chalcedon  (-4.51)  it  was  consti- 
tuted of  Thrace,  perhaps  already  a  part  of  it,  (c)  the  more  distant  part  of 
Pontus,  and  Asia  Minor.  To  him  also  was  granted  the  privilege  of  receiving 
complaints  against  the  metropolitans  of  other  dioceses,  {J)  since  the  foreign 
bishops  who  were  continually  going  to  and  from  the  imperial  court  formed 
around  him  an  almost  perpetual  council,  (e)  As  by  this  arrangement  the 
Metropolitans  of  Ephesus,  Ileraclea  and  New-Caesarea  were  subjected  to  his 
jurisdiction,  to  save  their  dignities  from  detriment,  a  new  ecclesiastical  office 
was  introduced,  to  which  the  name  of  archbishop  or  exarch  was  applied.  In 
the  fifth  century,  however,  the  name  of  Patriarch  which  had  before  com- 
monly been  applied  to  all  bishoi)s  was  exclusively  used  to  designate  them. 
To  the  patriarchs  belonged  the  duty  of  ordaining  the  metropolitan.s,  con- 
vening synods  of  their  whole  dioceses,  bringing  to  an  iseue  causes  of  more 
than  ordinary  importance  (causae  majores),  and  deciding  finally  all  cases  of 
appeal  which  might  be  submitted  to  them.  These  four  great  dioceses  which 
in  the  East  alone  corresponded  tolerably  well  with  the  great  provinces  of  the 
empire  were  gradually  made  to  include  every  part  of  the  Church.  Some 
bishops,  however,  especially  in  the  West,  and  in  the  East  all  in  the  island  of 
Cyprus,  preserved  their  independence.  The  Bishop  of  JcrumUm  was  reck- 
oned at  Nicaea,  as  a  mark  of  honorable  respect,  among  the  great  bishops,  and 
after  a  long  struggle  he  succeeded  in  throwing  oti'  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Metropolitan  of  Caesarea,  and  at  Chalcedon  received  Palestine  as  an  inde- 
pendent diocese.  (/)  The  exorbitant  and  much  abused  power  of  the  Alex- 
andrian bishop  was  broken  at  Chalcedon.  The  two  Eastern  patriarchates 
were  also  stripped  of  their  power  in  consequence  of  the  Monophysites  and 

e)  PerUuh,  v.  Urspr.  d.  Arcliidinc.  Ilildesh.  \1U. 

a)  Cone  Xic.  can.  6.    b)  Cone.  CotmUtnt.  I.  can.  3.    c)  Tims  according  to  Socrat.  II.  ecc  V,  8. 
d)  Cone.  Cfuilcedon,  can.  23.  et  9. 

«)  2wo5os  fvh-i)ixoiffa.  Cone.  Chalc.  Actio.  IV.  {ifansi  Th.  VII.  p.  91s.)—./:  Ä  VnUr,  r.  4 
fiivoh.  fV5.    (KHist.  Ardiiv.  1S23.  V.  3.) 

/)  Cone.  Kic.  can.  7.  Cone.  Chalc.  Actio  VII.  {Munni  Th.  VII.  p.  ISlss.) 


142      AXCIKNT  ClIUKCH  IIISTOKY.    I'KI:.  II.    IMTKIIIAL  C1IUI:CII.    A.  I).  Sl.'-V»<J. 

Arabians.  The  Bishops  of  Old  and  Xew  Rome  alone  stood  as  the  representa- 
tives of  the  Eastern  and  Western  divisions  of  the  era[>ire,  and  watched  each 
other  with  a  jealous  eye.  The  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  was  generally 
powerful  on  account  of  the  favor  of  the  emperor,  but  he  was  also  the  subject 
of  the  imperial  caprice,  while  the  Roman  bishop  was  much  more  indepen- 
dent, in  consequence  of  his  political  position,  and  hence  often  became  the 
champion  of  ecclesiastical  freedom  and  the  prevailing  orthodoxy.  AVhca  John 
the  Faster  (after  587)  assumed  the  title  of  an  oecumenical  bishop,  Grefjory  the 
Great  pronounced  such  a  name  unchristian,  and  in  opposition  to  it  took  for  him- 
self the  more  Christian  designation  of  a  servant  of  the  servants  of  God  ;  Greg- 
ory's successors,  with  more  sincerity,  soon  after  assumed  the  name  of  a  Uni- 
versal Bishop.  (</)  Neither  title  was  at  tliat  time  entirely  unknown.  In  the 
edict  of  the  usurper,  Phocas,  an  acknowledgment  was  made,  s-imply  from 
political  and  personal  considerations,  that  the  Roman  Church  was  entitled  to 
the  first  rank.  (Ä)  Both  these  patriarchs  were  successful  in  their  own  pecu- 
liar spheres,  but  the  same  political  events  which  reduced  the  territories  of  the 
one  proportionally  enlarged  those  of  the  other. 

§  128.     The  Roman  Bishopric  lefore  Leo. 

Epp.  Kom.  Poiitiflcum  a  S.  demente  usque  ad  Innoc.  III.  ed.  Constant.  Par.  1T21.  rep.  Schoene- 
man??,  Gott  1796.  Tli.  I.  (until  432.)— C?.  Salmasii,  Libror.  de  Priinatu  Papae  P.  I.  c.  apparatu.  L. 
B  1645.4. 

The  Roman  bishop  exercised  a  metropolitan  jurisdiction  over  the  ten 
suhurbicarian  provinces,  which  was  as  for  as  the  political  district  of  Rome 
extended,  (a)  while  the  metropolitanates  of  the  diocese  of  Jfalia,  especially 
Milan,  under  Ambrosius  and  his  successors,  claimed  to  be  fully  equal  to  him 
within  their  respective  dioceses.  But  Rome  was  the  only  see  Avhich  could 
claim  to  be  apostolic,  and  was  almost  the  only  medium  of  ecclesiastical  connec- 
tion with  the  East.  The  high  reputation  which  it  possessed  with  respect  to 
apostolical  traditions,  Avas  so  successfully  and  dispassionately  used  in  the  con- 
troversies of  the  East,  that  the  party  which  had  the  favor  of  Rome  might 
generally  be  sure  of  ultimate  victory.  Hence,  her  opinion  and  her  decision 
as  a  mediator  was  continually  sought  for  and  as  readily  given.  And  even 
when  her  interference  was  disregarded,  as  in  the  case  of  Chrysostom,  it  was 
always  in  behalf  of  humanity  and  the  people.  In  consequence  of  its  attach- 
ment to  the  Nicaean  creed  when  the  whole  Eastern  Church  was  Arian,  Fast 
IJhjria  sought  a  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  and  the  Bishop  of 
Thessalonica  was  regarded  as  a  Roman  vicar.  This  same  state  of  atlairs 
made  the  Roman  court  at  the  Council- of  Sardica  (847)  a  Court  of  Cassation, 
for  the  reception  of  appeals  in  the  case  of  bishops.  (A)  The  Eastern 
churches,  when  they  were  so  disposed,  and  when  united  among  themselves, 

(7)  Gregor.  1.  "V.  Ep.  ISss.  VII,  3Sss.—C.  Jf.  P/itf,  de  titak  Patr.  oecumenici,  porno  cridis.  17:35.  4. 
{Tenipe  Ildr.  Th.  IV.  Sect.  I.  p.  99ss.) 

/()  Anaxttfi.  in  Vita  Bonifacii  III.  Paulus  Diac.  gestaLongob.  IV,  37. 

a)  Kortholt,  lie  Ecc.  suburbicariis.  Lp?.  1730s.  4.  Dioeccsis  üomae:  Campania,  Thoscia  et  Ui:;. 
bria,  Picenuin  suburbicarjam,  Sicilia,  Apulia  et  Calabria,  Bruttii  et  Luconia,  Samntani,  Sardinia,  Cor- 
Bica,  Valeria. 

h)  Cone.  S<trd.  can.  8  et  5. 


CUAP.  III.     CONSTITUTION.     §  129.  ROMAN  SEE.     §  129.  LEO  THE  OIIEAT.       143 

never  hesitated  to  disregard  tlie  interference  of  the  lioraan  Lislioji,  and  the 
Synods  of  Nicaea  and  Constantinople  were  entirely  independent  of  his  iutlu- 
ence ;  but  when  the  patriarchs  contended  with  each  other,  or  with  the  impe- 
rial court,  his  powerful  friendsliip  was  generally  sought  by  both  parties,  and 
was  often  purcliased  by  concessions.  From  observing  these  facts,  Innocent  I. 
became  convinced  that  even  in  his  day,  nothing  in  the  whole  Christian  world 
could  be  brought  to  a  decision  without  the  cognizance  of  the  Roman  see,  and 
that,  especially  in  matters  of  faith,  all  bishops  were  under  the  necessity  of 
consulting  St.  Peter,  (c)  The  position  of  the  Roman  bishops  in  the  state, 
was  that  of  powerful  subjects  who  could  be  judged  only  by  the  emperor  hiin- 
self,  {(T)  but  who,  as  in  the  case  of  Lihcrius  for  his  defence  of  the  Nicaean 
creed,  might  sometimes  be  abused  by  him.  (r)  But,  altliough  the  glory  sur- 
rounding the  apostolic  chair  had  already  become  so  attractive,  that  those  who 
contended  for  it  sometimes  pressed  toward  it  over  the  bodies  of  their  com- 
petitors, it  was  still  the  subject  of  derision  and  complaint  among  the  hea- 
then. (/)  The  recollection  that  this  Avorldly  glory  commenced  only  in  the 
time  of  Constantine,  gave  occasion  to  the  remark,  that  Sylvester  (314-335) 
lived  long  enough  to  do  and  witness  what  was  suitable  for  a  Roman  bishop, 
according  to  more  modern  views. 

§  129.     Leo  the  Great,  440-401. 

I.  Leonis  jr.  Opp.  eil.  Pasch.  Quesnel,  Lngd.  ITOO.  2  Tli.  f.  1\  ct  If.  BuUeritti,  Ven.  1753-5' 
8  Th.  f. 

II.  W.  A.  Arendt,  Leo  d.  Gr.  ii.  s.  Zeit.  Mainz.  1S.35.  G.  PertiieJ,  P.  Leo's  L  Lebon  n.  Lehren. 
Jen.  18-13. — Grienhach,  Ds.  locos  comnnincs  tlicol.  colleetos  ex  Leone  M.  sistons.  llal.  17CS.  (Opuscc. 
ed.  Gahler,  Th.  I.  p.  45ss.) 

Leo  /.,  justly  called  the  Great,  whether  reference  is  had  to  his  character 
as  a  prince,  or  as  a  teacher  of  the  Church  in  his  day,  was  the  real  founder  of 
the  subsequent  greatness  of  the  Roman  see.  Hitherto  it  had  owed  more  to 
its  peculiar  circumstances  than  to  the  power  and  sagacity  of  its  bisho^is. 
Wliat  he  now  did  was  from  a  woll-dermcd  aim,  and  a  clear  presage  of  a  more 
gloi'ious  future.  Regarding  the  Roman  Church  as  in  possession  of  the  true 
succession  from  the  Apostle  Peter,  he  looked  upon  it  as  the  rock  on  which 
the  Catholic  Church  was  built,  and  upon  the  Roman  bishop  as  appointed  by 
God  to  be  the  head  of  the  whole  Church,  and  to  have  the  care  of  its  inter- 
ests. Ilumbly  conscious  of  his  ])ersonal  unworthiness  for  such  an  office,  he 
proudly  trusted  that  Peter  himself  acted  tlirougli  him.  He  retaineil  a  firui 
hold  upon  the  oppo.sing  Illyrian  Cliurch,  by  the  protection  he  gave  to  itii 
bishops  against  the  arcliiej)iscopal  see  of  Thessalonica,  which  was  reminded 
that  if  he  had  shared  with  it  some  of  his  cares  and  duties,  ho  had  by  nc 
means  resigned  any  of  his  plenary  powers,  (ft)  The  disturbed  state  of  the 
African  Church  on  account  of  the  Arian  Vandals,  supplied  liim  with  an  occa- 
sion for  drawing  Africa  witliin  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  patriarch, 
imder  the  plea  of  tlie  necussity  of  the  case.     Some  complaints  against  the 


c)  Con-4(tnt.  p.  89S.  Spr,. 

<},  Ep.  Concilii  lioin.  ml  Gnitlnn.  n.  878.  (ConKtimt.  p.  529.)      e)  Theodortt.  11.  eic    II,  16a«. 

/)  Uieroj}.  V.\>.  01.  ml  P.iiiini.icli.    Ammhin.  Marc.  XXVII,  8.  9. 

«)  L<o  ml  Aiiastiusiiim  Tlussnlciii.  (0pp.  Tli.  I.  p.  C?G.) 


ll-l      ANCIKNT  CllUnclI  IIISTOnY.    VVM.  II.   IMTEUIAL  CAIVUCU.   A.  D.  812-800. 

pcvcilfy  of  llilariiiH,  llio  Metropolitan  of  Arelate  (Aries),  supplied  liiin  witli 
a  pretext  for  inteiforing  witli  tlio  affuirs  of  Gaul,  Ililariu.'«,  who  was  really 
no  severer  toward  others  than  toward  himself,  was  ohlit,'ed  to  atone  for  the 
indifleroiico  with  which  lie  heard  of  tlie  .sensitiveness  with  wliich  Rome  had 
heard  of  these  comphiints,  and  for  his  refusal  to  acknowledge  any  trihunal 
for  him  beyond  the  Alps.  Valcntinian  III.  enacted  a  law  Avhich  declared 
the  apostolic  see  the  supreme  legislative  and  judicial  authority  for  the  whole 
Church.  Q>)  Leo  had  dictated  this  law,  and  had  satisfied  the  emperor  that  it 
would  be  wise  to  unite  the  already  crumbling  provinces  with  the  capital  by 
an  ecclesiastical  bond.  It  was  originally  intended  only  for  the  "West,  but 
even  there  it  was  ineffectual  again.st  Uilarius,  (r')  and  in  consequence  of  the 
decay  of  the  empire  beyond  the  Alps,  it  became  an  empty  legal  title,  to  take 
effect  only  in  subsequent  times.  It  was  even  then  uncommon  for  a  Roman 
bishop  to  preach,  but  Leo  declared  that  this  was  to  be  one  of  his  ordinary 
duties.  As  a  proof  that  this  was  not  neglected,  he  left  ninety-six  sermons 
for  various  festivals,  distinguished  for  their  ecclesi.'istical  spirit,  their  rhythmi- 
cal harmony,  and  their  grandiloquence,  but  without  very  strict  logical  con- 
nection. If  the  work  on  the  Call  of  all  nations  was  written  by  him  in  his 
early  years,  (<?)  he  proposed  in  it  an  accommodation  of  the  controversial 
questions  then  agitated  in  the  "West.  His  epistle  to  Flavianus  presents  a 
decision  upon  the  theological  disputes  of  the  East.  The  tyranny  of  Dioscu- 
rus,  and  the  atrocities  of  the  Robber-Synod,  were  a  scandal  to  the  whole 
Church.  Leo  spared  neither  tears  nor  bold  reproofs  to  prevent  the  evil  con- 
sequences which  might  follow  that  synod.  The  death  of  Theodosius  II. 
occurred  in  good  time  for  his  wishes,  as  no  authority  was  superior  to  his  with 
the  imperial  pair  who  then  ascended  the  throne  of  the  East.  His  legates  pre- 
sided at  Chalcedon,  and  every  acquittal  or  condemnation  which  took  place 
there  was  in  Leo's  name.  "When  Attila  had  crossed  the  Alps,  and  Rome  lay 
helpless  before  the  scourge  of  God  (452),  Leo,  in  his  pontifical  robes,  went  to 
meet  him,  and  the  pagan  conqueror  of  the  world  turned  his  hosts  another  way. 
Attila  may  have  seen  good  reasons  for  listening  to  the  prayers  and  warnings 
of  the  priest,  but  so  miraculous  seemed  this  deliverance  of  Italy,  that  in  the 
popular  account  of  it,  Peter  himself  stood  by  the  side  of  his  successor  with 
a  brandished  sword.  (<) 

§  130.     Tie  Faimcy  after  Leo.     Gregory  the  Great,  590-604. 

Liber  diunnis  Horn.  Pontificum,  (Legal  Usages  of  the  Eom.  See,  collected  about  715.)  e<l.  uoU 
Hen.  Roin.  1G58.  Garner.  Par.  16S0.  4.  {Iloffmanni,  nova  Scrr.  ac  Monum.  CoUectio.  Lps.  1733.  4. 
Th.  II.)  Anastasii  Bihliothecarii  (about  870),  liber  pontificalis  s.  vitao  Roin.  Pontif.  a  Petro  Ap. 
usque  ad  Nicol.  I.  (with  the  orig.  docc  only  from  the  time  of  Constantine,  70S.)  ed.  BlancJUni^ 
Rom.  171S-S5.  4  Th.  f.  {iluratori,  Rer.  Ital.  Scrr.  Th.  III.  P.  I.) 

I.  Greg.  if.  Expositio  in  Jobum  s.  Moralium  1.  XXXV.  Liber  pastoralis  curse.  (Ingolst  1S25.) 
DIalogorum  de  vita  et  miracc.  Patrum  Ital.  et  de  aeternit.  aniniar.  1.  IV.  Epp.  1.  XIV.  0pp.  ed  Bene- 


V)  Leon.  0pp.  Th.  L  p.  642.  and  Theodosii  Nov.  tit.  24. 

c)  Pertkel,  Leo's  Streit  mit  d.  B.  v.  Aries.  (Illgcn's  Zeitschr.  1843.  P.  2.) 

d)  De  vocatione  omnium  gentium.     Quesncl  has,  however,  merely  shown  that  it  was  possible  for 
Leo  to  be  the  author  of  this  treatise.    Comp.  Perthel  (as  above),  p.  127ss. 

t)  Heyne,  de  Leone  Attilae  et  Qenserico  supplice  facto   (0pp.  acad.  Goett.  17SS.  Th.  III.  p.  134ss.) 


CHAP.  III.    CONSTITUTION.    §  130.  GREGOEY  TIIE  Gr.E.V.T.  1  45 

.lictt.  Par.  Ui'.'i.  4  Th.  f.  GaUiccioll,  Yen.  176S.SS.  17  Th.  4.  Paulus  Wamefridi  (about  775),  de 
vita  S.  Gregorii.  JodnnU  Ecc.  Horn.  Diaconi  (about  S75),  de  vita  S.  Greg.  1.  IV.  Both  in  tlie  4tb 
vol.  of  the  Benedictine  ed. 

ir.  Maimbourg,  Hist  du  Pontiflcat  do  S.  Grfg.  Par.  1CS6.  4.    G.  F.  Wiggers,  de  G.  M.  ejasq 
platitU  antbropoL  Kost.  1S39.  P.  L    E.  W.  Marggraff,  de  G.  M.  viU  Bcr.  1S45. 

The  Roman  Lishops,  "who  after  the  sixth  century  wero  called  Popes, 
as  the  Alexandrian  bishops  especially  had  before  been  designated,  ackno^Y- 
ledged  that  they,  above  all  others,  were  bound  to  execute  the  edicts  whicb 
the  Church  sent  forth  from  her  councils,  (^fi)  but  the  historical  ba:«is  on  which 
their  power  was  claimed  was  derived  from  the  divine  right  of  St.  Peter. 
Sometimes  a  vague  and  inconsiderate  reference  was  made  with  the  same 
object  even  to  Paul  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Gentile  Church.  (//)  As  the 
imperial  government  was  frequently  powerless  in  Pome,  the  popes,  by  their 
patrimonial  rights  as  great  proprietors,  and  by  their  episcopal  court«,  were 
able  sometimes  to  supply  its  place.  More  than  once  they  delivered  Pome 
and  the  surrounding  country  from  the  hands  of  the  barbarians.  When, 
therefore,  the  la^t  shadow  of  the  "Western  Empire  had  disappeared  (-iTCj,  and 
Arian  monarclis  had  set  up  a  German  kingdom  in  Italy,  the  popes  were 
regarded  by  the  Roman  people  as  their  native  lord.«,  and  with  the  exception 
of  some  instances  in  which  they  were  abused  by  their  conquerors,  they  were 
the  actual  masters  of  the  country.  The  Roman  clergy  of  that  day  were  pow- 
erful enough  to  proclaim,  that  every  interference  of  a  layman  in  the  affairs 
of  the  Church,  Avas  by  its  own  nature  invalid,  and  that  the  successors  of  St. 
Peter  could  be  judged  by  none  but  God.  (c)  But  when  Justinian  I.  recon- 
quered Italy,  they  again  became  dependent  upon  Constantinople,  and  even 
their  ancient  reputation  for  orthodoxy  was  thus  endangered.  This  continued 
until  the  time  of  Gregory  /.,  who  saw  that  the  only  condition  on  which 
ecclesiastical  power  could  be  enjoyed,  was  that  they  should  throw  off  this 
political  dependence.  In  the  midst  of  the  embarrassments  produced  by  the 
settlement  of  the  Longobards  in  Italy  (after  508),  he  contrived  so  to  use  that 
event  that  it  prepared  the  way  for  their  independence.  lie  was,  however, 
compelled  himself  to  publish  a  law  of  the  emperor  which  he  regarded  as 
inconsistent  with  the  law  of  God,  (</)  and  to  congratulate  a  regicide  on  his 
accession  to  the  throne,  {e)  lie  was  originally  of  a  patrician  family,  and  on 
the  road  to  the  highest  civil  offices,  when  he  suddenly  renounced  the  world, 
and  turned  the  palace  of  his  ancestors  into  a  convent.  From  this  he  was 
called  to  the  government  of  the  Church,  but  in  the  midst  of  pontifical  splen- 
dor his  monastic  severity  became  intense.  Toward  his  doi>eudants  he  was 
more  and  more  imperious  in  his  demands  of  duty  to  the  Church,  but  lavish 
in  his  expenditures  upon  the  poor  and  the  idle.  By  means  of  hi<<  school  for 
music,  he  effected  considerable  improvements  in  psalmody,  (/)  and  to  the 
public  worship  of  Rome  he  imparted  that  mysterious  pomp  for  vhich  it  has 


a)  Gelahii  Ep.  13.  (Vami  Th.  YIII.  p.  .M.)      I)  Gregor.  .V.  in  I.  Weg.  5.  (Th.  III.  V.  II.  p.  eSO.") 

c)  Cone,  Rom.  III.  sub  Symniaclio  a.  5i>2.  (.lAinoi  Th.  YIII.  p.  '26Cs.)    Ennodii,  L.  apolo-,'.  pro 
Byn.  IV.  Rom.  s.  pahnari.  (Munti  Th.  YIII.  p.  2<4.es.) 

d)  L.  III.  Ep.  65.  ad  Maurlc.      e)  L.  XIII.  Ep.  31.  nd  Phocnni. 

f)  Gerhert,  de  can  tu  et  muslca  sacra.  Banib.  et  Frib.  1774.  Th.  I.  p.  247ss,    />.  AnUmi/,  arcbaed 
Lebrb.  d.  Oregurian  KGesangs.  Miinst,  1S29.  4. 

10 


14G    ANciKNT  ciiriicii  msTf)i:v.  pi;i:.  ir.  impkuial  cin;i:rir.  a.  d.  »12-soc. 

since  hoeii  (listin^'iiislie<l.  To  llio  sjuTaniciit  of  llie  Lonl'e  Supper  cspcoiallj', 
he  pave  tliee-^scntial  characf  er  of  a  sacrifice  of  tlic  ManH^  ((/)  and  tlioronplily  im- 
bued tlie  j)opiilar  iiiiiid  with  tlic  notion  of  a  Pvrfjntory.  If  Ijc  did  not  authorize 
tlio  burning  of  the  Palatino  library,  ho  certainly  had  a  great  contempt  for 
•worldly  science  and  literature,  and  thought  it  a  sha«io  for  the  ■word  of  God 
to  bo  restrained  by  the  rules  of  Donatus.  {h)  In  his  practical  works  he  has 
done  quite  as  much  to  promote  in  the  whole  "Western  Church  a  blind  eccle- 
siastical credulity  as  an  intense  zeal  in  behalf  of  the  Church.  lie  was  full  of 
passionate  ardor  to  promote  the  kingdom  of  Christ,  but  that  kingdom  was 
identical  with  that  of  the  Poi)e.  His  successors  sometimes  acknowledged 
their  allegiance  to  thewemperor,  but  it  was  only  when  they  were  compelled 
to  do  so.  When  contending  for  the  faith,  and  about  images,  they  never 
hesitated  to  exclude  even  the  monarch  and  the  patriarchs  of  his  court  from 
the  communion  of  the  Cliurch. 

§  131.     General  Councils  and  the  Catholic  Church. 

The  Synods  of  the  Patriarchal  and  Metropolitan  dioceses  continued  to  be 
the  regular  authorities  for  legislation  and  superior  jurisdiction.  The  efforts 
of  the  Church  to  attain  general  unity  rendered  it  indisj^ensable,  that  as  far 
as  political  circumstances  would  allow,  deputies  of  the  whole  Church  should 
be  assembled  for  deciding  .theological  controversies.  These  general  assem- 
blies of  the  Church  were  in  fact  composed  only  of  bishops  residing  within  the 
Eoman  empire,  and  their  organization  was  much  influenced  by  the  caprice 
of  the  emperor  and  the  patriarchs ;  but  as  the  main  body  of  the  Catholic 
Church  was  found  within  the  empire,  and  bishops  from  countries  called  bar- 
barian were  admitted  to  seats,  these  assemblies  were  looked  upon  as  the 
proper  representatives  of  the  Catholic  Church,  (a)  Near  the  close  of  the 
fourth  century  they  therefore  received  the  name  of  CEcumenical  Synods, 
although  it  was  sometimes  difficult  to  distinguish  them  from  other  orthodox 
synods.  Seven  of  these  synods,  in  fact,  gradually  attained  the  authority  of 
oecumenical  assemblies,  and  to  these  in  the  West  was  added  the  Synod  of 
Sardica,  and  in  the  Greek  Church  the  Second  Trullan  Synod.  The  primary 
object  for  which  they  were  assembled  was  to  determine  theological  questions, 
but  they  also  formed  canons  upon  various  legal  subjects,  and  when  occasion 
called  for  it,  they  were  the  highest  judicatories  of  the  Church.  Legal  ques- 
tions were  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes,  but  in  matters  of  faith,  unanimity 
was  secured  by  an  exclusion  of  the  dissenting  minority.  The  ultimate  de- 
cisions were  disregarded  by  those  whose  consciences  were  violated  by  them. 
No  one  could  pretend  that  all  of  them  were  true,  as  in  the  fourth  century 
synods  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  A  celebrated  bishop  entirely  de- 
spaired of  them,  (h)  and  even  less  passionate  teachers  acknowledged,  that 
when  the  s[>irit  of  the  Church  shoiüd  become  more  perfectly  developed,  a 


0)  Grtg.  L.  sacramentornm  de  clrcnlo  anni  s.  Sncrauientarinm.  Ordo  et  canon  missae  Grego- 
rianiis  in  t'lp  Codex  liturg.  Ecc.  Kom.  cur.  U.  A.  Paiiie!,  Lps.  1S47. — LUienthal.  de  canone  missM 
Greswriano  Lucrd.  1740. 

h)  Ep.  ad.  Leandr.  prefi.xed  to  the  Expositio  in  .lobum. 

a)  EuBfl.  Vita  Const  III,  7.      ?.)  Greg.  Kaz.  Ep.  55.  ad.  Trocop.  (Tb.  I.  p.  ?14.) 


CHAP.  III.  CONSTITUTION.  §  ISl.  (ECUM.  SYNODS.  CHAP.  IV.  ECCLE5.  LIFE.     147 

better  expression  of  it  might  be  expected  from  the  Synods,  (c)  But  even 
at  Chalcedon  the  decisions  of  the  Kicaean  Fathers  were  looked  upon  as  an 
immutable  law,  expressed  by  the  divine  Spirit  himself.  ((T)  Past  ages  "wero 
not  supposed  to  possess  any  authority  greater  tlian  the  present.  Ilence,  from 
about  the  time  of  the  fifth  oecumenical  council,  it  was  generally  supposed 
that  every  such  oecumenical  council,  in  matters  of  faith,  declared  the  truth 
in  an  infallible  form  in  consequence  of  the  Holy  Spirit  especially  bestowed 
upon  the  bishops.  In  these  general  assemblies  the  Catholic  Church  felt  itself 
to  be  what  it  was  so  anxious  to  be,  viz.:  The  divine  kingdom  of  Christ  on 
earth,  the  only  source  of  truth  and  salvation,  pervading,  indeed,  the  whole 
earth,  but  constituting  a  single  external  community,  independent  of  all  civil 
power,  and  directed  according  to  ecclesiastical  laws  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
through  the  bishops. 


CHAP.  IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  132.  Religious  Si^irit  of  the  People  and  Ecclesiastical  Discipline. 
An  earnest  struggle  was  for  some  time  kept  up  between  primitive  abste- 
miousness and  hostility  to  the  world  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  worldly-mind- 
edness  which  had  now  entered  the  Church  and  those  means  by  which  it 
sought  gratification 'On  the  other.  Plays,  dances,  oaths,  and  loans  upon  usury, 
were  declared  to  be  sinful.  But  as  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  world  was 
found  to  be  impossible  in  the  new  circumstances  of  the  Church,  a  liigher  sys- 
tem of  morality  was  devised  for  tlioso  wlio  would  be  perl'ect,  and  wore  will- 
ing to  practise  unnatural  self-denials,  and  another  of  a  lower  nature,  in  which 
many  indulgences  were  allowed,  was  formed  for  ordinary  Christians.  The 
former  system  ran  great  risks  in  consequence  of  the  pride  and  hypocrisy 
which  were  soon  found  to  be  incidental  to  it.  From  a  nobler  spirit  of  dis- 
simulation, some  persons  of  an  eccentric  character  quietly  submitted,  or  some- 
times gave  occasion  to  evil  reports.  (</)  The  practical  wisdom  tolerated  by 
the  lower  system  was  debased  by  the  consciousness  of  its  own  imporfection. 
Even  marriage  was  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  this  lower  condition.  There 
was  some  doubt  Avhether  it  should  be  regarded  as  a  necessary  evil  in  general, 
or  as  an  inviolable  sacrament,  but  second  marriages  wero  condemned,  and  in 
the  West,  after  the  fifth  century,  the  marriage  of  a  divorced  person  was  pun- 
ished as  adultery,  (/y)  External  forms,  such  as  fasting,  almsgiving,  and 
prayers,  witliout  reference  to  tlie  internal  spirit  which  produced  them,  wore 
regarded  as  meritorious  and  expiatory.  Tiio  object  of  education  was  tlio 
attainment  of  the  most  humble  submission  to  authority,  and  the  ideal  of  all 
excellence  was  the  mortifications  and  conflicts  of  the  saints.  Tlio  means  of 
grace  were  often  used  as  mere  charms,  and  heathenish  superstitions  of  every 

c)  Athanas.  de  synod.  Arim.  et  Selcuc.  c  -W.  (Th.  I.  p.  917.)  Augiistin,  do  bopL  c  Donatlsl. 
II,  8.  (Gratian:  c  8.  D.  X.)  c.  Mnximin.  Arian.  II,  14,  3. 

rf)  Cone.  Chnlced.  actio  1.  {.V<in<ii  Tli.  VI.  p.  C7'.'.)  Keopccting;  Nicac.i,  ConsUintine  in  So- 
■srat  I,  9.    Isidor.  Pelu«.  L.  IV.  Ei).  09. 

«)  Ecagr.  II.  ecc  IV,  53.      ?<J  Innocent  I.  Ep.  0,  c.  C.    Comp.  Cone.  MiUtit.  a.  4U>.  c.  17. 


J 43    ANciKNT  ciiri:(ii  iiistokt.  pei:.  ii.  imtekial  chukcii.  a.  u.  8i»-eoo 

kind  reinained  in  full  force.  We  already  find  traces  of  the  belief  that  men 
could  form  n  compact  Avith  the  devil,  from  Avhicli  no  penitence  conld  obtain 
deliverance  but  through  the  goodness  of  the  holy  Virgin,  (c)  But  even  in  thiä 
time  of  general  helplessness  the  world  was  full  of  miracles.  Christianity 
was  frequently  a  mere  subject  of  controversy  and  of  entertainments,  and  yet 
l)eoplo  took  ])art  in  ecclesiastical  affairs  with  an  earnestness  and  activity 
wliich  ainounted  to  absurdity.  ('0  Brotherly  love  was  no  longer  the  peculiar 
badge  of  the  Christian  community,  and  an  observing  pagan  remarks,  that 
oven  wild  beasts  Avere  not  more  furious  against  each  otlier  tlian  were  the 
Christians  of  his  day.  (e)  The  Church  had  no  remedy  for  this  general  cor- 
ruption of  social  life,  and  for  the  luxury  and  extreme  refinement  which  were 
side  by  side  with  popular  misery  and  universal  servility.  Indeed,  it  was 
itself  rapidly  becoming  swallowed  up  in  the  general  abyss  of  the  Roman 
empire.  Many  were  raised  by  it  above  the  feeling  of  this  relaxation  of  all 
public  relations,  and  made  to  participate  in  the  liberty  of  the  kingdom  of  the 
Spirit.  The  severity  of  the  ancient  discipline  was  gradually  made  to  yield 
to  new  circumstances  by  numerous  dispensations,  but  a  multitude  of  minor 
penances  were  introduced  and  regulated  by  a  well-arranged  penal  code.  In 
the  East  the  confession  of  secret  sins  was  left  to  the  option  of  each  individ- 
ual, and  public  opinion  became  inflexibly  opposed  to  auricular  confession,  on 
account  of  certain  flagrant  crimes  known  to  have  been  connected  with 
It.  (/)  In  the  West,  confession  was  more  and  more  regarded  as  indispensa- 
ble to  forgiveness,  but  after  Leo's  time  this  might  be  made  in  the  ear  of  a 
prioet  bound  to  secresy.  (g) 

§  133.     CeliliacT/  and  Moral  Condition  of  the  Clergy. 

Theiner,  vol.  1.  (§  9.  note  6.)  CaroTe,  Betracht  d.  Coel.  part  1.  Samnil.  A.  Coelibatsgesetze. 
p  art  2.  Frkf.  1S32.  C    [/.  Taylor,  Ancient  Christianity.  Philad.  1S40.  S.] 

A  larger  number  of  synodal  enactments  were  pnblished  against  the  mar- 
riage of  priests  after  their  ordination,  but  in  the  East,  when  even  bishops  had 
been  married  before  ordination,  they  were  generally  unmolested.  "When  a 
new  law  on  this  subject  was  proposed  at  I^icaea,  rapJmutius^  an  aged  con- 
fessor and  a  rigid  ascetic  who  had  never  touched  a  woman,  so  powerfully  de- 
fended the  chastity  and  sanctity  of  the  marriage  state,  that  the  liberty  which 
had  always  been  customary  in  this  matter  was  confirmed,  ('t)  and  the  Orien- 
tal Church  even  anathematized  those  who  rejected  a  married  priest.  Qi)  The 
right  of  a  clergyman  to  live  with  a  wife  whom  he  had  married  before  his 
ordination,  and  who  had  been  a  free  and  spotless  virgin  before  her  marriage, 
was  also  recognized  and  confirmed  by  the  Trullan  Synod,  but  the  bishops 
were  required  to  separate  themselves  from  their  wives,  (c)    In  the  "VTest, 

c)  Aemil.  Sommer,  de  Theophili  cum  diab.  focdere.  Ber.  1S44. 

</)  Oreff.  yyss.  Or.  de  Deitate  Filii.  (Th.  I.  p.  46Gs.)      e)  Ammian.  Marcell.  XXII,  5. 
/)  Socrat.  n.  ecc.  V,  19. 

g)  Leon.  Ep.  16S.  c-  2.  (0pp.  p.  1430s.)— 2>rtWaf!/s,  do  sacrainentali  8.  anricnlari  Latlnor.  confes 
»ione.  Gen.  16G1.  4.    Boileau,  Hist.  conf.  auric.  Tar.  1CS4.    Klee,  d.  Beichte.  Frk£  1S2S. 
Q)  Socrat.  n.  ecc.  1, 11.    S<)zom.  n.  ecc.  I,  23. 

V)  Socrat.  II,  43.    Syn.  Gangr.  a.  SC2-3T0.  c  4.  (JTcins*  Th.  II.  p.  1096.)  comp.  Can.  apoet.  5. 
c)  Si/n,  Ti-vU,  CML  8.  6. 18.-12. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  1.3.3.  CELIBACY.    §  131.  ORIENTAL  MONAS.  LIFE.     149 

after  tlio  time  of  Siricius,  Bi.^hop  of  Rome  (385),  the  provincial  sj-nods  de- 
clared that  none  hut  suLdeacons  sliould  be  allowed  to  have  Avives,  ('/)  and 
gradually  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy  wa.s  universally  demanded.  Human 
laws,  however,  were  comparatively  ineffectual  when  opposed  to  the  very 
nature  of  man.  Although  persons  of  aii  elevated  spirit  among  the  clergy 
maintained  the  same  contempt  of  the  world  which  had  formerly  prevailed, 
and  were  rewarded  and  i)rompted  to  do  so  by  the  honor  of  their  order,  many 
low-minded  men  were  attracted  by  the  wealth  and  honors  of  the  Church, 
and  lived  in  hypocrisj",  or  in  open  devotion  to  worldly  pleasure.  These 
looked  upon  the  performance  of  outward  worship  as  the  sole  business  of  the 
priesthood,  and  changed  their  creed  according  to  the  imperial  mandate.  Sal- 
v'lanvs  wrote  a  satire  against  the  covetousness  of  such  priests,  in  which  he 
exhorted  every  one  to  purchase  salvation  in  this  easy  way  by  a  proper  payment 
for  his  sins,  (e)  But  dark  as  was  the  picture  of  this  corruption,  [laintod  by  the 
ecclesiastical  teachers  themselves,  the  very  indignation  which  these  express 
against  it,  the  ideal  of  the  true  priesthood  which  they  held  up,  and  the 
acknowledgment  which  these  received  among  their  contemporaries,  prove 
that  even  exalted  virtues  were  esteemed  and  found  among  the  clergy.  {/) 
"When  the  barbarians  overran  the  country,  the  priests  were  not  only  ready 
to  administer  consolation  and  deliverance  to  their  people  in  the  performance 
of  their  official  duties,  but  to  surrender  their  lives  for  their  religion,  (f/) 

§  134.     Monastic  Life  in  the  East.     Cont.  from  §  Co. 

PaUadii  (d.  about  420),  Hist  Lausiaca.  Theodoreti,  <pi\öbeos  larop'ia  ff  u(7KrjTt«77  -iruXirda. 
Saerat.  IV,  23ss.  Sozom.  1, 12-14.  Ill,  14.  VI,  2S-.04.  Lives  of  the  monastic  fain(i>.  ainl  many  let- 
ters by  Hieronyinns.  Cacsiamts.  (§  12.)  [S.  P.  Day,  Monastic  Institution?,  their  Origin,  Process, 
&c.  2  ed.  Lond.  1846.  112.] 

From  the  ethical  sjstem  which  required  a  renunciation  of  the  world,  was 
produced  monasticism.  The  necessity  of  having  some  society  induced  tlie 
hermits  to  assemble  in  cloisters  (Kocvößiov,  fxavBim,  claustrum),  and  the  bisliops 
were  favorable  to  an  institution  by  means  of  which  order  and  supervision 
became  practicable.  Pacho)niu.<>,  a  disciple  of  Anthony,  first  establi.'jhed 
monasteries  for  each  sex  on  the  island  of  Tabenna  in  the  Nile  (about  340), 
and  the  same  thing  was  subsequently  done  by  Amun  in  the  desert  of  Nitra, 
by  nUarion  in  the  desert  of  Gaza,  and  by  Basil  the  Great  near  New  Caesa- 
rea. Every  convent  was  governed  by  rules  imposed  upon  it  by  its  founder, 
but  most  of  these  required  unconditional  submission  to  tlie  will  of  the  supe- 
rior (r;yoi'/i€i/or,  dpx'-P-nvhinriii,  (i,:(,i(lf).  a  complete  surrender  of  all  private 
will  and  possessions,  a  mortilication  of  the  sensual  nature,  and  a  life  entirely 
devoted  to  God  and  to  divine  things.  Their  time  was  wholly  taken  up  with 
pious  exercises  and  ca.s'y  manual  employments.  The  tortures  which  they 
inflicted  on  themselves  when  battling  with  the  temptations  of  an  excited 

d)  Sirieii,  Ep.  ad  Iliinerluin  c  7-9.  (^Constant,  p.  C30s8.) 
«)  Adv.  avaritiam  1.  IV.  (about  450.)  Opi).  cd.  Buliii.  Von.  172S. 

/■)  Gregor.  A'de.  ds  iavrhu  Ka\  T(pl  iirLaKÖ-Kuv.      Comp.  UUnKui»,  Crcir.  v.  X;iz.  )i.  r>21s!<. 
0)  Socrdt.  \1,  G.    Sozom.  VIII,  4.     Theodoret.  V,  33.     Vktor  Vit  et  Vlit.    Tnj'x.  0\'\>.  1CC4.  4. 
p.  9.    Xicejih.  XIII,  C. 


150     ANCIKNI-  CIlriK  II   IlISTOKV.    IT.i:.  II.    IMPKIUAL  flirr.CII.   A.  I).  312-800. 

(ano3',  freqiK'iith'  cxcccdctl  tlio  rcf|nircment3  of  tlieir  rule,  and  POTricfimcs 
Icriniiiiitcd  in  suicide  or  insanity.  From  tlie  siijiprcssion  of  tlic  natural,  pro- 
ooedcd  unnatural  passions.  A  return  to  the  world  was  not  impossible,  but  it 
was  threatened  with  ecclesiastical  penances.  After  the  time  of  Basil,  the 
opinion  poncrally  prevailed,  that  the  marriage  of  a  virgin  espoused  to  God 
was  not  oidy  adulterous,  but  void.  Some  eminent  teachers  were  opposed  to 
Ihis  view,  (")  and  there  wore  even  some  married  monks.  (I>)  None  but  the 
abbots  Were  usually  ordained  as  priests,  and  in  some  instances  these  took 
rank  by  the  side  of  the  bishops,  their  monasteries  being  looked  upon  as  con- 
gregations of  laymen.  But  after  a  brief  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  rigid 
class,  (r)  the  convents  became  the  ordinary  seminaries  of  the  clergy.  This 
divine  philosophy  was  so  generally  received,  that  cities  became  solitary  and 
deserts  full  of  people.  The  burden  of  the  declining  state  was  not  felt  within 
the  cloister's  walls,  noble  minds  were  attracted  by  the  magnanimity  of  a  bold 
renunciation  of  the  Avorld,  and  what  was  then  regarded  as  the  most  exalted 
state  could  not  be  found  in  the  world.  In  the  hands  of  the  more  violent 
bishops,  the  monks  became  an  easily  excited  host,  which  in  their  contests 
with  pagans  and  heretics  often  controlled  the  hearts  and  clubs  of  the  popu- 
lace, and  feared  neither  tlie  imperial  despotism,  nor  the  laws,  nor  human 
nature  itself. 

§  135.     Hermits.     Simeon  Stylites. 

Sozom.  VI,  28-34.  Rußni  Vitae  Patrum  s.  Hist  eremitica.  In  the  2d  vol.  of  the  Yitae  Patrttm, 
ed.  i?o»?c#?V7i«.<(,  Antu.  (1615.)162S.  f.  In  the  Protestant  seloctiofl  :  Yitae  P.  repnrgatae  p.  G.  Majo- 
rem c.  praef.  LiMeri,  A'it,  'iSU.—  Theodoreti,  Illst.  rclisios.  c.  23.  Erar/r.  U.  ecc.  1, 13.  Life  of 
Simeon,  hy  his  pupil  Antonius  (Acta  Sancton  Jan.  vol.  I.  p.  261ss.)  anil  his  coDtemporary  Coimas 
{Aasemani  Acta  Mart  P.  II.  p.  2CSss.) 

l^Tot  only  might  the  nuns  reside  in  the  cloister,  but  they  were  sometimes 
allowed  even  to  remain  in  their  father's  house,  or  in  the  dwelling  of  a  priest 
(§  04).  The  ordinary  home  of  the  monks  was  in  the  desert.  The  Anachorets 
either  entered  into  some  fellowship  with  a  neighboring  monastery,  or  re- 
mained solitary  until  some  of  them  became  half  savages.  In  the  lives  of 
those  primitive  fathers  who  were  the  idols  of  popular  tradition,  we  meet 
with  exalted  virtues  and  heroic  self-tortures  carried  to  such  an  extreme,  that 
human  dignity  and  propriety  were  annihilated.  We  sometimes  find  a  wis- 
dom Avhich  seems  almost  supernatural,  and  sometimes  the  pious  simplicity  of 
an  ecclesiastical  mountebank  like  Paul  the  Simple.*  Simeon,  a  Syrian,  either 
invented  a  new  kind  of  life,  or  imitated  that  which  prevailed  among  the 
Indian  penitents.  TVTien  a  boy,  hef  forsook  his  flock,  and  more  than  once 
was  saved  from  a  fanatical  suicide  in  the  convent.  For  thirty  years,  on  a 
pillar  near  Antioch  (after  420),  as  a  mediator  between  heaven  and  earth,  he 
l)rcached  repentance  to  the  astonished  multitudes  that  gathere<l  around  him. 
lie  became  an  umpire  and  an  apostle  to  the  wild  Arab  tribes,  and  gave  coun- 
sel, and  even  dictated  laws  to  an  emperor,     lie  had  imitators  as  late  as  the 


a)  Epiph,  haer.  61,  '.    Aug^ist  de  bono  viduit  c  10.    Comp.  Cijpr.  Ep.  62. 
V)  August,  de  haer.  c  40.      c)  Cassian.  de  Instit  cocnobb.  XI,  IT. 
♦  General  view  of  the  accounts  In  TiUemont.  T!i.  VII.  p.  144ss. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  13Ö.  SIMEON  STYLITES.    §  136.  BENEDICTIXES.     151 

twelftli  century,  but  wliile  many  endured  his  tortures,  few  attained  tlie  .«pirit 
or  the  reputation  of  his  life. 

§  136.     Monastic'isin  in  the  7^es^     Benedictines. 

Ilieron.  niul  OtHsian.  (§  134.)  Dacherii  et  MahUlonii  Acta  Sanctor.  Ord.  S.  Bcncd.  (tii: 
1100.)  1G6S-170I.  9  Th.  f.  Mahillonii  Annalea  Ord.  8.  Bcne<l.  (till  1157.  Tar.  1TU3-39.)  Luc. 
1739-15.  6  Th.  f.  In  the  Praef.  Saec  I.  p.  7 :  Obsst  do  monachls  In  Occid.  ante  Eencdictnm.— 
Gesch.  d.  Bencilictinerord.  A.  Spittle r' a  \ot\cs.  v.  Gurlitt  Ilanib.  1S23.  4.  [Article  in  Edlnburgri 
Eev.  for  Jan.  1S49,  in  Eclectic  Magazine  for  April,  1S49.] 

Monasticism  became  known  in  the  "West  through  the  followers  of  Athti 
nasius.  At  first  it  was  looked  upon  with  astonishment,  ridiculed  or  abhorred, 
but  in  a  short  time  it  was  extensively  propagated  through  the  influence  of 
Martin  of  Tours  and  Cassian  in  Gaul,  of  Ainbro?e  and  Jerome  in  Italy,  and 
of  Augustine  in  Africa.  j\larlimts,  Bishop  of  Turonum  (373-400),  was  the 
saint  of  his  people,  was  able  to  recognize  Satan  even  in  the  form  of  tlie 
Saviour,  and  according  to  his  disciples,  possessed  power  to  suspend  or  confirm 
the  laws  of  the  universe.  He  was  carried  to  his  grave  by  two  thousand 
monks.  («)  At  first,  those  rules  were  adopted  which  had  been  devised  in 
the  East,  but  it  was  soon  found  that  the  privations  of  the  desert  were  not 
suited  to  a  Gallican  stomach  and  winter,  (h)  JJenedicl  of  Xursia^  who  had 
dreamed  away  his  youth  in  the  grotto  of  Subiaco,  and  had  been  looked  upon 
as  a  saint  by  the  mountain  shepherds,  established  in  the  wilderness  of 
Monte  Casslno  (529)  a  society  of  monks,  whose  mild  but  well- arranged  rules 
and  inviolable  vows  soon  united  most  of  the  "Western  monasteries  into  a  per- 
fectly organized  community,  and  bound  them  to  a  useful  course  of  life,  (c) 
Already,  in  Martin's  establishment,  the  di-sciples  had  been  employed  in  the 
labor  of  co])ying  books.  ('/)  So  when  Cassiodorus  escaped  from  the  storms 
of  his  political  life,  and  found  refuge  (538)  in  his  convent  of  Vivarium,  he 
directed  the  attention  of  the  monks  to  literary  pusuits.  (e)  The  Benedictines 
preserved  the  monuments  of  antiquity  for  a  more  cultivated  ago,  made  the 
deserts  fertile,  and  became  the  instructors  of  the  people.  The  convents  were 
placed  under  the  supervision  of  the  bishops  within  whose  diocese  they  were, 
but  these  had  no  i)Ower  to  violate  tlio  constitution  of  the  order.  A  few 
monasteries  attempted  to  escape  the  jurisdiction  or  the  oppres.>;ioii  of  their 
bishop,  by  putting  themselves  under  the  care  of  some  distinguislied  bishop 
at  a  distance, 

§  137.  Veneration  for  Saints. 
In  an  ago  when  people  quietly  enjoyed  all  that  they  possessed,  those  cen- 
turies in  which  painful  struggles  had  been  endured  were  looked  upon  as 
heroic,  and  those  heroes  who  had  purchased  victory  with  their  blood  were 
invested  with  a  growing  splendor  in  the  grateful  recollections  of  subsequent 
generations.  The  pious  respect  which  all  felt  for  their  earthly  remains,  in 
the  course  of  time,  and  through  the  iiitluence  of  Egyptian  customs  and  hea- 

a)  Sulpicil  Sev.  de  vita  B.  Martini  L.  ot  Ei>p.     Grfg.  Tur.  do  iiiiracc  S.  Mart 
h)  Sulpicii  Set'.  Dial.  I,  S.     Cdxniiin.  do  in.stlt  coon.  I,  11. 

c)  Legends:  Gregorii  M.  Dialog.  1.  II.    Kulo:  IluUUn.  Th.  L  p.  lllss. 

d)  Sulp.  Vita  Mart,  c.  10.      e)  Institt  ad  dlv.  lect  (§  119.  note  g.) 


152      ANCIKNT  ClltllCII  lIISTiiUV.    VVAi.  II.    IMTKIÜAL  CIIIT.CIT.   A.  I).  812-')0»). 

tlionish  Hiiperstitions,  l)ecamo  exapRcratcd  into  a  veneration  for  their  bones 
injiny  <>f  wliioli  were  discovered  by  special  miracles  and  revelations.  Hr. 
lucrative  iinally  became  llie  traffic  in  these  relics,  that  various  laws  were 
formed  afjainst  it.  People  took  deli^dit  in  other  and  stranfre  relics  which  had 
been  iu  any  way  connected  ■with  the  daily  lives  of  former  paints.  Public 
prayers  for  the  martyrs  were  f^radnally  chanjred  into  prayers  to  them  as  inter- 
cessors with  God,  The  same  feeling  which  had  induced  their  heathen  ances- 
tors to  deify  men,  now  led  them  to  regard  the  saints  as  subordinate  deities. 
Some  were  honored  only  in  those  localities  in  which  they  had  lived,  or  in 
which  their  relics  were  preserved,  but  others  in  much  larger  circles.  "Whole 
orders  and  nations  attached  themselves  to  particular  saints,  and  others  were 
made  to  preside  over  certain  kinds  of  assistance.  The  heathen  had  some 
occasion  for  ridiculing  Christians  on  the  ground  that  their  religion  had  be- 
come paganized.  Agrippa's  cheerful  Pantheon,  once  dedicated  to  Jupiter 
and  all  the  gods,  was  now  consecrated  to  the  Mother  of  God  and  all  the  mar- 
tyrs (G08).  As  soon  as  the  Nestorian  controversy  had  decided  that  the  Vir- 
gin had  given  birth  to  God,  she  was  jdaced  at  the  head  of  the  saintly  host. 
Epiphanius,  on  the  one  hand,  points  out  those  as  heretics  C AvTihiKOfiapiaviral) 
who  believed  that  Mary  had  been  the  mother  of  several  children  after  the 
birth  of  our  Saviour,  and  on  the  other  calls  a^  female  sect  (KoWvpiSiavoC) 
which  bestowed  divine  honors  npon  her  by  the  offering  of  a  cake,  the  priest- 
esses of  the  Mother  of  God.  (a)  Though  all  were  not  agreed  upon  the  sub- 
ject, it  was  generally  believed  that  her  virginity  was  unimpaired  even  when 
she  brought  forth  offspring.  Prayers  were  also  addressed  to  anr/eh,  espe- 
cially as  it  seemed  unsuitable  that  they  should  be  regarded  as  inferior  to  the 
saints.  (Ji)  Some  persons  who  had  been  objects  of  devout  admiration  during 
thßir  lives,  on  account  of  their  exalted  or  at  least  singular  piety,  were  placed 
by  their  contemporaries  on  an  equality  with  the  martyrs.  In  acknowledging 
these  as  saints,  the  bishops  only  expressed  the  popular  will.  Such  a  venera- 
tion, often  amounting  even  to  adoration,  did  indeed  put  imperfect  mediators, 
with  their  generally  overwrought  virtues,  in  the  place  of  Christ,  but  it  pre- 
served in  its  freshness  a  poetic  recollection  of  the  illustrious  examples  of  bet- 
ter times.  From  the  very  nature  of  these  recollections,  they  could  never 
attain  their  complete  significance  until  they  had  been  reproduced  in  popular 
legends  and  stories.  Thus  St.  Affiles  with  her  lamb  became  the  type  of  piou? 
virginity,  (c)  just  as  Christopher  had  become  the  type  of  a  dauntless  man- 
hood, Avhen  he  made  diligent  search  among  all  the  great  men  of  the  earth, 
that  he  might  serve  only  the  greatest,  and  finally  found  what  he  desired  in 
the  child  Jesus.  (J)  Even  the  soil  whick  our  Lord  once  trod  became  an 
object  of  devotion  on  account  of  recollections  of  him.  Beneath  a  temple  of 
Venus  was  discovered  the  grave  of  the  risen  Saviour,  and  over  the  spot  Con- 
stantine  erected  the  Church  of  the  Kesurrection.  (e)    His  mother  Helena 


a)  Epiph.  Imcr.  TS  et  n.— Munter   c.e  CoIIyrid.  Cmaticis  saec.  IV.  ^Miscell.  Ilafii.  ISIS.  Th.  I 
Fasa  2.) 

I)  Amhros.  de  vidnis  9,  S5.  comp.  JuKtin.  Apol.  I.  c.  6. 

c)  Tillenumt.  Tli.  V.  p.  344ss.      d)  Iteview  of  the  Legends  :  Annalen  d.  Theol.  lSo4.  Xov. 

<f)  Euseb.  Vita  Con.*t  III,  '25-40. 


CHAP.  IV.   ECCLES.  LIFE.   §  1:37.  SAIKT5.   §  135.  PUB.  AVOUSIIIP.   FESTIVAL?.     153 

bad  Lerself  baptized  in  the  Jordan  (32G),  and  it  was  near  the  close  of  thio 
century  that  tlie  lej^ends  first  delighted  the  hearts  of  men  by  revealing  the 
sacred  cross,  which  has  since  been  preserved  unimpaired  in  spite  of  the 
removal  from  it  of  innumerable  pieces,  (f)  Annually,  at  Easter,  pilgrims 
assembled  out  of  all  countries  around  the  sacred  sepulchre. 

§138.     Fuhlic  Worship. 

The  outward  forms  of  religion  became  gradually  more  and  more  imposing. 
From  the  ancient  temples  the  incense  and  many  ancient  customs  of  heathenism 
were  transferred  to  the  churches,  (a)  By  the  use  of  tapers  and  perpetual  lamj)?, 
the  solemnity  of  nocturnal  festivals  was  combined  with  the  liglit  of  day.  In 
some  places  a  piece  of  metal  was  struck  by  a  hammer  to  call  the  people 
together,  but  in  the  seventh  century  bcUs  were  used  for  tliat  purpose.  Soon 
after,  in  face  of  continual  opposition  to  all  instrumental  music,  tlie  organ 
(o/j-yni/oi/),  worthy  of  being  the  invention  of  a  saint  who  had  listened  to  the 
minstrelsy  of  angels,  was  brought  to  Italy  from  Greece.  (J)  Church  music  in 
alternate  parts  had  been  extended  in  every  direction  from  Antioch,  and  had 
been  much  improved,  especially  in  tlie  "West,  after  the  time  of  Ambrosins.  (<•) 
In  the  Greek  Cliurch  the  principal  part  of  jtublic  service  consisted  in  the 
sermon,  though  it  was  often  only  a  rlietorical  amusement  rewarded  by  clap- 
ping of  hands.  From  looking  upon  the  LonVs  Suirper  as  a  eucharist,  men 
gradually  passed  to  regard  it  as  an  expiatorj'  sacrifice,  and  we  find  in  some 
uncertain  figures  of  speech,  intimations  of  a  change  of  the  bread  and  wine 
into  the  body  and  blood  of  Clirist.  Lore-feasts  long  survived  the  renuncia- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  family  life  wliich  had  first  given  occasion  for  tliom, 
and  now  took  the  form  of  repasts  for  the  poor,  prepared  by  tlio  avIioIo 
Church,  but  with  only  a  few  local  exceptions  they  were  regardeil,  even  in  tlio 
commencement  of  the  fifth  century,  as  an  antiquated  custom.  As  baptism 
was  generally  administered  to  infiints,  and  in  a  public  assembly,  and  as  Chris- 
tianity had  now  become  universal,  every  thing  like  Christian  mysteries  had 
been  gradually  laid  aside,  although  some  expressions  (missa  catechumenornm 
et  fidelium)  derived  from  them  still  remained.  A  monkisli  custom,  in  imita- 
tion of  the  j)riests  of  Isis,  who  tried  to  as.sume  the  appearance  of  slaves  by 
shaving  their  heads,  was  so  far  adopted  by  the  clergy  of  the  fifth  century  in 
the  Eoman  Church,  that  they  merely  made  bare  the  crown  of  the  head  (ton- 
sura  Petri).  Particular  kinds  of  vestments  were  also  adopted  by  the  clergy  for 
their  various  orders  and  diJlorent  sacred  services.  A  wiiite  Avoollen  cloak,  like 
the  holiday  costume  of  the  Greek  bishops  (tl)fxnff)i'>i)inv.  ])aHiuin),  was  sent,  after 
the  sixth  century,  by  tlie  pojjcs  to  tlie  iudividiinl  bisliops  of  the  West  as  a 
token  of  special  iionor  and  of  connection  witli  the  apostolic  see.     In  the  sev- 


/)  According  to  (UfTerent  nccounts:  Sozom.  II,  !.  (countcifelt  letter  of  Cyril  to  Constantlus.) 
At'ibros.  Or.  do  oliitu  Tlieodosil.  Puitliiii  Xolinii  Ep.  81.  (nl.  11.)  comp.  J.  Dallaeus,  Bdv.  Latino 
•iiin  de  ciiltus  rol.  dlijceto  traditlonoiii.  Gen.  It'iOI.  4.  p.  7ii4?. 

o)  Accordini:  to  MiiKsnril  and  MUlilMon  :  Blunt,  Vestiges  of  Anc  Manners  and  Customs  discov 
craWe  in  Mod.  Italy  and  Sicily.  Lond.  IS.'.). 

h)  ChnjMufh'r,  liist.  Naclir.  v.  KOrficIn.  Hint.  1755.  J.  Antony,  Gescb.  Darst.  d.  Entst.  u.  Ver 
•ollk.  d.  Or-i'l.  Münst.  1S:32.      c)  g  1;10.  \v>\of. 


154      AXOIKNT  nifltCII  HISTOKY.   I'Ki:.  H.    IMPKIIIAL  CIIUHCir.   A.  l>.  312  800. 

cnth  century,  "Wostcni  bishops  carried -wit li  tliein  tlie  ring  and  stufT.  (d)  Or. 
Sunday^  Constantino  ordered  tliat  all  worldly  einidoynicnts  should  cease,  except 
works  of  necessity  in  the  field,  and  the  nianuinission  of  slaves.  The  Roman 
festival  of  the  hirlh  of  Jesus,  on  the  twenty-fifth  of  December,  Avas  adopted 
also  in  the  East  in  the  time  of  Chrysostom.  (f)  Epiphany  was  then  observed 
as  a  celebration  of  Christ's  baptism,  and  in  the  "West  had  a  reference  to  the 
Magi  as  the  first  fruits  of  the  heathen  world.  The  judaizing  Pcmover  having 
been  condemned  at  Kicaea,  those  who  observed  it  in  Asia  Minor  were 
regarded  as  heretics  (Tfo-a-a/jfrKatSe/caTirfu,  Quartodecimani.)  (./)  The  time 
for  the  festival  of  Easter  Avas  announced  at  Alexandria,  though  sometimes 
different  days  were  observed  in  different  provinces.  The  great  Fast  before 
Easter  was  prescribed  by  the  Church,  and  even  the  civil  law  required  that 
it  should  be  regarded  as  a  time  for  quiet  reflection,  though  the  number  of 
Jays  included  in  it  was  not  uniform.  (;/)  Some  traces  of  a  ])iou3  jireparation 
for  Christmas  (adventus)  appear  in  the  seventh  century.  The  fortieth  day 
of  Pentecost  was  selected  in  the  fourth  century  for  the  commemoration  of 
the  Ascension  of  Christ  (iopTr)  tJJs  avaXrj'^ecoi.)  (/()  In  the  other  festivals  was 
exhibited  the  new  spirit  which  had  become  prevalent  in  that  age :  Lady- 
days,  including  the  feast  of  the  English  Annunciation  (^  tov  (vuyye'Ki(Tnov, 
annuntiationis,  March  25th),  and  that  of  the  churching  of  Avomen  (purifica- 
tionis,  Feb.  2d) ;  (/)  a  festival  of  All  Martyrs,  which  occurs  in  the  Greek 
Church  on  the  Sunday  after  Pentecost,  and  of  xill  Saints,  which  is  observed 
in  the  Roman  Church  on  the  1st  of  N'ovember,  the  celebration  of  the  First 
Martyrs  (Dec.  26th),  and  a  festival  for  martyrs  anä  chtldren  reterring  to  the 
massacre  of  the  children  of  Bethlehem  (Dec.  28th).  The  heavenly  birth- 
days (deaths)  of  Peter  and  Paul  (June  29th)  were  observed  with  peculiar 
solemnity,  especially  in  Rome.  With  similar  pomp  Avas  observed  there  a  fes- 
tival in  honor  of  St.  Peter  s  chair  (Feb.  22d),  Avhich  originally  commemorated 
the  establishment  of  the  Roman  see,  but  being  connected  with  the  ancient 
Roman  feast  for  the  dead  (Feb.  19th),  finally  degenerated  into  a  sacrificial 
feast  for  the  dead.  The  only  festival  yet  observed  in  honor  of  the  natural 
birth  of  any  saints,  Avas  that  of  John  the  Baptist,  on  the  day  of  the  year  in 
which  the  days  began  to  shorten.  (A)  The  yearly  festival  of  the  recovered 
cross  (Sept.  14th),  called  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross,  was  not  suflficient  to 
inspire  men  Avith  courage  to  defend  the  holy  sepulchre.  In  contrast  with 
the  heathenish  festivities  practised  at  the  commencement  of  the  secular  year, 
the  Church  at  first  set  apart  that  tiuie  for  fasting;  but  in  the  seventh  century, 
Hew  Ycar''s  day  Avas  in  some  places  connected  Avith  Christmas,  and  celebra- 
ted as  the  Feast  of  the  Circumcision.  The  Church  usually  commenced  the 
year  with  Easter,  though  in  some  instances  at  a  later  period  it  was  dated 


ff)  J.  dxi  Tour,  de  orijrtne,  antiquit  et  sancti'.  vestium  saccrdotalium.  Par.  1CC-2.  4    Pertsch,  lU 
»rig.,  usu  et  auctorit.  pallii.  lUnist.  1754.  4.    J.  A.  Scltmid,  de  annulo  pastorali.  Illmst  1705.  4 
e)  Planck;  rariar.  de  orig.  festi  nat  Chr.  scntentt  epicrisis.  Gott.  1796.  4 
/)  Eiiseb.  A'ita  Const.  Ill,  IS.  comp.  14.    Socrat.  I,  9.     Coric.  Antioch.  can.  1.  7. 
g)  DaUaeu»,  de  jp.iiinlis  ct  quadragcsima.  Davcntr.  1654. 12. 
/()  /Torn.  Alter  d.  II.  F.  Festes.  {Woffnitz,  lit.  Joiirn.  ISnC.  vol.  V.  sect  3.) 

i)  Schmidt,  proluss.  Marianao  c.  priief.  Mo-ihemii.  Hlnist  1783.  4.    Lamhertini,  Ae  J.  C.  Ma 
Irisquo  fcstis.  Fatav.  1751.  Uonn.  1766.  C     A)  Augustini  Horn.  287.  comp.  Jo.  3.  Sft. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  ISO.  CHUECH  AECHITECTUIIE  &  DECOr.ATION.     155 

from  Advent.     Every  church  celebrated  the  day  of  its  original  consecration 
and  the  days  on  which  their  j)atron  saints  died. 

§  139.  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  and  Works  of  Sacred  Art. 
Pomp.  Sarnelli,  antica  BasilicograOa.  Neap.  1CS6.  4.  J.  Fabricii,  Or.  de  tcmplis  vet  Cliristt 
Illnist.  1704.  4.  Guttensohn  e  Knapp,  Monuiri.  dl  rel.  clirist  ossla  raccolta  dcllo  antithe  cliicso  dl 
lloma  dal  qu.irto  Sec.  Eom.  lS22ss.  3  vols.  f.  J'lutner  u.  HohUU,  Iloms  liasilikcn.  (Bcsclir.  d.  Stadt 
Itoin.  vol.  I.  p.  41Tss.)  (Bunsen)  Die  Basiliken  d.  christl.  Eom.  Müncli.  1S43.  t.—JfurutoH,  de  tem- 
plor.  apud  vet.  cliristt  ornatu.  (Anecdota.  Tli.  I.  p.  ITSss.)  J.  G.  Müller,  bildl.  Darst  lin  Sanctua- 
riuin  d.  Kirchen  v.  5.  b.  14.  Jalirli.  Lintz.  IjvÄ — Aiigimtl,  ßeiträgo  z.  clir.  KunstGesch.  1S41.  vol.  I. 
IS4G.  vol.  11.  [If.  G.  Knight,  Ecclcs.  Arch,  of  It:i1y  from  Const  to  1.0th  cent  2  vols.  Lond.  1S44. 
Broxcn,  Sacred  Architecture,  its  rise,  prog.  Ac  Lond.  ISlC.  4.  F.  CIum,  Church  Arch,  from  the  ear 
liest  ages  to  the  present  time.  Lond.  1S50.  12.] 

Immediately  after  the  time  of  Con.-^tantine  sprung  up  in  all  parts  of  tho 
empire  a  desire  as  well  as  a  necessity  of  building  churches.  They  were  gen- 
erally erected  over  the  graves  of  the  martyrs,  in  the  form  and  with  the  name 
of  the  Basilica.  This  was  an  oblong  parallelogram  divided  lengthwise  by 
double  or  quadruple  rows  of  i)illars,  and  terminating  in  a  semicircular  liall 
{ßr^^ia.  Sanctuarium).  Immediately  upon  these  pillars  rested  a  beam,  which 
iu  wealthy  churches  was  overlaid  witli  brass,  or  a  second  row  of  pillars  with 
arcades  (S.  Agnese),  and  above  these  a  rather  flat  gable-roof.  Before  the 
entrance  was  a  quadrangular  court  (atrium,  paradisus),  surrounded  with 
colonnades,  and  with  a  fountain  in  the  centre,  {a)  The  division  of  the  main 
body  of  the  church  by  a  partition  into  an  exterior  and  interior  apartment 
(f(i/j3r^|  and  i/ao's),  was  probably  common  only  while  tlie  penitents  were  kept 
apart  from  the  congregation,  and  the  catechumens  were  numerous.  In  some 
churches,  at  a  later  period,  the  exterior  hall  became  i^roperly  a  porch.  In 
tho  sanctuary,  separated  from  the  other  parts  by  lattice-work  and  curtains, 
stood  the  main  altar,  behind  which  were  tho  seats  for  the  priests,  Avith  tho 
episcopal  throne  in  the  centre.  Before  tho  altar  was  an  elevated  choir  for 
the  singers,  by  tho  side  of  which  was  a  pulpit  (dfißtop)  or  two.  Smaller 
churches,  and  iu  general  baptisteries,  were  in  the  Roman  temple-form  of  tlie 
liotunda.,  surrounded  by  pillars  in  tlie  interior,  and  on  the  outside  by  a  gable- 
screen  upon  pillars.  "When  arcliitecturo  had  attained  a  more  perfect  Chris- 
tian character,  the  foundation  of  the  Basilica  gradually  assumed  the  form  of 
the  cross  (S.  Paolo,  38C.)  This  was  cither  the  Latin  cross,  when  tho  longest 
arm  formed  the  nave,  or  the  Greek  cross,  when  all  the  arms  were  equal,  and 
by  connection  with  the  rotunda,  a  cupola  spanned  the  intersection  in  a  licmi- 
spherical  vault,  so  as  to  be  an  image  of  tho  heavens.  Tho  cliurch  of  St. 
Sophia  in  Constantinople,  as  it  was  built  by  Justinian  after  tlio  conllagration 
(538),  is  tlie  principal  monument  of  this  style,  rillars  and  otiier  ornaments 
were  frequently  taken  from  tho  heathen  temples.  The  walls  especially  of 
the  sanctuary  were  adorned  with  figures  in  mosaic.  These  were  for  a  short 
time  opi)osod,  but  they  finally  triumplicd,  not  so  much  on  account  of  any 
enthusiasm  for  tlie  arts,  as  from  the  general  tendency  of  men's  minds  in  pub- 
lic worship.  Statues,  however,  were  always  excluded  from  tlio  oriental 
churches.     Modern  art  still  retained  some  of  the  skill  which  belonged  tc 

o)  Eitneh.  11.  ecc.  X,  4. 


156      ANCIICNT  CIIUUCH  IIISTOKV.    TKlt.  II.    IMTKIIIAL  CIIUIICH.   A   I).  312-WO. 

antiquity.  ]{iit  u  pious  veneration  at  an  early  period  produced  an  invariablt 
tradition,  tliat  our  Lord  sliould  bo  represented  as  Salvatoi\  and  liic  ai)0stle8 
■\vitli  a  serious  and  dij^'uified  a.'ipcct,  in  ancient  Koiiian  costume.  Tlio  Motliei 
■with  lier  child  was  painted  after  the  Nestorian  controversy.  Crucifixes  ap- 
pear in  the  seventh  century.  Subjects  for  the  arts  were  generally  taken  from 
sacred  history,  but  sometimes  the  lives  and  snfferings  of  the  saints,  and  even 
of  living  persons,  were  chosen.  (5j  In  opposition  to  all  representations  of 
the  Father,  it  was  alleged  that  he  was  visible  only  in  the  Son.  ('■)  The  Trul- 
Ian  Council  decided  against  the  ancient  representation  of  Christ  as  a  lamb.  {'!) 
It  was,  however,  a  fundamental  principle  of  all  Christian  art,  that  the  visible 
was  to  be  only  a  type  of  the  invisible.  Pictures  or  images  were  to  be  a  snb- 
etitute  for  books  to  those  who  could  not  read.  But  before  this,  Augustine 
had  complained  of  some  who  adored  the  image  itself,  and  women  excused 
their  splendid  garments  by  the  plea  that  they  were  embroidered  with  scenes 
from  sacred  history. 

§  140.     Iconoclastic  Controrcrsij. 

I.  Imperialia  decreta  de  cultu  Imaginum,  coll.  et  ilhi,«tr.  a  .If.  I/iiimini-feMio  GoUlasto,  Fref.  1608. 
Jo.  Damasceni  h6yoi  a.iTo\oyr\TiKo\  Trphi  rovs  SiaßäWovras  ras  aytas  (Ikovu^.  (0pp.  Tb.  I. 
p.  305ss.)    Xicephori  Breviar.  Hist,  (till  7C9.)  ed.  Petavhis,  Par.  1G16.     Theophanes.  (§  92.) 

II.  Dallaeus,  de  imagiiiib.  Lugd.  1642.  Maimhourg,  Hist,  de  I'heresio  des  Iconoclastes.  Par. 
16T9.  and  16S3.  2  Th.  12.  Spanhemii  Hist,  imaginuin  restltuta.  Lugd.  16S6.  (0pp.  Tb.  II.  I.)  WalcJi, 
Ketzergesch.  vol.  X.  XI.  F.  L.  Schlosser,  Gescb.  d.  Bildersturm.  Kaiser  des  ostrrmi.  Keicbs.  Frkf. 
1S12.— J:  J/aw,  d.  Bilderstreit,  d.  byz.  Kaiser.  Trier.  1S39. 

A  worship  of  certain  persons  was  very  intimately  connected  witli  a  wor- 
ship of  their  images.  Some  of  these  had  been  painted,  as  people  generally 
believed,  by  apostolic  hands,  or  had  been  miraculously  sent  down  from 
heaven,  and  were  therefore  supposed  to  be  worthy  of  adoration  (elKovoXciTpfUi). 
But  the  spirit  of  primitive  Christianity  Avhich  had  always  been  so  averse  to 
artificial  representations,  and  the  spiritual  view  of  it  which  had  recently 
been  revived  by  the  reproaches  of  the  votaries  of  Islam,  soon  took  offence  at 
what  seemed  a  new  form  of  heathenism.  Leo  III.,  the  Laurian,  had  all 
images  used  for  worship  removed  from  the  churches  (T26),  and  becoming 
irritated  by  opposition,  he  proceeded  to  destroy  them  (730).  The  pious  sen- 
sibilities of  the  people  were  violently  wounded  by  this  proceeding  {(Ikovo- 
KXaa-fjLos).  But  while  some,  during  the  conflict,  became  possessed  of  an  idol- 
atrous and  absurd  regard  for  images,  others  had  their  hatred  to  them  so  much 
inflamed,  that  the  persons  represented  by  them  became  objects  of  contempt. 
It  is  not  difiicult,  therefore,  to  perceive  in  this  controversy  a  secret  struggle 
between  the  friends  of  progress  and  the  advocates  of  a  sensuous  devotion, 
between  the  Protestant  and  the  Catholic  principle.  Political  malcontents 
took  advantage  of  these  dissensions,  and  a  military  despotism  was  arrayed 
against  the  hierarchy.  Constantinus  Coproiymiis  had  a  synod  convened  at 
Constantinople  (754),  which  claimed  to  be  oecumenical,  and  in  obedience  to 
the  imperial  requirement,  rejected  the  use  of  images,  {a)    But  the  monks,  in 

V)  Paulin.  Xolan.  Natal.  Fe'.icis  carm.  9  et  10.    Sjtisd.  Ep.  32. 
c)  Gi-üneüen,  ü.  biUll.  Darst,  d.  Gotth.  Stuttg.  1S2S.    d)  Can.  S2. 

a)  The  decrees  maybe  learned  from  the  Acts  of  tlie  Second  Xicaean  Council.  [Laudon't  Manna 
uf  Councils,  p.  1S7.] 


CHAP.  IV.   ECCLES.  LIFE.   §  140.  ICONOCLASTS.   CHAP.  V.   OPPOSITION.        157 

whose  convent.s  they  were  manufuctureil,  i)hiced  tliem-solves  at  the  head  o! 
the  popular  i)arty,  and  after  some  encouragements  from  tlie  Koman  hiihop 
raised  an  insurrection.  A  series  of  emperors,  in  fearful  hostility  to  the  feel- 
ings of  the  people,  continued  the  struggle  against  images.  Two  empresses 
decided  in  favor  of  them  :  Irenc^  by  whose  direction  the  seventh  oecumenical 
synod  at  Nicaea  (787)  recognized  the  propriety  of  image-worship,  (h)  and 
Theodora,  who,  after  many  vicissitudes  in  the  struggle,  proclaimed  the  vic- 
tory of  the  image-worshippers  (842),  by  ai)pointing  an  annual  festival  in 
which  the  triumph  of  orthodoxy  (!]  KvpiuKfj  Trjs  o/jSoSo^taj)  should  be  com- 
memorated. 


CHAP,   v.— OPPONENTS  OF  THE  ORDINARY  ECCLESIASTICAL 

SYSTEM. 

§  141.     General  View. 

As  Catholicism  became  more  and  more  developed,  individual  protests 
were  heard  against  every  departure  of  the  Church  from  the  .'^imijlicity  of 
apostolical  Christianity.  This  protesting  spirit  was  sliown  sometimes  by 
teachers  of  liigh  standing,  when  they  boldly  reproved  crimes  committed  in 
the  Church,  and  advocated  a  spiritual  Avor.shij)  instead  of  one  Avhich  was 
merely  external,  and  sometimes  by  men  in  inferior  stations,  but  with  a  more 
decided  and  hostile  opposition  to  the  Church  of  their  age.  Among  these  we 
should  distinguish  between  those  ])arties  whicli  were  striving  to  exceed  the 
ordinary  Church  in  strictness  and  purity,  but  which  came  down  from  earlier 
times,  and  those  which  had  recently  spnmg  up  in  opposition  to  the  new  ten- 
dency of  the  ecclesiastical  spirit. 

§  142.     The  Donatists. 

I.  OpUitus  Mtlevitanus  (about  8CS),  de  scliismnto  Ronatistarum,  also,  Monntnenta  vett.  ad  Do- 
naJist.  Hist,  pcrtincntia,  cd.  L.  E.  Du  Pin,  Par.  1700s.    Augustine's  Controv.  Writing.  0pp.  Th.  IX. 

II.  Valesim,  de  schism.  Don.itist  (followinfc  Ids  edit,  of  Euscb.)  Hist.  Donati.st  ex.  KorUianiit 
Bchedis  cxcerpta.  {S'orisii  Opp.  cdd.  Ballerini,  Veron.  1729ss.  f.  Th.  IV.)  Wulch,  Ketzergesch.  vul. 
IV.    A.  lioua;  do  August,  adversario  Donatift.  Lugd.  B.  1838. 

The  schism  of  the  Donatists  was  produced  by  those  Avho  favored  a  rigid 
and  inexorable  ecclesiastical  discipline,  in  oj)position  to  the  lenient  and  pru- 
dent policy  of  the  later  Church,  and  those  who  longed  for  martyrdom.  "When 
Caecilianus,  who  as  an  archdeacon  had  been  unfrioiully  to  the  confessors,  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  w.as  ordained  by  a  traditor  (311),  those  who 
were  opposed  to  him  set  up  Majorinvs  as  a  rival  bishop.  The  latter  was 
succeeded  by  Donaftis,  called  by  his  adherents  the  Great,  who  with  his  friend 
Donatus  of  Casae-nigra  gave  name  to  his  party.  In  their  views  of  the 
Church,  and  in  the  exdusiveness  with  which  they  administered  baptism,  this 
sect  only  adhered  to  the  primitive  African  traditioiiB.  On  their  afiplieation 
to  Constantine,  a  commission  was  api)ointed  at  Rome  (813),  and  a  synod  was 
dssembled  at  Arelate  (314),  to  investigate  their  cause.    lu  conformity  with 

I)  C&nc.  Nicaen.  IL  Acts  in  ifansi  Th.  XIL  p.  O.'l.-XIIL  p.  S20.  [Summary  of  them  In  /..in- 
ion,  p.  486.1 


(58    ANciKNT  ntrncii  iiisnuiY.  vim.  ir.  imi'kkial  (  ihixh.  a.  i>.  312-soo. 

the  decision  of  llieso  boclio«',  severe  Iunvh  were  proclaimed  by  Ihc  empcrur 
n^'ainst  tlicin.  ]{ut  tlic  peasants  and  soine  wandering  tribes  of  Xumidia  and 
}»Iauritania  (Aijonistici,  Circnincelliones),  who  liad  never  really  been  subject 
to  tlio  lioniau  dominion,  seized  their  clubs  to  avenge  the  conflagration  of 
their  churches,  and  the  blood  of  some  of  their  priests.  "With  a  wild  love  of 
slaughter,  they  maintained  during  the  fourth  century  a  predatory  war  with 
the  Catholic  Church  and  the  Roman  empire.  Avgunline  endeavored  to  con- 
ciliate or  to  confute  the  milder  portion  of  this  party  (411),  but  with  little 
success.  Tlioy  Avere  finally  overcome  by  the  Roman  laws  and  legions,  but 
not  until  individuals  had  struggled  and  suffered  on  till  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  and  had  shown  the  prodigious  power  which  even  a  mistaken 
faith  may  exert  over  sincere,  vigorous  and  gloomy  dispositions. 

§  143,  AuiUans.  Jla.ssalian». 
Audius  broke  off  from  the  Church  in  Mesopotamia,  because  it  paid  no 
attention  to  his  formal  reproofs,  and  he  finally  establislied  monastic  commu- 
nities in  Scythia  (about  340),  which  observed  the  passover  according  to  the 
Jewish  mode,  and  are  said  to  have  believed  that  God  possesses  a  human 
form,  (ft)  The  Christian  Massalinns  {•{h^'O .  Y-lxi^rai,  in  Armenia  and  Syria, 
after  360)  held,  that  to  overcome  the  evil  disposition  of  the  natural  heart,  it 
was  necessary  to  pray  internally  without  intermission  ;  that  all  other  means 
of  grace  were  indiflerent,  and  that  labor  was  sinful.  They  wandered  about 
and  begged,  refusing  to  hold  any  property  of  their  own  on  earth.  All  traces 
of  them  disappear  in  the  seventh  century,  (b) 

§  144.     Friscillianvs. 

Sitlpic.  Sev.  IT.  sacr.  II,  46-31.  Ill,  llss.  Oro^ii  Coinmonltorluin  ad.  Aug.  de  errore  Priscillian- 
istar.  (Aug.  0pp.  Tli.  \lll.)—Walch,  Ketzerhist.  vol.  III.  p.  373ss.  &  van  Tries,  de  Priscillianistls. 
Traj.  1745.  4    J.  II.  B.  Lübkert,  de  haeresi  Priscillianistar.  Uann.  1S40. 

Under  Manichaean  influence  a  Gnostic  party  more  rigid  than  the  Church 
was  formed  under  Priscillianus  (379),  the  object  of  which  was,  by  unusual 
self-denials  and  efforts,  to  release  the  spirit  from  its  natural  life.  At  the 
Synod  of  Caesar  Augusta  (380),  Itacius.,  a  bishop,  procured  their  condemna- 
tion, and  obtained  from  the  emperor  Gratian  a  decree,  according  to  which 
they  Avere  no  longer  to  be  tolerated  on  earth.  But  having  gained  the  favor 
of  the  court,  they  began  to  think  of  persecuting  their  opponents,  when  Gra- 
tian was  hurled  from  Ids  throne  by  his  general  Maximus.  The  usurper  gave 
his  countenance  to  the  party  of  Itacius,  and  Priscillian  was  summoned  to 
Treves,  where  he  was  put  to  death  by  the  sword  (385).  This  was  the  first 
time  in  which  the  blood  of  a  heretic  was  shed  by  the  solemn  forms  of  law. 
The  Church  was  struck  with  horror  at  the  act.  The  Priscillianists,  roused  to 
enthusiasm  by  the  blood  of  their  martyr,  survived  the  persecution  until  some 
time  in  the  sixth  century. 


«)  Epipli.  haer.  70.     Theodoret.  haer.  fabb.  IV,  '.(.  II.  ecc.  IV,  9. 

V)  Epiph.  haer.  SO.     Theoaoret.  haer.  fabb.  IV,  11.  II.  ecc.  IV,  10.    Photii  cod.  52. 


CHAP   V     OPPOSITION.    §  140.  AERIUS.    JOVINIANUS.    §  14'3.  PAULICIANS.     159 

I  145.  Protesting  Ecclesiastical  Teachen. 
Aerius^  a  presbyter  in  Sebasto,  in  opposition  to  Ijis  former  iVien-l  and 
bishop  £i(stntliius,  tangbt  that  there  was  no  essential  distinction  between 
bishops  and  presbyters;  that  fa.sts  ordained  by  *he  authority  of  the  Cliurch 
were  Jewish  compulsory  forms,  and  that  prayers  and  alms  were  of  no  avail 
for  the  dead.  This  schism  at  Sebaste  appears  to  have  become  extinct  prin- 
cipally because  the  monastic  ethics  of  Eustathius  were  rejected  at  the  Synod 
of  Gangra  (between  3G2  and  370).  {n)  Jovinianus,  a  Roman  ascetic,  maintained 
that  there  was  no  difference  before  God  between  fasting  and  a  pious  enjoy- 
ment of  food,  nor  between  a  state  of  celibacy  and  an  honorable  wedlock,  and 
that  a  diflerence  in  good  works  presents  no  reason  for  expecting  difterent 
degrees  of  reward.  For  these  opinions  he  was  expelled  from  the  Church, 
first  by  his  bishop  Siricius,  and  then  on  the  report  ofthat  jjrelate,  by  Amlro- 
sius  of  Milan,  to  whom  he  had  applied  for  redress  (about  388).  (J)  Vigilan- 
tius,  a  native  of  Gaul  and  a  presbyter  in  Barcelona,  in  an  eloquent  treatise 
denounced  the  ecclesiastical  superstition  of  honoring  deceased  persons  as  idol- 
atry, vigils  as  occasions  for  licentiousness,  and  vows  of  chastity  as  tempta- 
tions to  unnatural  lusts,  and  maintainM  that  it  was  far  more  Christian  to 
use  in  a  wise  and  beneficent  way  the  property  which  had  been  inherited, 
than  to  cast  it  away  as  a  burden.  He  was  fixvored  by  his  bishop  and  some 
neighboring  prelates,  but  Eieronymus  defended  again-^t  him  the  customs  of 
the  Church  with  all  his  accustomed  asperity,  (c) 

§  140.     nistory  of  the  Paidicians.     Sect.  T. 

I.  Petrus  Siculus  (ahovXi'd)  ItrTopla  irfpl  t^j  alpffffws  Movix<»'"»'  ruv  ica.  nauXiKtaväiy 
\iyofj.(vuv,  gr.  et  lat  ed.  Jiaderus,  Ingolst  1C04.  4.  GieKeler,  Gott.  1S4C.  4.  Pfajtiiti,  nepl  Tr,s 
Mai'tX'^lwv  a.va$\aaTrt<T(ooi,  (Wolßi  Anecdot  gr.  Ilnmb.  1722.  Th.  I.  II.  &  Gnll>in'Ui  Bibl.  Tli. 
XIII.)  Jo.  Damasc.  AtaKoyoi  Kara  Mauixai<^v.  (0pp.  Th.  I.  p.  4'2Sss.)  Jo.  Ozriiensh,  Arnie- 
niorum  Catholici,  Or.  c.  Paulici.inos,  after  71*.  (0pp.  oil.  AiicJier,  Vcn.  1S.^4.  Comp,  n'iiiifincfiminin 
In  (1.  Tub.  Qiiartalscbr.  1S35.  P.  1.  Koriimla  roooptinnis  Mnnich.  ( Tollii  Insiirnia  itin.  It:ilici.  p.  14-l<.«.) 

II.  Frill.  Schmiif,  Ilist,  Paulicianoruiii  orieiitaliiim.  llafn.  1S26.  {EiigelhariH)  Die  Paiilic.  (Wi- 
ners n.  Engelh.  Journ.  1S27.  vol.  VII.  Part  1.  2.)  GUneler,  ü.  d.  Paulic.  (Stud.  u.  Krl!.  1S20.  vol.  II. 
P.l.) 

Constantinc^  from  the  neighborhood  of  Samosata,  and  connected  with  a 
Gnostic  congregation  at  Cihossa  in  Armenia,  found  in  the  jjcrusal  of  the  Now 
Testament  a  world  unknown,  and  became  animated  with  the  hope  (about  (j(iO), 
of  bringing  back  a  state  of  things  like  that  which  had  prevailed  in  the  Apos- 
tolic Church,  He  assumed  the  name  of  Sylranus,  and  called  those  commu- 
nities whicli  acknowledged  him  as  a  Reformer,  Paulino  congregations.  By 
their  opponents  they  were  called  Paulicians  (at  first  according  to  I.  Cor.  1, 12); 

a)  Kpli<h.  Iiair.  75.  Gangra:  Mansi  Tli.  H.  p.  KlOSs.«.  comp.  Socrat.  11,4;?.  [Art  In  K\u<)"s 
Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  IV.] 

h)  Siricii  Ep.  nd  dlvorsos  Episc,  adv.  Juvlii.  {ConnUtnt.  p.  6C3s».)  Ambro*ii  KeJcrlpt  nd  Sirlo. 
{lb.  p.  670ss.)  Hieran.  1.  II.  ndv.  Jovln.  (392.)  Atiguatin. :  De  liocr.  c.  S2.  Dc  bono  conjugall.  De 
s.  vlrginit 

c)  Ilieron.  Ep.  37.  ad  Ripuarlum  n.  4o|.  and  Llbcr  wlv.  Vigil,  n.  406.  (Th.  IV.)  Gfnniidii  de  \\t. 
Illustr.  c.  PP.— ,/.  G.  Walih.  dc  VIg.  linpr.tkoortliodoxo.  .Ton.  17."W.  (Potfii  Syll.  Cmtt  theol.  Th. 
VII.)    G.  J>.  /.intlner.  dc  Jovln.  ct  Vigil,  imrlorls  d(x:lr.  antcsignanis.  Lps.  1>10. 


IGO      ANC'IKNT  C'UUIXH  IIISTOKY.    PKi:.  II.   (iKIlMANIC  CIIUKCH.    A.  I).  31J-SO0. 

but  tlicy  tlioinsolves  acknowledged  no  nariio  but  that  of  Christians,  and  aj» 
plied  the  titio  of  Ilonians  to  the  Catholics.  Thoy  adhered  to  tlie  Gnostic  doo 
trincs  whic-h  maintained  that  the  history  of  the  world  exhibits  only  the  «trug 
^rlc  between  the  good  and  the  evil  principle»,  that  Judaism  was  the  work  of 
an  inferior  sjjirit,  that  the  Old  Testament  was  no  part  of  the  holy  Scriptures 
(Jo.  10,  8),  and  that  the  conflict  of  the  flesh  with  the  spirit  was  in  conse- 
quence of  their  creation  by  two  difierent  creators.  Their  principal  attention 
however,  was  directed  to  a  revival  of  apostolic  and  spiritual  Cliristianity. 
On  every  subject  they  appealed  to  the  New  Testament  as  a  sacred  book  for 
the  people  in  the  text  used  by  the  Church,  but  with  the  exclusion  of  the 
Epistles  of  Peter.  They  rejected  all  the  external  forms  then  in  use,  as  the 
ecclesiastical  system,  fasts  and  monasticism,  worship  of  saints  and  of  Mar}-, 
crosses  and  relicts,  and  regarded  baptism  and  the  Lord's  supper  as  only 
spiritual  acts.  Constantine  was  killed  (about  G8-4)  by  a  traitor,  but  at  the  in- 
stigation of  an  imperial  officer.  The  community  always  had  a  chief  like  him, 
and  called  after  one  of  the  companions  of  Paul,  but  neither  he  nor  any  of  his 
fellow-pilgrims  (avveKdrjuoi)  and  scribes  (voTclpioi)  exercised,  any  hierarchical 
powers.  As  they  were  joined  by  sc«ne  Manichaean  congregations  and  were 
favored  by  the  iconoclasts,  the  Paulicians  spread  over  the  extreme  provinces 
of  Asia,  in  spite  of  bloody  persecutions  from  without,  and  their  own  internal 
divisions.  Their  principal  city  was  Phanaroea  in  Ilelenopontus.  Some  of 
them  considered  it  right  to  adopt  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  with  an  alle- 
gorical signification,  and  to  submit  to  the  external  forms  of  the  Catholic  wor- 
ship, on  the  ground  that  these  might  be  beneficial  to  the  body.  The  death 
of  Constantine  was  so  heroic  that  the  very  judge  who  condemned  him,  after 
some  years,  left  the  capital  of  that  region  to  take  his  place.  The  reproach 
of  unnatural  licentiousness  which  was  cast  upon  them  may  have  been  occa- 
sioned by  their  entire  disregard  of  the  Mosaic  prohibitions  with  respect  to 
consanguinity.  It  is,  however,  possible  that  their  opposition  to  the  law  near 
the  end  of  the  eighth  century,  may  have  given  occasion  to  a  moral  degene- 
racy, of  Avhich  their  overseer,  Baancs  (6  pvnapöi)^  may  have  been  the  most 
prominent  specimen. 


DIVISION  II. -THE  GERMANIC  CHURCH. 

§  147.  Original  Authorities. 
I.  Semlei;  Vers,  den  Gebr.  d.  Quellen  in  d.  Staats-u.  KOesch.  d.  mittl.  Zeiten  zu  erleichtern.  Hal. 
1761.  Jtösler,  de  annalium  medii  aevi  condit  &  de  arte  crit.  in  aiin.  Tüb.  ITSSs.  4  Daldmann, 
Quellenkunde  d.  deutschen  Gesch.  Gott  (1S30.)  lS-33.— J/i?i6o/nü  rer.  Germ.  Scriptores.  Illrast  16SS>s. 
8  Th.  f.  Leihnits,  Scrr.  rer.  Brnnsvic  lllustrationi  inservientes.  Ilan.  ITOTss.  3  Th.  f.  Freheri  rer. 
Germ.  Scrr.  ed.  Struve,  Argent  l'lTss.  8  Th.  f.  Ilarzheviü  Concilia  Germ,  (tili  1747.)  Col.  1759ss. 
11  Th.  C  Ussermanni  Monumenta  res  Alem.<innicas  illustr.  Typis  S.  Blasian.  1790.  2  vols.  4.  Perts, 
Mon.  Germ,  hlstorica.  Han.  lS26ss.  S  Th.  f.— Du  Cheme,  Hist  Francor.  Scrr.  P.sr.  IWSss.  5  Th.  f. 
Bouquet- Dom  £rin!,  rer.  Gallicar.  et  Franc.  Scrr.  Par.  173S-1S33.  19  Th.  t—Jfiiratori,  rer.  ItaL 
Scrr.  Mediol.  1723ss.  21  Th.  t.—Eccard,  Corpus  hist  medii  aevi.  Lps.  1728.  2  Th.  f.  1)  Gregor.  Tu- 
ronens.  Hist  eccl.  Francor.  1.  X.  tili  594,  selected  from  &  cont  by  Fredegar  till  641.  ed.  liuinart. 
Par.  1699.  f.  {Bouquet,  Th.  II.  p.  75.)  Beda  VenerahUis,  Ilist  eccl.  gentis  Anglor.  L  V.  tili  731. 
Ed.  Jo.  Smith,  Cantabr.  1722.  f.  Stevenson,  Lond.  1S3S.    [Bede's  Eccles.  Hist  with  the  Sax.  Chron. 


DIV.  II.    GERMANIC  CIIÜRCII.    §  147.  ORIGINAL  AUTII0UITIE3.  161 

transl.  Into  Engl,  with  notes,  maps,  &c.  by  J.  A.  Giles,  Lend.  1845.]  2)  Jomande»,  de  rcb.  Oetlel« 
till  540.  Ed.  Fuhric.  Hamb.  1706.  f.  {ifuratoH  Th.  I.  P.  L  p.  187.)  Mdor.  IliDp.  Illst  Oothorum. 
Vandaloruui,  Suevorum  till  62Ö.  Ed.  Hosier,  Tub.  ISM.  4.  Isidor.  Pacens.  (about  754.)  Clironicon. 
(//«7!r/(7Ke/'/o/-e2,  E.^pafla  sagrada,  Madr.  174:?8s.  Tli.  VIII.  Du  Chesne  Th.  I.)  Pmihut  Warne' 
fiidl,  Didconus,  de  gestis  Longobard.  I.  YI.  till  744.  (Jfuratori  Th.  L  P.  I.  p.  SOr>.)  3)  Annalcs  rer. 
Francicaruni :  LaurUsenses  741-829,  revised  &  cont.  since  788  by  Eiiihard.  {PerU  Th.  I.  p.  124.) 

II.  Rühg,  Gesch.  d.  Xlittelalt  Brl.  ISIC.  IlnlUim,  [State  of  Europe  daring  tbo  Middle  Ages. 
Lond.  1846.  3  vols.  8.  New  York,  1847.  8.]  Luden,  Gesch.  d.  MA.  Jen.  182K  2  vols.  Rehm,  Gescli. 
<1.  MA.  Marb.  1821-35.  3  vols.  J^o,  Gesch.  d.  MA.  Hal.  1S80.  2  vols.  iToelUr,  Precis  do  I'llist  du 
moycn  äge.  Lonv.  1841.  Gibbon  &  Schlosser  in  their  lar^'cr  works. —  Wadismuth,  europ.  Sittcn- 
gesch.  Lps.  1831-33.  2  vols.  Charpentier,  Illst  litteraire  du  moyen  age.  Par.  1S33.— 7?.  v.  liaiimer, 
die  Einwirlc  d.  Christenth.  a.  d.  Althochdeutsche  Sprache.  Stuttg.  1845.  F.  W.  Rettherg,  KGesch. 
Deutschlands.  GOtt,  1S4C.  vol.  I.  [P.  KolUrausch  Hist  of  Germ.  transL  by  J.  D.  Ilaas.  New  York. 
1847.  8.  J.  J.  Maseon,  Hist  of  the  Ancient  Germans,  transl.  by  T.ediard,  Lond.  1S33.  2  vols.  4.  T. 
Greenwood,  First  Book  of  the  Ilist  of  the  Germans:  Barbaric  Period.  Lond.  1836.  4.  S.  A.  Ihin- 
futm,  IL  of  Eur.  during  the  Mid.  Ages.  Lond.  4  vols.  12.  IK  Jfemel,  II.  of  Germ.  transL  by  G.  Hör- 
rocks.  Lond.  1S4S.  S  vols.  12.     Gttizot,  IL  of  Civilization.  New  York.  1840.  4  vols.  12.] 

A  picture  of  this  age  is  especially  to  be  found  in  some  contemporary  bio- 
graphies (a)  and  letters  (I)  of  persons  prominent  in  the  Church  or  State  of 
that  day.  A  vivid  representation  of  German  alfairs,  as  they  would  appear  to 
a  Roman,  is  given  by  Procopius.  (c)  The  German  historical  writers  were  ex- 
clusively clergymen,  and  confine  their  attention  to  their  own  respective  na- 
tions, with  only  occasional  glances  at  the  affairs  of  others  in  the  vicinity. 
Gregory  of  Tours  (d.  595)  and  the  Venerable  Bede  (d.  735)  wrote  ecclesia.sti- 
cal  histories.  The  former,  with  an  honest  simplicity  and  an  excessive  faith, 
described  a  rude  age  as  a  warning  to  all  who  might  bo  tempted  to  treat  the 
Church  with  violence,  (d)  The  latter  collected  together  the  original  documents 
and  traditions  relating  to  the  history  of  the  English  Church,  as  they  existed 
among  the  clergy,  and  presented  them  in  a  learned  style  and  in  the  spirit  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  for  the  instruction  of  subsequent  ages.  Jornandes 
(Jordanis,  about  550),  a  monk,  possibly  a  bishop,  but  at  an  earlier  period  a 
private  secretary,  an  Ostrogoth  but  not  an  Arian,  wrote  a  history  of  his  na- 
tion both  in  the  East  and  in  the  West.  Ilis  was  the  first  German  voice  heard 
in  the  midst  of  the  national  migrations.  His  materials  were  principally  de- 
rived from  Roman  authorities,  and  his  notices  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  are  not 
very  abundant.  Paul  (d.  799),  the  son  of  IVarnefrid,  a  monk  of  Montecassino, 
belonging  to  the  literary  circle  around  Charles  the  Great,  collected  and  incor- 
porated in  his  history  of  the  Longobards,  the  lively  traditions  preserved  among 
the  people.  Ecclesiastical  subjects  always  seemed  interesting  to  him,  but  ho 
has  introduced  them  but  sparingly  into  his  narrative.  In  the  Annals  of  the 
convent  of  Loritch^  as  well  as  in  those  of  £</inhard^  the  exploits  of  the  Frank- 
isb  kings,  and  their  relations  to  the  Church,  arc  recorded  in  a  simple  and  con- 
cise style,  but  with  respect  to  the  principal  facts  in  the  animated  language 
of  interested  witnesses. 

a)  Generally  in  PerU  Th.  I.  II.    h)  Especially  Spp.  Sonl/.  Jb  Codex  CaroltnuB. 

c)  Do  hello  Vandalico.    Do  bello  Gothlco.  Ed.  G.  Dindorf,  Bonn.  1833.  2  vol.'i. 

d)  Löhell,  Gregor,  v.  Tours  u.  .s.  Zeit  Lpz.  1835.  t'.  O.  Kries,  de  Gre«.  Tur.  VIU  et  Scriptis. 
Trat.  1839. 


11 


162     AN'CIKNT  CIIUKCII  lIISTOIiV.   rKIt.  II.   GERMANIC  CMUnCH.    A.  D.  81!>-90D. 

CHAP.  I.— ESTAT5LISnMENT  OF  CIIRISTIAXJTY. 
§  148.     Religion  of  the  Gcriuans. 

I.  1)  T,tciti  r.orm.  c.  2.  9. 11.  27.  39.  40.  «.  45.  Annal.  XIII,  57.  Hist.  IV,  U.  2)  Abrcnnntlati«. 
flinboll  it  Inill<Miln.s8iiperstllioniini  ot  pncanlarnm,  c.  a.  743.  (Kpp. /?on//(<c.  cd.  Würdtw.  p.  12««. 
/•«ffaTh.  III.  p.  19s,)    Ciipitiilatio  <lo  partll).  Sa.t.  {Wulter,  Corp.jiir.  Germ.  Th.  11.  p.  lOKs.) 

II.  Monf,  Oescli.  (1.  Ileiilentli.  im  nördl.  Europa.  Lps.  u.  Darinst  l&22s.  vol.  II.  p.  1-822.  Jac. 
Orimm,  Deutsche  Mytliolo^'te.  Oiitt  (183.'5.)  1940.  L.  Uldnwl,  d.  Mythus  v.  Thor.  Stuttg.  1S36.  G. 
Klemm,  llandb.  d.  germ.  Altorthumskunde.  Drcsd.  1836.  [/).  Mallet,  Northern  Antiquities» 
Lond.  1S4S.  S.) 

When  the  Germans  first  began  to  have  intercourse  with  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, either  as  allies  or  as  enemies,  they  were  trained,  not  for  civilization, 
but  for  military  freedom.  They  were  a  bold,  faithful,  and  chaste  people,  high- 
spirited  whether  in  life  or  death,  living  by  agriculture  or  by  the  sword,  and 
addicted  to  no  excesses  but  those  of  the  table.  Their  women  were  admitted 
to  equal  privileges  with  themselves,  and  indeed  were  supposed  to  possess  a 
peculiarly  holy  and  prophetic  character.  Their  history  was  preserved  in  oral 
traditions  and  poems.  Their  religion,  as  described  by  Tacitus,  was  a  respect- 
ful aAve  in  the  presence  of  a  mysterious  power,  which  ruled  over  all  things 
and  was  worshipped  by  all  who  spoke  a  common  language,  however  variously 
apprehended  by  different  tribes.  In  the  ancient  songs,  lliuiUo^  a  deity  which 
sprung  from  the  earth,  and  his  son  Mannus,  the  man,  are  extolled  as  the  an- 
cestors of  the  nation.  The  Semnones  boasted  that  they  were  in  possession 
of  the  most  ancient  sanctuary.  There  a  divinity  who  ruled  over  all  was  wor- 
shipped in  a  forest  so  sacred  that  none  could  enter  it  but  in  fetters.  The 
deputies  of  all  the  tribes  belonging  to  the  same  race  assembled  there  to  cele- 
brate a  festival  for  the  whole  confederacy.  On  such  an  occasion  a  human 
being  was  offered  up  in  sacrifice,  as  none  but  the  most  exalted  being  of  earth 
appeared  to  them  worthy  of  the  Deity.  Captives  taken  in  war  were  gene- 
rally the  victims,  and  in  extreme  circumstances  a  whole  hostile  army  was  de- 
voted to  death.  On  an  island  of  the  ocean  was  a  grove  sacred  to  Bertha 
(Xerthus).  At  times  her  veiled  chariot  was  drawn  forth  dispensing  joy  and 
peace  among  the  people.  On  her  return  the  goddess  and  lier  chariot  were 
plunged  into  a  mysterious  sea,  and  all  the  slaves  who  had  attended  her  were 
swallowed  up  in  the  waves.  Other  gods  are  mentioned  by  Tacitus,  but  with 
Roman  names.  There  was  a  god  of  wisdom,  another  of  power,  another  of 
war,  and  tAvo  youthful  brothers  like  Castor  and  Pollux,  but  natives  of  the 
country,  and  served  by  a  priest  in  a  woman's  apparel.  Victory  in  battle  was 
the  gift  of  the  gods.  These  were  supposed  to  have  their  home  beyond  the 
great  ocean  from  which  their  forms  were  sometimes  seen  to  emerge  and  illu- 
minate all  around  them  by  the  beams  which  streamed  from  their  heads.  Per- 
sons praying  turned  their  eyes  toward  the  heavens.  The  Germans  thought 
it  inconsistent  with  the  greatness  of  celestial  beings  to  be  confined  by  walls, 
or  to  be  represented  by  a  human  form.  Groves  and  forests  were  their  sacred 
places,  and  they  applied  the  name  of  God  to  that  mystery  which  they  could 
reverently  contemplate  only  in  the  inner  spirit.     Unlike  the  Gauls  {a)  in  these 

a)  Citemi;  de  Kilo  Gall.  VI,  21. 


CHAP.  r.    ESTABL.  OF  CUP..    §  14S.  GEEMAXIC  RELIGION.  162 

respects,  they  had  no  priestly  caste,  nor  splendid  sacrificial  rites,  hut  priests 
presided  over  their  sacred  thinpr^  and  in  the  religious  assemhlies  of  the  people, 
and  corporeal  punishments  could  he  inflicted  on  freemen  only  in  the  name  of 
the  gods.  The  military  weapons  of  a  deceased  person  were  buried  with  his 
body  in  the  grave.  Such  was  the  religion  which  the  first  Christian  mission- 
aries called  the  worship  of  the  devil.  The  Irminsul  was  theb  regarded 
among  the  Saxons  with  especial  veneration,  because  it  was  supposed  to  be  the 
pillar  whicli  sustained  tlio  universe.  This  was  only  a  vestige  of  the  imageless 
worship  of  the  one  God,  and  was  connected  with  recollections  of  Ilcrmann 
the  national  hero.  (J)  The  gods  worshipped,  though  with  different  degrees 
of  honor  among  different  tribes,  were  :  Wuotan,  the  arbiter  of  worlds  and  of 
battles,  and  the  father  of  heroes  and  of  kings ;  Thunar,  the  god  of  war  and 
of  thunder,  to  whom  were  dedicated  the  most  ancient  oaks ;  Fro,  Avho  dis- 
pensed peace  and  fertility ;  Frcyja,  the  lovely  consort  of  Wuotan,  and  Eoatra, 
the  goddess  of  Spring,  (r)  Later  traditions  give  us  slight  notices  of  Fran 
Holla  in  Lower  Germany,  and  of  Frau  Bertha  in  Upper  Germany,  beautiful 
goddesses  of  the  earth  who  preside  over  the  affairs  of  tlio  household  and  of 
husbandry.  The  gods  were  supposed  to  look  down  upon  men  through  the 
windows  of  heaven,  and  to  direct  human  destiny.  {iT)  Though  the  old  sanc- 
tuaries under  the  canopy  of  the  lofty  forest  were  sometimes  seen  at  the  period 
of  whicli  we  are  writing,  sometimes  too  might  be  found  tcm])les  and  images 
of  the  gods.  Offerings  were  also  presented  at  fountains  and  rocks,  and  in 
times  of  peculiar  joy  or  necessity,  human  sacrifices  were  offered.  In  some  in- 
stances in  which  men  could  not  determine  what  was  right,  the  judgment  was 
submitted  to  God,  and  the  method  most  preferred  was  the  duel.  So  strong 
was  the  hope  of  meeting  friends  in  another  world,  that  the  Friesan  king,  Rad- 
bot,  scorned  the  Christian's  heaven,  from  which  his  predecessors  were  ex- 
cluded, (e) 

§  149.     ReUgion  of  the  Northern  Germanic  Nations. 

I.  The  older  Ethla  collected  hy  Soenmnd  Sinfusson  (d.  1133.)  iu  Ireland:  Edda  &iemundar 
?iinns  Fnkld.  Edihi  rhytliinioa,  Sacmundina  dicta,  cd.  Tltorlaciiis,  Finn  Magnuscn,  etc.  Uafn. 
17S7-1S28.  8  Til.  4.  Miniature  ed.  e.  rec.  Hiifkii  cur.  Afielius,  Holm.  1S18.  Translations  of  most  of 
the  songs  (in  Germ.)  by  I/agen,  ErI.  1S12.  Bresl.  1S14.  Grimm,  Brl.  1S15.  Lcffi',  Lps.  Is29.<s.  3  vols, 
riio  proso  Edda,  was  commenced  by  Snorre  Slurleson  (d.  1241),  and  was  completed  in  tlio  14tli  cent : 
Snorra-Edda  »samt  Skiildu  af  na>.k:  Stock.  ISIS.  Uebcrs.  v.  liith».  Brl.  1S12.  Muspilll,  lirsg.  v. 
Schmetlei:  (Buchner's  Bcitri'igc,  Mun.  1S.32.  vol.  I.  P.  2.)  Au.xillary  sources:  For  the  norlliem  heroio 
Sagos,  SCO  Midler,  Sagnbibliotliek.  Kjiib.  1S17.  8  Th.  Uebers.  d.  1.  B.  Ludimann,  BrL  1SI6.  Saxo 
Graiiimaticus  and  Adam  Bremensis. 

II.  After  the  invcstlgallons  of  *'«Ä/n.  TfiorJaciiis  ttr]i\  Finn  Mitffnimfn,  Gen.  Te\\ews:  GrundU 
«■»■(/,  Nordens  Mytology.  Kj  b.  (ISOS.)  1S32.  S(uhr,  Glaub.  Wlss.  u.  DlcL  dor  alt.  Skandinavier. 
Kopenli.  1S25.  Mone,  vol.  I.  p.  210-479.  Munter,  KGcscli.  v.  Dänem.  u.  Norw.  Lpr.  1W3.  vol.  I.  p. 
1-204.  Dirvkiiik-I/tihiifetd,  nord.  Vorzeit.  Kopenb.  lv.'!>8.  2  P.  (Petersen  u.  Thomsen)  LeltC  z. 
nord.  Allertlium.--kun<le  lin^g.  v.  d.  konigl.  Gesellscli.  f.  nord  Altertb.  I'ebcr«.  v.  Paidtifn,  Kopenli. 
1837.    [Mullet.  (§  147.)  A'.  F.  Wiborg,  DIo  Mytbol.  des  Nonlcn»  a.  d.  Dänisch,  v.  Anton  v.  SUtl, 

V)  L  Pcrtz,  Tb.  I.  p.  228.  Th.  II.  p.  076—11.  J.  Grimm,  Irinenstrasse  n.  IrmensTiule.  Wien.  1S15. 
Helgen,  Irmin.  Bresl.  1S17. 

c)  Beda,  Do  tempor.  rat,  c.  13. 

d)  Paul.  Diac.  I.  8.     Grimm,  Mytbol.  Edit  1.  p.  96ss, 

e)  Jonae  vita  9.  Wulframl  c.  9.  {Jfabillon,  Acta  SS.  Benedict.  Sacc,  IIL  P.  1.)  Comp.  JpptafU 
Qist.  Kom.  IV,  1.3. 


164      ANCIENT  cm; KCl!  llISToUy.    I'KIt.  11.   (JEHMANIC  CIIUnCH.   A.  I).  312-800. 

Berl.  1847.  G.  I'igoU,  Manual  of  Hcarxl.  Myth.  Lond.  1839.  8.  A.  CrichUm,  Scandinavia,  Anc.  «no 
Mod.  F,<Hnb.  ISno.  2  vds.  12.  W/ieaton't  Illst  of  tlie  Northmen.  2  ed.  New  York.  1S47.  //.  ChrihU 
mat.  Universal  Myth.  p.  ZT'J-Slö.  Lon<L  1838.] 

Tlio  Scandinavian  i.s  a  special  branch  of  the  common  German  mythology, 
hut  its  general  cliaracler  was  more  fanciful  and  gloomy,  and  it  penetrated 
deeper  into  the  grotesque  and   mon.strou3  forms  of  nature.      Neither  the 
jjurely  historical  view  of  it,  according  to  which  Odhinn  wa.s  a  mortal  king  or 
even  an  impostor,  nor  the  purely  symbolical,  according  to  which  the  doctrine 
of  the  Am  is  only  a  figurative  representation  of  the  origin,  the  redemption, 
and  the  regeneration  of  the  world,  corresponds  with  the  character  of  this 
peojile.     The  fact  that  the  wor.ship  of  Odhinn  was  brought  to  the  North  by 
a  nomadic  tribe  from  the  Caucasus,  and  that  the  original  inhabitants  with 
their  gods  were  overcome,  is  clearly  indicated  in  the  tradition  that  the  Aser 
themselves  came  from  that  region,  and  maintained  a  perpetual  war  with  the 
conquered  race  of  giants  and  dwarfs.    The  world  was  created  by  Odhinn  out 
of  the  dead  body  of  the  giant  Ymer  whom  he  had  slain,  i.  c,  out  of  the 
organic  powers  which  had  been  brought  into  subjection.     Creation  therefore 
commenced  with  a  murder,  and  a  bloody  feud  sprung  up  between  the  gods 
who  formed  the  world  and  the  race  of  the  giant  who  wished  to  revenge  his 
death.     Odhinn  is  in  nature  the  sun  which  gives  life  to  all  things,  and  in  his- 
tory he  is  royal  wisdom  ;  Thor  is  the  god  of  thunder,  and  the  honest  but 
wild  prince  of  war ;  Freyr,  with  his  lovely  sister  Freyja,  represent  the  gene- 
rative and  conceptive  powers  of  nature.     Among  men  the  latter  represents 
love,  but  was  originally  different  from  Frigg,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Odhinn. 
In  the  popular  legends,  however,  all  these  gods  are  looked  upon  as  personal 
beings,  and  their  divine  life  and  adventures  while  warring  with  the  giants  and 
magicians,  is  a  picture  of  the  military  life  of  the  peoi>le  in  their  struggles 
Avith  the  powers  of  nature,  with  heroes,  and  with  enchanters.    The  charac- 
ter of  the  goddesses  is  the  only  point  which  is  strange,  and  indicates  an 
Asiatic  origin ;  for  although  in  other  respects  they  well  represent  the  attrac- 
tions of  the  German  women,  they  do  not  generally  exhibit  a  very  high 
regard  for  chastity.     The  gods  presided  over  the  fortunes  of  men ;  Odhinn 
was  the  bestower  of  victory,  of  fame,  and  of  the  power  of  song,  and  Freyja 
is  the  giver  of  the  pleasures  and  pains  of  love.     The  Nomas  descry,  weave, 
and  announce  the  destinies  of  heroes.     The  deceitful  and  the  cowardly  are 
tormented  in  Nißhcim,  and  such  as  die  without  renown  wander  as  ghosts  in 
the  kingdom  of  Hela  ;  but  the  Yalhjrias  hover  over  the  field  of  battle,  and 
select  their  favorite  heroes  for  the  slaughter.    Those  who  fall  gloriously 
ascend  to  the  TalhaUa,  where  they  continue  to  spend  a  life  of  heroic  activ- 
ity with  the  gods.     Thus  love,  death,  and  a  higher  life  were  united  in  the 
same  moment,  and  hence,  notwithstanding  their  joy  in  life,  their  delight  in 
a  hero's  death  was  always  great.     Sacrifices  were  offered  to  the  gods,  and  in 
circumstances  of  extremity  a  nation  once  offered  up  its  own  king.    Ordi- 
narily, however,  the  only  offerings  were  such  as  were  found  on  the  tables  of 
their  cheerful  feasts.     This  national  faith  knew  nothing  of  self-inflicted  tor- 
tures, but  a  gloomy  sadness  pervades  the  Edda,  since  pain  and  death  are  con- 
nected with  all  life,  and  spare  not  even  the  gods.    Indeed,  the  very  gods  are 
aware  of  a  prophecy  which  predicts  their  death.    Locke,  who  represents  the 


CHAP.  I.    ESTAB.  OF  CUR.    §  IW.  EDDA-EELIGION.    §  150.  AKIANISM.        1G3 

all-devouring  fire  and  the  principle  of  evil  in  opposition  to  the  new  Avorld  of 
the  gods,  contrives  to  intrude  himself  among  the  Aser.  Already,  by  hia 
subtle  artifices,  Balder^  the  noblest  of  all  the  gods,  has  fallen.  By  stratagem 
and  power  the  Aser  are  yet  able  to  ward  ofl:'  their  own  destruction.  But  a 
time  is  coming  called  the  Twiliijltt  of  the  gods,  Avhen  all  the  powers  of  the 
abyss  will  break  their  bonds,  and  all  the  Aser  and  the  heroes  of  the  Val- 
halla will  contend  against  tliem.  As  in  the  Niebolungen  Xoth,  aU  the  gods, 
the  heroes,  and  the  powers  of  the  abyss  will  bo  slain  together.  In  the 
mighty  death-struggle,  the  world  itself  will  become  a  confused  mass,  and  be 
consumed  by  fire.  Then  a  new  earth  will  bo  produced,  and  be  inhabited  by 
an  innocent  human  pair  nourished  by  the  morning  dew,  by  a  few  sons  of  the 
fallen  gods  who  will  survive  the  ruin,  and  by  Balder,  wlio  will  then  return 
from  the  lower  world.  Tliey  will  spend  their  time  in  relating  to  each  other 
the  conflicts  of  the  former  world.  But  for  above  all  this  strife  and  change 
exists  an  unknown  power  which  has  been  called,  perhaps  from  some  hint 
taken  from  Christianity,  the  Universal  Father  (Alfadur). 

§  150.  Arianism. 
Near  the  close  of  the  fourth  century,  the  "Western  provinces  of  the  Ro- 
man empire,  partly  through  conquest  and  partly  through  the  increasing  influ- 
ence of  German  generals  and  mercenaries,  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Germans.  This  people  then  had  either  become  Christian,  or  were  inclined 
to  be  so.  The  Goths  had  received  the  gospel  by  means  of  prisoners  taken  in 
war,  and  a  Gothic  metropolitan  had  a  seat  in  tlie  Synod  of  Nicaea.  Among 
the  "West  Gothic  princes,  Fritigern  was  fovorable  to  Christianity,  but  Athau- 
ar'tch  persecuted  all  who  embraced  it.  "^'hen  the  Western  Goths  fled  before 
the  Iluns,  and  sought  the  hospitality  of  the  Roman  empire  (37G),  their  bap- 
tism was  the  condition  of  their  settlement  on  the  further  side  of  the  Dan- 
ube, (a)  The  form  of  Christianity  which  they  then  received  from  the  em- 
peror Valens  was  Arian,  and  to  this  they  adhered  with  a  German  fidelity, 
even  when  another  creed  was  announced  to  tliem  bj'  imperial  edicts.  Their 
bishop,  TJlphilaft^  by  natural  disposition  and  by  education  well  fitted  to  bo  a 
mediator,  translated  the  Scriptures  into  their  native  language,  (t>)  and  after 
performing  the  duties  of  liis  ollice  for  forty  years,  died  at  Constantinople 
(388),  deeply  aflTected  on  account  of  the  subversion  of  bis  faith,  (r)  But  in 
consequence  of  the  victories  achieved  by  this  nation,  and  the  general  recep- 
tion of  his  German  gospel,  the  otlier  German  concjuerors  end)raced  the 
Arian  faith.  It  was  carried  ])y  the  ^Vi:stcrn  Goths  into  Spain,  by  tlio  E<ist- 
crn  Goths  into  Italy,  and  by  the  Vandah  into  Africa.  Tlio  greater  part  of 
the  JJurffundians,  after  a  brief  period  of  partial  sympathy  with  Catholicism, 


«)  J.  Anclibach,  Gesell,  dor  WcstgoUien.  Frkf.  1S'2T. 

V)  U/pltihie  i>arl'n\m  Incdit  spec.  cd.  A.  Mojiix  ct  Cantilhrneuii,  ^[o(l.  1?19.  4.  Cont  fVoin  tlie 
Epp.  of  Paul :  1S29.  18:M.  1S;35.  4.  Uinias.  V.  ct  N.  Test  verslonls  potli.  friipintn.  c<l(l.  C.  de  Gale. 
leiite  et  J.  Loelie,  Altcnb.  et  Lp».  I&3ö-t7.  2  Tli.  4. — Skclrelns  Aivnjrci'ljöns  Jöliannrn,  lirsp.  v. 
Müssniann,  Mmiicli.  1S35.  4.  cninp.  I.nebe^  Beitr.  z.  Te.xtberlctit.  u.  Erkl.  (L  Skeireins.  Altcnb. 
1839.     [Art.  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Blbl.  Lit  vol.  III.] 

c)Socrat.lY.'ifi.  Sozom.\\,^t.  T/if odoret.  iy,8S.  Philostorg.  U,  Z.  Jornawf.  c.lis.  O 
Wuitz,  Ü.  Leben  u.  Lclire  d.  Ulf.  Ilan.  1840. 


16G    ANCIENT  cnuücii  iii>Toi:y.  i'ku.  ii.  okumamc  ciicitcii.  a.  d. sn eoiy. 

finally  followed  tlils  cxnini)lc.  Many,  liowover,  wlio  jfrofessed  to  bo  Arians, 
Avero  only  Senilarians,  or  nltogctlier  i^'norant  of  tlie  ditlerenco  between  the 
two.  (</)  Tbo  Catholic  Church  to  which  the  native  Pwomans  belonged  re- 
mained unmolested,  for  the  German  kings  held  that  religion  could  not  bt 
enforced  by  authority,  and  that  as  God  tolerated  various  forms  of  it,  no  par- 
ticular form  should  bo  forced  upon  .iM  persons,  (r)  The  Vandal  kings  in 
Africa  (after  431)  were  the  only  sovereigns  who  by  a  violent  persecution 
gave  new  martyrs  and  miracles  to  the  Catholic  Church,  (/)  and  tliereby  pre- 
pared tlie  way  for  their  own  overthrow,  and  for  the  victories  of  BelLsarius, 
by  whom  the  Koman  empire  was  once  more  established  there  (533). 

§  151.      Victory  of  CuthoUckm. 
Gregor.  Tur.  II.  Franc.  II,  2'ss.—Michelei,  IX.  de  France.  Par.  1838.  voL  L 

Clor  is,  of  the  Merovingian  family,  united  the  Franks  under  one  monarchy, 

and  subdued  the  various  tribes  of  Gaul  and  of  the  provinces  on  the  confines  of 
Germany  (481-511).  His  Catholic  wife  Clotilda,  a  Burgundian  princess, 
endeavored  to  tarn  Lis  mind  from  the  gods  whom  his  fathers  had  wor- 
shipped. In  the  battle  of  Ziilpich  (Tolbiacum,  496)  against  the  AUemanni, 
when  lie  saw  his  ranks  give  way,  he  raised  his  hands  in  supplication  to  the 
God  of  the  Christians.  After  his  baptism  on  Christmas  by  St.  liemigius,  in 
the  Cathedral  at  Rheims,  the  victor  was  anointed  as  a  Christian  king,  (a)  and 
saluted  as  another  Constantine.  lie  obtained  considerable  reputation  for  his 
military  exploits,  his  sanguinary  selfishness,  and  his  zeal  for  the  Cathohc 
faith.  As  he  was  then  the  only  orthodox  king,  he  professed  to  feel  bound  in 
conscience  to  obtain  possession  of  the  beautiful  territories  of  the  Arian 
princes,  and  in  his  attempts  to  do  so,  he  received  much  assistance  from  their 
Catholic  subjects.  With  a  precipitate  faith  the  Franks  and  AUemanni  fol- 
lowed the  example  of  their  victorious  monarch.  In  consequence  of  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Franks,  and  the  mental  superiority  of  the  native  Catholic  inhab- 
itants, Arianism  began  to  decline,  and  in  the  eighth  century,  when  the 
Longobard  kingdom  {V)  was  overthrown,  its  independence  as  a  national  reli- 
gion was  entirely  lost. 

§  152.     British  and  Anglo-Saxon  Church. 

I.  'n'llkins,  Concilia  Brit,  et  Hibem.  Lond.  1"37.  4  vols.  f.    Beda  Yen.  H.  ecc. 

II.  Usserii  Britannicar.  Eccl.  antiquitt.  (Dubl.  1639.  4.)  Lond.  16ST.  f.  Lingard,  Anti(}uitiM  ol 
the  Anglo-Saxon  Church.  Newcastle.  1S06.  2  vols.  Stäudlin,  KGcsch.  v.  Grossbrit  Gott.  1S19.  2 
vols.  J.  Lanigan,  Eccl.  Hist,  of  Ireland.  Dubl.  ed.  2. 1829.  2  vols.  Munter,  die  altbrit  K.  (Stud.  u. 
Krit  1833.  P.  Is.)  K.  Schroedl,  d.  1.  Jahrh.  d.  engl.  K  Pass.  1S40.  [Still ingfleet,  Orig.  Britannicae. 
with  notes  by  Pautin,  Oxon.  1842.  2  vols.  8.  G.  Smith,  Eeligion  of  Anc  Britain,  historically  con- 
sidered. Lond.  2  ed.  8.    IT.  Soames,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Church,  its  hist  &c.  Lond.  3  ed.  S.     Wm. 


d)  Theodoret.  H.  ecc.  lY,  83,  Procop.  Hist  Goth.  c.  4. 

e)  Cassiodor.  variar.  1.  II.  Ep.  27.  1.  X.  Ep.  26. 

/)  Victor,  Episc.  Vitcnsis  (43T),  Hist  persecutionis  Afric.  {üuinarti  Hist  persocutiunis  Van- 
dillicae.  Par.  1G94.  Yen.  1732.  4.)—rapencordt,  Gesch.  d.  Vamt  Herrsch,  in  Afr.  Brl.  18:37. 

a)  The  popular  account :  I/inanar,  Vita  S.  lleniigii  c.  3.— f.  G.  r.  Murr,  d.  h.  Ampulle  n 
Rheims.  Nünib.  ISOl. 

I)  Koch- Stenil erg,  P.eieb.  d.  Longobarden.  Munch.  1SS9. 


CHAP.  I.    EsTAB.  OF  CIIR.    §102.  BRITISH  &  A>-GLO-SAXON  CnUECIlES.       167 

{Tales,  Oridn  of  the  Prim.  Church  of  the  Brit  Islca,  Lond.  S.  F  Thackeray,  ResearcLes  Into 
the  Eccl.  and  Polit  State  of  Anc  Brit  Lond.  lS4a  2  vols.  8.  S.  Turner,  IL  of  the  Anglo-Sasons. 
6  ed.  8  vols.  8.  Lond.  1S36.  F.  I'aJgrare,  11.  of  the  Anghi-Saxons.  Lond.  15-37.  12.  Amer.  and 
For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  IL  (1S51.)  p.  86js.  71&«.  LitUlta  Rcl.  Ma^'.  vol.  IIL  (1S29.)  p.  315ss.  C.  An- 
derson, Uist  Sketches  of  the  Ancient  Irish.  Edlnb.  1S2S.  S.] 

The  Church  iu  Ireland  was  founded  (after  430)  by  Patrick,  a  Britun,  ^vllo 
.abored  there  with  the  zeal  of  a  sincere  and  recent  convert,  and  with  the 
power  of  one  who  was  believed  not  only  by  others  but  by  himself  to  work 
niiracles.  {a)  The  convents  he  established  were,  until  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  the  centres  of  a  fervent  ecclesiastical  activity  for  the  island, 
and  Ireland  was  called  the  Isle  of  Saints.  From  it  proceeded  Columha  {after 
565),  by  whom  the  Fids  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  were  brought  over  to 
the  Christian  faith.  Adopting  some  remnants  of  Druidical  customs,  he 
established  on  the  island  of  J/i/  (St.  Jona)  a  saccrdotiü  order,  to  which,  in 
various  records  after  the  ninth  century  the  name  of  Cvhhcs  (Kele-Dc)  was 
probably  exclusively  applied,  (h)  The  bishops  of  the  surrounding  country 
acknowledged  this  presbyter-abbot  as  their  superior,  (c)  Britain  is  men- 
tioned as  a  Christian  country  in  the  fourth  century.  But  when  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.,  who  had  been  invited  to  enter  it  as  allies  (after  449),  became  its  con- 
querors, the  British  Church  continued  only  in  ^Vales  and  in  the  mountains 
of  Northumberland.  The  national  hatred  of  the  tribes  was  too  intense  to 
allow  the  Saxons  to  receive  the  gospel  from  the  Britons.  Gregory  the  Great., 
who  for  a  long  time  took  a  deep  interest  in  this  people,  availed  himself  of 
the  marriage  of  EtJielbert,  king  of  Kent,  with  a  Prankish  princess,  to  send  a 
solemn  embassy  of  forty  Benedictines  to  proclaim  himself  and  Christ  among 
tlie  Anglo-Saxons.  The  king  was  baptized,  and  Augustine^  the  principal  per- 
son belonging  to  the  embassy,  was  appointed  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
(597).  From  Kent,  Roman  Catholicism  was  propagated,  in  spite  of  many 
vicissitudes  during  the  succeeding  century,  among  the  other  Saxon  kingdoms, 
more  by  covert  concessions  and  gradual  changes  than  by  an  ojien  conflict 
with  heathenism.  For  Gregory  had  instructed  those  whom  he  had  sent  not 
to  destroy  the  temples  of  the  gods,  but  to  consecrate  them  to  the  true  Deity ; 
to  allow  the  people  to  bring  the  oxen  which  they  had  been  accustomed  to 
sacrifice  at  their  heathen  festivals,  and  on  days  devoted  to  the  dedication  of 
a  church,  or  to  the  conimemorntion  of  some  saint,  to  slay  them  in  honor  of 
the  true  God,  and  to  hold  joyful  feasts  for  them  under  green  arbors  near  the 
churches.  By  retaining  such  customary  pleasures,  ho  hoped  graduall}'  to 
make  these  obstinate  dispositions  form  a  relish  for  the  spiritual  enjoyments 
of  Christianity.  ('/)  It  soon  became  evident,  however,  from  the  ollbrts  to 
unite  the  Saxon  and  British  churches,  that  the  latter  would  acknowledge  no 
other  subjection  to  the  Koman  bishop  than  that  which  was  due  to  any  other 
Christian.  (<)     But  they  tolerated  each  other  with  greater  or  less  degrees  of 

a)  Patricii  Confessio.  (Opiisco.  ed.  Waraetm,  Lond.  165S.  and  In  W.  Beiham,  Irish  AntiqusHan 
Researches.  DuM.  lS26s.  V.  II.  App.  p.  49.)  Popular  accounts:  Jocelini  (12lh  cent)  Vila  S.  Palric 
(Acta  SS.  Mart.  vol.  II.  p.  540  )     [Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  L  (1S50.)  p.  4>9ss.  5:J5s«.] 

h)  John  Smith,  Lifo  of  St  Col.  Edinb.  179^.— i/.  Jiiniifson,  llUt  Account  of  the  Anc.  Culdccs  ol 
*ona.  Edinb.  ISU.  4.—,/.  G.  J.  liraun,  de  Ouldcl*  Bonn.  ls»o.  4.      c)  Beda,  U.  ecc.  Ill,  4. 

<0  Gregor.  Ep.  ad  Mellitum.  (Opp.  v..l.  II.  p.  117Gs  and  R«la  I,  30.) 

t)  WiU-ins,  Cone.  vol.  I.  p.  26.     Jleda,  Hist.  ccc.  II,  2. 


IGS      ANCIKNT  C;lH;nCU  HISTDliV. 'I'Ki:.  II.   GERMANIC  CllUItCII.    A.  I).  312-SOO. 

hostility  until  tlio  final  union  of  tlie  two  nations,  when  tlie  Church  of  the, 
most  miiiierous  i)COi)lc  gained  the  victory. 

§  153.     Irruption  of  Islam  in  the  Went. 

J.  Anchhtu-h.  Gosoh.  «1.  Omniaijaden  in  Spanien.  Frkf.  1829.S.  [Pascual  iJe  Gayanrjos,  II.  of  th« 
Mohammedan  Ih'naslles  in  Spain,  from  tlio  text  of  Al  Makkari,  LoncL  ]i>40-13.  2  vols.  i.  J.  C. 
Murphy,  II.  of  (he  Moll.  Empire  in  Spain,  Lond.  ISIC.  4.] 

In  consequence  of  a  dispute  about  the  succession  to  the  throne,  Spain  was 
opened  to  the  Arabians,  the  conquerors  of  Africa.  The  kingdom  of  the  West- 
ern Goths  was  speedily  overthrown  hy  Mtisa,  the  general  of  the  Caliphate,  and 
Spain  was  subjected  to  the  Arabian  prophet  (711).  Through  this  country 
AbJcrrhaman  was  preparing  to  pass  for  the  conquest  of  the  entire  West, 
that  ho  might  unite  it  with  his  Eastern  empire.  He  had  already  obtained 
possession  of  France  as  far  as  the  Loire,  when  the  power  of  the  Arabians  on 
the  north  of  the  Pyrenees  was  broken  for  ever,  by  Charles  Martel,  at  tbe 
battle  of  Poictiers  (732).  In  Spain  the  Christians  received  toleration  from 
the  Arabians  (Mozarabes)  as  a  distinct  sect,  and  from  their  mountains  in  the 
North  commenced  against  the  Arabian  government  a  chivalrous  contest  fo' 
their  national  independence  and  for  Christianity. 

§  154.     Germany.    Boni/acius,  680-755. 

I.  Bonifacii:  Epistolae,  ed.  Würdt'wein,'Siog.  17S9.  f.  Vita,  scr.  "Willibald  about  760.  {Pertz 
Th.  II.  p.  331.) 

II.  Othlonus  (about  1066),  Vita  S.  Bon.  (Acta  SS.  Jun.  Th.  I.  p.  452.)  Seraniis,  Mojrnntiac. 
ferum  1.  V.  Mog.  6!i4.  4.  ed.  Johan7ies,  YicL  1722.  f.  Th.  I.  Siigittariu»,  Antiquitt  gentilisnii  et 
christianisini  Tliuringicl.  Jen.  16S5.  4.  Gudenii,  Ds.  de  Bon.  llelmst.  1720.  4.  Lqffler,  Bon.  Gotha. 
1812.    Seiter.1,  Bon.  Mainz.  1945. 

Bishoprics  had  been  established  during  the  fourth  century  in  Germany, 
along  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube,  as  far  as  the  Roman  dominion  extended, 
bnt  in  the  fifth,  Christianity  was  partially  driven  back  by  the  national  mi- 
grations. Under  the  influence  of  the  Franks  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighth 
century,  it  pressed  forward  as  far  as  the  Saale  and  the  Elbe,  but  it  was  under 
no  ecclesiastical  regulations,  and  was  much  corrupted  by  paganism.  The 
gospel  was  also  carried  by  British  monks  as  far  as  the  Main  and  among  the 
Allemanni,  but  had  no  connection  with  Rome.  Thus  Columlan  (d.  615), 
who  had  been  driven  from  the  Vosges  as  far  as  the  Apennines,  established 
some  convents  as  seminaries  of  Christianity,  and  his  disciple  Gall  (d.  about 
G50),  who  had  been  left  at  the  lake  of  Constance,  and  had  become  a  hermit 
on  the  Steinach,  made  a  lasting  and  beneficial  impression  on  the  minds  of  the 
people,  by  destroying  their  idols,  by  casting  out  demons  in  a  remarkable 
manner,  and  by  refusing  to  accept  the  bishopric  of  Constance,  (a)  But  Win- 
frcJ,  an  Anglo-Saxon  monk,  originally  from  Kirton  in  Devonshire,  better 
known  by  his  Roman  name  of  Bonifoce,  Avas  sent  from  Rome  to  undertake 
the  conversion  of  Germany  (718),  and  finally  became  the  apostle  of  the  Ger- 

a)  I.  Vita  S.  Columbani  by  his  ,iupil  Jona.%  A'ita  S.  Galli  by  VTalafrid  Straho  in  MaliUor. 
Acta  Ord.  S.  Bened.  Saec.  II.  p.  1.  22S.  Tbe  oUior  sources  of  the  latter  in  Pertz,  Th.  I.  p.  \.—C.  J 
WH/tf/c,  Gesch.  d.  Einfuhr,  d.  Christenth.  ini  südwostl.  reulschl.  Tub.  1nS7.  G.  C.  Kvottenbeli,  ii 
Columbano.  Lugd.  1nj9.     F.  G.  RtMerff,  Obss.  ad  vitam  S.  Galli  spectantes.  Marb.  1:J42.  4 


CHAP.  I.    ESTAB.  OF  CUR.     §  154.  BONIFACE.    §  155.  SAXONS.  169 

mans.  This  title,  however,  belongs  to  Lim  not  so  much  because  he  first  pro- 
claimed the  gospel  to  the  people,  as  because  he  effected  the  complete  over- 
throw of  paganism,  announced  by  the  destruction  of  the  sacred  oak  at  Geis- 
mar,  (l)  and  because  he  was  the  founder  of  the  German  Church,  He  was 
superstitious  in  his  views,  rigid  in  his  habits,  narrow-minded  with  respect  to 
external  forms,  and  arrogant  towards  inferiors,  but  submissive  to  popes, 
except  when  he  thought  they  protected  abuses,  (r)  In  conformity  with  his 
oath,  (d)  he  made  the  German  Church  dependent  upon  the  pope,  but  with- 
out the  authority  of  the  Roman  bishop  and  of  the  Frankisli  monarch,  he 
•would  have  found  the  enforcement  of  his  strict  rules  in  opposition  to  the 
general  resistance  almost  impossible.  In  consequence  of  tlie  jdenary  powers 
given  him  by  the  Roman  see,  he  was  looked  upon  (after  732)  as  the  general 
bishop  of  Germany,  and  by  a  decree  of  the  German  diet  (747),  the  old  epis- 
copal city  of  Mentz  was  given  him  as  a  permanent  sec.  When  too  old  to 
perform  the  duties  of  ecclesiastical  government,  he  requested  that  his  disci- 
ple Lullus  might  be  appointed  his  successor,  and  resumed  a  task  which  had 
been  unsuccessful  in  his  youth — the  conversion  of  the  Frieslanders.  His 
tent  was  pitched  on  the  bank  of  the  Borne,  when  he  was  suddenly  attacked 
by  a  band  of  heathen  robbers.  He  allowed  his  followers  to  make  no  resist- 
ance, and  all  were  slain.  His  body,  in  compliance  with  his  last  will,  was 
buried  in  his  favorite  convent  of  Fulda. 

§  155.     The  Saxons. 

Meinders,  Tr.  de  statu  rel.  et  reip.  sub  Carolo  M.  et  Lud.  P.  in  Sax.  Lemso.  1711.  4.  Ju.rt.  Moefer, 
Osnabr.  Gesch.  Brl.  1780.  vol.  I.  Funk,  ü.  d.  Unterwerfung  d.  Saclisen  unter  K.  d.  G.  (Scblo?#cr"s 
Arch.  f.  Ge.scb.  u.  Lit.  1S33.  vol.  W.  p.  293ss.)  G.  Zimmermann,  do  niutata  Saxonum  vetemm  rel. 
Darmst.  1839.  4.  P.  L     Osanam  (§  14S.) 

The  Saxons  defended  their  national  independence  and  the  religion  of  their 
ancestors  (after  772)  against  the  butcher  Ci)arles,  (//)  until  a  series  of  battles 
and  violated  treaties  made  them  desiierate,  and  they  finally  resolved  (804) 
to  unite  with  the  Franks  as  one  nation  and  pay  tithes.  The  Westphalian 
bishoprics  were  erected  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  ecclesiastical  fortresses.  Laws 
written  in  blood  forbade  all  return  to  the  customs  of  heathenism,  (Ji)  and  it 
was  not  until  the  Saxons  had  been  completely  subdued  by  the  sword  and  the 
cross,  that  Charles  the  Great  saw  his  plans  accomplished. 

§  156.     Orei'tJtroic  of  Geiinan  Paganism. 

[IT.  liüclert,  Gesch.  d.  deutech.  Bildung  in  d.  Per.  d.  Ueberganjes  Heldenth.  in  Chr.  Bcrl.  1>ä4.  l.'.] 

As  the  Germans  were  in  the  habit  of  acknowledging  gods  besides  their 
own,  they  readily  conceded  to  their  guests  that  Christ  might  be  divine.  But 
although  the  doctrine  of  a  crucified  God  was  not  altogether  strange  to  thcii* 

I)  Perk,  Th.  IL  p.  843.      c)  WFirdtw.  p.  lOS. 

d)  Wiirdtw.  p.  19s.     [The  oath  Itself:  OieteUr,  lllst  vol.  II.  p.  214.  nt  3.] 

a)  GeUihde,  Uncertain  as  an  orig.  doc.  but  often  printed  from  the  Goslar  Arclilves,  e.  g.  IIann("v. 
Mag.  P.  2f).  p.  483. 

h)  Capitulatlo  de  parttb.  Saxonine.  a.  7b9.  {Walter,  Corpus  Juris  Germ.  Th.  II.  ;>.  '.Olss.  with 
eoniin.  in  Jfeinders,  p.  23ss.) 


170      ANCIKNT  CllUnrit  IIISTOUV.    PKl:.  II.   OKRMAXIC  CIlfKCII.   A.  D.  312-800. 

iiiiiHb,  Clirist,  liis  ii])()stl(.'s,  and  llic  monks,  seemed  to  tlicin  a  faint-hearto«^ 
kind  of  ])ooi)le,  mitil  tliu  der;/}'  acquired  Tiiilitary  lialjits  and  lofrends  of  clii- 
valrous  saints  ^v(.■ro  circulated  among  tlicm.  Tlio  bold  assumption  of  gupe- 
riority  to  tlio  gods  of  tlicir  country,  and  the  exclusive  reliance  upon  their  own 
l)0wcr,  Avliicli  the  northern  heroes  especially  expressed  without  liesitation  or 
reproof,  was  not  directly  favcrable  to  Christianity,  but  proved  that  a  living 
faith  in  the  old  religion  was  already  mucli  impaired.  They  liad  no  powerful 
sacerdotal  caste,  and  the  o])position  which  Christianity  encountered  was  not 
l)roduced  by  a  priestly  nobility  among  any  of  Odhinn's  worsliippcrs,  but  by 
the  various  i)olitical  circumstances  in  which  it  was  introduced  tu  the  several 
tribes,  (a)  The  religion  of  their  ancestors  had  no  support  bat  the  public  sen- 
timent of  a  free  people.  For  the  whole  intellectual  fabric  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire, and  consequently  for  its  church,  they  entertained  the  profoundest  reve- 
rence. They  were  convinced  by  tlie  example  of  the  Western  Goths  that 
the  Christians'  God  could  bestow  power  and  victory.  Tlie  twilight  of  the 
gods  which  their  mythology  taught  them  to  expect,  seemed  to  tliem  realized 
by  Christianity,  but  in  a  milder  and  more  beautiful  form.  Christianity  was 
always  foreign  to  the  Greek  and  Roman  national  character,  and  could  never 
be  received  by  those  nations  without  destroying  their  peculiar  spirit.  The 
disposition  of  the  German  nation  on  the  other  hand  never  found  its  proper 
development  except  in  connection  Avith  Christianity.  Hence,  wherever  the 
Germans  were  independent  or  victorious  the  gospel  always  had  free  scope. 
But  it  was  not  without  many  touching  lamec^ations  that  the  ancient  system 
of  paganism  was  renounced,  (h) 


CHAP.  II.— SOCIAL  CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  CHURCH. 

rianck.  Gesell,  d.  kirchl.  Gesellsehaftsverf.  vol.  II.  Eichhorv,  rtcutschc  St.<mts-u.  EecliUgesch.  5  eJ. 
Gott.  1S43.  vol.  I.  J.  Grimm,  deutsche  EechtsaUherlhünier.  Gott.  1S23.  IlüUmann,  Urspr.  d.  KVert 
d.  MA.  Bonn.  1S31. — Ellendorf,  d.  Karolinger  ii.  d.  Hierarchie  ilirer  Zelt.  Essen  1S39. 

§  157.   Original  Records  of  the  Canon  Law. 

By  the  principles  of  the  German  law,  the  Church  and  all  ecclesiastics  re- 
tained the  same  privileges  as  they  had  enjoyed  under  the  Roman  empire,  («) 
and  in  consequence  of  the  new  relations  in  which  these  were  possessed,  a  new 
legal  state  was  developed.  The  Spanish  collection  and  the  Dionysian  Codex 
were  therefore  continually  appealed  to  as  records  of  the  Roman  law.  Any 
new  ecclesiastical  usages  and  laws  were  either  incorporated  with  the  popular 
code  or  published  as  decrees  of  synods  or  of  the  diet.  (Ä) 

a)  On  the  other  hand:  Leo,  Gesch.  d.  Ital.  Staaten.  limb.  1829.  vol.  I.  p.  55ss. 

h^  Grimm.  Mythol.  p.  4.     UMand,  Thor.  p.  223. 

a)  Cone.  Atirelian,!.  a.  511.  can.  1.  (J/a;i«i  Tb.  VIII.  p.  S50s.)  Lex  Hipvarior.  tit.  5S.  c.  1. 
{Waller  Th.  I.  p.  ISO.) 

?')  U'd/ZfT,  Corpus  juris  Germ.  antiquL  Ber.  lS2-lss.  3  Th.  Perl:.  Monum.  Germ.  Th.  His.  Le- 
^nn  Th.  I.  II.  Comp.  Eegesta  Carolorum.  All  the.  orig.  docc,  of  the  Carolingian  kings  in  the  E.xtracls 
^7ö2-91S)  bj-  Boehmer,  Erkf.  \%U.  4. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLE5.  LAW.    §  IM.  CHUPXH  &  STATE.    §  159.  PKOPEnTT.        1 7 1 
§  158.     Relation  of  the  Church  to  the  State. 

liiinde,  V.  Urspr.  d.  Eeichsstandsch.  d.  BIsch.  n.  At-bte.  GOtt  1774.  4.    r.  liotk,  v.  d.  Kinflusse  « 
9eistlichk.  unter  d.  Merowlngern.  XQrnb.  1S.30.  4. 

The  bishops,  who  were  equally  respected  by  the  conquering  and  the  con- 
quered nations,  were  generally  employed  as  mediators  when  terms  of  peace 
were  to  be  settled.  No  sooner  had  the  kings,  who  were  originally  merely  the 
leaders  of  their  companions  in  arms,  tasted  the  sweets  of  regal  power  as  en- 
joyed under  the  Eoman  law,  than  they  became  an.xious  to  attach  the  bis^hops 
to  their  interests.  By  conferring  upon  them  otlices  at  court  and  certain  feu- 
dal estates,  an  ecclesiastical  va.ssalage  was  created  (</)  which  made  it  their 
policy  to  restrain  any  conquering  hordes,  or  to  conciliate  any  conquered 
tribes.  The  power  of  the  kings  over  the  Church,  or  of  the  bishops  over  the 
state,  may  be  inferred  from  the  feudal  laws  gradually  developed  during  the 
conquest.  The  kings  either  directly  appointed  the  bishops,  or  nominated 
those  whom  they  wished  to  be  chosen  by  the  clergy  or  the  people  ;  (i)  but 
the  bishops  themselves,  along  with  the  other  gi'eat  vassals,  either  elected  the 
king  or  confirmed  his  hereditary  successor,  (c)  The  bLshops  were  required 
to  swear  fealty  to  the  king  and  to  seek  justice  before  the  royal  court,  but  they 
could  be  judged  only  by  their  peers,  {d)  Whoever  felt  aggrieved  by  any  pro- 
ceedings in  a  S])iritual  court  could  apply  for  redress,  or  at  least  for  grace,  from 
the  king  as  his  lord  paramount,  (e)  Bishops  sat  in  the  diet  with  all  other 
crown  vassals,  and  it  was  on  this  ground  that  after  the  seventh  century  eccle- 
siastical causes  were  so  much  mingled  with  civil  affairs  in  the  transactions  of 
that  body.  (/)  Subsequently  the  power  of  legislation  resided  in  the  states  and  iu 
the  king.  {(/)  By  such  a  system  the  Church  seemed  almost  blended  with  the 
state,  but  its  power  and  its  consequent  independence  was  well  represented  by 
that  hierarchical  aristocracy  whoso  authority  the  kings  always  found  it  best 
to  maintain,  as  a  counterpoise  to  that  of  an  hereditary  and  military  nobility. 

§  l0().     Property  of  the  Church  and  the  Clergy. 

Many  bishops  and  abbots  received  royal  grants  of  land  and  of  people.  These 
ecclesiastical  possessions,  like  all  other  royal  fiefs,  had  immunities  and  juris- 
dictions of  their  own.  They  wore  only  bound  to  furnisli  a  certain  quota  of 
men  for  a  general  war  (the  Heerbann),  and  the  counts  exercised  jurisdiction 
iu  cases  of  life  and  death.  The  divine  institution  of  tithes  was  more  zealously 
proclaimed  than  the  gospel  itself,  and  under  Charles  the  Great,  who  paid 


d)  Fredegarii  Chron.  c  41.  78.  SangalUnn.  1, 18.  {PerU  Th.  11.  p.  78«i) 

V)  Cone.  Aiirer.  V.  a.  540,  can.  10.  Coiic.  ToUtan.  XII.  a  6S1.  can.  a  AltboDgfa  Cofic  Pari*.  V. 
B.  615.  can.  1.  yet  comp.    M'lilter  Tli.  II.  p.  13. 

c)  Coric.  Tuletan.  VIII.  a.  65-3.  can.  10.  ^\'Uk■ins  Cone.  Brit  vol.  I.  jk  USa.  Respecting  Franco: 
riawkyyoX.  II.  p.  24Ssh. 

d)  Greg.  Tur.  II.  Franc.  V,  19.  23.  Com.  AquUgr.  &  789.  c.  37.     (  H'lttor  Tb.  XL  p.  S4.) 

e)  Cone.  Purin.  V.  a.  615.  can.  3.  [iMtidon,  Paris,  p.  4C1.]  with  Clotalre'»  enlarged  confirmation- 
{WMer  Th.  II.  p.  14.)    Cipit.  Franco/,  a.  794.  c  4.     (  WalUr  Th.  II.  p.  116.) 

/)  Reaction  in  Spain:  Cone.  Tolet  XVII.  a.  694.  c.  1.  (ifonti  Th.  XII.  p.  196.)  Court«  ia 
Fr.ince:  Ilincmar.  do  ord.  palatil  c.  29.  comp.  ManMi  Th.  XIV.  p.  64. 

J7)  Cone.  Arvernfnse  i^.Ztii^.VtfietMo.  (.lAin«/ Tli.  VIII.  p.  859.)  Cuik;.  ..-lure/.  I.  Ep.  ad  Clo- 
dov.  {Mansi  Th.  VIII.  p.  850.) 


172      ANCIENT  CIIUncH  HlhTOKV.    TKIMI.   GEKMANIC  CliriiCII.   A.  I).  S12-80O. 

tithes  of  all  liis  possessions,  it  became  the  general  law  for  the  whole  Frankiah 
smpire.  (/')  It  was,  liowcver,  much  easier  for  the  Church  to  acquire  immense 
wealth  from  the  scrui)les  of  the  people  than  to  defend  it  against  the  universal 
robbery  and  violence  which  then  prevailed.  Chilperic  complained  that  the 
wealth  of  the  kings  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Church,  (i)  but  Charleg 
Mattel  distributed  the  ecclesiastical  wealth  among  his  soldiers,  and  left  to  the 
Church  the  consolation  of  -Ihinking  that  the  deliverer  of  Christendom  had 
pone  down  to  hell,  (c)  The  clergy  preserved  their  privilege  of  being  judged 
in  civil  causes  only  before  the  bishop's  court;  though  In  criminal  cases,  if  the 
ottence  was  proved,  they  might  be  arraigned  in  what  was  called  a  mixed 
court.  Between  the  counts  and  the  bishops  of  each  district  (Gau)  sprung  up 
mutual  jealousies  and  encroachments,  which  the  kings  often  found  it  easy  to 
increase.  The  rights  of  the  metropolitans  were  on  various  occasions  con- 
firmed, but  they  could  not  be  sustained  in  opposition  to  the  political  power 
of  individual  bishops. 

§  160.     Ecclesiastical  Fower  of  tlie  Pope. 

The  authority  of  the  pope  in  countries  beyond  the  Alps  had  its  origin  in 
the  necessity  which  the  Catholics  and  Romans  felt  of  a  general  centre  of 
union  in  their  conflicts  with  the  Arians  and  Barbarians.  The  legates  of 
Gregory  the  Great  were  therefore  called  upon  to  exercise  supreme  jurisdic- 
tion in  Spain.  But  when  the  "Western  Goths  went  over  to  the  Catholic 
party  that  necessity  was  no  longer  felt,  and  the  bishops,  becoming  conscious 
of  their  political  importance,  freely  opposed  the  papal  claims.  Witiza 
(701-10),  who  was  anxious  to  recover  the  royal  prerogatives  from  the  no- 
bility and  the  Church,  went  so  far  as  to  forbid  all  appeals  to  the  Roman 
bishop,  (rt)  But  the  overthrow  of  his  throne  and  the  subversion  of  the 
Gothic  kingdom  was  generally  regarded  as  a  divine  judgment  on  the  impious 
attempt.  The  Anglo-Saxon  Church  gradually  prevailed  upon  the  neighbor- 
ing churches  to  place  themselves  under  the  guardianship  of  Rome,  for  the 
people  seemed  to  think  it  rather  hazardous  to  prefer  Columba  to  Peter,  when 
the  latter  held  the  keys  of  heaven.  (5)  The  pope  was  regarded  with  the 
highest  veneration  among  the  Franls,  but  his  power  was  confined  to  remon- 
strances and  intercessions  except  when  the  kings  found  it  for  their  interest  to 
make  it  appear  greater,  (c)  But  when  Pipin  grasped  after  the  imperial 
authority,  he  knew  of  no  better  way  to  silence  the  scruples  of  the  Franks 
respecting  the  oath  which  they  had  sworn  to  their  legitimate  king,  than  to 
obtain  a  declaration  from  Pope  Zacharias  that  whoever  possessed  the  power 
should  have  also  the  name  of  the  king  (750).  (d)     From  that  time  all  the 

a)  Capit.  Franeof.  a.  T94.  c  23.     {WalUr  Th.  II.  p.  IIS.) 

h)  Gregor.  Tur.  11.  Fr.-»ne.  YI,  46. 

c)  Bonif.  Ep.  72.  {Würdtw.  p.  194.)  Hincmar.  Rem.  ad  Lndov.  German.  {WaUer,  Th.  III.  p.  J5.) 

0)  Schotii  Hisp.  illustrata.  Frcf.  1603.  C  Tb.  IL  p.  62.  Th.  IV.  p.  69. 

1)  Beda.  II.  ecc.  Ill,  25. 

c)  Greg.  Tur.  II.  Franc.  Y,  21.  cf.  VII,  39. 

d)  Fredeg.  Chron.  appendix.  (BouquHTY..  II.  p.  460.  comp.  Th.  Y.  p.  9.)  Annal.  Lauriss.  a<l 
ft.  749.  {Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  136.)— ^7!  G.  LoelfU,  de  causis  regni  Francor.  a  Merovingis  ad  Carollngcx 
translati.  Bou.  1S44.  4. 


CHAP.  IL     ECCLE3.  LAW.     §  160.  CLEEGT.     §  161.  PAPAL  POWER  173 

Carolingians  thought  it  best  to  exalt  the  dignity  of  those  on  whom  the  law- 
fulness and  sacredness  of  their  own  crown  depended.  The  German  Church 
was  from  its  very  origin  in  a  state  of  dependence  upon  Rome,  and  in  its  first 
synod  (743)  all  its  bishops  swore  obedience  to  the  pope,  (f)  Boniface  endea- 
vored to  bring  the  GalUcan  Church  under  the  same  regulation,  but  as  its 
bishops  possessed  not  much  zeal  for  the  general  Church  and  great  political 
power,  his  success  was  by  no  means  complete.  Great  efibrts  were  made  to 
convince  the  metropolitans  that  the  pallium  was  indispensable  to  the  com- 
pleteness of  their  power.  But  when  Boniface  complained  that  it  was  con- 
ferred at  Rome  for  money,  Zacharias  called  it  a  calumny  to  say  that  the  Ro- 
man see  would  sell  what  had  been  bestowed  upon  it  as  a  gift  by  the  Holy 
Ghost.  (/) 

§  161.     Secular  Power  of  the  Pope. 

Codex  Carolinus.  {Cenni,  Monn.  dominatlonis  Pontifidae.  P.om.  ITCOs.  2  Th.  4.)— IL  Orni  dell 
origine  del  dominio  o  della  soveraniti  degli  roin.  Pont  Eom.  1T54.  iSutftdMiVr,  surToriginede  la  puis- 
Bance  temporelle  des  Papea.  Haye.  1765.  J.  R.  Becker,  ü.  d.  Zeitp.  der  Veründr.  in  der  Oberb.  ü.  Bom. 
Lüb.  17C9.     Comp.  J.  v.  Müller,  Werke.  1833.  Th.  25. 

As  late  as  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century  a  governor  was  placed  by  the 
emperor  over  the  exarchate  and  the  city  of  Rome.  But  in  the  latter  the 
actual  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  pope  as  the  head  of  an  aristocratic  mu- 
nicipal government.  The  Longobards  conquered  the  exarchate  and  threat- 
ened an  attack  upon  Rome.  In  vain  was  protection  sought  from  Constanti- 
nople, and  Stephen  II.  in  the  name  of  St.  Peter  called  upon  the  King  of  the 
Franks,  whom  he  had  anointed,  for  aid.  In  two  campaigns  (754—5)  Pipin 
repelled  the  Longobards,  and  as  tlie  Roman  Patricius  he  committed  to  the 
pope  the  provinces  which  the  exarch  had  governed,  {a)  alleging  that  tlie 
Franks  had  shed  their  blood  not  for  the  Greeks  but  for  St.  Peter,  and  for  the 
good  of  their  own  souls.  Charles  the  Great  having  by  systematic  measures  de- 
stroyed the  kingdom  of  the  Longobards  (after  773),  confirmed  and  enlarged 
tlie  donation  which  his  father  had  made,  and  on  Dec.  25,  800,  laid  the  deed 
which  secured  the  whole  on  the  tomb  of  the  apostles.  By  this  mejins  the 
king  efl:ected  his  purpose,  whicli  was  to  gain  a  powerful  ally  in  Italy,  and  the 
pope  became  a  ruler  over  a  considerable  territory  and  its  inhabitants,  lie 
was  however  obhged  to  acknowledge  a  lord  paramount  witli  indefinite 
powers  above  himself,  {h)  and  was  so  much  harassed  by  the  factious  strifes 
of  the  more  powerful  families,  that  he  became  continually  dependent  upon 
the  protection  of  the  King  of  the  Franks, 

§  162.     Charlet  the  Great.     768-814. 

L  Annals,  Capitularies  (before  $  147)  &  Letters  In  the  Codex  Carollnus.  Kinhard,  Vita  Karolt 
(^Perti  Th.  II.  p.  426.  &  Ilan.  1S30.  Opp.  c<L  A.  TetU^t,  Par.  l<40-3.  2  Th.)  I>eben  u.  Wandt!  Karls 
d.  O.  V.  Elnhard.  Einl.  Urscbr.  Erlüot  UrkundensaminL  v.  J.  L.  IdeUr.  Ilamb.  1SS9.  J/onacfiu* 
BangalUmit,  (Anecdotes)  degestis  Karoll  {PerU  Tb.  II.  p.  72&)    Poeta«  StueotiU  AnnaL  de  g»ti» 


e)  Bonif.  Ep.  73.    {Wärdtw.  p.  170.)       /)  Zach.  ad  Konlf.    (  Würdtw.  p.  USs.) 
a)  Steph.  ad.  Pip.  a.  7*1    (Cfefin»  Th.  I.  p.  75. )       h)  Einhard,  Ann.  a.  'id. 


174      ANCIKNT  CIiriMII  IlISToUY.    I'Ki:.  H.   (iKUMAMC  CIHTllCn.   A.  I).  312-800. 

Car.  (Lpilmitil  Scrr.  rcr.  Bninsv.  Tli.  I.  i>.  I'-'O.)    Jf^lperlci  (Angtlbertl)  Carol.  M.  ct  I,<-o  I'ajA  ej. 
0/f«/,  Tiir.  1st.'. 

II.  K.  Dipi'old,  I-Pljon  K.  Kiirl.'».  Tfib.  ISIO.  Jiredov,  K.  K.irl.  Altonft.  ISH.  Otpffigur,  Cliarle- 
inasnc.  Par.  1842.  2  Th,— .^  O.  n'tilch,  Hist,  canon Isatlonls  Car.  M.  .Ion.  Vt:>(\.—Püttfr,  de  liistaurut 
Imp.  Itom.  OütL  ITCCs.  10  P.  4.     [G.  P.  li.  Jamt»,  Life  of  C.  Lond.  IftU.  A;  New  York.  IMS.] 

The  grand  object.«?  to  which  Charles  the  Great  devoted  his  life  were,  the 
union  of  all  tlie  German  nations  under  his  sway,  and  the  e.stablishment  of 
civilization  among  them.  lie  favored  and  governed  the  Cliurch  hecaune  it 
was  a  school  for  the  improvement  of  his  people.  lie  was  careful  to  main- 
tain the  same  respect  for  the  popes  Avhich  his  father  had  sliown,  and  he  even 
increased  their  power,  but  kept  them  in  a  state  of  dependence  upon  himself. 
For  Ilndrian  I.  he  entertained  a  strong  personal  attachment.  Leo  III  (after 
705)  sought  refuge  in  his  court  from  the  ill  treatment  inflicted  by  a  Roman 
faction,  cleared  himself  by  an  oath  from  the  crimes  imputed  to  him,  and  was 
reinstated  by  the  power  of  the  king.  In  gratitude  for  this  kindness,  and  pro- 
fessing to  act  under  divine  inspiration,  the  pope,  on  Christmas  day  800,  placed 
the  imperial  crown  of  Rome  upon  the  king's  head,  while  the  people  ex- 
claimed, "  Health  and  victory  to  Carolas  Augustus,  crowned  of  God  !  "  By 
this  ceremony,  no  actual  increase  of  power  was  directly  acquired,  but  the 
monarch  became  invested  with  an  augmented  dignity  in  the  eyes  of  the  peo- 
ple, and  his  authority  in  the  "West  became  sacred.  It  was  only  a  thought, 
but  the  world  is  governed  more  by  thoughts  than  by  swords.  By  this  re- 
newal of  the  empire  in  the  "West  the  pope  recognized  a  master,  but  all  men 
saw  that  this  master  was  of  his  own  creation. 


CHAP.    III.— ECCLESIASTICAL     LIFE. 

§  1G3.     Eeligiom  Spirit  of  the  People. 

The  innocence  of  a  rude  and  powerful  nation  was  soon  corrnpted  by  Ro- 
man vices,  the  new  pleasures  soon  became  necessities  of  life,  and  to  obtain 
tliem  the  energies  of  the  people  were  employed  in  violence.  The  lives  of  the 
Merovingian  princes  Avere  filled  with  murders,  adulteries,  and  incests.  But 
just  as  these  children  of  nature  were  suddenly  made  acquainted  with  a  cor- 
rupt civilization,  Christianity  was  also  introduced  among  them,  and  preserved 
in  the  minds  of  the  people  a  love  for  more  exalted  objects,  but  accelerated 
the  period  in  which  the  national  advancement  was  interrupted.  It  pervaded 
even  the  German  language,  not  merely  by  the  naturalization  of  Greek  and 
Latin  ecclesiastical  terms,  but  by  giving  a  Christian  signification  to  original 
German  expressions.  («)  The  relation  of  the  peo]ile  to  Christ  was  conceived 
of  by  them  as  that  of  faithful  vassals  to  a  mighty  leader  (Gefclgsherrn).  If 
the  mysterious  spectacles,  miracles,  and  legends  of  the  Church  did  not  always 
reform  the  people,  they  at  least  produced  some  regrets  for  the  past  and  some 
anxiety  for  the  future.  But  superstition  soon  supplied  them  with  arts  by 
•which  they  could  cunningly  escape  her  own  guardianship.  The  perjurer  so- 
rt) P.  r.  Paumer  (§  147)  e?i>ccially  In  the  3  books,  p.  273ss. 


CHAP.  III.  ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  1C8.  COMMON  LIFE.    §  1G4.  DISCIPLINE.  175 

cured  himself  by  relics  against  the  vengeance  of  heaven,  and  the  hired  a&sas- 
sin  consoled  himself  with  the  reflection  that  whatever  might  occur  in  his 
bloody  course,  ho  would  have  means  to  purchase  the  masses  ueedfid  for  his 
salvation.  The  virtues  on  which  tlie  Church  most  insisted  were  liberality, 
ho-spitality,  fidelity  in  the  payment  of  titlies  and  ofFering.«i,  and  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  creed  and  tlie  Lord's  prayer.  The  liberty  which  the  Ger- 
mans had  always  exercised  of  divorcing  themselves  from  their  wives  on  tlio 
repayment  of  dower  was  abolished,  and  marriage  was  regarded  as  indissolu- 
ble, except  by  mutual  consent  for  sacred  purposes,  or  on  account  of  adultery, 
conspiracy  against  life,  banishment,  or  bodily  infirmity  on  the  part  of  the 
wife,  (h)  Tlie  Churcli  and  the  new  government  contended  against  those 
remnants  of  heathenism  whicli  still  adiiered  to  the  faitli  or  practice  of  the 
people,  as  :  the  exposure  of  cliildren,  the  burning  of  corpses,  the  old  sanctu- 
aries by  fountains,  in  the  lofty  forest  and  in  the  stone  circle,  wooden  repre- 
sentations of  bodily  organs  as  votive  ofterings,  images  of  gods  dried  in  ovens 
or  highly  ornamented,  the  use  of  horseflesh,  haunted  places,  watch-fires.  Tain- 
making,  sacred  lots,  death-charms,  love  potioni^,  tlie  use  of  wooden  images  to 
etftct  the  death  of  those  they  represent,  magical  predictions,  an<l  witchcraft 
of  all  kinds,  {c)  The  less  objectionable  portions  of  the  ancient  were  gradu- 
ally incorporated  with  the  Christian  faitli,  legends  of  the  gods  were  trans- 
formed into  legends  of  saints,  recollections  of  the  former  deities  were  so 
changed  as  to  become  a  basis  for  a  belief  in  magic,  in  leagues  with  the  devil, 
and  in  violent  assaults  from  him.  A  pleasant  recollection  was  also  retained 
for  the  silent  people  of  the  elves,  and  the  wonderful  gifts  of  the  fiiirios.  Or- 
deals were  at  first  tolerated  by  the  Church,  then  opjioscd,  and  finally  used  for 
its  own  purposes.  A  presentiment  of  the  approach  of  the  last  day  which 
sometimes  comes  up  before  us  in  this  period,  was  suggested  merely  by  those 
Romans  who  thought  that  the  overthrow  of  the  emiiire  and  the  terrible  na- 
tional migrations  were  signals  of  that  event,  (d) 

§  164.  Ecclesiastical  JDiscipUne. 
The  discipline  of  the  Church  was  much  opposed  by  the  Gorman  peoi)lo  on 
the  ground  that  it  was  inconsistent  with  their  liberties.  It  was  finally  on- 
forced  in  the  eighth  century,  at  least  among  the  common  people,  by  the  Si/' 
nodal  courts^  Avhich  were  accommodated  to  the  popular  feelings  of  private 
rights.  In  the  course  of  each  year  the  bishop  or  his  arch-deacon  held  his 
court  in  every  important  jdace  withim  his  jurisdiction,  in  which  honorable 
men  chosen  from  the  congregation  acted  as  a  jury  to  decide  upon  the  ca.>;o  of 
those  who  were  accused.  This  infjuisitorial  jiroces.«,  which  took  cogiiizaiico 
not  only  of  ecclesiastical  but  of  mnny  civil  oflenccs,  was  nn  indispensable 
addition  to  the  easy  i;rocceding<  of  former  times,  when  every  offence  was 
atoned  for  by  a  legal  fine  adapted  to  the  simple  manners  of  the  people.  The 
penalties  now  inflicted  were  scourging,  f;isting,  prohibition  of  marriage,  and 

I)  (\ipiti(r.  n.  752.  c.  5.  9.    (W<ilUr  Th.  H.  p.  38».)    Greff.  II.  ad  Bonit  c  2.    {Jfanti  Th.  XIL 

p.  2J.V) 

c)  E«peclii!Iy  Tmllculus  sii])or8llti')niiin  (§  14S.) 

d)  Grerjorii  M.  1.  XI.  Ep.  00.     Greg.  Tar.  11.  Franc.  I'rolojfus. 


17G      ANCIKNT  (.•mUCII  11I.ST(H:V.    I-KU.  II.   OKUMANIC  church.   a.D.  312-800. 

an  impriaonmont,  which  for  tlio  licavier  offences  was  severe  and  sometimes 
for  life,  (a)  None  hut  j)rivato  ofrcnces  vohmtarily  disclosed  in  the  confes- 
sional were  allowed  to  bo  atoned  for  according  to  the  former  custom  hy  a 
fine.  In  such  cases  tlio  inoiioy  belonged  to  the  poor,  and  tlie  Church  alway.s 
suffered  under  tiie  imputation  that  she  allowed  the  rich  to  sin  freely  and  yet 
gave  them  the  hope  of  heaven.  (A)  Confes-sion  to  a  priest  was  looked  upon 
as  beneficial  but  not  indispensable  to  salvation,  (c)  Excommunication  was 
not  common,  and  was  therefore  the  more  dreaded.  Altliough  the  bi.shop3 
had  obtained  a  law  Avhich  connected  civil  death  with  excommunication,  it 
was  understood  that  such  a  result  would  not  take  place  without  the  consent 
of  the  king.  By  this  means  the  bishops  were  obliged  to  pay  great  respect  to 
the  intercession  of  the  king  or  of  persons  of  distinction,  (d) 

§  1G5.    Morals  of  the  Clergy,  and  Canonical  Life. 

As  the  bishops  were  generally  selected  from  the  royal  retinue,  and  the 
clergy  were  sometimes  even  slaves  and  servilely  dependent  upon  their  supe- 
riors, bishoprics  Avere  often  obtained  by  purchase  or  by  flattery,  (a)  and  the 
clergy  Avere  in  continual  danger  of  becoming  quite  secularized  or  degraded  in 
ignorance.  The  laws  against  the  marriage  of  clergymen  Avere  frequently  re- 
newed, but  marriage  was  as  common  among  them  as  adultery  and  lewdness. 
What  was  called  mere  fondling  was  expressly  declared  to  be  innocent.  {V) 
For  every  act  and  degree  of  drunkenness  a  precise  form  of  punishment  was 
carefully  prescribed,  (c)  The  laws  forbade  the  servants  of  God  to  bear  the 
sword,  but  neither  law  nor  shame  could  prevent  what  custom  and  feudal  duty 
required.  Many  a  valiant  bishop  never  knew  peace  till  he  slept  on  the  battle 
field.  The  authority  of  the  Church  was  suflBcient  to  make  a  clergyman  hon- 
orable on  account  of  the  sacredness  of  his  ofiice,  but  many  a  layman  was 
clever  enough  to  take  advantage  of  the  solemn  dulness  ©f  his  bishop,  {d)  In 
a  series  of  synods  (after  742)  Boniface  endeavored  to  rectify  the  unclerical 
manners  and  the  misgovernment  which  prevailed  in  the  Frankish  Church,  by 
demanding  of  the  clergy  a  peculiar  ecclesiastical  character  and  monastic 
habits,  and  that  he  might  secure  these  he  revived  the  old  institution  of  pro- 
vincial synods.  Chrodegang  of  Metz  gave  to  the  clergy  of  his  episcopal 
church  the  conventual  rule  Avhich  required  a  life  in  common  (about  760).  (f) 
Augustine  was  held  up  as  an  example,  and  the  founder  of  this  kind  of  life, 

a)  Capit.  a.  769.  c.  T.  {  Walter  Th.  IL  p.  54s.)  a.  813.  c.  1.  {Ibid.  p.  261.)  This  arrangement  was 
of  an  older  date.  For  inforn)atlon  respecting  the  proceedings,  see  Sittenspiegel  der  Zeit,  first  in  Jie- 
gino,  de  disc.  ecc.  II,  2ss.    {ITafshenu  Th.  II.  p.  551s.) 

I)  Cone  ClovesJiovian.  a.  747.  c.  268.  (J/imst  Th.  XII.  p.  403s.)  Comp.  Homiliade  haeretlcis  pec- 
cata  vendentibus.  {Mahillon,  Museum  Italicum,  Th.  L  P.  II.  p.  27.) 

e)  Capit.  TJieodulfl  Aurelianem.  c  30.  {Jfansi  Th.  XIII.  p.  1001.)  Comp.  Cone.  CahHonense  fi. 
813.  can.  m.  {ifami  Th.  XIV.  p.  100.) 

d)  Cone  Paris,  a.  615.  c  3.  {Walter  Th.  II.  p.  14.) 

a)  Gregor.  Tur.  Yitae  patrnm.  c.  6.  §  3.  Ilist  Franc  IV,  35.  A  multitude  of  histories  In  the 
Jfonachm  Sitngallensiti. 

I)  Gregorii  III.  can.  6.  (J/",iH.st  Th.  XII.  p.  290.)    c)  Ihid.  can.  8. 
<f)  E.  G.  the  wag  in  S-ingall.  I.  20.  (Pertz  Th.  II.  p.  739.) 

e)  Chrodeg.  Reguia  in  Mansi  Th.  XIV.  p.  SlSss,  Paidu«  Diac.  Gest  Episc  Metensimn.  {PerU 
Th.  II.  p.  267s.)  Comp.  Thomassini  vet  et  nova  ecc  disc  P.  I.  L  III.  c  2-9. 


CHAP.  IIL  ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  165.  CANONICI.    §  166.  WORSHIP.  177 

which  was  called  canonical,  because  it  was  regulated  by  sacred  laws.  The 
canonici  lived,  eat  and  slept  in  common,  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the 
bishop.  Their  devotions  commenced  long  before  day,  and  were  regulated  by 
a  peculiar  system  of  canonical  hours.  They  were  not  prohibited  tlie  posses- 
sion of  private  property,  but  their  support  was  provided  for  by  the  bishop, 
out  of  the  ecclesiastical  revenues.  Under  the  favor  of  the  Carolingian  kings 
this  system  was  adopted  in  most  of  the  German  churches. 

§  166.     Public  Worship. 

Ordo  Romanns  de  dir.  officiis  (Sth  cent)  Amalarii,  Chorcpisc,  Metenris  do  div.  officlls  I.  IV. 
(919-27.)  Rahani  Mauri  de  elericorum  instit.  et  cercmonlls  cec.  I.  HI.  (S19)  Jc  do  Mcris  ordlnib, 
bacramentis  div.  et  veslimentis  sacerd.  Collectively  in:  Do  div.  catli.  Ecc  olllciis  varii  vctt  Patnim 
lie  Scrr.  libri,  ed.  Hittorpitis.  (CoL  15G8.)  Par.  1610.  f. 

As  the  Church  had  been  formed  under  the  Roman  empire,  it  retained 
many  Roman  usages.  Its  services  were  in  Latin,  though  preaching  was  al- 
ways in  the  language  of  the  people.  The  BritL>li  Church  protested  against 
the  peculiarities  introduced  by  the  Roman  clergy.  They  defended  thej  own 
practice  of  shaving  only  the  front  part  of  the  head,  in  opposition  to  the  Ro- 
man tonsure,  by  ai)pealing  to  the  example  of  Paul  (tonsura  Pauli).  Columba, 
when  contending  with  Gregory  the  Great,  defended  a  mode  of  reckoning 
Easter  which  was  different  from  that  used  at  Rome,  (a)  Charles  the  Great 
introduced  the  Gregorian  liturgy  into  the  new  churches  formed  in  the  em- 
pire, and  invited  singers  from  Rome,  to  whom  the  sacred  music  of  the  Ger- 
mans seemed  like  the  bowlings  of  wild  beasts.  The  organ,  however,  was 
much  improved  in  German}',  (h)  The  solemn  pomp  of  such  a  wor.ship  was  the 
most  impressive  way  of  addressing  the  robust  feelings  of  an  uneducated  people. 
The  propensity  of  the  age  for  magical  arts  was  gratified  and  strengthened  by 
the  numerous  miracles  performed  by  dead  and  living  saints,  the  various  ac- 
counts of  which  originated  more  frequently  in  the  fancies  of  the  people  than 
in  the  cunning  policy  of  the  priests.  A  new  festival  called  the  Ansinnptioii 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  was  introduced,  and  was  celebrated  on  the  fifteenth  of 
August,  (c)  An  appearance  of  the  archangel  Michael  was,  after  Gregory's 
time,  celebrated  in  Rome,  but  the  decided  preference  shown  for  this  festival 
by  tlie  Germanic  churches  was  owing  to  the  chivalrous  character  usually  as- 
cribed to  this  celestial  prince,  {d)  In  France  St.  Martin  was  honored  as  a  Saviour 
and  an  Aesculapius,  until  the  writings  ascribed  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite 
were  sent  to  Pipin,  and  revived  tlie  memory  of  a  Dionysius  who  had  been 
mentioned  a-s  a  bishop  of  Paris  among  the  martyrs  in  the  time  of  Dccius.  As 
this  latter  Dionysius  was  confounded  with  him  who  was  contemporary  with 
Paul,  St.  Daiys  became  henceforth  the  war-cry  of  France.  (»)    The  Si)aniards 

a)  Gregor.  M.  1.  IX.  Ep.  127.  comp.  Ä«/n,  IT.  tcoi  III,  4. 

V)  Annul.  Meten.i.  ad.  a.  757.  Joan.  VIII.  Ep.  a.  872.  ad  Annonem.  (.}finti  Th.  XVII.  p^  245.) 

c)  Desire,  doubt,  and  final  confldcnce:  Kpipfi,  liner.  7S.  11.  Gtltitii  DecreU  {Gratian:  P.  L  D. 
XV.  c.  8.  §  55.)  Gregor,  'fur.  do  gloria  Martyr.  I.  4. 

d)  ITaeberlin,  Sclocta  de  Mich.  Ardiangelo.  Illinst.  175^.  4. 

e)  Both  saints  are  already  confonndod  In :  Acta  Dionysii  (beginnlnjr  of  the  9lh  cent  Acta  S9.  in. 
Jet.  Th.  IV.  p.  792SS.)  and  Ililduini  (abbot  of  St  Denya  about  824.)  VIU  ct  paaslo  Dlonys.  (Arcopa- 
pitica,  ed.  J/.  GaUnxu,  Col.  156;).) 

12 


178    ANciK.NT  cinrncii  iiistoiit.  i'KU.  ii.  Germanic  cnuucir  a  d.  312-900. 

made  a  kniglitly  saint  of  tlic  elder  JamcH^  who,  after  his  hody  liad  hcen  found 
at  Compostella  (701-842),  -was  extolled  as  the  apostle  of  Spain,  and  the  patron 
of  its  armies  against  the  Saracens.  The  surest  proof  of  the  power  and  sanc- 
tity of  tlieso  patron  saints  was  victory.  The  Prankish  empire  heearae  slightly 
involved  in  the  controversy  respecting  images.  The  clear  judgment  of  CJiarlts 
tlio  Great  soon  decided  against  all  image-worship,  and  a  treatise,  published 
under  his  own  name,  (/)  set  forth  in  opposition  to  the  decrees  of  the  second 
synod  of  Nicaea  that  God  could  be  Avorshipped  only  in  spirit.  The  same 
view  was  expressed  at  the  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794)  and  of  Paris  (825)  with 
an  open  censure  of  AdrxarCs  treatise  in  favor  of  image-worship.  But  as  this 
opposition  did  not  extend  to  the  destruction  of  the  images,  a  hope  was  enter- 
tained and  expressed  in  these  acts  that  a  reconciliation  might  yet  be  effected 
between  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches,  ig)  The  popes  found  it  convenient 
to  treat  this  heresy  among  the  Franks  more  mildly  than  the  same  sentiments 
among  the  Greeks. 


CHAP.    IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL    SCIENCE. 

§  1G7.     Presertation  of  Literature. 

Every  thing  in  the  primitive  church  had  a  primary  reference  to  some  type 
in  the  Old  Testament.  The  Gothic  version  of  the  Bible  does  not  seem  to  have 
found  its  way  into  other  German  tribes,  but  fragments  of  translations  of  dif- 
ferent books  of  the  Bible  existed  in  several  German  languages,  and  even  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon.  Remnants  of  Roman  literature  were  preserved  among  the 
clergy  as  a  kind  of  literary  acquisition  even  to  the  age  of  Augustine,  but  the 
classic  authors  were  enjoyed  only  by  stealth.  In  the  stormy  period  of  the 
popular  migrations,  literary  education  was  continued  in  Spain  and  in  the 
British  islands.  In  the  former  country  there  was  a  literary  rivalry  between 
the  Catholics  and  the  Western  Goths,  who  had  now  become  interested  in  the 
study  of  Grecian  learning.  Among  these  Goths,  Isidore,  Archbishop  of 
Ilispalis  (Seville,  595-63G),  was  particularly  influential  in  behalf  of  the  politi- 
cal power  of  the  Church,  a  moderate  monastic  life,  and  Christian  kindness 
toward  the  Jews,  and  was  an  eminent  example  of  that  ecclesiastical  learning 
which  was  not  only  mistress  of  all  secular  knowledge,  but,  by  collecting  the 
works  of  ancient  authors,  secured  the  inheritance  of  antiquity,  (a)  The  pre- 
dominance of  the  Roman  element  renders  it  diflScult  to  trace  the  process 
by  which  a  transition  was  made  to  that  which  was  more  decidedly  Germanic. 
In  the  Islands  a  degree  of  learning  was  maintained  in  consequence  of  the 
rivalry  between  the  British  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  churches,  and  the  intimate 

/)  LihH  Carolini,  a.  790.  ed.  Eli.  Phili.  1549.  Eeumann,  Ilan.  1T31.  (Goldast.  Imper.  Deer.  p.  CT.) 
g)  Cone.  Franco/,  can.  2.  {Mansi  Th.  SlII.  p.  909.)    Cone  Paris,  ad  Ludov.  (lb.  Th.  XIV. 
p.  415s.)     [Lanilon,  p.  252s.  &  4Gls.] 

a)  Ecck'S.  Literature,  Liturgy,  Explanations  of  laws  and  tre.itises.  General  history,  history  of  Ger- 
manic nations  and  etymological  encyclopedia,  0pp.  ed.  J.  du  Brettl,  Par.  IfiOl.  f.  K  Grial,  Matrit,  1778. 
2Th.  t  F.  Arevitlu-^.TMvn.  1797ss.  7  Th.  4.  Comp.  BraitHonU  Prsenotatio  librorum  S.  Isidori  io 
Oiidiit,  Comnilr.  de  Scrr.  ecc.  Th.  I.  p.  15St 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  167.  BEDE.    §  ICS.  ALCCIN.  179 

connection  Avhicli  the  latter  kei)t  uj)  witli  Rome.  Theodore,  a  native  of  Tar- 
811S,  and  Arclibisliop  of  Cantcrbun-  (G08-90),  dittused  in  England  a  knowledge 
of  tlie  Greek  language  and  literature.  From  this  school  proceeded  the  Vene- 
rable  Bede,  a  monk  of  Yarrow,  who  was  honored  as  the  representative  of  all 
ÜIQ  knowledge  possessed  in  his  time,  and  was  a  faithful  teacher  as  well  as 
learner  to  the  last  moment  of  his  life  (735).  (l) 

§  168.     Scientific  Education  under  the  Caroling ians. 

C.  IT.  van  ITencerden,  <le  lis,  qiiao  a  Car.  M.  turn  nd  propagr.  rel.  clir.  tum  ad  emondandam  ejus- 
dem  docendi  rationcm  acta  sunt.  L.  B.  lS-25.  4.  F.  Lorents,  Alculns  Leben,  llal.  1S29.  J.  C.  F.  Baehr, 
Gesell,  d.  nim.  Litoraturiin  karoling.  Zeitalter.  Carlsr.  1S40. 

In  the  Frankish  Cliurch  some  interest  was  created  by  Boniface  in  the  lite- 
rature of  his  native  land,  and  he  appears  to  have  taken  pains  to  improve  the 
jargon  in  which  the  Latin  baptismal  formula  was  littered  by  the  ignorant  Ba- 
varian priests.  But  even  he  regarded  the  belief  in  the  antipodes  as  a 
heresy.  («)  Charles  the  Great  conversed  in  Latin,  understood  the  Greek,  and 
in  the  circle  of  his  learned  friends  laid  aside  his  crown ;  but  his  hand  Avas 
more  accustomed  to  the  sword,  and  began  to  form  written  characters  late  in 
life  with  extreme  difficulty.  Even  the  tales  and  heroic  songs  then  current 
among  the  people,  but  which  being  neglected  by  the  Church  were  passing 
into  oblivion,  he  vainly  attempted  to  preserve.  Ilis  own  education  had  been 
derived  from  Italy,  and  the  few  men  of  learning  to  whom  he  could  intrust 
his  plan  of  popular  education  were  either  from  the  same  country  or  from  Eng- 
land. Among  these  was  Alcuin,  (J)  at  an  tarlier  period  a  canon  and  a  su- 
perintendent of  the  convent-school  of  York  and  an  abbot  at  Tours  (d.  S04-), 
a  pious,  intelligent,  and  active  man,  but  possessed  of  only  ordinary  natural 
talents.  He  conducted  a  school  in  tlie  palace  itself  (schola  palatina),  and  by 
its  means  established  other  schools  of  learning  for  the  seven  liberal  arts  (tri- 
vium  and  qnadrivium)  in  the  cathedrals  and  convents  throughout  the  em- 
pire, {c)  Popular  schools  were  also  founded  in  his  own  diocese  by  Thcodulf^ 
Bishop  of  Orleans  (d.  821).  A  collection  of  sermons  selected  from  the  writ- 
ings of  the  fathers  was  formed  under  the  direction  of  the  emperor  by  Paul 
the  Deacon  for  an  cxamide  to  the  clergy  rather  than  for  ordinary  reading,  {d) 
But  all  this  literary  improvement  was  not  a  direct  growth  of  the  popular  life, 
but  a  foreign  importation.  Hence  even  the  writings  of  the  first  men  of  the 
age  seldom  exhibit  the  fresh  living  spirit  of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand 
their  prose  and  verse  are  written  in  an  unnatund,  clumsy  style,  indicating 
that  the  whole  was  only  a  remnant  of  a  decayed  civilization,  except  where  it 
immediately  rellected  the  purely  practical  lite  and  siruggles  of  society  in  let- 


V)  Comment.ary,  Ilorallies,  Letters,  llistorfcs,  Grammar,  Astronomy.  0pp.  Has.  S  Tli.  f.  Col.  ICSS. 
4Th.  f.  e<L  Gilta,  L<ind.  1543.  5  Tb.  [HH  cccl.  Ill'^t  &  tlie  Sax.  Cbron.  are  Iransl.  by  GilfH.  Lond. 
1843. 12.]  Ctitberti  Vita  Bcdae  Ven.  (prcflxcd  to  Oj^p.)  If.  GeItU,  do  Uedao  V.  vita  ct  scrlptis.  Lugd. 
B.  1S39. 

a)  Bonif.  Ep.  02.    ( Wünittc.  p.  4.54s.)— Ep.  82.  {IK  p.  23*s.) 

V)  Commentary,  Homilies  dogm.,  moral  iilill.,  .fc  astronom.  treatises,  lives  of  tbc  saints,  po«mi,  Jc 
eep.  232  epistles.    Opi>.  ed.  Frohenius,  Ratl.^ib.  177Cs.  2  Tb.  f. 

c)  Comp.  Val.  Schmkit,  in  notes  to  Petri  Alfmui  Discipl.  clcrlcalls.  Bcr.  1S2T.  -L  p.  109s6. 

d)  Uomiliarinm.  Spir.  14S2.  Bas.  1493.  f.  &  often. 


180      ANCIKNT  nit.'RfH  IIISTOnr.   TKR.  II.   GEIiMANICCIICP.cn.   A.  D.  312-SW. 

tors  of  buaincs.s  and  in  law.s.  Such  foreign  ungraceful  forms  in  -vvhich  th» 
newly  awftkenod  spirit  attempted  to  clothe  itself,  seemed  like  the  tattere 
garments  of  tlio  European  on  the  stately  son  of  the  forest. 

§  160.  Adoptionuts. 

I.  Elipandi  Ep.  ad  Fldelem.  a.  785.  Seati  ciEOieril  adv.  Elip.  L  II.  (Galland.  Tli.  XIII.)  Al 
cuinus:  adv.  Ellp.  1.  I.  Ep.  ad  Fellcem  &  adv.  Fel.  1.  VII.  (principally  In  Frohen.)— 

II.  Fr.  Walc\  Hist  Adoptianor.  Qoett.  1755.  Frobenii  Ds.  de  liaer.  Ellp.  et  Felic.  (0pp.  AIcuIq 
Th.  I.  p.  023.) 

Flipandus,  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and  Felix,  Bishop  of  Urgel,  carried  out 
the  Nestorian  doctrine  to  its  extreme  results,  and  maintained  that  Christ  was 
the  Son  of  God  in  his  human  nature,  only  by  adoption,  and  consequently 
that  there  could  be  no  proper  union  of  his  divine  and  human  attributes. 
Though  this  Adoptionism  was  condemned  at  the  Synod  of  Frankfort  (794)  it 
exalted  itself  against  the  authority  of  the  Church  ;  but  at  the  Synod  of  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  (799)  Felix,  whose  diocese  was  in  the  Spanish  March,  and  there- 
fore subject  to  Charles  the  Great,  was  persuaded  by  Alcuin  to  recant  his 
opinions.  Although  this  retraction  was  insincere,  or  at  least  not  adhered  to, 
and  Elipandus,  who  lived  under  the  protection  of  the  Saracens,  was  especially 
violent  in  his  opposition,  the  controversy  was  too  little  consonant  with  the 
spirit  of  the  times  to  survive  its  original  authors. 


MEDIAEVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

THIRD  PERIOD. 

FROM    CIIAELES    TO    INNOCENT    III. 


§  170.     General  Vieto  and  Authoritita. 

I.  §  147  &  §  149.  1)  Citnisii  Lectiones  antiqnao  (Ingolst.  1001.)  Ed.  Batnage,  Antu.  1725.  4  v.  t 
D'Auhery,  vetl.  Scrr.  Spicilegiuin.  Par.  (1653)  Ed.  de  la  Barre,  1723.  8  v.  t.  Baluzii  Miscellanea. 
(Par.  167S.)  Ed.  Mami  Luc.  17C1. 4  Th.  f.  Mabillon,  vett  Analecta.  Par.  1723.  C  Marlene  et  Durand  : 
Tlics.  novus  Anecdotor.  Par.  1717.  5  v.  £  &  vett.  Scrr.  et  Monum.  Col.  ampliss.  Par.  1724ss.  9  v.  f. 
Pete,  Thcs.  Anecdotor.  Aug.  Vind.  1721.  6  v.  f. — Itegcsta  rcgum  atquo  Impp.  Kom.  Orig.  Docc  of  the 
Koniaa  Emperors  from  911  to  1813  in  extracts,  with  Keforences,  by  Boehmer.  Frkf.  1831.  4.  Boehr 
rner,  showing  tbo  imperial  laws  from  900  to  1400.  Frkf.  1S32.  4.-2)  Annates  Fuldensea  by  contem- 
poraries 8-38-901.  {Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  3G1.)  Bertiniani  835-8S2  by  Prudentim  of  Troyes  &  Uincmar 
of  Eheims.  {Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  419.)  Regino,  Abbot  of  Pruem,  d.  915,  Clironlcon,  documentary  S70-90T. 
cont.  till  967.  {Pertz  Th.  1.  p.  537.)  Flodoard,  canon  at  P.hcims,  d.  9GG.  Annalcs,  919-00.  (Pertz  Th. 
V.  p.  3G3.)  Liudprand,  I5p.  of  Cremona,  d.  972,  Antapodosis  1.  VI.  &.  de  rebus  gcstis  Otton  M.  {Perta 
Th.  V.  p.  204.)  Widuchind,  monk  of  Corvey,  d.  about  1000,  Annales  do  rcb.  Saxonum  gestis.  (TTef- 
lom.  Til.  I.  p.  G29.  comp.  Leihnit.  Th.  I.  p.  208.)  Thietmar,  r>p.  of  Merseburg,  d.  lOIS.  Clironlcon, 
hist,  of  the  Sax.  Empp.  (cd.  J.  A.  Wagner,  Nor.  1807.  4.  I.appenherg  in  Pertz  Th.  V.  p.  723.)  ITer- 
mannus  Contractus,  monk  of  Keichenan,  d.  1054,  Chron.  from  Christ,  but  osp.  1000-54,  cont  hy  Ber- 
tholdus  of  Ecichenau  till  1080,  extracts  &  continuation  by  B>rnoldu8  of  S.  Blaisa  till  1100.  {Pertz 
Th.  VII,  67.  204.)  Lambertus  Scha/nahurgensis,  a  monk  of  Uersfeld,  do  reb.  gestis  Germ.  1039-77. 
Perts  Th.  VII.  p.  134.)  Marianus  Seotua,  a  monk  of  Cologne,  Fulda  &  Mentz,  d.  lOSG,  Chronic,  till 
10S2,  cont  by  Abbot  Z)0f/6c/i!/iKS  till  1200.  {Pertz  Th.  VII.  p.  4SI.)  Sigebertua  Gemblacensis,  d. 
1112,  cont  by  Hieronyml  Chronicon,  381-1111.  {PerUTh.  VIII.  p.  208.)  Otto  Frixingeiia.  d.  1153 
Chron.  reriim  ab  initio  mundi  ad  ann.  1140  gestar.  1.  VIII.  cont  by  Otto  de  S.  Blasio  till  1209. 
ruaermann  Th.  IF.  p.  449.)  Chronicon  Umpergenne,  till  1126  by  a  monk  of  Bamberg,  cont  by  Bur- 
chard  &  Conrad  of  Lichtenau,  Abbots  of  Urspers,  till  1229.  (Argentor.  6;}7.  009.  f.)  Chronica  regia 
s.  S.  Pantaleonis  by  monks  of  the  convent  of  S.  P.antaleon  at  Cologne,  1000,  1100,  &  1102.  {Eccard 
Th.  L  p.  683.)  cont  by  Godefridus,  a  monk  of  the  samo  place  till  1237.  {Freher  Th.  I.  p.  8.35.— 
3)  Adiimus  Bremensls,  after  1007  a  canon  of  Bromen,  Qesta  Ilammenburgensls  Ecc.  Pontiflcum,  till 
1070.  (Ed.  Lappenbcrg  in  Pertz  Th.  IX.  p.  207.  I'cbors.  m.  Anm.  v.  Cirsten  Miesegaes.  Brm.  1S25.) 
Odericus  Vitalia,  a  monk  of  St  Evroul,  d.  alter  1142.  Ili.^t  ecc.  1.  XIII.  till  1142.)  [The  Ecclei 
Ilist  of  Enal,  by  Od.  Vit  hn.i  been  transl.  and  ptibl.  by  Bohn.  Lond.  1854]  Ihi  Chesne,  Scriptt. 
Normanu.  Par.  1019.  f.  p.  319.  According  to  the  more  correct  French  text  by  Dubois,  Par.  182088. 
4  vols.)  4)  Contlnuators  of  Thpophanes:  Joannes  Slojlitxa  811-1037  ^t  lOSI.  Jo«.  C(?HMn«  813-67, 
Leo  Diaeonus  till  97.'»,  .Simeon  I.ogotheta  till  907,  /.<?o  Grammnticue  till  1013,  Geo.  Cedrenus  till  1057. 
[Mic?i.  Atta! lota,  from  Iii50tol078]  Jo.  ZoniirasUW  lllS,  Xieetas  Acominatiis  till  1200,  Geo.  Aero- 
pnlita  till  1201.  (Hist  Byzant  Scrr.  Par.  ItVlSss.  42  Th.  f.  Coqius  Scrr.  Hist  Byzant  Bonn.  1S28S».)— 
11.  p.  §  147. 

The  plans  Avliicli  Charles  the  Gfoat  liad  begun  to  execute  with  so  nnich 
riolonce  and  hope  Avere  apparently  quite  abandoned  by  liis  successors.     But 


182  MKItlAKVAL  CllfiiCII  1II.-T0I:T.     I'Ki:.  III.     A.  I).  8'>0-12I0. 

tho  Churcli,  though  cxtcnmlly  .sliakon,  secretly  nonrislicd  its  liiglier  life  and 
imparted  Roman  civilization  to  Germanic  energy  and  profundity.  Accord- 
ingly in  tho  tenth  century  when  both  the  Inerarchy  and  ÜiG  feudal  monarchy 
became  strong,  and  wlion  men  no  longer  relied  upon  mere  physical  force,  but 
contended  with  a  youthful  and  romantic  enthusiasm  for  honor,  love,  and 
faitii,  tlio  cliurch  naturally  became  the  supremo  power  of  the  age,  because  it 
was  llie  educator  of  the  people,  and  held  in  its  hands  all  the  treasures  of  spi- 
ritual grace  for  earth  and  heaven.  Whenever  it  entered  the  lists  against  mere 
brute  force  it  was  of  course  defeated,  but  it  always  held  the  first  place  in  the 
hearts  of  the  people.  Under  these  circumstances  tho  power  of  the  pope  so 
much  increased  that  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  head  of  the  Cliurch,  and  tho 
representative  of  its  spiritual  power,  in  contrast  with  the  imperial  govern- 
ment. Every  pope  who  understood  his  position  must  have  felt  that  he  was 
the  protector  of  political  freedom  and  the  deliverer  of  all  who  Avere  op- 
pressed. The  Germanic  people  became  divided  into  different  nations,  and 
indeed  every  estate,  every  city,  and  every  corporation  endeavored  to  become 
independent.  But  the  common  connection  of  all  nations  and  orders  with  the 
papacy  united  them  together  as  one  great  Christian  family,  in  whose  genera] 
enterprises  all  distinctions  were  forgotten  and  national  peculiarities  were  dis- 
regarded. The  prominent  thing,  therefore,  in  tho  liistory  of  this  period,  is  the 
development  of  the  papacy  until  its  influence  extends  to  every  thing  else,  and 
around  it  are  grouped  all  the  ecclesiastical  relations  of  the  Western  world. 
The  north-eastern  part  of  Europe  was  now  generally  converted  to  Christian- 
ity. In  the  East,  the  great  conflict  with  the  West  between  the  hosts  of  Islam 
and  those  of  the  Cross  was  just  enkindled,  but  the  Oriental  Church  was  only 
passively  involved  in  it,  and  the  only  reason  we  recollect  her  sluggish  exist- 
ence was  her  dependence  upon  more  active  agents. — Almost  every  generation 
of  this  period  is  represented  by  its  own  chroniclers,  who  wrote  a  history  of 
the  world  from  a  position  more  or  less  of  an  ecclesiastical  character.  Many 
of  them  commence  with  the  creation  of  man,  or  at  least  with  the  birth  of 
Christ ;  but  the  ages  preceding  their  own  were  described  by  writers  like  them- 
selves, and  every  chronicle  and  every  section  of  it  is  an  original  authority 
only  Avhere  it  contains  some  earlier  documents,  or  records  some  contempora- 
neous event.  Few  of  them  were  written  by  a  single  individual,  but  most  of 
them  were  the  common  property  of  a  whole  convent,  on  which  several  gene- 
rations were  employed  as  original  authors  or  revisers.  Those  most  worthy 
of  our  notice  are  :  Liudprand^  Avho  gives  a  dark  coloring  even  to  dark  pas- 
sages of  history,  and  although  his  bitterest  expressions  are  no  calumnies,  he  is 
sometimes  not  very  exact,  and  with  reference  to  Italian  aftairs  he  displays  too 
much  passion,  (a)  The  German  history  of  Lamlert  of  Eersfeld  is  just  such 
a  picture  of  society  as  might  be  expected  from  a  pious  monk  who  had 
made  a  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  looked  out  upon  the  world  and 
his  nation  from  the  small  stained  window  of  his  cell.  Sighert  of  Gemblours, 
though  a  monk  and  enthusiastic  for  ecclesiastical  sanctity,  represents  the  em- 
peror's cause  against  the  pope,  and  indicates  the  approach  of  a  time  when 

<j)  Martini,  Denkschr.  d.  Akad.  z.  München.  1S09.  Hist.  Classe.  p.  3ss.  i?.  A.  Koi'pl-e,  de  Tita  et 
ecrlptis  Liudp.  Ber.  1S42. 


CHAT.  I.  PAI'ACV.  §  172.  DONATION  OF  CONSTANTIXE.        183 

BUch  conflicts  of  piety  and  patriotism  were  common,  (h)  Otho  of  Fremngen^ 
the  nncle  and  the  historian  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  in  the  spirit  of  an  eccle- 
siastical prince,  familiar  with  the  world  ia  its  highest  stations,  and  mediating 
between  the  sword  and  the  crosier,  wrote  a  history  of  the  world  and  of  his 
times,  as  if  it  were  a  tragedy  ending  with  the  final  judgment.  Adam  of 
Bremen^  living  at  the  centre  of  the  great  northern  bishopric  over  which  he 
presided,  with  considerable  historical  skill  relates  the  history  of  the  Northern 
Church  at  its  establishment,  according  to  original  records,  traditions,  and  per- 
sonal recollections,  (c)  If  in  these  contemporary  writers  the  sentiments  and 
superstition  of  the  age  is  clearly  reflected,  we  have  in  the  Byzantine  histo- 
rians a  more  elegant  and  learned  picture  of  their  own  court,  and  some  occa- 
sional notices  of  the  Western  Barbarians,  like  faint  vistas  of  auollier  age. 


CnAP.  I.— GENERAL  DEVELOPKEXT  OF  THE  rAPACY. 

1.  Anastasiua  (§  130.)  Martinua  Polomis  (0.127?,),  Clironlcon.  Col.  1G16.  f.— II.  C.  Ilöflei;  i. 
deutschen  Päpste.  Kegensb.  1S39.  2d  part. 

§  171.  General  View. 
Until  the  time  of  Gregory.^  the  papacy  contended  for  dominion  over  the 
Church,  not  so  much  because  the  popes  themselves  were  ambitious  to  acquire 
it,  as  because  the  necessities  of  the  times  and  of  those  who  understood  them 
compelled  them  to  do  so.  The  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth,  in  the  midst  of 
the  distractions  which  took  place  in  Italy,  often  had  not  where  lie  could 
securely  lay  his  head ;  and  even  Avhen  tlie  party  which  sustained  him  was 
victorious,  his  oflSce  as  the  successor  of  St.  Peter  was  little  more  than  a  good 
benefice.  But  after  Gregory's  time,  the  struggle  for  the  freedom  and  ascend- 
ency of  the  Church  was  in  many  respects  changed.  The  power  of  the 
Church  was  then  establi.shed  on  the  broad  basis  of  a  territorial  possession, 
and  by  that  very  process  it  had  entered  the  territory  and  intruded  upon  the 
province  of  the  state.  Hence  tlie  struggle  between  the  imperial  and  the 
papal  power  now  became  inevitable,  and  could  not  be  brouglit  to  an  issue 
without  a  sacrifice.  From  its  more  perfect  power  over  the  higher  nature  of 
man,  the  papacy  was  triumphant,  but  the  Church  gained  nothing  by  the  vic- 
tory, the  vital  interests  of  the  state  were  seriously  injured,  and  accordingly 
the  conflict  between  the  two  was  not  terminated. 

§  172.     Donation  of  Constitntine  in  (he  Xinth  Ccntunj. 
Although  the  pope  was  the  emperor's  vassal,  and  chosen  uiuk-r  the  impe- 
rial dictation,  {n)  he  was  nevertheless  honored  by  each  emperor  as  a  spiritual 

V)  S.  Hirsch,  de  Sig.  Qemb.  vita  et  scrlptl».  Ber.  1841. 

c)  .lac.  Aammsen,  de  fontlbus  Adam;  Urem.  Kilon.  1S34.  4.  Lapptnlnrg  In  rortz  Arclilv.  vol 
VI.  P.  5s. 

a)  E.  g.  Vita  Lud.  Pii  per  Astronotnum  c.  25«.  (Pfrts  Tli.  II.  p.  619s.)  Lfo  JV.  Lotliario.  (Oia- 
tian :  P.  I.  Dist  X.  c.  9.)  Tlio  ppiiriousness  of  tlio  constitution  in  wlilcli  Louis  tlio  Pious  restore« 
tlie  riglit  of  sutTriifre  to  tlic  Koinans  (S17):  /'.  II'(//<7i,  Ccnsura  diplomalis,  quod  Lud.  Pius  PB.<cliall 
toncossisse  fcrtiir.  Lps.  1749.  (PuUii  Syllo^e,  Th.  VI.  p.  27J<.)  Miirino  Jfurini,  nuovo came  di'linu- 
.tnticita  do  diplonii  di  I.ud.  P.,  Ottonc  I.  c.  Arrl^'o  II.  l;om.  l!'22. 


184  MKDIAKVAI,  «  llini  11   1II!^T<)1:V.     I'KU.  lU.     A.  I).  SOft-121«. 

fnther,  from  whoso  liiind  the  crown  was  received.  But  during  the  reign  of 
the  •wonk-iniiided  Loiiif»  the  Pious,  nnd  the  contentions  of  his  Bons  for  the 
throne,  tlic  pojicH  griidually  withdrew  from  under  the  autliority  of  the  empe- 
rors, and  tlio  bestowal  of  the  crown  appeared  rather  as  an  act  of  special 
favor.  Gre(jory  IV.,  however  (827-44),  gave  such  offence  by  liis  interfer- 
ence in  these  disputes,  that  tlie  Frankish  bisliops  threatened  to  depose 
him.  (Ä)  As  the  recollection  that  tlie  secular  power  of  the  pope  was  the  gift 
of  the  German  princes  became  rather  inconvenient,  the  story  was  started 
that  Constantine  the  Great  had  given  Rome  and  Italy  to  Pope  SyhcHter,  and 
that  this  was  the  reason  that  the  imperial  capital  had  been  removed  to  Con- 
stantinople. The  political  power  of  the  pope  had  unquestionabjy  been  occa- 
sioned by  that  removal,  and  by  merely  substituting  a  direct  intention  of  the 
emperor  for  what  was  the  gradual  result  of  circumstances,  the  story  aa}uired 
considerable  plausibility,  and  finally  was  confirmed  by  the  fortunate  discov- 
ery of  what  claimed  to  be  the  original  deed  of  gift  by  Constantine.  (c)  All 
this,  however,  did  not  prevent  the  emperor  who  appointed  the  pope  and  the 
bishops,  from  prescribing  laws  for  the  Church,  and  governing  it  according  to 
his  own  views  rather  than  theirs,  whenever  the  empire  was  free  from  inter- 
nal distractions.  Even  the  relaxation  of  political  power  which  took  place 
while  the  Carolingian  princes  contended  with  each  other,  was  the  occasion  of 
licentiousness  rather  than  of  liberty  among  the  clergy,  and  exposed  them  to 
the  oppression  of  their  secular  masters. 

§  173.     Pseudo-Isidore. 

CovUnnt,  de  antiq.  cann.  Coll.  (Epp.  Pontif.  Rom.  p.  LVI.  §  10.)  Ballerini  (0pp.  Leon.  Th.  III. 
p.  CCXVss.)  Blasci  Com.  de  Col.  cann.  Isid.  Merc.  Xeap.  17C0.  4.  (Gallondii  Syll.  Mog.  1790.  Th. 
n.  p.  I.)  J.  A.  Theiner,  de  P.  Isid.  cann.  Col.  Vrat  1S27.  F.  IT.  Knust,  de  fontib.  et  consilio  pseu- 
doisidoriauae.  Col.  Goett  1S32.  4. 

The  collection  bearing  the  name  of  Isidore  came  to  light  at  intervals, 
much  mutilated,  and  besides  some  later  portions  with  nearly  one  hundred 
spurious  decretals  professing  to  have  been  put  forth  by  diflerent  popes  from 
the  time  of  Clement  I.  (91)  to  that  of  Damasus  I.  (384).  {a)  In  these  enact- 
ments is  presented  a  legal  condition,  in  which  the  clergy  were  entirely  dis- 
connected with  the  state,  and  by  the  dissolution  of  the  metropolitan  and 
synodal  courts,  the  supreme  legislative,  supervisory  and  judicial  powers  be- 
came united  in  the  pope.  The  moral  influence  and  strict  discipline  of  the 
clergy  were  represented  as  dependent  upon  their  complete  separation  from 
the  state.  Many  irrelevant  and  trivial  matters  are  taken  from  the  literature 
of  former  times  and  mingled  with  the  body  of  the  work.  It  professes  in  its 
preface,  and  from  its  singleness  of  aim  it  would  seem  really  to  be,  the  work 

h)  Pascliaslm  ex  vita  Walae.  {PerU  Th.  II.  p.  56'2.) 

c)  Kdictiim  Dom.  Constantüii  in  Piertdo-hidore,  and  in  the  extracts  of  Gratian:  Dist  XCVI.  c. 
13.  The  first  appeal  to  it  is  in  Ilhicmar,  Epp.  Ill,  13.  In  the  missives  of  Hadrian  to  Charles  the 
Great  (Codex  Carol.  Ep.  49.)  is  the  first  germ.  Munch,  ü.  d.  Schenk.  Const  (Enlarged  Hist  Sehr. 
Ludw.  1828.  vol.  II.) 

a)  An  imperfect  edition  by  Merlin:  Tomus  primus  quatuor  concilionim.  etc.  Tsidoro  auctore. 
Par.  1524.  f.  (Col.  1530.  Par.  15:35.1  Contributions  to  a  crit  edit  by  Oi?Ni/«and  A'och  In:  Noticee  et 
extraits  des  nianuscrits  dc  la  bibl.  nationale.  Th.  VI.  p.  2JC.  Th.  VII.  P.  II.  p.  ITSss. 


CHAP.  L    PAPACY.    §  173.  PSEUDO-ISIDORE.  185 

of  an  individual  who  is  called  hidorus  (Peccator,  Mercator).  Most  of  the 
spurious  decretals  must  have  been  in  existence  when  Benedict  Levita  compiled 
his  book  of  laws  (845),  and  though  it  may  be  doubtful  whether  they  were 
quoted  in  the  Synod  of  Paris  (829),  they  were  certainly  referred  to  in  the 
Synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (836).  Nicholas  I.,  in  the  year  864,  first  used  a 
certain  collection  unknown  to  him  only  the  year  before,  and  it  may  be  that 
many  things  were  afterwards  added.  It  is  difficult  to  form  any  definite 
opinion  respecting  the  author,  as  many  things  indicate  that  he  was  a  Roman, 
and  still  more  that  he  was  an  eastern  Frank.  (]>)  The  skill  with  which  it  was 
composed  was  not  greater  than  was  practicable  and  even  necessary  for  that  age. 
Some  opponents  of  the  papacy  since  the  fourteentli  century  have  suspected 
the  deception,  and  Protestants  have  clearly  proved  it  by  pointing  out  refer- 
ences to  the  Codex  Dionysii,  a  constant  use  of  the  barbarous  Latinity  of  the 
ninth  century,  citations  of  laws  of  a  later  date,  and  numerous  anachronisms,  (c) 
After  a  brief  contest,  the  advocates  of  the  papacy  merely  attempted  to  show 
that  such  a  deception  was  not  criminal  or  of  much  consequence.  {<T)  And  it 
nrust  he  conceded  that  the  spurious  decretals  contain  very  little  which  had  not 
been  actually  asserted  by  some  pope  at  one  time  or  another.  But  that  which  had 
been  only  lately  conceded  or  claimed  under  peculiarly  favorable  circum- 
stances, and  with  many  conditions  and  protests,  w.is  here  announced  under 
the  sacred  authority  of  Christian  antiquity  as  an  undoubted,  generally  con- 
ceded, and  divine  right.  A  forged  document  is  indeed  no  very  good  founda- 
tion on  which  to  build  a  claim  for  universal  dominion,  but  as  Isidore  only 
expressed  in  a  decisive  manner  wliat  was  the  general  object  of  effort  during 
that  age,  he  gave  a  definite  direction  to  the  fluctuating  views  of  right  which 
then  prevailed,  and  filled  even  the  minds  of  the  popes  and  clergy  with  the 
moral  power  of  a  faith  in  their  own  right  to  what  wag  claimed.  Men  are 
much  more  inclined  to  judge  of  rights  from  facts  than  from  theories,  and 
hence  this  fiction  respecting  former  times  certainly  anticipated  a  future  real- 
ity, and  gave  considerable  support  to  the  pretensions  of  the  pric-sthood.  The 
object  of  it  was  to  promote  the  independence  of  the  Churcli,  which  the 
same  author,  or  some  contemporary  whose  sympathies  were  remarkably 
similar  to  his,  endeavored  to  sustain  in  an  earlier  plan,  by  increasing  the  dltti- 
culties  in  the  way  of  sustaining  charges  against  bishops,  and  by  allowing  them 
to  be  tried  only  in  the  provincial  synods,  (f)  It  was  thought,  however,  tliat 
this  could  be  secured  against  the  tlireatening  and  ovcrwlichning  jwwer  of  the 
emperor  in  no  other  way  than  by  uniting  the  whole  Church  under  one 

I)  Lfo  IV.  a.  WO.  nd  Episcc.  Brltan.  (Onrtian:  P.  I.  DIst.  XX.  c.  1.) 

c)  Centnr.  MapfUburg.  Tli.  H.  c.  7.  Th.  III.  C  7.  (Tiirrinnun,  ndv.  M«s>I.  (Vnt  i)ro  cann.  «pp.  et 
ipp.  decretalibus  Pontt  app.  Par.  1573.  4.)  Pov.  Blondel,  Vf*-uilol>Ul.  et  Tiirr.  vnpulantes.  Gen. 
.C28.  4 

d)  WalL'T,  KRechL  8  cd.  Bonn.  1S.39.  p.  l.V'is«.  J/M/cr,  aus  n.  über  P.  Wd.  (Tub.  Quartalschr. 
829.  II.  8.  1S32.  II.  1.  and  mlgoell.  writlnjr«.  vol.  I.)    Only  Marchftti  bas  un<lortakon  sllll  to  question 

Ibe  spuriousness  of  tbo  Decretals.  (Sai-p'o  «"fit-  »opra  la  Moria  dl  Kleuri.  Koin.  \'>\.) 

e)  Cupitnhi.  Angilnimni :  Mnusi  Tli.  XII.  p.  Wi^^  Accordins;  to  s<«ino  Codd.  tlic!>e  were  a 
collection  of  7'V>  laws  respcctlns  legal  proeeeillngs  aitaln^t  bl.*li<>|H  presented  by  Ansrllram,  Up.  of  Mi  tz 
and  Arch-cl]a|ilain  to  Cliarlc-s  tbe  (7  reat,  to  Popo  Adrian,  but,  according  to  others  pre.<cnted  by  Adrian  to 
Anjrllram.  For  its  autlientlolty :  V<iKiifn>i-hU1i^n,  Bellrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  falschen  Dccret*L  BrsL  IS-U. 
Against  it:  üettherff,  KGosch.  Dout.<clil.  vol.  I.  p.  501.  e4C.'a. 


i86  MKDIAKVAL  CIICIX'II  IIISTOKV.     I'KI:.  III.     A.  V.  800-12IJ. 

oartlily  liend.  It  is  hardly  j/ossililo  flint  lie  who  tliUH  attempted  to  deceive  llio 
■whole  Church  and  the  world  had  in  view  any  direct  personal  advantage 
which  ho  expected  to  derive  from  it, 

§  I74r.  The  Female  Pope  Joanna. 
In  the  dironicles  composed  near  the  commencement  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  it  is  recorded  that  between  Leo  IV.  (d.  July  17,  855)  who  hoped  to 
free  himself  from  the  influence  of  Franco  by  another  connection  with  the 
Greek  emi)ire,  and  Benedict  III.^  a  disguised  female  who  hud  been  highly 
educated  at  Athens,  Avas  elevated  to  the  apostolic  chair  under  the  name  of 
John  VIII.  (Anglicus),  and  met  with  a  tragical  end  while  paying  the  penalty 
of  her  sex.  {a)  It  was  on  this  account  that  John  XX.  (1276)  assumed  the 
appellation  of  John  XXL,  and  this  Joanna  Papissa  retained  her  place  on 
the  list  of  the  successors  of  St..  Peter.  But  the  silence  of  all  antiquity  with 
respect  to  the  matter,  awakened  doubts  in  the  fifteenth  century,  and  when 
proofs  were  brought  forward  that  Benedict  apparently  succeeded  Leo  imme- 
diately in  the  papal  chair,  (b)  with  only  a  contest  with  an  antipope  named  Anas- 
tasius,  (c)  a  Roman  presbyter  who  bad  before  been  excommunicated  by  Leo, 
and  when  the  unlucky  affiiir  was  at  least  boldly  denied  by  the  popes  of  the  elev- 
enth century,  (<T)  even  the  Protestants  abandoned  the  account,  (e)  It  does  not 
wear  the  appearance  of  a  calumnious  story,  or  of  a  satirical  allegory,  but  rather 
of  one  of  those  popular  tales  in  which  the  highest  power  of  the  age  was 
treated  with  innocent  poetic  raillery,  and  after  a  German  style,  a  deep  sor- 
row was  concealed  under  a  playful  semblance.  It  is,  however,  possible  that 
a  Church  which  has  often  made  realities  out  of  .vhat  never  existed,  may  also 
possess  magic  power  enough  to  annihilate  what  has  really  taken  place,  when- 
ever the  knowledge  of  it  may  have  seemed  injurious  to  the  still  tottering 
papacy.  (/) 


«)  StepJianus  de  Borlone  (1225  in  Lyons)  L.  de  TIL  donis  Sp.  S.  {BkisciH)  dc  Coll.  cann.  Isid. 
c.  16.  §  11.  n.  2.)  Martini  Pol.  Chronic,  (comp.  Muratori  ad  Anastas.  p.  247.)  Tlie  passage  relating 
to  the  subject  is  interpolated  out  of  Martinus  in  a  few  manuscripts  of  Anastasins.  The  mention  of 
the  papal  mother  in  the  editio  princeps  of  Sigehert  Gemhlac.  ad  a,  S55  i?  -nanting  in  the  MSS. 
hitherto  l;nown.    {PerU  Th.  TIIL  340.  470.) 

h)  1)  Ilincmari  Ep.  26.  ad  Xic  T.  a.  S67.  (0pp.  ed.  Sirmond.  Th.  II.  p.  293.)  according  to  which 
his  messenger  received  the  news  of  the  death  of  Leo  while  on  his  way  to  Rome,  and  when  he  arrived 
at  Eome  his  petition  was  granted  by  Benedict,  2)  A  diploma  of  the  monastery  of  Corbey  (Jlulil- 
lon,  de  ro  diplom.  p.  436.);  and  3)  A  Roman  denarius  (Kühlers  Münzbelust.  vol.  XX.  p.  805.)  have 
each  the  name  of  Benedict  in  connection  with  that  of  Lothaire.  Tho  Emperor  Lothaire  died  Sept. 
2S,  855. 

c)  Joffe,  Eegesta  p.  285s.    Ilincmari  Annal.  (Pertz,  vol.  I.  p.  477s.s.) 

d)  Leo  IX.  ad  Michael.  Constant  Patriarch,  a  1054.  {Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  649.)  c.  23. 

e)  Blondel,  Joanna  Papissa.  Amst  1657.  G.  G.  Leihnitii  flores  sparsi  in  tumulum  Papissco. 
(Bibl.  hist,  Goett.  176S.  Th.  I.  p.  297ss.)  Gabler,  kirchl.  theoL  Schriften,  vol.  I.  Jf.  29.— Ti:  Smtts,  d. 
Mührchen  v.  d.  P.  Joh.  Cr,lln.  IS'29. 

/)  SpanhemüT>s.  de  ,To.  P.  (0pp.  Th.  IL  p.  577ss.)  Luden,  Gesch.  d.  teutschen  Volkes.  1S31. 
vol.  VI.  p.  512.  K.  C.  Kiat,  d.  Päpstin  Joh.  from  the  Dutcli.  (Nedcrl.  Archicf  Toor  kerk.  GeschieU 
eiiis  III,  1.  V,  401.)  revised  by  Z.  Tross.  (Illgen's  Zoltschr.  1S44.  part  2.) 


CHAP.  1     PAPACY.    §  175.  KICIIOLAS  I.    HADRIA^MI.    JOHN  VIII.  1S7 

§  175.  Nicholas  I.  8Ö8-8G7,  Hadrian  II.  8GT-S72,  and  John  Till.  872-882. 

Manai  Tb.  XV.  p.  144ss.  E«>gino  ad  atn.  S58ss.  Hincmar  de  divortio  Hlotbarii  et  Teutb«rjne. 
(0pp.  ed.  Sirmond.  Th.  I.  p.  557ss.)— J/iinst  Th.  XV.  p.  SOCss.  Th.  XVI.  p.  öTOss.  Ilnic.  lUm^ 
Opiisc.  55  capitulor.  adv.  lllncm.  Laudunens.  (Ojip.  Th.  II.  p.  377ss.) 

Nicholas  /.,  a  defender  of  the  people,  was  gentle  toward  good  men,  but  like  an 
avenging  Elijah  toward  those  who  were  evil,  lie  Ibiined  but  never  quite  accom- 
plished the  design  of  surrounding  himself  with  a  council  of  inteUigent  bishops 
out  of  all  nations.  But  perceiving  the  favorable  disposition  of  the  age,  he  raised 
the  privileges  of  the  apostolic  see  so  that  they  became  a  j)rotection  fur  the  whole 
Church,  and  under  the  sanction  of  public  opinion  a  weapon  against  all  kinds 
of  violence.  In  opposition  to  a  lascivious  king  and  a  large  nuuiber  of  servile 
bishops,  he  appeared  as  the  avenger  of  oppressed  innocence,  and  as  a  defender 
of  episcopal  rights  against  an  imperious  and  powerful  archbishop.  King 
Lothaire  II.  was  obliged  to  humble  himself,  since  the  hostile  princes  of  his 
own  family  stood  ready  to  execute  the  papal  threats,  and  tlie  FrankLsh  bish- 
ops did  not  object  to  have  the  spurious  decretals  appUed  for  the  first  time 
against  Hincmar  of  Ii'heims,  for  they  thought  it  better  to  obey  a  distant  pope 
than  a  threatening  metropolitan  at  home.  It  was,  however,  still  believed 
even  at  Rome,  that  a  papal  decision  might  very  easily  be  annulled  by  a 
Prankish  synod.  ('/)  But  when,  with  no  such  advantage  of  political  circum- 
stances, Hadrian  11,  after  the  death  of  Lothaire  (8C0),  defended  the  rights 
of  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne  against  Charles  the  Bald  and  Louis  the  Ger- 
man, and  endeavored  to  protect  Hincmar  of  Laon,  a  deposed  bishop  who  had 
also  been  persecuted  by  the  king,  from  the  rage  of  his  uncle,  Ili/ici/air  of 
Iiheitns,  the  latter  gave  him  to  understand  that  in  France  a  wide  distinction 
Avas  made  between  spiritual  and  secular  power ;  that  great  disturbances  of 
public  tranquillity  had  been  created  by  the  pope,  and  that  the  bishops  of 
former  times  had  independent  privileges.  The  pope  therefore  found  it  need- 
ful to  assuage  the  wounded  feelings  of  the  Frankish  nation  by  some  conces- 
sions, and  expressions  of  a  holy  love  which  he  declared  had  always  remained 
constant  in  spite  of  some  ejiistles  that  might  have  seemed  severe  because 
Avritten  under  the  pressure  of  great  infirmity,  or  forged  in  his  name.  (//) 
John  VIII.  bestowed  (775)  the  imperial  crown  upon  Charles  the  Bald  in  com- 
pliance with  what  he  declared  to  be  a  divine  revelation  to  his  predecessor 
Nicholas,  in  spite  of  the  superior  hereditary  claims  of  the  Gennan  kingdom, 
and  .sustained  the  cause  of  that  prince  by  every  spiritual  menace  in  his  power. 
It  Avas  then  solemnly  announced  that  this  bestowal  of  the  imperiiU  dignity 
was  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  the  apostles  Peter  and  Paul, 
through  their  vicegerent  on  earth.  It  corresponded  witli  the  political  view3 
of  the  emperor  to  compel  the  French  bishops  to  acknowledge  Amcgism, 
Archbishop  of  Sens,  as  the  primate  and  papal  vicar  for  Gaul  and  Germany ; 
but  under  the  counsel  of  Hincmar  thoy  i)ersisted  in  obeying  the  holy  father 
only  as  far  as  was  consistent  with  the  rights  of  all  the  metrojiolitans,  and  with 


a)  AnnstuK.  ad  Adiinoiii  Vionn.  (Mauni  Th.  XV.  p.  4'>^.) — K.  liosHteuscher,  do  Eothado  Kplsa 
Äuesslonensi.     Mnrb.  Is45.  2  r>ri:. 

h)  riincm.  nd  Iladr.  (0pp.  Th.  II.  p.  6>9.)     IAhIi:  ad  Carol.  Calv.  (J/linsi  Th.  XV.  p.  S57.) 


188  MlCniAKVAI.  (  lirU'  II   llI^ToUY.     riCU.  IlL     A.  D.  800-121«. 

the  laws  of  tho  Chureli.  (c)  IIo  gavo  Lis  consent  to  tlio  decrees  of  the  Sy- 
".0(1  of  Rfircuna  (877),  in  which  tho  papal  approbation  was  declared  indis- 
pensable to  tlie  investiture  of  tlio  metropolitans,  the  bishops  were  made  inde- 
pendent of  all  censures  and  claims  on  tho  part  of  tho  civil  powers,  and  the 
guardianship  of  widows  and  orplians  was  committed  to  their  hands ;  {d)  but 
the  papal  letters  which  interfered  with  the  independence  of  the  empire  and 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  over  their  clergy,  ho  pronounced  through 
Ilincmar  to  be  spurious,  {e)  The  pope  fell  finally  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin.  (/) 
lie  continued  to  the  last  inflexibly  convinced  of  the  imprescriptible  rights  of 
his  see,  and  of  his  position  as  a  servant  of  God,  contending  against  tlie  pow- 
ers and  princes  of  the  world  (Eph.  vi.  12).  Sorely  pressed  by  tho  Saracens 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  wearied  by  tlie  municipal  and  German  factions  in  Rome, 
he  defended  himself  with  extreme  difficulty,  and  sometimes  not  without 
treachery. 

§  176.     Formosits,  891-896,  and  Stephen  VI.  897. 

Aicanlii  1.  II.  de  ordinationibus  Formosi  (Bibl.  PP.  Lucd.  Tli.  XVII.  p.  lss.)and  Dial,  super  ccnM 
et  neg.  Form.  {MahiU.  Anal.  ed.  2.  p.  2Sss.)    Man»i  Th.  XVIII.  p.  99ss.  221ss.    Liudprand  I,  8. 

When  Charles  the  Fat  was  deposed  by  the  German  people  on  account  of 
his  incapacity  (887),  and  when,  soon  after,  the  male  line  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  had  become  extinct  in  France,  Germany  and  France  became  distinct 
kingdoms.  Both  nations  were  rent  into  factions  by  the  contentions  of  the 
sons-in-law  and  the  illegitimate  children  of  the  old  royal  family.  Italy  strug- 
gled for  its  independence  even  with  itself.  The  popes,  it  is  true,  were  free 
from  foreign  masters,  but  they  were  often  obliged  to  make  concessions  in  the 
party  contests  of  the  Romans  and  of  the  Italian  nobles.  Guido,  Duke  of 
Spoleto,  and  Berengar,  Duke  of  Friuli,  contended  with  each  other  for  the 
crown  of  Italy,  and  placed  their  favorites  in  the  papal  chair  according  as 
they  were  severally  successful.  Formosus,  after  a  life  of  great  vicissitude, 
was  elevated  to  the  apostolic  throne,  and  though  he  was  compelled  to  place 
the  imperial  crown  upon  the  head  of  Lambert,  the  son  of  Guido,  he  imme- 
diately summoned  the  German  Armilf  to  Rome  to  free  Italy  from  the 
tyranny  of  that  prince.  Arnulf  was  then  crowned,  and  the  Romans  were 
made  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  him,  with  the  understanding  that  their 
duties  to  the  pope  were  in  no  respect  to  be  affected  by  such  an  act.  Ilis  suc- 
cessor, Stephen  VI.,  went  over  again  to  the  party  of  Guido,  and  having  dis- 
interred the  body  of  Formosus,  subjected  it  to  the  mockery  of  a  judicial 
trial.  Enraged  at  these  proceedings,  the  opposite  party  had  him  soon  after 
strangled  in  prison. 

c)  Cone.  Pontigoneuse  &.  876.    JTincm.  Tr.  ad  Eplscc  de  jure  Metropol.  (0pp.  Th.  IL  p.  719.) 
nincm.  Annal.  {Pertz  Th.  I.  p.  499ss.) 

d)  Mansi  Th.  XVII.  p.  S37. 

<>)  Do  Prcsbyteris  duramatis  ad  Jo.  P.    {Ilincm.  0pp.  Th.  II.  p.  7GSs.) 
f)  Annal.  Ftddens.  (T^rtsTh.  I.  p.  39a) 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  1".  SERGIUS  HI.    >,'<OnN  XL  189 

§  1Y7.     Pornocracy.     904-902, 

I.  The  principal  authority  is  LIudprand,  but  when  he  writes  of  great  outrag»^,  ho  must  re  ;om- 
pared  with  other  clironiclers,  especially  Flodoardi  Chron.  and  his  Fragm.  de  PoniilT.  P.oni.  (J/ii 
billon.  Acta  SS.  O.  Ben.  8.  III.  P.  II.)    Jaße,  EegcsU  p.  8i)T-322. 

II.  Löscher,  Hist  des  rüin.  Ilurenregiments.  Lpz.  1707.  4.  (2.  A.  Hist  der  mittlem  Zeiten  als  ein 
Licht  ans  der  Finsternlss.  1725.  4.) 

"While  Italy  bled  under  the  fends  of  the  nobility,  the  Tn.scan  party  obtained 
tlio  victory  at  Rome,  and  made  their  tool,  Scrgiiis  III.^  pope  (904-911).  At 
the  head  of  this  faction  stood  Alberic,  Marqui.s  of  Tuscany,  with  his  paramour 
Theodora,  a  -widow  of  a  noble  family,  and  her  daughter  Maria  (Nlarozia). 
These  last  were  exceedingly  beautiful,  crafty  and  bold  Roman  women,  whose 
love  of  power  and  of  voluptuousness  were  so  subservient  to  each  other  tliat 
it  was  hard  to  tell  which  was  the  strongest  passion.  For  half  a  century 
their  favorites,  sons  and  grandsons,  occupied  the  apostolic  chair.  Maria  made 
no  secret  of  the  parentage  of  her  children,  acknowledging  that  her  husband 
Alberic  was  the  father  of  Alberic,  and  Pope  Sergius  of  John.  On  the 
death  of  Sergius,  the  Archbishop  of  Ravenna,  John  X.  (914-28),  by  the  crimi- 
nal favor  of  Theodora,  became  the  successor  of  St.  Peter.  By  him  the 
strength  of  Italy  was  united  against  the  Saracens,  who  for  forty  years  had 
maintained  a  settlement  on  the  borders  of  the  States  of  the  Church.  At  the 
head  of  a  Greek  and  Roman  imperial  army,  he  destroyed  their  citadel  (916) 
on  the  Carigliano  (Liris).  After  the  death  of  Theodora,  the  pope,  with  tho 
aid  of  his  brother  Peter,  endeavored  to  make  himself  independent.  Maria 
had  the  Pope's  brother  killed  before  his  eye:^,  and  then  caused  hira  to  be 
smothered  in  the  castle  of  St.  Angelo  (928).  Ilcr  son,  John  XL,  ascended 
the  papal  throne  as  though  it  were  an  inlieritaiice  from  his  father.  She  now 
married  Hugh,  Count  of  Prcrvence,  who  was  regarded  as  the  real  king  of 
Italy.  But  her  secular  son  Alleric,  in  a  nocturnal  insurrection  of  the  Ro- 
mans, expelled  his  stepfather,  and  as  a  senator  (932-954)  exercised  supremo 
power  in  Rome.  Under  his  administration  the  popes  possessed  nothing  but  a 
spiritual  jurisdiction.  Ilis  son  Octavian,  after  the  death  of  Agapctus  (956), 
seized  not  only  his  father's  power,  but  tho  episcopal  office,  and  was  the  first 
among  the  popes  who  assumed  an  ecclesiastical  name  on  attaining  tho  papal 
throne.  As  John  XII.  (955-63),  ho  hoped  to  disconnect  the  excesses  of  his 
secular  life  from  his  ecclesiastical  name  and  office. 

§  178.     The  Pope«  vnder  the  Othos. 

During  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  Germany  became  conscious  of  its  power. 
Otho  I.  seized  upon  tho  first  favorable  opportunity  for  renewing  the  German 
dominion  in  Italy.  (</)  Since  tliat  time  Germany  and  Italy  have  contrived  to 
exert  a  disastrous  influence  upon  each  other.  Tlio  German  king  was  invited 
by  John  XII.  himself  to  dehver  the  motlicr  of  churches  from  the  violence 
of  Berengar  II.,  the  new  king  of  Italy,  and  Avhcn  victorious,  ho  was  crowned 
by  the  pope  at  Rome  (902),  on  his  taking  a  solemn  oath  that  ho  would  pre- 
serve inviolate  the  person  of  the  pope,  and  all  property  belonging  to  the 

c)  W.  DOnnige«,  Jahrbücher  d.  Deutschen  Reichs  unter  Otto  f.  Berl.  lS8f. 


/90  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUliCH  lUSTOltV.     I'ER.  III.     A.  I>.  S00-1J16. 

Romnii  Clmrcli,  mid  iiiitliTtiikc  iiotliin^'  in  Rome  without  t lie  advice  of  llie 
pope.  Tlio  pope  and  all  the  notahles  of  the  city,  on  the  other  hand,  sworo 
on  the  precious  body  of  St.  Peter  that  they  would  henceforth  abandon  the 
cause  of  Borongar  for  ever,  {h)  But  Italy  could  at  that  time  neither  dispense 
with  nor  endure  the  Germans.  John  soon  formed  an  alliance  with  Bercngar 
to  drive  them  from  the  country.  Otho  hastened  back  and  had  the  pope 
cited  before  a  Synod  at  Rome  (968),  which  convicted  him  of  murder,  blas- 
phemy, and  all  kinds  of  lewdness,  deposed  him,  and  elected  L(o  VIII.  In  his 
stead.  The  Romans  then  swore  to  the  emperor  that  no  pope  should  be  cho- 
sen or  consecrated  without  his  consent,  (c)  On  the  emperor's  departure, 
John  returned  and  took  a  most  cruel  vengeance  on  his  enemies,  but  he  was 
soon  after  found  dead  in  an  adulterous  bed,  slain  as  was  generally  believed 
by  the  devil.  The  succeeding  popes  were  nominated  and  with  great  difficulty 
sustained  by  the  emperor,  against  the  hatred  of  the  people  and  the  deceitful 
policy  of  the  Tuscan  party.  After  Otho's  death  (973),  Crescenthts^  a  grand- 
son of  Theodora,  under  the  character  of  a  Consul,  armed  the  Roman  peojjle 
against  the  foreign  tyranny.  Whenever  the  emperors  had  an  army  in  Italy, 
the  i)opes  were  entirely  subservient  to  their  will,  but  at  other  times  they 
were  the  creatures  of  the  Roman  consul  and  people.  Otho  III.^  intending 
to  transfer  the  imperial  residence  to  Rome,  caused  his  young  nephew  Bruno 
to  be  proclaimed  pope,  under  the  name  of  Gregory  Y.  (990),  {(I)  subdued  the 
fortress  of  St.  Angelo,  and  had'  Crescentius  beheaded,  and  a  rival  pope  muti- 
lated (998).  Arnu{t\  Archbishop  of  Rheims,  and  a  natural  brother  of  the 
Duke  of  Lorraine,  had  surrendered  Rheims  to  this  relative,  and  had  after- 
wards fallen  into  the  hands  of  Hugh  Cajyet^  his  enraged  king.  lie  refused  to 
acknowledge  any  one  but  the  pope  as  his  judge.  But  a  national  synod  at 
Rheims  (991)  compelled  him  to  resign  his  oflBce,  and  placed  Geviert  in  his 
chair,  {e)  The  pope  issued  sentence  of  excommunication  against  all  who 
acknowledged  the  validity  of  the  acts  of  that  synod.  In  vain  did  Gerbert 
remind  the  people  that  it  was  not  his  own  interest,  but  the  welfare  of  the 
general  Church,  which  was  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  caprice  of  an  individual ; 
he  was  shunned  as  an  excommunicated  man  by  all  the  inhabitants  of  Rheims, 
and  finally  (995)  he  accepted  the  invitation  of  the  emperor  to  become  the  impe- 
rial tutor.  The  new  French  kingdom  sought  reconciliation  with  the  pope. 
Arnulf  was  reinstated  in  his  former  oflice  by  another  synod  hold  at  Rheims 
(996),  and  even  Eobert,  the  king,  submitted  to  a  decision  of  a  Roman  synod 
(908),  by  which  he  was  separated  trom  his  wife  Bertha  on  account  of  a  spiritual 
relationship  and  a  natural  consanguinity  in  the  fourth  degree.  (/)  Soon  after, 
however,  on  the  premature  death  of  Gregory,  Otho  had  his  beloved  teacher 
elected  to  the  vacant  chair,  and  from  personal  regard,  while  proudly  denying 

h)  Gratian:  P.  I.  Dist  LXIII.  c.  33.     Liudp.  VI,  6. 

c)  Liudp.  VI,  6-11.  Pertz  Th.  IV.  p.  29ss.  The  Ccmsf.  Leonis  VIII.  as  to  its  essential  matter  \i 
trustworthy,  but  the  form  in  Tvliich  it  lias  been  known  since  the  11th  cent  is  not  beyoml  suspicion. 
It  may  be  found  in  PerU  Th.  IV.  II.  p.  167.  as  an  extract  in  Gratian  :  V.  I.  Dist.  LXIII.  c  23.— 
C.  F.  IltrteJ.  (le  Ottonis  M.  Ecclesiae  prospioicn<li  conatu.  Magd.  1736.    d)  Jafft,  p.  339&S. 

e)  Gerberfs  account  of  the  transactions  in  Mansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  103ss. 

/)  Miinsi  Th.  XIX.  p.  225.  J7e!ffa!dii.'<  F.oiiac.  Vita  Koberti  c.  17.  (Bouquet  Th.  X.  p.  107.) 
The  view  entertained  in  the  next  century  may  be  found  in  Pet,  Pamiuni  1.  11.  Ep.  15. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §17S.    STLVESTEU  II.    §179.    CLEMENT  II.  191 

the  validity  of  all  former  grants,  he  presented  to  St.  Peter  eight  counties  be- 
longing to  the  States  of  the  Church  as  if  they  "were  his  own.  (y)  Syhester 
II.  (999-1003)  was  of  a  very  humble  origin,  and  in  early  life  had  been  a 
strenuous  opponent  of  papal  assumptions.  His  elevation  and  his  knowledge 
seemed  so  extraordinary,  that  the  reverence  of  the  Germans  and  the  aversion 
of  the  Romans  produced  a  rcjiort  that  he  had  sold  his  soul  to  the  devil  as  tho 
price  of  the  papacy.  But  in  tlio  midst  of  the  highest  youthful  aspirations 
the  emperor  suddenly  died  (1002),  and  the  power  of  his  favorite  pope  was 
broken.  (Ji) 

§  179.     The  Papacy  until  the  Synod  of  Sutri. 

I.  Jf//e,  Regesta  p.  851-364.  Glaher  RaduJfm,  a  monk  of  Clugnl  (about  1046),  Hist  snl  teni- 
poris.  (Z)m  Chesne  Th.  IV.  p.  1.)  BonUo,  Bisliop  of  Sutri  and  Pinccnza,  d.  10S!>.  L.  ad  amtc.  s.  de 
persecutione  Ecc.  (Ocfilii  Scrr.  rer.  Boicar.  Tli.  II.  p.  794.)  In  and  aAor  tlio  fifth  book  tliere  is  a 
history  of  the  Popes  from  Benedict  IX.  to  Greg.  VII.  DeHulerius  (  Victor  III.)  du  uiiraculis  a  S. 
Bcnedicto  aliisque  Casincnsib.  gestls  Diall.  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Th.  Xyill.  p.  S53.)  Annales  Lomont 
from  1046.  {Pertz  Th.  VII.  p.  46S.) 

II.  EngelharcU,  Obss.  de  syn.  Sutricnsi.  Erlang.  ISM.  4.  Th.  MittUr,  do  schism.  In  Ecc  P.oin.  sub 
pontlf.  Ben.  IX.  Tur.  \^la.—Stenzel,  Gesch.  Deutschl.  nuter  d.  ftT.nk.  Kaisern.  Liiz.  \^i'. 

In  Eonie  the  contest  was  still  continued  between  a  popular  party  and  tho 
Count  of  Tuj-culum,  in  whose  fomily  the  jjapacy  had  become  hereditary  .-ifter  tho 
time  of  Benedict  Till.  (1012.)  Benedict  IX.  reached  tlic  sacred  chair  (1033) 
when  he  was  yet  a  boy,  disgraced  it  by  crimes  which  are  usually  imi)ractica- 
ble  at  such  a  youthful  period  of  life,  and  finally  was  driven  from  it  by  tho 
people.  Sylvester  III.  was  put  in  his  place,  but  Benedict  was  soon  after 
brought  back  between  the  swords  of  his  party.  Convinced,  however,  that 
it  would  be  impossible  to  sustain  himself  against  the  popular  contempt,  the 
tiara  was  sold  to  Gregory  YI.  TIic  latter  regarded  the  disgrace  of  acquiring 
tlie  papal  crown  in  this  manner  as  a  necessary  sacrifice  for  the  deliverance 
of  the  Church.  Benedict,  however,  soon  repented  of  this  transaction,  and 
three  popes  shared  the  Cliurch  between  themselves.  Henry  III.  now  camo 
to  restore  the  imperial  power  in  Italy,  and  assembled,  in  the  very  midst  of 
liis  army,  the  Synod  of  Sutri  (1040),  by  which  the  papal  chair  was  pro- 
nounced vacant.  Gregory  having  dei>osed  himself,  Suidgor,  Bisliop  of  Bam- 
berg, a  serious  and  pious  Gennan  belonging  to  tlie  imperial  retinue,  was  then 
saluted  as  Pope  in  tlie  Ciuircli  of  St.  Peter,  under  the  name  of  Clement  II. 
From  the  hands  of  tho  newly  elected  pope  the  German  king  received  tho 
crown  of  the  Roman  Emperor,  and  was  made  the  Fatricitis  of  tlio  city, 
and  tho  Romans  swore  once  more  that  no  pope  should  bo  chosen  contrary  to 
his  will. 

§  180.     The  Popot  "udcr  Ilildcbrund,  1048-1073. 

I.  Boiiho,  Dfxidfriu«,  and  Annnlfi  Horn,  afl  referred  to  In  the  preceding  section,  /.fo  Ottitn- 
sis,  Cardinal  Bishop  of  Ostia,  1101,  Chron.  nxmasttril  Caslncns.  (Munilori  Tli.  IV.  p.  IM.)  Tlicso 
were  thorough  admirers  of  Orcsory.  Many  notices  may  bo  found  In  tho  epistles  of  llio  Cardinal 
Bishop  of  Ostia,  Diimiani,  d.  1UT2,  who  eeeentlally  agreed  with  Ulldebrand,  but  with  all  Ills  con- 


f)  Ottonifi  III.  Diplom.^  (Baron,  ad  ann.  1191.  No.  57.)  comp.  I.iudpr.  Hist.  Olton.  c.  19. 
/()  Mituxi  Th.  XIX.  p.  240.VS.— r.  /'.  Ihnk\  Oorbeit  o.  Sylv.  II.  n.  s.  .Jahrli.  Vienna.  ls'!7.     WIV 
man'.T  Jiihrl.iifher  d.  Deutschen  P.elchs  unter  Otto  III.  Berl.  lS4i.).     Jiiffi,  Kegosta  p.  .345ss. 


.92  MEDIAEVAL  CHUUCH  IIISTOI'.Y.     I'KR.  II[.     A.  I).  600-1210. 

trncted  viows  •«■■■ah  Indi'iuiirK'nlly  opposed  to  what  ho  called  the  holy  Hatari  ami  Ihe  wliolo  papi-cy. 
AnnalfH  AUnhfiinpn,  ri"*l<.r.-il  hy  V>'.  Gh'S<'hrccht.  licrl.  1S41. 

II.  .A.//.  Voiul,  llll.I.hr.  nlH.  Ore?.  VII.  u.  8.  Ziltaltcr.  Wclm.  (1915.)  1846.     G.  CaMander,t\. 
Zeitalter  HlliUhr.  für  u.  giftn  Hin.  Darinst  iSi2.—U öfter,  deutsche  Püi>8tc.  2  Abth. 

Tlio  popes  of  this  period  were  dependent  upon  the  eraperor,  but  they 
Avero  gcnernlly  men  selected  for  that  station  on  account  of  their  eccle.siaati- 
cal  character,  and  from  the  fact  that  as  general  bishops  of  tlie  empire,  hon- 
orably and  securely  residing  at  Rome,  they  had  attained  a  high  degree  of 
ecclesiastical  influence.  The  general  voice  of  the  people  demanded  of  them  the 
deliverance  of  the  Church  from  the  simony  and  the  licentiousness  of  the  clergj'. 
The  bishoprics  were  regularly  and  sometimes  at  auction  set  up  for  sale,  and  the 
bishops  sought  remuneration  for  the  expense  of  their  purchase  from  the  sale  of 
the  inferior  offices.  The  "whole  Church  had  become  venal.  What  had  been  ob- 
tained by  worldly  policy  was  administered  and  enjoyed  in  a  worldly  manner. 
The  power  of  Henry  III.  was  so  great  in  Italy,  that  Roman  messengers  were 
sent  to  him  demanding  that  he  would  bestow  on  them  some  one  for  a  pope. 
At  the  Diet  of  Worms,  Bruno,  Bishop  of  Toul,  a  cousin  of  the  emperor,  was 
elected  to  that  office,  and  under  the  name  of  Leo  IX.  (104S-54)  proved  him- 
self a  pious  man,  but  somewhat  dependent  upon  those  who  surrounded  him. 
A  Roman  monk,  whom  he  was  desirous  of  making  one  of  his  retinue,  re- 
fused all  connection  with  him  because  he  had  obtained  his  station  in  the 
Church  not  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws,  but  by  worldly  power.  In 
compliance  with  the  counsel  of  this  man,  the  pope  went  to  Rome  in  the 
character  of  a  pilgrim,  and  was  there  regularly  elected  by  the  clergy  and 
people  of  the  city.  The  monk  who  had  such  an  influence  over  him  was 
IlildehranJ.  He  was  born  probably  at  Saona,  the  son  of  a  mechanic,  was 
educated  at  Olugni,  and  had  shared  the  exile  of  Gregory  YI.  in  Germany. 
Leo  sought  in  the  national  councils  of  France  and  Germany  to  re-establish 
discipline,  and  to  remove  all  those  priests  who  had  purchased  their  offices 
and  would  not  perform  penance  for  their  sin.  In  a  campaign  against  the 
Normans  who  had  conquered  Apulia,  his  whole  array  was  finally  destroyed. 
But  when  the  imprisoned  vicegerent  of  Christ  beheld  the  conquerors  at  his 
feet,  he  blessed  their  arms  and  confirmed  their  conquests.  (</)  When  Leo 
died,  Hildebrand,  then  a  subdeacon,  was  commissioned  by  the  Roman  people 
to  select  a  successor,  and  chose  Gebhard,  Bishop  of  Eichstadt,  Victor  11. 
(1055-57).  (J)  This  man,  on  account  of  his  wisdom  and  wealth  as  well  as 
for  his  consanguinity  and  friendship  with  the  eraperor,  was  the  most  power- 
ful bishop  in  the  empire.  The  principal  object  aimed  at  in  his  election,  was 
to  break  up  a  party  of  which  he  had  been  the  centre,  but  which  had  been 
opposed  to  the  papal  power  over  the  bishops,  and  to  enlist  his  great  personal 
influence  against  those  abuses  which  prevailed  beyond  the  Alps.  Against 
these,  Hildebrand,  when  Legate,  had  so  efiectually  contended,  that  the  con- 
trition of  a  perjured  bishop  before  his  piercing  glance  was  regarded  as  a 
miraculous  influence  upon  the  conscience,  (c)    The  Emperor  Henry,  when 

a)  Wibfrtus,  Bruno's  Archdeacon  at  Toul,  Vita  Leon,  (ifuratori  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  27S.)    Bruno, 
Bishop  of  Sepii,  about  1100,  Vita  Leon.  (lb.  P.  U.  p.  346.) 
I)  Vita  and  Epp.  in  Mann  Th.  XIX.  p.  83a 
c)  According  to  Daiuiani  Suron.  ad  ann.  1055.  No.  ISss. 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACY.    §  ISO.  NICnOL.VS  11.    ALEXANDEP.  II.  193 

dying,  commended  his  son  to  the  ])rotection  of  the  pope,  and  Victor  pro- 
mised that  the  empire  should  be  {riven  to  tlio  royal  child,  Henry  IV.  But  a 
new  power  had  recently  been  establi.-ihed  in  Italy,  by  the  marriage  of  God- 
frey of  Lorraine  with  Beatrice,  tlio  widow  of  the  Marquis  of  Tuscany.  God- 
frey's brother,  Stephen  /X.,  was  actuated  by  the  very  spirit  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. His  jjlan  of  establishing  a  national  empire  in  Italy,  by  investing  his 
brother  with  the  royal  dignity,  was  defeated  by  his  want  of  decision  or  his  early 
death  (Aug.  2,  1058.)  ('/)  The  Roman  nobles,  with  a  party  of  the  clergy  op- 
posed to  the  Reformation,  placed  upon  tlic  tlirone  the  Bishop  of  Voletri,  Bene- 
Ict  X.  Ilildebrand,  with  the  concurrence  of  the  imperial  court,  then  procured 
the  election  of  Gebhard,  Archbishop  of  Florence,  KichoUis  II.  (1058-61.)  (c) 
The  duke  Godfrey  conducted  him  to  Rome,  and  Benedict  submitted.  At  a 
Roman  synod  (1059),  Nicholas  committed  almost  exclusively  to  the  college 
of  cardinals  the  power  of  choosing  the  pope,  in  order  that  the  papal  election 
might  not  he  disturbed  by  the  factious  interests  of  the  nobles,  or  the  storms 
of  popular  elections.  The  right  of  King  Henry  and  of  his  successors  (which, 
however,  he  would  have  obtained  fcrnmidJly  from  the  apostolic  see)  was 
made  the  subject  of  special  stipulation.  (/)  The  Roman  court  perceived  the 
advantage  of  an  alliance  Avith  the  Normans  in  oppo.-ition  to  tlie  Germans,  and 
it  agreed  with  the  piety  and  policy  of  Robert  Guhcanl  to  have  his  conquests 
in  Lower  Italy  and  his  designs  upon  Sicily  pronounced  lawful  and  holy  by 
the  pope,  lie  now  became,  accordingly,  the  vassal  and  protector  of  the  Ro- 
man Church.  (17)  By  his  assistance  the  otfended  nobility,  and  especially  the 
faction  of  the  Count  of  Tusculum,  was  overthrown.  On  the  death  of  Nicholas, 
Ilildebrand,  in  connection  with  the  cardinals,  made  choice  of  Anselm,  Bishop 
of  Lucca,  Alexander  II.  (lOGl-73).  The  imperial  court  regarded  the  alliance 
with  ihe  Normans  with  much  uncasine^,  and  tlicrefore  induced  the  Loiubardic 
bishops  to  proclaim  Cadolaus,  Bishop  of  Parma,  llonorius  II.,  as  pope,  Avhoso 
previous  life  gave  sufficient  assurance  that  the  Church  would  be  i)rotectcd  against 
simony  and  concubinage.  But  Godfrey  drew  his  sword,  and  the  Normans  were 
arrayed  in  defence  of  the  pope  chosen  by  Ilildebrand,  and  when  Hanno, 
Archbishop  of  Cologne,  carried  oft'  the  person  of  the  German  king,  then  in 
his  minority,  that  he  might  take  ujjou  hiin.sclf  the  regency,  llonorius  was 
generally  abandoned.  The  work  of  refurnialion,  however,  produced  but 
little  result  in  the  Church  in  consequence  of  the  oi)positii)n  of  the  bishops, 
supported  by  the  king.  Henry  IV.  was  desirous  of  a  divorce  from  his  noblo 
but  much-abused  wife.  The  Cardinal  Damiani,  at  a  synod  held  at  Mentz,  so 
frightened  the  bishops  when  they  seemed  disposed  to  favor  the  royal  request, 
that  they  dared  not  comply.  "When  the  Sa.xons  sent  messengers  to  Rome  as 
to  a  divine  court,  to  complain  of  Henry  IV.  for  his  intolerable  opjiression  of 
his  subjects,  and  for  exposing  to  sale  all  ecelesiaslioal  ollices  to  rai.so  a  reve« 
nue  for  the  support  of  .^«oldiors  employeil  against  his  people,  Alexander  sum- 
moned the  king  to  answer  the  charges  at  Rome.    Henry's  wrath  at  so  strange 

d)  Leo  Ostiena.  II,  looss. 
<■)  Vita  and  Epp.  in  3f,nixi  Tli.  XIX.  p.  RfiT. 

/)  Stfttutuin  tie  tU'ctione  Papae.  J'fitz  Tli.  IV.  2.  p.  Kfi.    .V  faWflcd  text  In   O'ratian:  P.  L 
out.  XXIII.  c.  X.—fC.  CnniU  de  Nie.  II.  decret».  Argent  S'}7.  4. 

g)  Both  feudal  ontlis  are  to  bo  seen  in  Baron,  ad  ann.  1009.  No.  Tds. 

13 


194  MKDIAKVAL  CIirKCII  IIISTOItV.     I'KK.  III.     A.  I).  SiO-1216. 

a  proceeding  was  sodii  after  allayed  by  tlie  sudden  news  of  Alexander's  death. 
It  was  then  tliat  Ilildebrand  I'elt  tliat  tlic  time  liad  come  in  whicli  he  niipjlit 
enter  upon  tlio  execution  of  the  i)lan  Cdt  wiiicli  he  liad  long  been  i)reparing, 
and  might  assimie  the  dignity  of  an  independent  sovereign.  Even  at  the 
funeral  of  Alexander,  tlie  people  exclaimed,  "  Ilildebrand  is  Pope,  St.  Peter 
has  elected  him !  " 

§  181.     Gregory  VIT.  Ajjril  22,  1073— ,Vay  25,  1085. 

I.  1)  Oregnrii  Rcgistri  s.  Epp.  1.  XT.  Tlic  Ifltli  book  is  wantint,'  in  all  the  cdilt  hitherto,  as  In 
3r<msi  Th.  XX.  p.  CO.'-s.  According  to  the  invcstifrations  of  Giesebrecht  on  the  basis  of  the  Cod. 
Vaticamis  tlic  Eegistrum  is  not  the  official  record  of  Grcfrory'a  writings,  but  the  first  Foven  bcok«  ».-. 
a  collection  wiiich  a  contcinpor.iry  formed  from  them  corresponding  to  tbo  fcven  first  years  of  his 
public  administration.  The  Stb  book,  whicli  was  not  until  a  later  period  divided  according  to  the 
years  of  bis  reign,  contains  all  his  other  writings  afterwards  found,  compiled  withont  a  strict  regard 
to  their  chronological  order.  Thus,  Jaße,  Regesta  p.  402-44-3.  Acts  of  council  it  orig.  docc. :  Mami 
Th.  XX.  p.  402ss.  and  in  XTldarici  Bahenberg.  Code.x  Epist  collected  about  1125.  (Eccard.  Th.  11. 
p.  1.)  2;  Panegyrists:  Bonizo  and  others  referred  to  at  the  head  of  §  1793.  Ptiulus  Bernrideiv- 
tis,  canon  at  Eatisbon,  about  1130,  de  Vita  Greg.  (3fur(itori  Tli.  III.  P.  I.  p.  SIT.)  Bninn,  a  Sason 
clergyman,  Hist,  belli  Saxon.  107.3-Sl.  {Freher.  Th.  I.  p.  171.)  The  biographies  ot Panilnlphot Pisa, 
and  Nicolas  o{  Aragon,  for  the  sake  of  the  original  authorities  preserved  in  them.  (J/ura<o7-i  Th. 
III.  P.  I.  p.  304.)  3;  Opponents:  Bentio,  a  Cardinal  of  the  party  of  Clement  III.  the  Antipope,  de 
vita  ct  gestis  Hildebr.  1.  II.  Otbert,  Bishop  of  Liege,  de  vita  et  obitu  Henr.  IV.  (Both  are  in  Gol- 
dnstVs  Apologia  pro  Henr.  IV.  Ilan.  1611.  4.)  Concerning  fragments  of  another  adverse  writer: 
Perti  Archiv,  vol.  V.  p.  85.  Among  the  Panegyrists  the  praise  is  unqualified,  but  although  Paul  of 
Cernr.  writes  as  an  independent  man,  and  Bruno  passionately  when  in  opposition  to  the  emperor, 
they  express  the  sentiment  of  a  whole  nation.  On  the  same  side  are  also  found  some  impartial 
chroniclers,  as  Lambert,  Marianus  Scotus,  Otto  of  Frcysingen,  and,  respecting  the  character  of  Greg- 
ory, even  Sigbert.    On  the  other  hand,  Benno's  work  is  nothing  but  a  lampoon  full  of  contradictions. 

IL  Gaoh,  Apol.  Greg.  Tub.  1792.  Voigt  and  Cassander  referred  to  at  the  head  of  §  ISO.  A.  de 
YidailUin,  Vie  dc  Gregolre  VIL  Par.  1S37,  2  Th.  J.  W.  Boicden,  Life  of  Gregory  VIL  Lond.  1S40. 
1  Th. — SOW,  Heinrich  IV.  Munich.  1S2.3.  Terenet,  de  commutatione,  quam  subiit  hiorarchia  Bom. 
anctore  Greg.  Traj.  ad  Kh.  1S32.  [./  Stephens,  Ilildebrand,  or  Greg.  VII.  (in  Ed.  Review,  Jan.  1S45. 
and  Eclectic  Mag.  June,  1S45).] 

That  he  might  not  be  embarrassed  with  an  antipope,  Gregory  YII.  a.?keil 
the  consent  of  the  king  to  his  assumption  of  the  tiara.  Henry  lY.,  deceived 
by  the  humility  and  frankness  exhibited  in  his  letter,  readily  granted  what 
it  would  have  been  difficult  to  withhold.  No  doubt  Gregory  secretly  desired  the 
possession  of  the  papal  crown,  but  the  same  feeling  which  even  at  a  later  period, 
in  the  midst  of  a  stormy  activity,  made  him  sometimes  tired  of  the  hostüity 
of  the  world,  and  long  for  retirement,  for  he  was  a  sickly  man,  now  made 
him  shrink  from  the  struggle  in  which  he  foresaw  he  must  engage  in  opposition 
to  the  clergy,  the  bishops,  and  even  the  king,  if  he  would  radically  heal  the 
maladies  of  the  Church.  The  marriages  of  the  clergy,  contracted  with  a 
consciousness  of  guilt,  and  generally  of  a  dissolute  character,  were  the  most 
universal  cause  of  their  corruption.  It  was  necessary,  therefore,  that  mar- 
riage should  be  freely  conceded  to  them,  or  be  rendered  utterly  impracti- 
cable. At  a  synod  held  at  Eome  (1074),  Gregory  re-established  the  ancient 
law  of  celibacy.  The  largest  portion  of  the  inferior  clergy  in  Lombardy  and 
beyond  the  Alps  were  indignant  at  this.  It  was,  however,  only  by  renounc- 
ing the  delights  and  cares  of  domestic  life  that  the  clergy  could  secure  tha 
independence  of  the  Church,  and  yet  retain  possession  of  her  vast  estates. 
By  exciting  the  common  people  against  all  married  priests,  the  papal  law  pre- 
vailed in  spite  of  their  desperate  opposition.     A  second  Roman  synod  (1075 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACr.    §  ISl.  GREGORY  VII.  195 

Dronounced  the  decisive  sentence  by  wliicli  all  simony  was  condemned,  and 
tlie  freedom  of  the  Church  was  dechired,  since  every  one  was  laid  under  ex- 
communication who  should  give  or  receive  an  ecclesiastical  office  from  the 
hands  of  a  layman.  The  king.s,  in  opposition  to  this,  defended  a  long  estab- 
lished prerogative  which  was  a  powerful  support  to  their  thrones.  In  the 
mind  of  Gregory  the  idea  of  a  universal  theocracy  had  become  ascendant,  in 
which  a  vicar  of  God  in  times  of  brute  violence  (fanstrecht)  micrht  stand 
between  princes  and  their  people,  enforcing  the  law  of  divine  right  by  his 
spiritual  power,  and  able  either  to  humble  the  people  or  to  depose  i)rinces. 
As  the  cause  of  the  papacy  was  then  believed  to  be  identical  with  that  of 
general  reformation,  and  all  felt  the  necessity  of  a  supreme  moral  power 
when  such  lawless  violence  prevailed,  and  of  a  legitimate  dominion  of  the 
spiritual  over  the  merely  physical  nature,  of  which  the  state  was  regarded 
as  the  representative,  the  best  portion  of  society  were  favorable  to  this  ^^ew. 
Many,  however,  saw  tlie  necessary  result  of  intrusting  such  unlimited  power 
to  the  hand  of  aman.(f<)  Gregory  never  lost  an  opportunity  as  a  feudal 
lord  paramount,  and  as  an  umpire  or  lawgiver,  to  assert  with  greater  or  less 
success  his  office  of  a  divine  vicar  among  the  nations  of  Europe.  His  princi- 
ples he  openly  and  boldly  avowed,  (l>)  however  careful  and  reserved  he 
might  be  in  expressing  opinions  of  particular  persons ;  but  in  the  accomjilish- 
ment  of  his  purposes  he  never  hesitated,  if  necessary,  to  make  use  of  the 
most  terrible  measures.  lie  gathered  around  himself  men  of  vigorous  and 
elevated  minds,  whom  he  raised  often  against  their  own  wills  from  monastic 
concealment  to  the  highest  dignities.  Beatrice  and  her  daughter  Matilda, 
Countess  of  Tuscany,  always  participated  in  his  most  secret  counsels.  The 
suspicions  which  some  attempted  to  throw  upon  his  relations  to  the  former 
lady,  were  too  convenient  for  the  purposes  of  the  thousands  whose  inclina- 
tions he  opposed,  to  acquire  any  high  degree  of  probability  when  o])poscd  to 
the  uniform  character  of  the  parties.  ('•)  More  credible  evidences  show  that 
the  relation  was  that  of  an  earnest  father  to  his  spiritual  daugliter,  who  did 
homage  to  his  lofty  spirit,  and  Avas  delighted  when  he  intrusted  to  her  his 
cares,  and  allowed  her  to  assist  him  with  her  wealth  and  power.  Gregory 
was  indeed  hated  by  the  clergy  and  the  principal  men  of  Italy,  but  on 
Christmas  night  in  the  year  1074,  the  people  delivered  him  out  of  the  hands 
of  the  youth  among  the  nobility,  who  had  formed  a  conspiracy  and  threat- 
ened his  life.  His  opinion  that  Spain  by  an  ancient  legal  title  belonged  to 
St.  Peter,  and  that  Hungary  had  tbrmerly  been  given  to  St.  Peter  by  one  of 
its  kings,  just  as  Saxony  was  said  to  have  been  given  by  the  Emperor  Charles, 
remained  only  as  an  idea  founded  upon  a  legendary  tradition  to  bo  taken  up 
by  any  one  who  might  afterwards  have  tbe  power  to  act  Ufion  the  sng- 


«)  Apoloda  pro  Hcnr.  IV.  109.3,  WTltten  prolintOy  l>y  ^Vlllt^•nm,  Bishop  of  NaHnibnrc,  ami  a  Tnwt 
de  investitiira  Kplscc.  by  tlie  Mine.  Itc.-idos  other  Apoloplsts  In  (inliliint  Tfii-mlorici.  Ep.  ad 
Gref;.  n.  lOSO.  (MarUne  Tliesiiir.  nov.  Ancnlot  Th.  I.  p.  2U.es.)  For  Greptr. :  R-rnold.  ConntanU 
Apologet  pro  decretis  Oroc.  (.Vnri«»  Th.  XX.  p.  4(>4.)  Letters  and  Patnphlols:  r««*n«ann  Th.  IL 
p.  1S.3.  AnnehnuK,  Rp.  of  Lucca,  contra  Guit>erliiiii  Antii>apnni  I.  II.  a.  10S4.  (UibL  PP.  Liigd.  Th. 
XVIII.  p.  G02.)    Otliers  in  GreUfr,  Apol.  pro  Ontr.  (<  »pp  Tt    VI.) 

h)  Slill  as  a  collection  by  another  hand,  cump.  Dictattis  (irfi;orii  VII.  (L.  II.  Ep.  55,  Mannt  Th. 
XX.  p  ICSs.)    c)  Lambert  Schafn.  ad  ami.  1076. 


196  MKDIAKVAL  rilUTKir  HISTOUV.     I'KR.  IIT.     A.  I).  V.0-1216. 

gestlon.  (i!)  If  he  soiiietiines  made  con  cessions  when  (,'rcat  power  and  tal 
ents  wore  jirrnycd  against  him,  as  when  rhilip  of  France,  and  still  more, 
when  William  the  Conqveror  of  England  resisted  his  measures,  it  was  be- 
cause his  extraordinary  knowledge  of  political  affairs  cnahled  liira  to  judge 
how  fur  ho  ini<,'ht  venture,  and  made  him  sec  the  necessity  of  using  worldly 
means  in  worldly  transactions.  But  even  when  yielding  to  necessity,  he 
openly  avowed,  tliat  just  as  God  had  patience  with  the  wickedness  of  man, 
ho  endured  injustice  only  for  the  present  in  the  hope  of  a  future  meliora- 
tion, (e)  The  impetuous  instability  of  the  youthful  Henry  IV.,  who  had  been 
invested  with  the  purple  even  from  his  birth,  had  been  educated  without  disci- 
])lino,  and  lived  ever  afterwards  without  afloction,  presented  a  fair  mark  for  his 
terrible  and  cool  precision.  In  opposition  to  this  jirince,  Gregory  went  forward 
reforming  the  Church  and  exalting  the  papacy,  and  finally  lie  beheld  the 
highest  of  all  earthly  powers  humbled  before  it.  When  the  tra<le  in  eccle- 
siastical offices  was  persisted  in  at  court,  and  those  counsellors  who  had  been 
excommunicated  on  this  account  were  reinstated ;  when  Henry's  paramours 
went  about  adorned  with  jewels  taken  from  the  sacred  vessels,  and  the  Sax- 
ons endured  the  most  horrible  oppression,  the  pope  demanded  that  the  king 
should  ansAver  for  these  things  at  Eome,  and  threatened  him  with  excommu- 
nication on  his  disobedience.  At  a  synod  held  at  Worms  (Jan.  24,  1076), 
the  king  had  the  pope  deposed  as  a  tyrant  who  had  laid  unhallowed  hands 
upon  the  Lord's  anointed.  Gregory  replied  by  hurling  against  him  an  anath- 
ema which  absolved  all  Christians  from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  him.  By 
his  violent  proceedings  Henry  had  already  fallen  out  with  the  princes  of  his 
court,  so  that  they  hated  him  more  than  they  valued  the  independence  of  the 
empire.  They  therefore  resolved,  at  an  assembly  held  at  Trihur  (Oct.  1076), 
that  if  the  ban  of  excommunication  were  not  removed  from  Henry  within  a 
year,  he  should  forfeit  his  throne.  With  a  broken  spirit  the  monarch  ob- 
tained absolution  (Jan.  28,  1077),  after  he  had  brought  disgrace  upon  himself 
and  his  kingdom  at  Canossa.  Finally  he  seized  those  weapons  which  had 
long  been  offered  him  by  the  nobles  of  Lombardy.  Again  tlie  sentence  of 
excommunication  and  deposition  was  issued  against  him,  a  rival  pope  and  a 
rival  king  were  set  up,  and  Italy  and  Germany  were  filled  with  blood. 
Gregory  had  predicted  that  in  that  year  a  false  king  should  die,  {/)  and  ac- 
cordingly Rudolph  of  Swabia,  whom  he  had  himself  made  king,  died  (1080). 
Henry  besieged  and  took  Rome  (1084),  but  the  pope  in  his  castle  of  St. 
Angelo  would  even  then  accept  of  nothing  but  the  unconditional  submis- 
sion of  the  king,  and  was  liberated  by  Robert  Guiscard.  But  the  Romanic 
nations  commended  the  king's  cause,  {g)  and  the  Romans  were  tired  of  the 
evils  which  the  implacable  spirit  of  the  pope  brought  upon  them.  Gregory 
withdrew  himself  from  them  with  his  Normans,  and  died  at  Salerno,  with  the  feel- 
ings of  a  martyr,  though  binding  and  loosing  his  fellow-men  even  in  death,  {h) 


d)  Reglstr.  lY,  2S.  11, 13.  VII [,  23.    Desgl.  Corsica  V,  4. 

e)  E.  g.  the  enfeoffment  of  Guiscard  in  Mansi  Th.  XX.  p.  814 

/)  Siyh.  Gemhl.  ad  ann.  lOSO.    Bonizo's  attempt  to  justify  tbis  proceeding  is  therefore  about  as 
absurd  as  Benno's  accusation  of  witchcraft,     g)  Eegistr.  VII,  8. 

h)  The  falseliood  which  from  fear  of  the  power  of  the  deceased  pope  was  invented,  may  be  found  ii 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  1S2.  VICTOR  III.    URBAN  II.  197 

§  182.     Gregory's  Successors,  1085-1099. 

Victor  IIT.  10S5-S7.  yfami  Th.  XX.  p.  630ss.  Leo  Ostiens.  see  at  the  head  of  §  ISO.  Biogr.  by 
Pandulphus  Pisan.  and  Bernard.  Guidon,  written  during  the  13tb  cent.  Jn  .}fiiralori  Th.  III.  P. 
L  p.  SÜI.— Urban  If.  lOSS-99.  Jfatisi  Th.  X.X.  p.  W2s9.  Jiife,  p.  44Sss.  Pandulpfi.  and  Ber- 
narJ.  in  Jfuratori  ].  c.  After  and  along  with  the  sources:  liuinart  in  Jfubillon  ct  liitin.  0pp. 
posth.  Par.  1721.  4.  Among  the  chroniclers,  especially  Leo  Ontlent,  &  Bernotd,  monk  of  S.  Bla- 
Bio.  Chron.  1055-1100.  {PerU  Th.  VII.  p.  335.) 

Gregory's  principles  were  deeply  impressed  upon  the  age  in  which  ho 
lived,  and  the  clergy  began  to  understand  the  advantages  they  acquired  by 
sacrificing  their  domestic  enjoyments.  Tho.se  who  had  been  selected  by 
Gregory  as  worthy  to  become  his  successors  were  one  after  another  raised  to 
the  apostolic  chair.  Desiderius,  the  Abbot  of  Montecassino,  Victor  III., 
resolutely  refused  to  leave  the  retirement  of  his  convent,  and  thereby  seri- 
ously impaired  his  influence,  but  he  rigidly  followed  out  the  course  on  which 
his  illustrious  friend  had  entered.  On  his  premature  death,  Otho,  who  out 
of  disgust  with  the  world  had  resigned  his  canonicatc  at  Rheims  and  betaken 
himself  to  Chigni,  where  he  had  been  noticed  by  Gregory  and  made  Bishop 
of  Ostia,  and  afterwards  as  Legate  had  been  the  prisoner  and  the  mortal 
enemy  of  Uenry,  became  pope  under  the  name  of  Urhun  II.  "When  Gre- 
gory was  dead,  the  emperor,  who  had  now  attained  maturity  in  the  midst  of 
the  storms  through  which  he  had  passed,  with  hi.s  pope  Clement  III.  exer- 
cised sovereignty  over  Upper  and  Central  Italy.  Renouncing  her  widowhood 
that  she  might  promote  the  interests  of  the  KumLsh  Church,  JLttihhr,  by  her 
apparent  marriage  with  Welf,  Duke  of  Bavaria,  gave  for  a  brief  period  a 
military  leader  to  the  papal  party.  The  conduct  of  the  emperor  was  far 
more  eflfectual  than  were  all  the  solicitations  of  the  pope  to  drive  his  son 
Conrad  into  acts  of  treason  (1093).  Urban,  at  the  great  Council  of  Cler- 
mont  (1095),  excommunicated  Philij)  of  France  for  his  adulterous  connec- 
tion with  the  Countess  Bertrade,  and  forbade  all  persons  invested  with 
ecclesiastical  oflSces  taking  an  oath  of  allegiance  to  a  lajnnan.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  crusades,  the  pope  not  only  obtained  an  enthusiastic  army 
for  the  execution  of  his  plans,  but  his  moral  influeuco  was  so  much  in- 
creased that  he  became  the  head  of  all  the  popular  movements  of  the  West- 
ern world.  Philip  was  compelled  to  give  up  his  paramour,  and  Henry  and 
his  pope  lost  all  power  in  Italy.  Urban,  however,  purcliascd  nothing  but  the 
precious  friend.sliip  of  the  Normans,  and  preserved  nothing  but  the  shadow 
of  his  ecclesiastical  claims  in  the  appointment  of  Count  lioger  and  his  suc- 
cessors to  be  the  perpetual  legates  of  the  pope  in  Sicily  (Monarch ia  Siciliao).* 


Slgb.  GeinU.  ann.  10S5.  The  tru(h  may  bo  ?eon  in  Paul.  B^rnrid.  c  lOSss.  Rcpcctlne  Gregory's 
canonization  and  the  opposition  in.-ide  to  it  by  the  courts:  L"avocat  du  Diablo,  uu  nii-moircs  »or  la 
vie  et  8ur  la  legende  du  P.  Greg.  VII.  17W.  3  Th. 

*  Manul  Th.  XX.  p.  aW.  Gaufredi  Malaterra  Hist  Biciila  IV,  29.  (Xuratorl  Th.  V.  p.  601.) 
//,  E.  Du.  Pin,  Defence  de  la  monarchic  do  Sicllo  contre  les  ontreprises  do  lit  Cour  de  Rome.  Am.--*, 
.716.  4. 


198  MKDIAIIVAL  CIIUl:i  JI  IllsToUV.     I'KU.  III.    A.  V.  &00-121C. 

§  183.     The  Crusades.     Conquest  of  Jerusalem. 

I.  Collections:  J.  Jlongari),  Oestn  Del  per  Francos.  Ilanov.  ICll.  2  Tli.  C  Schiller,  hist  .Mcniol» 
ft.Dth.  1.  vol.  1-3.    J.  Miuhainl,  JilbliolhOque  des  Croisade.'i.  Tar.  1S30.  4  Tli. 

II.  F.  WiUon,  Gesell.  (1.  Kreuzz.  Lpz.  1807-32.  7  vols.  3Ilchaud,  lllst  des  Crolsades.  Par.  1S12. 
cd.  C.  1S40!«.  6  vols.  [Mlofiaud'a  II.  of  tbo  Crusades,  transl.  by  W'/n.  liubnon,  Lond.  lS.j2.  3  vol».  12.] 
If.  «.  Si/l/el,  Oesc'h.  d.  ersten  Krciizz.  Duss.  1S41.  [T.  Keigldletj,  Tbo  Crusaders,  Lond.  ]SI>2. 12.  C. 
31UI,  H.  of  tbo  CriKsadcs.  I'bilad.  1S45.  G.  P.  Ji.  James,  Cbivalry  and  tlie  Crusades.  New  York. 
1827.  Eclectic  Mag.  April,  154.").] 

Tho  attraction  toward  the  Holy  Land  whicL  Lad  formerly-  prevailed  in 
the  Church  had  never  been  interrupted,  but  in  consequence  of  tho  ardent 
and  sensuous  devotion  which  was  ahnost  universal  in  the  eleventh  century, 
it  then  became  especially  powerful.  German  bishops  with  their  soldiers 
heroically  defended  themselves  against  a  sudden  attack  of  the  Saracens  which 
took  place  on  Easter,  1065.  {n)  Even  before'this  (999),  Syhe-'iter  JI..,  in  the 
name  of  the  desolate  Holy  City,  had  called  upon  the  general  Church  for  aid. 
Gregory  (1074)  once  entertained  serious  thoughts  of  becoming  leader  of  a  host 
for  the  liberation  of  the  Christian  portion  of  the  East,  (i)  When  the  Selju- 
kian  Turks  had  established  their  empire  in  Asia  Minor,  and  had  conquered 
Syria  (after  1073),  the  pilgrims  and  Christians  in  Palestine  made  bitter  com- 
plaints of  their  intolerable  ill-treatment  there.  The  hermit  Pder  of  Amiens 
made  known  the  prayers  of  the  oriental  Christians,  and  announced  an  imme- 
diate commission  from  Christ  for  their  deliverance.  Urlan  II..,  at  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Church  at  Clermont  (1095),  earnestly  exhorted  all  to  enter 
upon  this  holy  war  under  a  leader  who  never  wanted  provisions,  and  od 
whose  side  victory  was  certain,  the  reward  was  eternal,  and  death  was  mar- 
tyrdom. All  the  people  shouted,  "  God  wills  it !  "  {r)  A  hundred  tlionsand 
men,  chiefly  Frenchmen,  in  the  first  moments  of  exhilaration  took  upon 
themselves  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  by  which  Christians  were  to  be  known  as 
true  disciples.  Secular  embarrassments  and  passions,  romantic  pleasures  and 
superstitious  hopes,  doubtless  had  much  to  do  in  this,  and  yet  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  spirit  which  animated  these  masses  for  two  hundred  years 
was  something  superior  to  that  of  this  world.  But  it  was  not  for  a  holy 
sepulchre  alone  that  these  expeditions  were  undertaken.  They  had  also  in 
view  the  honor  of  the  Christian  name,  the  triumph  of  oppressed  Christianity 
in  the  East,  and  the  dominion  of  Europe  over  Asia.  An  undisciplined  host 
which  followed  the  hermit's  ass,  was  reduced  to  half  its  original  number  in 
passing  through  Bulgaria,  and  finally  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Turks. 
"When  the  more  disciplined  army  of  the  crusaders  reached  the  plain  of 
Nicaea,  they  found  a  high  pyramid  formed  of  the  bones  of  their  predecessors. 
At  Edessa,  which  voluntarily  surrendered  to  Baldwin,  and  at  Xicaea  and 
Antioch,  which  were  soon  conquered,  the  pilgrim  princes  erected  principali- 
ties for  themselves.  After  indescribable  sufl:ering3,  Jerusalem  was  stormed 
on  the  fifteenth  of  July,  1099,  and  through  blood  and  flames  the  army 
marched  singing  holy  songs  to  the  Church  of  the  Resurrection.     Godfrey  of 


a)  Lambert  Scliaßi.  ad.  ann.  1065. 

h)  Si/lcestri  Ep.  ad.  univ.  Ecc  (Bouquet  Tb.  X.  p.  426s.)    Gregor,  ad  Ilenr.  E.  (J/un«  Th 
XX.  p.  150.) 

c)  Jfaiisi  Th.  XX.  p.  S21ss.     Bongars  Tb.  I.  p.  S6.  31.  SS2ss. 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACY.     §  134.  PASCAL  II.     HENRY  V.  199 

Bouillon  was  proclaimed  the  first  king  of  Jerusalem,  although  the  piety  of 
his  heroic  spirit  refused  to  -wear  a  royal  crown  where  the  Son  of  God  had 
worn  a  crown  of  thorns. 

§  184.     Pascal  II.,  1099-1118. 

Letters  and  public  documents  in  Manisi  Tli.  XX.  p.  977.  dispcrseil  in  Uldarici  Cod.  opistolsria 
Life  by  Pancfulphus  and  the  Cardinal  of  Ai'agon,  witli  original  diKunients,  may  be  found  In  J/i/« 
ratori  Tli.  III.  P.  L  p.  851  and  360.— Ä  Gervais,  polit.  Hist.  Deutsclil.  unter  Hctn.  V.  and  Lothar. 
IL  Lpz.  1S41.  2  Th. 

Pascal,  whom  Gregory  had  taken  from  the  mona.stery  of  Clugiii  and 
made  a  cardinal,  possessed  the  fiery  sjjirit  without  the  firmness,  and  the  zeal 
for  the  hierarchy  without  the  knowledge  of  its  proper  limits,  which  had  hcen 
displayed  by  his  patron.  Philip  of  France,  who  had  again  been  excommu- 
nicated on  account  of  his  illicit  connection,  received  aKsolution  on  his  taking 
an  oath  that  he  would  renounce  Bertrade  (1104).  But  when  tliis  oath  was 
violated  the  pope  took  no  notice  of  the  perjury.  A  violent  contest  sprung 
np  between  Ansclm,  Archbishop  of  Cantcrhurtj,  in  behalf  of  the  pope,  and 
Henry  I.  of  England,  in  which  the  latter  contended  for  his  crown  and  the 
former  for  his  Hfe.  It  was  finally  compromised  (llOG)  by  the  king's  renun- 
ciation of  the  right  of  investiture  with  respect  to  bishops,  though  he  retained 
the  power  of  exacting  from  them  the  oath  of  allegiance,  (a')  Henry  IV. 
abdicated  in  favor  of  his  son  who  had  rebelled  again.st  him,  but  died  (HOC) 
ander  a  sentence  of  excommunication  which  reached  even  his  lifeless 
corpse.  But  Henry  V.  had  no  sooner  become  settled  in  his  tlirone,  than  ho 
laid  claim  to  the  ancient  royal  prerogative  of  investing  bishops  with  the  ring 
and  crosier,  and  to  support  his  claim  he  crossed  the  Alps  with  a  powerful 
army  (1110).  In  this  extremity,  the  i)ope  thought  of  purchasing  the  free- 
dom of  the  Church  by  the  sacrifice  of  its  secular  jjower,  and  accordingly  he 
proposed  to  restore  to  the  king  the  imperial  fiefs  belonging  to  the  bi.sliop.-^,  on 
condition  that  the  episcopal  elections  might  be  free  from  the  royal  interfer- 
ence. But  the  bishops  and  the  princes  were  terrified  at  the  idea  of  a  con- 
tract by  which  the  power  of  the  Church  would  "have  been  temporarily  anni- 
hilated, and  that  of  the  king  would  liavo  been  rendered  overwhelming.  (?/) 
The  execution  of  such  a  compact  would  have  been  practicable  only  by  a 
complete  revolution.  On  the  other  hand,  llonry  had  the  pope  imprisoned, 
and  compelled  him  by  threats  to  jilaco  tlio  imperial  crown  upon  his  head, 
solemnly  to  acknowledge  the  king's  right  of  investiture,  and  to  i)roniise 
never  to  issue  against  him  a  .sentence  of  excommunication,  (c)  The  pope,  how- 
ever, could  not  act  as  a  private  person  in  this  matter,  since  ho  stood  as  the 
representative  of  a  particular  system  of  things.  Pascal  was  therefore 
obliged  to  listen  to  tlio  mo.-^t  bitter  reproaches  for  his  treasonable  conduct 
toward  the  Chureli,  and  at  a  synod  held  at  the  Lateran  (1112),  to  retract  all 
that  he  had  done.     On  his  refusal  to  excommunicato  the  emperor,  the  sen- 


a)  LcKoi-s  (if  Ansclm,  his  Life  by  Ills  confessor  Eiidnifr,  and  hl.t  Historla  novoruin  I.  VI.  »re  li 
AiiDelmi  Opp   Par.  1721.  2  Th.  f.    /'.  U.  /A^«»^  Ans.  v.  C.  Lcipz.  1S4.3.  Tli.  I. 
h)  I'ertzT\\.  IV.  p.  GSss.     Curd.  Aragon.  Vlüi  Piiscli.  {3furatori  p.  '.m.) 
c)  Perts  Th.  IV.  p.  Tlss. 


200  MKKIAKVAI,  Clin:!!!   III>'I()l:V.     I-KK.  in.     a.  I).  %00-121«. 

tenco  was  proiioimccd  l>y  lii.s  le>;citc9.  (d)  "While  Gregory  was  yot  alive,  Ma 
filddy  for  till)  good  of  lier  sou),  had  bequeathed  to  him  all  her  possesHions  ir. 
trust  for  the  Itoinish  Church,  (e)  At  her  death  rill'j)  new  materials  were 
added  to  tlio  controversy,  since  the  emperor  claimed  her  estates  as  an  impe- 
rial fief,  and  on  the  ground  that  he  was  properly  her  heir  at  law,  while  the 
pope  claimed  them  as  the  inheritance  of  St,  Peter.  Tlie  people  now  began 
to  perceive  that  the  papal  ban  was  launched  against  the  emperor  for  his  de- 
fence of  the  right-s  of  the  empire.  Henry  V.  took  violent  possession  of  the 
forfeited  fief,  jmd  drove  the  pope  from  Kome.  The  pontiiF,  liowever,  was 
restored  to  the  city  by  the  Normaus,  and  died  while  making  active  prepara- 
tions for  war. 

.     L-  §  185.     Calixtm  IT.  1119-24.     Concordat  of  Wormx. 

The  cause  of  the  emperor  in  Rome  was  sustained  principally  by  the  pow- 
erful family  of  the  Frangipani.  G'ehisius  JL,  whom  tlie  cardinals  elected, 
was  suddenly  attacked  by  persons  belonging  to  that  family,  cruelly  abused, 
and  obliged  to  fly  to  the  friendly  territory  of  France,  where,  after  a 
brief  victory,  he  died  as  early  as  1119,  (rt)  By  his  advice,  Guido,  Arch- 
bishop of  Vienna,  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Burgundy,  was  chosen  to  be  his 
successor  under  the  name  of  Calixtus  II,  (h)  At  a  synod  held  at  Rheims 
this  pontiff  renewed  the  sentence  of  excommunication  ogainst  the  emperor, 
whom  he  called  a  second  Judas.  The  imperial  party  in  Rome  had  made 
choice  of  Burdinus,  Archbishop  of  Braga,  Gregory  YIIL,  who  was  over- 
powered by  the  Normans,  was  cruelly  mocked  by  the  Roman  populace,  and 
finally  died  in  the  papal  dungeon,  (<■)  Adalbert,  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  for- 
merly the  imperial  counsellor,  and  by  whose  advice  all  the  violent  and  irregu- 
lar proceedings  against  the  pope  had  been  conducted,  was  noAv  seized  by  the 
hierarchical  spirit,  and  sought  to  renew  the  civil  war  in  Germany,  But  the 
people,  tired  of  the  evils  which  had  been  produced  in  the  empire  during  a 
period  of  fifty  years'  dissension  among  its  rulers,  were  importunate  in  their 
demands  for  peace.  Finally  a  Concordat  was  agreed  upon  at  an  imperial 
Diet  at  Worms  (1122),  on  conditions  similar  to  those  previously  acknow- 
ledged in  France  and  England,  This  was  afterwards  confirmed  at  the  first 
general  council  in  the  Lateran  (1123),  "The  emperor  surrenders  to  God, 
to  St,  Peter  and  Paul,  and  to  the  Catholic  Church,  all  right  of  investiture  b\ 
ring  and  crosier.  He  grants  that  elections  and  ordinations  in  all  churches 
shall  take  place  freely  in  accordance  with  ecclesiastical  laws.  The  pope 
agrees  that  the  election  of  German  prelates  shall  be  performed  in  the  presence 
of  the  emperor,  provided  it  is  without  violence  or  simony.  In  case  any  elec- 
tion is  disputed,  the  emperor  shall  render  assistance  to  the  legal  party  with 

J)  Baron,  ad.  am.  1111.  Acts  of  Synod,  Jfansi  Tli.  XXI.  p.  49ss.  Pluncl;  Acta  intor  Ilenr. 
V.  et  Pasch.  II.  Gott.  1TS5. 

e)  The  conveyance  of  the  allodial  «state  by  will  is  certain,  but  the  origin.al  document  (Jfiirohvt 
Th.  V.  p.  8S4.)  of  1102,  by  which  a  lejral  gift  was  attempted  to  be  conveyed  intor  vivos  Is  doubtful 
Tiraboschi,  Memorie  Mixlenese.  Th.  I.  p.  140ss.     Leo,  Italien  vol.  I.  p.  4T7ss. 

a)  Pandulj'hi  Pimiii  Vita  Oelas.  {Murai.  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  SCTss.) 

I)  Joffe,  p.  5-2'fs.     Biofrraphies  in  Mur,4ori  Th.  III.  P.  I.  p.  41Sss. 

C)  Baluzius,  Vita  Burdini.  (Mlscell.  Par.  ICSO.  1.  III.  p.  4TIss.) 


CIIAI".  I.     PArACT.     §  l^C.  ARNOLD  OF  Br.ESCIA.  20\ 

tlie  advice  of  the  arclibishop  and  tlie  bishops.  The  person  electod  is  invest- 
ed with  the  imperial  fiefs  by  the  roj  al  sceptre  pledged  for  the  execution  of 
every  thing  required  by  law.  Whoever  is  consecrated  shall  also  receive  in 
like  manner  his  investitures  from  other  parts  of  the  empiro  witliin  six 
months."  (d)  Although  in  this  proceeding  tljo  pope  had  barely  saved  appear- 
ances, and  not  the  reality  of  his  cause,  and  the  strict  hierarchical  party  com- 
plained loudly  of  the  concessions  made,  80  overwhelming  was  the  authority 
of  the  papacy,  that  the  influence  Avhich  the  emjjeror  had  hitherto  exercised 
in  the  elections  was  gradually  transferred  to  the  pi'pe,  in  spite  of  the  laws  by 
which  their  freedom  was  guaranteed. 

§  18C.     Arnold  of  Brescia  and  Bernard  of  Clairtaux. 

J .  B.  Koler,  dc  Am.  Brixicnsi.  Goett  1742.  4.  K.  Beck,  Arnold  v.  Dr.  (Baal.  Wl*.'«.  Zeltscli.  I«i4. 
n.  2.)    JT.  Franke,  Arnold  v.  Br.  u.  s.  Zeit.  Zurich.  1S2.J.     Kospicting  Birimrd,  a>e  $  2oT. 

The  Franconian  imperial  house  became  extinct  on  the  deatli  of  Henry  V. 
(1125),  and  a  king  chosen  by  suflragcs  had  to  purcha.'se  his  new  sovereignty 
from  the  states  of  the  empire  and  from  the  pope.  Lot  ha  ire  II.  having  been 
chosen,  received  the  allodial  estates  of  the  Countess  Matilda  from  the  hands 
of  Innocent  II.  (1 130— i3),  because  she  had  been  the  pope's  vassal.  ('/)  The  elec- 
tion of  bishops  was  no  longer  restrained  by  the  presence  of  the  emperor,  and 
the  decisive  question  now  began  to  be  agitated  whether  the  investiture  of 
bishops  should  take  place  before  or  after  their  consecration.  Qi)  During  the 
struggles  between  the  imperial  and  papal  governments  a  new  power  had 
sprung  up,  first  in  the  episcopal  cities  of  Lombardy,  from  the  remnants  of  the 
Koman  municipal  constitution.  In  this  was  presented  an  omen  of  a  new  period, 
in  which  independent  cities  were  to  enjoy  their  liberties,  and  constitute  a  third 
estate  in  opposition  to  the  pretensions  of  the  secular  and  s])iritual  nobility.  (-) 
Arnold  of  Brescia  embraced  the  extreme  views  connected  with  this  tendency, 
and  regarded  the  condition  of  the  apostolic  Church  as  a  law  for  all  pe- 
riods of  the  world.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Abelard,  had  been  a  clergyman  in  his 
native  cit}',  was  rigid  and  abstemious  in  his  rules  of  conduct,  and  taught  that 
the  clergy  ought  to  possess  no  worldly  property,  and  that  such  possessions 
were  the  cause  of  all  the  abuses  in  tJie  Church.  The  second  Council  of  Lat- 
eran (1139)  imposed  silence  upon  this  most  dangerous  heretic,  and  by  papal 
influence  he  Avas  driven  from  Italy,  France,  and  Zurich,  until  in  the  city  of 
Home  itself  he  attained  su])reme  jiowcr.  For,  falling  in  with  his  views,  the 
liomans  (after  1143)  confined  the  pope  to  the  exercise  of  ecclesiastical  gov- 
ernment, and  to  the  po.ssession  of  tithes  and  voluntary  ollerings,  appointed  a 
Senate,  and  wrote  to  the  German  king  to  come  and  re-establish  the  cnpital 
of  his  dominions  according  to  ancient  imperial  laws,  within  the  walls  of  the 

(1)  Peru  Til.  IV.  p.  75s.  Munni  Tli.  XXr.  p.  2S7^  Arti  of  tlio  Ijitfran  Syn<Kl.  Jb.  p.  281si— 
J.  G.  Hoffmann,  1)8.  nd  Conoordiit.  Hinr.  ct  Cftlixtl.  VIL  17:)9.  4. 

a)  i[<inKi1\\.  XXI.  p.  392. 

//)  OlenKcldugei;  Lrloutr.  dor  guUI.  Bulle.  Frkf.  1700.  4.  Cartularies  p-  13-  Oosl.i  Anlilep.  Trovlr 
\n  Eccitnl  Th.  II.  p.  2197.     /i',nl>rici  do  g.'st.  Kridi-r.  I,  in. 

f)  l.eo  in  liis  triiili.vs  ou  Italy,  suininarily  in  tliu  Gcscli.  d.  M.V.  vol.  I.  p.  54l?.>s.  Ifälhniinn,  dal 
Stiidtcwtson  des  M.V.  Bonn.  1S27.  2  vol».  Jugci;  ü.  d.  rol.  Bewefti;.  In  d.  M:li\v.ib.  Stfulti'ii  u.  diTel 
tuEanimc'iili.  ni.  d.  idccn  Arnolds,  (h'laibei's  Stud.  d.  üelstl.  WürL  vol.  IV.  II.  1.) 


202  MKDIAKVAI.  ClIfKCII   IlISIi'KV.     ri-K.  III.     A.  I>.  MM)-1216. 

etoninl  cit}-.  ('/)  LuriiiM  //.  (11-14)  led  an  iiriiiy  ni^aiDst  tlie  people,  ami  whiU 
liis  tro(>i)3  wore  stonninp  tlio  cajiitul,  he  "was  killed  by  a  paving-stone  (1145). 
Etigenius  111.  fled  to  tlio  quiet  convent  of  liid  preceptor  St.  JJernard,  by 
whose  counsel  he  was  directed  in  the  government  of  the  Church,  (c)  Roger, 
Kinp  of  the  Normans,  having  brought  him  back  to  Italy,  Bernard  wrote  for 
his  illiistrioiis  pnj)il  the  "Contemplations  on  the  Papacy,"  if)  In  this  work 
the  author  regards  the  papacy  in  its  ideal  glory,  as  an  office  appointed  by 
God  for  maintaining  justice  and  concord  among  the  people;  he  examines  the 
diflicult  duties  wliich  such  an  ofBco  involves  in  relation  to  human  infirmity, 
and  predicts  that  its  worldly  arrogance  will  bring  it  to  an  unhappy  end.  No 
efforts,  however,  could  give  peace  to  Rome,  where  struggles  for  ascendency 
continually  alternated  with  efforts  at  accommodation  with  the  popular  party. 
An  English  mendicant  boy  who  had  been  promoted  from  one  ecclesiastical 
station  to  another,  until  he  had  become  Bishop  of  Albano,  succeeded  Euge- 
nius  under  the  name  of  Hadrian  I V.  (1154).  Oj)  lie  prohibited  all  public  wor- 
ship in  Rome,  until  the  senate  from  jealousy  abandoned  Arnold  of  Brescia. 
The  latter  soon  after  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  emperor  Frederic,  who  sacri- 
ficed him  either  from  a  professed  regard  to  the  pope,  or  from  a  real  hatred 
to  republican  liberty.  He  was  finally  hung  at  Rome  (1155),  his  body  was 
burned,  and  his  ashes  were  thrown  into  the  Tiber.  (/() 

187.     The  Crusade  of  St.  Bernard. 

Palestine  had  now  become  a  European  colony,  receiving  continual  acces- 
sions of  peojile  from  the  migrations  of  discontented  persons  hoping  to  im- 
prove their  condition  by  the  change.  The  relations  and  parties  which  existed 
in  Europe  were  therefore  repeated  there  in  an  exaggerated  form.  Accord- 
ingly we  find  there  a  feudal  sovereignty,  in  which  the  king  was  the  chief  and 
simply  the  first  baron  of  the  realm.  He  was  also  in  perpetual  conflict  with 
the  hierarchy,  whose  chief  was  the  Patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  and  who  attempt- 
ed to  re-enact  the  part  of  the  pope,  so  far  as  his  relations  to  the  king  were 
concerned.  Between  these  two  personages  sprung  up  independent  municipal 
associations,  and  companies  of  spiritual  knights.  ('/)  The  Greek  emperor  was 
always  suspected  and  secretly  hated,  and  the  native  Christians  were  regarded 
as  aliens  and  proper  objects  of  oppression.  The  Mohammedans  fought  under 
the  conviction  that  it  was  for  religion,  honor  and  dominion.  The  Norman 
kingdom  of  Edessa  had  been  overthrown  (1144),  and  it  was  evident  that 
deliverance  could  be  expected  only  by  now  levies  from  the  AVest.  Bernard, 
the  great  saint  of  that  age,  assumed  the  direction  of  this  enterprise,  promis- 
ing, as  the  messenger  of  God,  a  certain  victory.     Eugcnius  went  so  far  as  to 

d)  Marlene  .•\inpl.  Col.  Tli.  II.  p.  89Ss.     Otto  /'/t«.  de  reb.  gest  Frid.  I,  2S. 

e)  Jiije  p.  61TSS. 

/)  De  Considcratione  1.  V.  {Bernardi  0pp.  Yen.  Th.  II.)    C.  F.  ScJtneider,  Ber.  1S51. 

g)  R.  Habi/,  Adrian  IT.  Lond.  1S49. 

?t)  Geroh,  Provost  of  Reich erspcrg,  de  jnvestigationo  Anticliristi.  {Gretseri  Col.  Scir.  adv.  Wal 
dens.  Prolegg.  e.  4.) 

a)  The  laws  enacted  there  are  lost,  but  they  inay  be  inferred  from  the  co<ie  which  Ccnnt  Jam 
tTIhelin  established  in  Cyprus :  Assises  et  bons  nsases  dou  royaunie  de  Jerusalem,  etc.  p.  7fiaiiinai 
ie  Thaumasi  re.  Par.  1C90. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  1S3.  FREDERIC  I.    HADRIAN  IV.  203 

sacrifice  the  rights  of  creditors  and  feudal  lords,  that  he  might  jironiote  tlio 
interests  of  this  crusade,  (i)  Louis  VII,  of  France  took  up  tlie  cross,  tliat  lie 
might  atone  for  his  crime  of  hurning  a  church  filled  with  human  beings,  and 
Conrad  of  Germany  was  hurried  into  the  same  act  against  his  inclinations 
b}^  the  power  of  Bernard's  eloquence.  Each  of  these  princes  led  across  the 
Hellespont  an  army  of  70,000  men  (1147).  Most  of  these  perished  in  conse- 
quence of  the  deceitful  policy  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  opjiosition  of  the  ele- 
ments, .so  tliat  the  princes  returned  with  only  tlie  fragments  of  their 
armies,  {r)  Bernard  defended  his  veracity  by  ajipealing  to  tbe  inscrutable 
nature  of  the  divine  counsels,  and  by  complaining  of  the  crusaders  them- 
selves, whose  crimes  had  rendered  them  unworthy  of  victory.  The  more 
pious  portion  of  his  contemporaries  were  consoled  with  the  reflection,  that  if 
the  undertaking  had  been  injurious  to  their  temporal  interest,  it  had  certainly 
promoted  the  welfare  of  their  souls.  ((/) 

§  188.     Frederic  /.,  Barharossa,  1152-1190. 

L  Constltutioncs  In  PerU  P.  IV.  p.  S9-1S5.  Olio  Frixing.  do  gestis  Friiicrici  1.  II.  till  1153,  con 
imwbiX  hy  liadevicua  till  IIGO.  {Muratori  Th.  VI.  p.  C29.)  Godo/reiH  VHerlieJiniii  Pantheon  till 
nS<3.  (Pixtorius  TIi.  II.  p.  8.)  Ounttieri  Ligurinus  nonr  the  end  of  the  12th  cent  e<l.  Dumge, 
llcidelb.  1S12.  The  Italian  Chronichirs  and  otliers  In  Muratori  Th.  VI.  Tlie  conteniporary  popes, 
and  original  documents  in  ifansi  Th.  XXIs.  Joffe,  p.  CiS-Si^.  Biographies  in  Muratori  Tb. 
III.  p.   Is.    Jaffe,  p.  CDS-S54. 

II.  Kortüm,Yr.  I.  Aar.  1818.  J.  Voigt,  Gosch.  d.  Lombnrden-Bandea  n.  8.  Kampfes,  mit  Fr. 
Künigsb.  1818.  F.  v.  liaumer,  Gesch.  d.  llohensf.  Lpz.  (1828)  1841*.  vol.  II.  Ring,  Fr.  1.  im. 
Kampfe  gegen  Ales.  III.  Stuttg.  1S35.  IT.  Heuler,  Gesch.  Alex.  III.  u.  d.  Kirche  seiner  Zeit  IJerl 
1S45.  vol.  I.  W.  Zimmerman,  die  Ilohenst  o.  Kampf,  d.  Monarchie  gegen  Papst  und  republ.  Fieih. 
Stuttg.  1838.  2  vols. 

The  heroic  race  of  the  Ilohenstaufens  almost  succeeded  in  realizing  the 
idea  of  the  empire.  Frederic  /.,  already  renowned  for  his  heroic  exjiloits  in 
the  East  and  in  the  "West,  ascended  the  throne  with  a  determination  to  re- 
establish, in  spite  of  all  opposition,  the  ancient  power  of  the  emperor  Charles 
on  both  sides  of  the  Alps.  lie  well  knew,  however,  that  the  i)oi)o  could  bo 
of  immense  service  to  him  in  tlie  attainment  of  his  univer.-;al  dominion,  (a) 
lie  therefore  gave  Hadrian  assurances  of  his  friendship  when  he  entered  upon 
his  Roman  expedition  (1155),  and  although  some  violations  of  pood  faith 
then  took  place,  they  were  easily  overlooked  when  both  parties  were  incline<l 
to  peace.  But  the  lioman  peojilo  received  iron  instead  of  gold.  First,  Ha- 
drian's one-sided  treaty  with  tlic  King  of  the  Two  Sicilies,  and  tlieii  an  occa- 
sional hint  from  him  that  the  tni[)eror  held  tlio  empire  a.s  a  feudal  tenure 
from  the  pope,  {h')  raised  the  indignation  of  the  German  nation.  Under  theii 
powerful  leader  this  people  had  been  awakened  to  a  recollection  of  their 
ancient  independence.  The  emjieror  indulged  the  hope  of  putting  an  end  to 
the  subjection  paid  to  a  foreign  bishop,  and  of  forming  a  great  national  Ger- 
man Church,  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Archbishop  of  Treves,  to  whom 

V)  Engen.  Ep.  nd  Ludov.  (iraniii  Th.  XXI.  p.  C2(i8.) 

c)  Otto  Frig,  de  gest  Frld.  I,  a%ss.     Oito  </«  Dfogilo,  de  profecllone  Lud.  In  Or.  {Chißti,  Bef 
sardi  illustre  genus.  Dlvlone.  1600.  A.)  li'iV.  Tyr.  XVI,  ISss. 
rf)  Bern,  de  consider.  II,  1.     Otto  Frising.  I.  r.  I,  f>0. 
u)  Joan.  Sitrinher.  ep.  59.      h)  iftinni  Th.  XX.  p.  790. 


204  MKDIAKVAL  CUfKril  HI?'n)KV.     riCK.    III.     A.  I).  HiKJ-121«. 

it  was  not  altof^'C'tlicr  without  sipnificanco  that  our  Lord  bequeathed  hissearn- 
Ic^!H  coat,  and  Peter  liis  «tatr.  This  i)lan,  liowever,  failed  of  accoinplisbinent 
on  account  of  tlic  jealous}'  which  prevailed  among  the  German  princes,  and  the 
contest  with  Italy,  (r)  The  emperor  went  once  more  across  the  Alps  (1158) 
with  a  larger  army  than  before,  reduced  Milan  to  submission,  and  at  the  Diet 
of  the  lioncalian  plains  had  his  imperial  rights  explained  out  of  the  Roman 
Code  by  the  renowned  doctors  of  civil  law  in  Bologna.  According  to  these, 
Lis  authority  was  that  of  an  unlimited  monarchy,  such  as  was  utterly  for- 
eign to  the  usages  of  the  German  people.  But  the  power  of  science  of  which 
tlie  Italians  were  at  that  time  proud,  was  by  this  decision  added  to  that  of 
the  imperial  arms.  (cT)  The  bishops  as  well  as  the  towns  were  referred  to 
long  forgotten  feudal  obligations,  and  when  the  hierarchy  beheld  its  rights 
violated,  it  began  to  grasp  after  its  spiritual  powers,  when  Hadrian  died 
(1159).  The  hierarchical  party  elected  in  his  stead  Alexander  JJI.,  while  a 
few  cardinals  in  the  imperial  interest  chose  Victor  III.  Alexander,  whose 
cause  was  triumphant  on  account  of  its  connection  with  that  of  popular  free- 
dom. A  few  cities  of  Upper  Italy  bad  sworn  together  (1164)  that  they 
would  rather  suflfer  destruction  than  any  longer  endure  the  oppressions 
which  the  imperial  deputies  had  arbitrarily  inflicted  upon  them.  This  League 
of  Verona  was  soon  after  gradually  extended  till  it  became  the  great  Lom- 
iardic  League^  at  the  head  of  which  the  pope  appeared  as  the  supreme  dema- 
gogue. A  terrible  war  was  now  kindled,  in  which  one  party  contended  for 
freedom  and  the  other  against  rebels.  Abandoned  by  the  army  of  the 
Guelphs,  the  emperor  was  defeated  at  Legnano  (May  29,  1176),  but  even 
when  defeated  and  excommunicated  he  was  still  an  object  of  terror.  He 
concluded  a  treaty  of  peace  and  friendship  with  Aloxander  at  Venice  (Aug. 
1,  1177),  in  which  he  renounced  the  rival  pope,  and  entered  into  a  truce  of 
fifteen  years  with  the  King  of  the  Sicilies,  and  another  of  six  years  Avith  the 
Lombards.  This  last,  after  the  death  of  Alexander  (1181),  was  exchanged 
for  the  peace  of  Constance  (1183).  {e)  The  basis  of  the  treaty  of  peace  with 
the  hierarchy  was  the  Concordat  of  Worms,  while  that  of  the  peace  with 
the  cities  was  the  condition  of  Italy  before  the  second  Eoman  expedition. 
The  cities  were,  as  republics,  to  be  equal  in  rank  with  the  great  vassals  of 
the  crown,  and  the  estates  of  the  Countess  Matilda  were  to  remain  in  the 
possession  of  the  emperor  for  fifteen  years,  when  they  were  to  be  disposed 
of  by  a  decision  of  arbitrators.  The  emperor  then  took  signal  vengeance 
npon  the  Goelphic  family,  and  thereby  established  his  supremacy  in  Germa- 
ny. By  the  marriage  of  his  son  Henry  with  Constantia,  the  heiress  of  the 
two  Sicilies  (1186),  he  also  acquired  for  his  house  a  prospect  of  possessing 
the  whole  of  Italy. 


c)  Comp.  J.  FU'ker,  Eeinald  y.  Dassel,  Reichskanzler  u.  Erzb.  v.  Köln.  Köln.  1S50. 

d)  Savigny,  Gesch.  des  rom.  Rechts  im  Mittelalter.  Heldelb.  1815s.S.  vol.  IV.  p.  lölss. 
*)  Coaventas  Venetus ;  Pertz  Th.  IV.  p.  ISlss.    Pax  Constantlae :  Ib.  p.  175ss. 


CHAP.  I.  PAPACY.  S  1S9.  BECKKT.  205 

§  189.     Thomas  Beclcet. 

I.  T?iom.  Beck.  Epp.  1.  VI.  cd.  Ch.  I.tipu»,  Brux.  1RS2.  4.  S  77iom.  Cant.  0pp.  (Patres  Ecc 
Angl.  ed.  Giles,  O.von.  Ii45s3  vols.  I. -VIII.  Blo^'rapliies  by  four  of  his  followers:  Johannes  Saris. 
6er.  ■\VIIh.  Ste[)haiii(le.s,  Alanus  and  Herbert  dc  Uusham,  by  the  command  of  Greg.  IX,  collected 
In  the  Qtiadrilogus  de  vita  S.  Thomac,  frequently  i.ubli>hed,  esjiecially  in  Lupus'  edit.on  of  the  Letters. 

II.  Hist  de  dumelo  de  Henri  II.  avec  Becket.  Amst,  170C.  HatailU,  vie  politique  ct  civile  de 
Th.  Beck.  Par.  1842.  Herbert  de  Boseham,  Vita  S.  Thorn.  (Patres  Ecc,  Angl.  vol.  VIIL)  Brischar, 
Th.  Beck.  (Tub.  Qiirt.  1S52.  II.  1.)— 77iiVr;-y,  Hi^t  do  la  conqutto  de  TAngl.  par  les  Normands.  Par. 
Ib25.  vol.  II.  p.  37GSS.  [transl.  into  Engl,  by  Wm.  Ilnzlitt,  with  an  App.  L<inil.  1S47.  2  vols.  S.] 
Reuter,  Ale.xander  IIL  vol.  I.  p.  23Sss.  [J.  A.  GiUs,  Lifu  and  Li-ttcrs  of  Th.  u  Bocket,  by  contem- 
porary historians.  Lond.  1S4C.  2  vols.  S.  Eclectic  Mag.  June,  1S4C.] 

During  the  reigna  of  William  the  Conqueror  and  his  son,  tlie  English 
clergy  had  been  kept  in  the  most  rigorous  subjection.  But  in  the  midst  of 
the  party  struggles  which  took  place  ander  the  feeble  government  of  Ste- 
phen (1135-54),  they  broke  loose  from  the  State  and  established  tlieir  free- 
dom by  connecting  themselves  intimately  with  the  Roman  court,  as  the  only 
tribunal  of  ultimate  appeal  in  all  legal  matters  in  which  they  were  concerned. 
Ucnnj  II.  demanded  that  the  rights  of  the  crown  over  the  clergy  should  bo 
restored,  and  caused  an  edict  to  be  passed  at  the  Diet  of  Clarendon  (11G4), 
which  declared,  "  The  election  of  prelates  shall  take  place  in  the  royal  chapel 
with  the  consent  of  the  king.  In  all  civil  matters,  and  in  cases  of  dispute 
with  laymen,  the  clergy  shall  be  amenable  to  the  royal  court.  "Without  the 
consent  of  the  king,  no  cause  can  be  carried  to  any  foreign  jurisdiction,  no 
clergyman  shall  leave  the  kingdom,  and  no  person  belonging  to  the  royal 
council  shall  be  excommunicated."*  For  the  accomplishment  of  his  plan 
the  king  had  appointed  his  Chancellor,  Thoma«  ßcciet,  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury (1162).  But  Becket  was  no  sooner  made  the  head  of  the  Anglican 
Church,  than  he  became  possessed  of  the  spirit  of  his  station.  lie  laid  aside 
all  worldly  pomp,  and  put  on  the  simple  habit  of  a  monk.  He  publicly  per- 
formed penance  for  giving  his  a.<sent  to  the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and 
received  from  Alexander  III.  absolution  from  the  oath  ho  had  taken  with 
respect  to  them.  He  was  now  obliged  to  fly  before  the  king's  wrath,  which 
fell  upon  his  innocent  kindred,  and  sjiared  not  even  the  child  in  tlie  cradle. 
Sustained  by  the  power  of  the  pope,  ho  maintained  his  cause,  while  in  France, 
by  spiritual  weapons,  until  ho  compelled  his  king  to  enter  into  a  con)promiso 
by  which  he  was  allowed  to  return  to  his  diocese.  Ho  had  no  sooner  done 
this  than  ho  issued  sentence  of  cxconnnunication  against  all  who  adhered  to 
the  Constitutions  of  Clarendon.  A  careless  exi)ression  used  by  the  king  was 
seized  up(m  bj-  his  knight.s,  and  unfortunately  carried  into  speedy  execution, 
and  on  the  2'Jth  of  December,  1170,  the  archbishop  was  slain  at  the  very 
foot  of  the  altar.  Alexander  canonized  this  bold  martyr  for  his  ecclesiastical 
independence,  and  the  king  was  generally  looked  upon  by  the  people  as 
guilty  of  the  murder.  As  the  opinions  of  the  people  were  of  great  impor- 
tance to  Henry  in  his  contests  with  his  rebellious  son,  lie  purehaseil  absolution 
from  Kome  by  conceding  to  it  the  freedom  of  its  Judicial  i)roceedings.  Ho 
also  became  reconciled  to  his  people  by  performing  an  humble  penance  at  the 

•  3fansi  Th.  XXI.  p.  1187.  1194*8.  [LandonU  Manail  of  Councils,  p.  ]32f«.  ChurUm»  Enrlj 
Engl.  Church,  chap.  IS.     )r«7*iH«,  Cone.  vol.  1.  p.  4.36.] 


206  MEDIAEVAL  tlirnril  IIISTOKV.   PKR.  IIL    A.  D.  S<J0-1>16. 

grave  of  liis  doatlly  enemy  (1174).     After  this  the  papal  legates  exerciseu 
complete  control  over  the  Church  and  the  revenues  of  England. 

§  190.     The  Crusade  against  Salalieddin. 

1)  Tig^no.  Decanus  Ecc.  Tatav.  T)e5cr.  expeditionis  Asiat  Friderlci.  {Frelier  Tli.  I.  p.  403.) 
i4 n*/xr^",  ClericI  Au*trlaci,  Hist  do  exped.  FriO.  cd.  J.  DobiovoX-y,  Pras.  ISiT.  2)  Gulfiidi  a» 
Vino  S-ilto  Itincrarlnm  RichardL  (BonQtirs.  Th.  I.  p.  1150.  bat  better,  Oule,  serr.  Hist.  AngL  voL 
II.  p.  247.)  Rigoi-di  Gothi  (royal  physician)  Ann.  de  rcb.  a  PhiL  Aug.  testis.  (Du  Che»ne  Th.  V. 
p.  1.)  [O.  P.  /?.  Jame»,  Hist,  of  Richard  Co«nr  de  Lion.  Lend.  1S42.  and  Philad  1S45.  2  vols.  8.  T. 
Keii/htUi/,  C.  Jfills,  and  J.  Jlichaud,  as  referred  to  in  §  1S3.  Chronicles  of  the  Crusaders  (in  Bobn's 
Ant.  Db.)  Lond.  1S4S.] 

SaJaTieddin  united  under  his  sword  Anterior  Asia  and  Egypt.  Jerusalem 
submitted  to  him  after  a  sanguinary  battle  (Oct.  3,  1187).  Overwhelmed 
with  the  news,  Europe  heard  the  caU  of  Gregory  YIII.  for  a  new  crusade, 
to  prepare  for  which  all  who  remained  at  home,  even  the  Church,  were 
required  to  contribute  Salaheddin's  Tithe.  Even  Frederic  I.  did  not  consider 
himself  too  old  to  resume  the  heroic  life  of  his  youth.  He  broke  his  way 
through  the  Grecian  empire  and  Asia  Minor,  and  was  finally  drowned  in  the 
Calycadnus,  near  Seleucia  (1190).  His  son  and  the  strength  of  his  host  fell 
before  the  plague.  The  same  summer,  the  kings  of  France  and  England, 
through  the  mediation  of  the  Church,  came  to  an  adjustment  of  their  ditfer- 
ences,  and  transported  their  armies  by  sea  to  Palestine.  Richard  the  Lion- 
hearted,  on  his  way  thither,  recovered  Cyprus  from  the  hands  of  a  Grecian 
rebel,  and  invested  his  knights  with  the  fiefe  of  nearly  half  the  island. 
Akron  also  soon  fell  before  them.  But  in  vain  were  prodigies  of  valor  per- 
formed, since  every  advantage  was  rendered  useless  by  the  mutual  jealousies 
of  the  ditterent  sovereigns  and  nations.  After  a  few  months  Philip  Augus- 
tus was  taken  sick,  returned  to  France,  and  equipped  himself  against  the  pos- 
sessions of  the  English  king.  Eichard,  forsaken  by  all,  and  threatened  at 
home,  concluded  with  his  noble  enemy  a  three  years'  truce,  which  secured 
the  coast  as  a  Christian  territory,  and  opened  Jerusalem  to  the  visits  of  the 
pilgrims.  On  his  return  home  the  Lion-heart  was  imprisoned  in  Austria, 
and  sold  to  the  emperor,  from  whom  he  was  purchased  by  his  own  people. 
The  pope  proved  at  least  his  good  will  by  asserting  the  Christian  law  of  na- 
tions in  behalf  of  a  crusader."* 

§191.     Henry  TI.     Cdestine  III.     (1191-1198.) 

Perlz  Tb.  IV.  p.  lS6ss.    Jaffi  p.  %i^s.—Eaumer,  Hohenst  voL  XL  p.  523ss.     0.  Alel,  K  Phil 
lf>p  d.  Ilobenst.  BrL  13S>.  p.  13ss. 

Henry  TI.  was  on  an  expedition  through  Italy  to  take  possession  of  the 
Two  Sicilies,  which  had  fallen  to  him  by  inheritance  (1189").  when  he  received 
from  the  East  the  news  of  his  father's  death.  He  immediately  purchased  an 
imperial  coronation  from  the  Romans,  by  abandoning  the  faithful  city  of 
Tusculum.  The  Sicilians,  dreading  a  foreign  government,  had  elevated  to 
the  throne  Cotmt  Tancred^  a  natural  son  of  their  extinct  royal  family,  whom 
the  pope  hastened  to  invest  as  his  vassal.    But  after  Tancred's  death  (1194) 


•  Baron,  ad  ann.  1193  >"o.  25s.  J/iiftA.  Paria  ad  ann.  1193. 


CHAP.  L     PAPACY.    $  191.  CELE5TINE  IIL     §  192.  INNOCENT  IIL  207 

the  Two  Sicilies  submitted  themselves  to  Henry.  This  prince  possessed  the 
powerful  talents  for  government,  but  not  the  chivalrous  spirit  of  his  father, 
and  utterly  regardless  of  the  means  which  he  used,  he  now  held  Italy  and 
the  pope  under  the  most  galling  slavery.  He  now  made  preparations  to  ren- 
der the  crown  of  the  German  empire  hereditary  in  his  family,  to  engage  in. 
another  crusade,  and  to  conquer  the  Grecian  empire.  Pious  prophecies 
hailed  him  as  the  servant  of  the  Lord  to  chastise  the  Church  and  to  punish 
the  nations,  (a)  Celestine  III.^  the  aged  pope  who  had  placed  the  crown 
upon  his  head,  ^vithout  venturing  upon  any  decisive  step,  merely  admonished 
him  that  it  would  profit  no  one  to  gain  the  whole  world  to  the  injury  of  his 
own  soul,  (b)  The  youthful  emperor  beheld  a  vast  German  empire  extended 
before  him,  when  a  superior  power  suddenly  interposed,  and  he  died  at  Mes- 
sina (Sept.  28,  1197),  leaving  Frederic  11.^  a  child  of  but  three  years  of  age, 
in  the  midst  of  his  enemies. 

§  192.     Innocent  III.     Jan.  8,  Wm.—July  IG,  121Ö. 

I.  EpUtolar.  Iiinoc.  1.  XIX.  (1.  2.  in  parts  5. 10-16.  vols,  in  Epp.  Inn.  e<L  Baluzius,  Par.  S9'b.  f. 
3.  5-9th  vol.  in  Diploniata  etc.  ad  res  Franeicis  spectantia  edd.  FeudrUrdt  Briquignij  et  la  PorU  du 
TVieii.  Par.  1791.  2  Th.)  liegUtrum  Inn.  III.  super  negotio  Rom.  Imp.  {Baluz.  TIi.  I.  p.  6?7.)  J.  F. 
Boehmer.  Eeiiesla  Imp.  new  ed.  Stuttg.  1S49.  4.  p.  2J9ss. — Getsta  Inn.  IIL  by  a  contemporary.  {Bri- 
quigny  Tb.  I.)  Ruhardi  de  S.  Germano  Chronic,  ad  a.  1159-V243.  {Jliiratori  Tli.  VIL  p.  983.)  The 
unfavorable  side  in  JIatthaeus  Paris,  Hist  major.  [Jfatt,  Paris,  Chronicle,  iiC.  Iransl.  by  Giles. 
Lond.  184S.  12.] 

IL  F.  Ilurter,  Gesch.  Innoc.  III.  u.  seiner  Zeitgenossen.  Hamb.  1S34-42.  4  vols.  (1S45*.  3  eO.) 
[Al/he  Jorry's  Hist  of  Innocent  III.  (in  French)  is  announced  in  Paris.  1S53.  Bohringer,  Church  of 
Christ  and  its  witnesses,  in  a  new  vol.  publ.  in  Lps.  1S54.  Is  a  life  of  Innoc.  III.] 

Cardinal  Lothaire.,  of  the  noble  Roman  house  of  Conti  which  possessed 
landed  estates  in  Anagni  and  Segni,  educated  in  Rome,  Paris,  and  Bologna, 
and  eminent  not  only  as  a  theologian  but  as  a  jurist,  was  raised  to  the  papal 
chair  in  the  full  vigor  of  early  manhood  under  the  name  of  Innocent  III. 
The  grand  objects  to  which  this  richly  endowed  sacerdotal  prince  devoted  his 
thoughts  were  the  fortification  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  the  deliverance 
of  Italy  from  the  dominion  of  foreign  princes,  the  separation  of  the  Two 
Sicilies  from  all  connection  with  the  German  emjjire,  the  liberation  of  the 
Oriental  Church,  the  exercise  of  a  guardianship  over  the  confederacy  of  the 
States,  the  extermination  of  heretics  from  the  Church,  and  the  promotion  of 
ecclesia-stical  discipline.  Immediately  after  his  consecration  he  exacted  an 
oath  of  allegiance  from  the  imperial  prefect  of  the  city,  accustomed  the  no- 
bility and  people  of  Rome  to  obedience,  although  he  found  tliem  often 
deficient  in  this  respect,  took  tlic  Lombardic  League  under  his  I'rotoction,  and 
established  a  similar  confederacy  of  cities  in  Tuscany,  by  the  aid  of  wliich  he 
expelled  the  German  governor  whom  Henry  had  made  ruler  of  the  territories 
belonging  to  the  Church.  Even  before  his  baptism  Henry's  son  was  acknowl- 
edged as  his  father's  successor  in  the  empire.  But  Innocent  was  afraid  to 
see  so  many  crowns  united  upon  a  single  head,  and  the  princes  of  tlie  emjiiro 
thought  the  crown  of  Chai-les  was  too  great  and  heavy  fur  the  head  of  a 
child.     Having  renounced  all  the  prerogatives   of  the  Sicilian  monarchy, 

o)  Inferpretatio  praeclars  Abbatia  Joachim  in  Hieremlam.  Yen.  1525.  Comp.  Abel,  Pbilippi 
p.  812.       I)  J.ifc,  p.  900. 


208  MKDIAKVAL  CllUItCII  IIISTOUY.     PKI:.  III.     A.  I).  &00-1218. 

Frederic  11.  was  iiivostcJ  l>y  Iniiocoiit  witli  the  feudal  Kovcreif,'nty  of  the 
Sicilies.  So  liiglily  was  tlio  power  and  uprif^htncss  of  the  i)Oi)C  esteemed 
that  Comtnntid  on  her  dcath-bcd  intrusted  to  him  the  f,'iiardianship  of  her 
orphan  child  (Nov.  27,  1198).  IIo  governed  the  Two  Sicilies  with  firmness 
and  cnerpy,  so  far  at  least  as  was  possible  under  the  difficulties  of  his  situa- 
tion, and  in  face  of  the  opposition  of  the  German  and  Sicilian  nobles.  Italy 
was  distracted  by  various  factions,  all  of  wliich,  however,  attached  them- 
selves to  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two  great  parties,  in  favor  of  the  Churcli 
or  of  the  empire,  afterwards  called  Guclphs  and  GhihcUhies.  Innocent  pre- 
pared the  way  for  tlie  reconciliation  of  these  parties,  without  which  the 
freedom  of  Italy  could  never  be  secured,  by  taking  Frederic  II.  the  natural 
head  of  the  Ghibellines  under  his  protection.  Under  liis  guardianship  that 
prince  received  a  liberal  and  brilliant  education.  But  the  deliverance  of 
Italy  was  an  event  as  yet  far  distant  and  beyond  the  power  of  the  papacy. 
In  Germany,  when  Philip  of  Suahia  perceived  that  the  croAvn  could  not  bo 
obtained  for  his  nephew  he  resolved  to  acquire  it  for  himself.  The  party  of 
the  Guelphs,  en  the  other  hand,  chose  Otho  IV.,  a  son  of  Henry  the  Lion. 
Both  rival  kings  appealed  to  Innocent,  who  declared  that  it  w^as  the  business 
of  the  pope  to  decide  in  all  cases  of  contested  elections.  With  every  appear- 
ance of  the  utmost  impartiality,  and  after  a  long  and  cautious  delay,  he  decided 
against  the  Hohenstaufen  (1201),  but  when  victory  seemed  to  decide  in  favor  of 
that  prince  he  hesitated  not  to  negotiate  with  him.  (a)  Philip,  however,  waa 
soon  after  assassinated  (1208)  by  Otho  of  Wittelsbach,  one  of  his  offended  vassals. 
This  base  deed  was  detested  by  Innocent,  Otho,  and  all  Germany.  Otho  was 
then  crowned  at  Rome  (1209)  ;  not,  however,  till  he  had  given  security  for 
the  freedom  of  ecclesiastical  elections,  the  toleration  of  appeals  to  Rome, 
and  the  legality  of  all  the  claims  which  the  Church  had  instituted  for  pro- 
perty against  the  empire.  (&)  But  when  he  afterwards  adhered  to  the  impe- 
rial oath,  in  which  he  had  sworn  that  he  would  demand  the  restoration  of  all 
fiefs  which  had  been  taken  from  the  empire,  the  whole  political  scheme  of  the 
pope  was  endangered.  Greatly  dissatisfied.  Innocent  refused  to  acknowledge 
him  any  farther.  Still  resolved  in  some  way  to  accomplish  his  purposes  he 
made  Frederic  II.  swear  that  when  he  should  attain  the  imperial  crown  he 
would  freely  confer  Sicily  upon  his  son.  This  oath  he  regarded  as  a  sufficient 
pretext  for  so  using  Frederic  as  to  allay  the  threatening  danger.  Armed  with 
the  pope's  gold  and  benediction,  the  Hohenstaufen  now  flew  across  the  Alps 
to  take  possession  of  his  father's  empire  (1212).  Even  with  the  blessing  of  the 
Church  Otho  seemed  forsaken  by  fortune,  and  every  one  hastened  to  con- 
nect himself  with  the  party  of  the  youthful  conqueror.  In  the  very  first 
year  of  his  reign  Innocent  proclaimed  a  crusade.  Germany  was  prevented 
by  the  civil  war  from  enlisting  in  this  service,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
England  had  fulfilled  their  vows  by  their  achievements  in  the  last  crusade. 
But  FuJco  of  Neu  illy  who  went  forth  preaching  repentance,  so  stirred  the 
hearts  of  the  French  people  that  the  nobility  of  France  placed  themselves  at 

0)  WicKert.  de  Ottonls  IV.  et  PhiL  Suevi  certaminibus  Rtque  Inn.  labore  in  sedandam  Ecgum  coa. 
tentionem.  Reglom.  1835.     0.  Abel,  Philipp.    See  §  135. 

1)  Eegistrum  Imp.  Epi  7T.  186. 188.  1S9. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.    §  192.  INNOCENT  III.     PHILIP  AUGUSTUS.  209 

the  head  of  the  undertaking,  and  the  Venetians  were  hired  to  transport  and 
sustain  the  army  hy  a  naval  force.  The  doge,  Dandolo,  took  advantage  of 
the  emharrassments  experienced  in  the  payment  of  the  price  agreed  upon, 
and  in  spite  of  the  remonstrances  and  anathemas  of  tlie  pope  he  employed 
the  army  of  the  cro.«9  in  estahlishing  the  power  of  St.  Mark  in  Dalmatia. 
The  crusaders  were  then  involved  hy  tlie  arts  of  a  fugitive  prince  in  the  wars 
of  the  Greek  imperial  palace.  In  tlie  course  of  these  contests  ComtnntinoiAe 
was  taken  (April  12,  1204),  a  Latin  empire  was  formed  there,  and  Baldwin, 
Count  of  Flanders,  was  proclaimed  its  first  hut  powerless  emperor.  Innocent 
condemned  the  whole  transaction  and  the  horrors  connected  with  it,  but  did 
not  scruple  to  derive  advantage  from  it,  and  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
was  appointed  hy  him.  (c)  But  the  strong  point  thus  gained,  by  which  a 
land  passage  was  opened  to  Palestine,  ingulfed  all  the  resources  of  men  and 
treasure  which  had  been  prepared  for  the  uiKlertaking.  When  men  failed, 
however,  a  vast  host  of  children  took  the  field. — By  a  dexterous  use  of  the 
passions,  the  devotion,  the  dissensions,  the  interest,  or  the  despotism  of  the 
kings  of  Europe,  Innocent  contrived  to  exercise  supreme  control  over  them. 
Philip  Augustus  had  repudiated  liis  wife  Ingehurge,  the  sister  of  the  Danish 
king,  Canute,  and  the  French  bishops  had  given  their  consent  to  his  second 
marriage.  Innocent  therefore  deprived  the  whole  kingdom  of  Franco  of 
every  ecclesiastical  privilege,  with  the  exception  of  the  baptism  of  children 
and  absolution  for  the  dying.  The  heart  of  the  king  was  deeply  wounded  by 
this  proceeding,  those  who  were  utterly  repugnant  to  each  other  were  required 
to  become  united,  and  those  who  truly  loved  were  to  be  torn  asunder.  But 
terrified  at  the  coinmotion  which  prevailed  ainong  his  people  he  was  com- 
pelled to  acknowledge  the  inviolability  of  his  former  marriage  (1201).  {d) 
Peter  II.  of  Arafjon  regarded  a  coronation  by  the  pope  of  so  great  impor- 
tance that  he  came  to  receive  the  crown  at  St.  Peter's  altar,  solemnly  prom- 
ising to  be  faithful,  and  to  pay  tribute  to  the  Roman  See  (120-4).  Sancho  I.  of 
Portugal.^  after  a  stubborn  denial  of  it,  finally  acknowledged  the  validity  of 
the  document  in  which  his  father  had  made  his  kingdom  tributary  to  St. 
Peter.  By  the  ])ope's  mediation  in  Hungary  the  royal  brothers  were  recon- 
ciled, and  the  king's  son  was  crowned  by  the  states.  A  di.-:puted  election  to 
the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury  Avas  submitted  to  his  decision  and  pro- 
nounced iuvalid.  This  afforded  him  an  opportunity  of  inducing  the  canons 
who  were  sent  to  him  to  choose  his  learned  friend.  Cardinal  Stiphm  Lung- 
ton,  whom  he  immediately  consecrated  to  that  ottico  (1207).  lung  John, 
a  despot  without  power  or  judgment,  refused  to  acknowledge  Langton, 
and  seized  upon  the  revenues  of  the  clergy.  Innocent  then  laid  all  Eng- 
land under  an  interdict,  and  excommunicated  the  king  (1200).  John  sought 
by  violence  to  compel  his  clergy  still  to  perform  the  services  of  religion, 


c)  Genffroi  de  ViUe-Ifardouin,  Illst  de  la  conqucste  do  ConstAnt  119^-1207.  [transl.  into  Engl. 
J>y  T.  Smith.  Lond.  1829.  8]  {C.  dii  Fre«ne,  Hist  de  lemplro  do  Con.'t  sons  les  Kinp.  franfols.  Veil- 
1729.  f.)  Hist  of  the  empire  by  XUvtas  AcomitiatM.  lllS-1200.  ed.  Fnhroti.  Par.  1647.  f. 

d)  I.  nigordi  de  reb.  Phil.  Aug.  {Du  Cheme  Th.  V.  p.  80.)  Act«  Cone  Divion.  et  Vienn.  {yfumi 
Th.  XXII.  p.  708.)  Siicsjioncns.  {Ih.  p.  738.)— II.  J.  Schutz.  Pliil.  A.  u.  Ingoborg.  KioL  ISlH.  Cap«- 
figu*.  Hist  do  Phil.  A.  Brux.  1S30.  Tli.  IL  p.  144.  191s«. 

14 


210  MKDIAKVAI,  ClirilCII  I1IS'I()I:V.     r Kit.  HI.     A.  ]).  ^.i)i\-\2l(i. 

and  to  nijihitnin  tlio  waveriii;;  lidclity  of  hirf  vassals.  But  when  he  had 
bccouio  utterly  ruined  in  his  own  country,  he  was  deposed  hy  Innocent, 
and  his  kingdom  was  hcstowed  upon  Philip  of  France.  Rejoiced  at  such  an 
ü[>portunity  llio  latter  prepared  an  army  and  a  fleet  for  takinj^  possession  of 
his  new  kingdom.  John  then  humbled  himself  hefore  the  pope  and  con- 
sented to  receive  England  as  a  fief  from  the  Holy  See  (1213).  But  the  bish- 
ops and  barons,  finding  themselves  subjected  to  a  king  Avhom  they  abhorred, 
and  a  popo  who  punished  a  whole  people  for  the  sins  of  their  ruler,  called  to 
mind  their  ancient  privileges,  and  extorted  from  John  the  celebrated  Magna 
Charta  (June  15,  1215),  which  has  over  since  been  the  fundamental  law  for 
the  legislative  power  of  an  aristocracy  sustained  by  the  people.  When  John 
afterwards  violated  this  engagement  he  was  restrained  by  threats.  Innocent 
beheld  a  dependent  kingdom  wrested  from  his  grasp  by  a  people  who  were 
becoming  conscious  of  their  poAver.  In  vain  did  he  hurl  his  anathemas 
against  the  estates  and  their  charter ;  the  papal  power,  exalted  as  it  then 
was  in  its  authority,  had  now  found  an  antagonist  before  whom  it  was  des- 
tined to  fall,  (c)  Just  as  he  was  on  the  threshold  of  great  events  and  yet 
conscious  of  his  approaching  end,  (/)  Innocent  collected  around  hira  the 
representatives  of  Christendom  at  the  FourtJi  Synod  of  Lateran  (1215),  to 
take  measures  for  the  reconquest  of  the  Uoly  Land,  the  extermination  of 
heretics,  and  the  reformation  of  the  Chtrrch.  A  general  Truce  of  God  was 
consecrated,  that  the  whole  power  of  the  European  nations  might  be  directed 
to  the  East.  The  most  terrible  measures  were  determined  upon  with  respect 
to  heretics.  Seventy  Canons  were  ratified  by  the  Council,  in  which  were 
specified  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  and  the  most  important  rules  of 
law  and  discipline  in  a  modern  form,  but  in  their  ancient  severity.  The  pope 
is  represented  as  the  head  of  the  great  Christian  family  of  nations.  {(/)  With 
the  powers  thus  conferred  Innocent  .was  right  in  likening  himself  to  the  sun 
and  the  various  civil  governments  to  the  moon,  receiving  their  light  from  him 
as  from  a  feudal  lord.  (A)  He  who  had  often  described  in  the  darkest  colors 
the  miseries  of  the  human  race,  (/)  regarded  the  earth  as  worthy  of  his  care 
only  that  he  might  subject  it  to  the  law  of  God.  Feeling  that  he  had  be- 
come too  much  estranged  from  himself  by  the  press  of  public  duties,  and  the 
want  of  time  for  heavenly  contemplations,  he  longed  to  enjoy  the  privileges 
of  the  pastoral  office,  and  preached  as  often  as  possible.  His  discourses,  as 
well  as  his  judicial  decisions,  which  were  long  regarded  as  models  for  legal 
documeats  of  that  kind,  were  highly  figurative  and  composed  in  the  style  of 
the  Old  Testament.  But  even  in  his  most  fanciful  and  subtle  allegories  there 
is  always  apparent  a  profound  earnestness  of  spirit,  with  great  gravity  of  ex- 
pression. Witb  his  analytical  mind  he  doubtless  sometimes  perverted  the 
cause  of  justice,  according  to  circumstances,  from  its  strict  course  of  recti- 


«)  Zlatth.  Par.  ad.  ann.  1205ss.  Original  documents  in:  lii/meri  Foedera  et  Acta  publ.  inter 
Beg.  Angllac  etal.  Priuc.  aucta  et  em.  a  Clarke  et  Holbrooke,  Lond.  lS16ss.  vol  L  P.  L 

/)  I/urUr,  vol.  IL  p.  6i-i.    g)  AcUi  in  Mansi  Tli.  XS.II.  p.  953-10S4.  [Laiidoit,  p.  "iOSss.! 

A)  Innoc.  1.  1.  Ep.  401.  Geeta.  e,  6-3. 

i)  De  uiiseria  liumanae  conditionis  s.  de  contomtii  niundi.  0pp.  (Sermons  &  ascetic  writings,  in- 
tomplet«  }  Col.  1575.  Yen.  15TS.  4. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLES.  LAW.    §  193.  CAXON  LAW,  2 1 1 

lüde,  and  yet  ho  liad  a  right  to  boa.st  that  even  his  intercepted  letters  -would 
be  only  an  additional  evidence  of  his  perfect  integrity,  (^-j  lie  was  certainly 
covetous  of  wealth,  and  his  legates,  in  whom  he  confided  too  much,  (I)  were 
still  more  so;  but  no  presents  ever  turned  him  from  bis  course.  His  style 
of  living  was  as  simple  as  that  of  Cincinnatus,  and  his  wealth  was  always 
subservient  to  his  purposes,  and  freely  used  in  behalf  of  the  crusades  and 
the  poor.  He  was  inflexible  in  his  friendships,  a  father  to  widows  and 
orphans,  and  when  acting  as  the  Vicar  of  the  Supreme  Prince  of  Peace,  he 
was  frequently  a  peacemaker  between  princes  and  their  subjects.  Misfor- 
tune never  subjected  him  to  those  severe  trials  in  which  great  characters 
are  proved,  but  he  availed  himself  of  fortunate  circumstances  with  all  the  skill 
of  an  ancient  Roman.  By  his  exertions  Rome  became  once  more  the  head  of 
the  civilized  world ;  although  his  greatest  plans  were  unsuccessful,  or  contained 
the  germs  of  future  failure.  The  legend,  according  to  which  the  soul  of  this 
great  vicar  of  God  was  delivered  with  extreme  difficulty  Irom  the  claims  of 
hell,  (m)  merely  shows  that  no  mortal  can  possess  unlimited  power  without 
injury,  or  that  even  the  highest  are  amenable  to  a  master  in  heaven,  and  to 
public  opinion  upon  earth. 


CHAP.  IT.— SOCIAL  COXSTITUTIO^  OF  THE  CHURCH. 
§  193,     Gratian  and  his  Prcdece^mn. 

Balle rini  <\c  nntiq.  canonnm  Coll.  (Leon.  0pp.  Tti.  IIL  p.  2S9ss.)  Sntignij,  Gosch.  (1.  Rum. 
Rechts  im  M.\.  vol.  IL  p.  273ss. — Anton.  AnguMni  de  emenrlatlone  Grat  L  IL  Tarrncon.  1587. 
and  often.  J.  II.  Boehmei;  A^  varia  Deer.  Grat,  fortiina.  (At  the  commencement  of  his  edit,  of  tho 
C.J.  Can.)  fSarti,  do  cLiris  arcliigymnasii  Koiioniens.  I'rofessorib.  Bon.  1TC9.  f.  Th.  I.  1*.  I.  p.  24Tss. 
Ilifgger,  de  Grat  (0pp.  Frib.  1773.)  and  do  Grat  Col.,  inothodo  et  mendis.  (Oblect  hist  ct  jiir.  Ulm. 
1776.)  Savigny  voL  III.  p.  475ss. 

The  Capitularies  of  Charles  and  Louis  were  collected  in  summaries  and 
separate  piece?,  and  published  by  Aih^cfjiaus  (827)  in  four  books.  The  two 
first  relate  to  the  afliairs  of  the  Church.  To  these  were  added  the  collection 
of  Bcnedictus  Lcrita  (845),  in  whicii  were  embraced  not  only  the  Capitula- 
ries, but  the  statutes  derived  from  all  tho  judicial  authorities  of  the  time,  {a) 
The  traditions  of  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  laws  and  the  work  of  Isidore 
formed  a  basis  from  that  time  forward,  to  which  the  compilers  only  added 
the  more  recent  laws  which  had  been  generally  received.  The  chronological 
order  was  not  required  in  a  .systematic  arrangement,  and  was  also  abandoned 
for  want  of  a  knowledge  of  the  original  authorities.  liiijiuo.  the  abbot  of 
Prucm  (d,  915),  gave  directions  from  older  authorities  respecting  the  visita- 
tion of  u  diocese,  and  quoted  the  legal  passages  on  that  subject.  {!>)    Burchardy 


k)  Boehmer,  Rcgesta,  p.-290. 

I)  I/tirlei;  vol.  II.  p.  095,  perfectly  trustworthy  In  all  which  Is  hostile  to  Innocent 

»0  Tlwmas  Cantimpnitfn«.  Vita  Liitgardls  II,  7.  (Rtiynald  ad  nnn.  1216.  No.  11.)  differently 
embellished  near  the  close  of  the  lf)lh  cent  In  the  Conipil.  chronologic».  {PUtor.  Th.  I.  [>.  lüÜS.) 

(I)  Aiixeg.  in  rertz  Th.  III.  p.  2.')Ö.     Beiifil.  I.fv.  lb.  Th.  IV,  2.  i>.  17. 

h)  L.  II.  de  synodal,  c.iiisis  ct  disciplinis  eccL  od.  (Bitliiz.  Par.  1071.)  Wiisscrnc/Ufben,  Lps.  1540 
iintiqua  cann.  Col.  qua  usus  est  Rcgino  Prainlcns.  o  cod.  Vat  ed.  A.  L.  Richter,  Bcr.  1S44. 


212  MKDIAKVAI,  (■Ilfi:<H  iriSTOkV.     I'KI:.  III.     A.  I>.  500-121«. 

Bihho[)  of  Worm«  (d.  10:25),  and  Jro,  IMsliop  of  Chartres  (d.  1115),  liavo  col 
lectod  together  the  whole  stock  of  genuine  and  spurious  laws,  though  they 
liavo  arniiigod  them  in  n  very  arbitrary  manner,  (c)  But  wlien  the  Roman 
law  began  to  receive  much  academical  study,  Gratian,  of  the  convent  of  St. 
Feli.K  at  Bologna,  became  desirous  of  enlisting  a  similar  interest  in  behalf  of 
the  canon  law,  and  (about  1143)  (d)  wrote  Ids  Text  Book  and  Manual,  contain- 
ing a  system  of  ecclesiastical  law  on  an  historical  basis.  In  this  he  incorpo- 
rated all  the  laws  then  regarded  as  in  force,  deriving  his  materials  principally 
from  the  previous  collections,  which  he  sometimes  compared  with  the  origi- 
nal authorities,  and  even  condescended  to  borrow  some  of  the  most  liberal 
statutes  from  the  decrees  of  the  Greek  synods.  The  arrangement  of  the 
work  was  logical,  but  to  some  extent  dependent  upon  the  historical  matter, 
and  each  division  Avas  prefaced  by  legal  principles  generally  derived  from 
history,  and  connected  by  intermediate  clauses  composed  by  Gratian  himself. 
It  consisted  principally  of  historical  documents,  especially  laws  and  legal 
opinions  of  all  kinds  taken  from  ecclesiastical  and  secular  authorities,  and 
grouped  together  in  a  fragmentary  manner,  but  copied  with  verbal  correct- 
ness. Gratian  generally  adopted  the  historical  errors  of  his  predecessors,  and 
seldom  reconciles  the  older  with  the  more  recent  enactments.  Although 
this  work  never  received  the  papal  sanction,  it  possessed  so  high  a  character 
for  science  and  academic  convenience,  that  ever  since,  so  far  as  its  historical 
elements  are  concerned,  it  has  been  received  as  a  manual  of  canonical  law 
for  the  whole  Western  Church.  It  has  also  served  as  the  basis  on  which, 
with  the  exception  of  some  errors  which  historical  criticism  has  discovered, 
ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  has  been  principally  developed,  (e) 

§  19-i.     The  Church  and  the  State. 

Mondtag,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  staatsb.  Freih.  o.  d.  Rechte  d.  gemeineu  Freien,  d.  Adels  n.  d. 
Kirchen.  Banib.  u.  Wurtzb.  1812.  Ilüllmann,  Gesch.  d.  Urspr.  d.  Stände  in  Deutscht.  2  cd.  B«rL 
1830.  voL  I.    Sugenlieim,  Staatslebon  d.  Clerus  im  Mittelalt.  BerL  1639.  vol.  I. 

The  process  commenced  during  the  migration  of  the  northern  nations 
was  completed  during  the  stormy  period  of  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries. 
This  was  the  process  by  which  the  German  republics  of  free  warriors  and 
landed  proprietors  became  merged  into  a  feudal  system  of  complicated  sov- 
ereignty and  dependence.  The  silent  power  of  the  Church  also  gave  its 
sanction  to  the  rights  of  man  while  claiming  those  of  the  Christian.  When 
the  Eoman  empire  had  been  revived  in  the  German  nation  by  the  Othos,  the 
emperor  was  regarded  as  the  political  head  of  Christendom  in  the  West,  and 
the  holy  Roman  empire  as  a  divine  institution.  The  emperor  was  elected  by 
the  German  princes  and  bishops,  but  he  was  required  to  strengthen  the 


c)  Burchardi  Decretor.  1.  XX.  Par.  1549.  and  often.— 7ro,  Pannormia,  1.  VIII.  ed.  M(\-h.  d« 
Totmediano,  Lov.  1557.  Greater  revisions  by  another  hand,  in  IT  vols. :  Decretum  in  0pp.  ed. 
yronto,  Tar.  1647.  2  Th.  t.—Auff.  Theiner,  ü.  Ivo's  vernieintl.  Decret.  Mentz.  1S32.  The  opposite 
view  In  F.  G.  U.  WuKserscIdeben,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  vorgratian.  KEechtsquellen.  Lpz.  1SS9. 

(/)  Concordia  discordantluni  canonum.  1.  III.  Even  in  IISO  it  is  cited  as:  '-in  Decrctis,"  and 
later  gener.illj-  as  the  '•  Decretum."    Printed  as  the  First  Part  of  the  Corpus  J.  canonici. 

e)  Guido  Panci-oluf,  de  clavis  leg.  intcrpretib.  Ill,  6.  Lps.  1721.  4.    Sarignt,;  voL  IIL  p.  519s8. 


CHAP.  ir.    ECCLES.  LAW.    §194.  STATE  &  CUURCn.  213 

power  of  the  empire  in  Italy,  and  to  obtain  possession  of  the  imperial  crown 
which  the  popes  seldom  conferred  without  requiring  entangling  oaths  and  a 
oubtle  confession  of  faith.  (")  But  "while  the  imperial  power  was  destroyed 
in  Italy,  and  every  eflfbrt  to  secure  it  as  an  hereditary  possession  was  frus- 
trated, the  great  vassals  became  firmly'  established  as  princes  of  the  empire, 
and  their  fiefs  became  hereditary.  As  long  as  the  election,  or  at  least 
the  investiture  of  the  bisliops  depended  upon  the  emperor,  they  were 
his  natural  allies  in  opposition  to  the  secular  princes.  The  result  was, 
that  in  all  those  towns  in  which  episcopal  sees  existed,  the  imperial  favor 
to  them  was  so  great  that  tlie  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  was  superseded 
by  them,  and  episcopal  immunities  (corpora  sancta)  sprung  up.  Some  of 
the  bishops  were  even  invested  with  dukedoms.  In  other  parts  of  Germany 
the  bishops  were  gradually  deprived  of  their  political  influence,  and  some 
even  became  dependent  upon  the  higher  crown  vassals.  Right  struggled 
every  where  with  might,  and  the  royal  power  with  the  great  vassals. 
The  Church  often  found  oi)portunity  to  mingle  in  these  struggles,  and  some- 
times it  was  compelled  to  do  so,  but  not  unfrequently  the  confusion  was  in 
this  way  only  increa.sed.  In  particular  instances  it  was  repeatedly  overpow- 
ered, or  compelled  to  resort  to  begging,  in  which  it  sometimes  persevered 
with  an  Indian's  obstinacy,  (h)  Finally,  by  collecting  together  all  its  strength 
in  the  single  phalanx  of  the  papacy,  it  became  so  completely  victorious  that 
it  threatened  to  absorb  all  the  })rerogative3  of  the  state.  And  yet  the  old 
legal  principle  (§  122),  that  God  has  divided  all  power  on  earth  between  the 
em2>eror  and  the  pope,  was  received  according  to  its  German  construction, 
consistently  with  the  later  doctrine,  that  the  emperor  carried  the  secular 
sword  as  a  feudal  investiture  from  the  pope.  It  was  even  conceded  that 
the  civil  power  might  be  peculiar  in  its  nature,  and  the  world  might  be  com- 
mitted to  the  government  of  princes,  ('•)  and  that  the  pope,  by  virtue  of  the 
sacerdotal  and  royal  prerogatives  which  he  had  received  from  Christ,  should 
only  interfere  when  they  exceeded  their  just  powers.  Against  the  scandals 
of  which  the  princes  in  those  rude  times  were  not  unfrequently  guilty,  the 
provincial  bishops  were  generally  unable  to  oppose  any  etlectual  resistance. 
Those,  therefore,  who  acknowledged  no  law  superior  to  themselves,  the  poi)e 
summoned  in  the  name  of  God  to  answer  at  his  bar.  The  temporal  inherit- 
ance of  St.  Peter  was  regarded  as  indispensable  to  the  personal  independence 
of  the  pope,  but  it  involved  him  in  all  the  Italian  convulsions,  and  was  only 
a  precarious  pos.session  in  opposition  to  the  claims  of  the  emperor,  the  great 
lords,  and  the  municipalities.  The  Romans,  them.selves  straitened  between 
the  pope  and  the  emperor,  never  possessed  any  thing  but  a  mere  caricature 
of  freedom. 

a)  E.  G.  Pertz  Tli.  IV.  p.  ISS. 

U)  Comp.  Rnumer,  UoUenstawl  vol.  VI.  p.  IflT.  witti  Bohlen  Inillon.  vol.  1.  p.  285. 

c)  The  old  view:  f!nchiifnKpie(/fl,\o].  I.  art  I.  The  new:  SchirdhftisyiUgtl,  Elnloit  (Frkt 
.riGO.  f.)  P.  II.  no-.iip.  Honor.  Ill,  in  Hatimer  vul.  VI.  p.  «0.  Grimm,  BrlJnntes  Bescheiden!).  Giilt 
.631.  i<.  LVII. 


214  MKDIAF.VAL  CHUKCn  IIISTOUY.     TKn.  III.     A.  IJ.  600-121«. 

§  105.     Ecclmastical  Toicer  of  the  Pnpary. 

Tho  general  helief  tliat  tlie  bishopric  of  tlio  pojie  was  universal,  fre- 
quently gave  a  show  of  justice  to  tlie  elJbrts  that  on  every  opportunity  ■\vcro 
made  to  extend  his  power.  Since  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  episcopal  power 
was  also  regarded  as  springing  wholly  from  the  papal.  It  was,  however, 
thought  that,  like  tho  emperor  in  the  civil  department,  tho  pope  should  not 
suspend  the  exercise  of  the  subordinate  ecclesiastical  powers,  hut  rather  pro- 
tect each  of  them  in  their  peculiar  duties,  and  the  pope  was  reminded  by  St. 
Bernard  that  the  papal  was  not  the  only  power  wliich  had  been  Instituted 
by  the  apostles.  The  bishops  especially  looked  upon  their  pastoral  office  Iq 
their  own  dioceses  as  absolutely  inviolable,  and  tliey  simply  regarded  abso- 
lution as  especially  efficacious  when  obtained  from  Rome.  («)  In  important 
cases  dispensations  were  with  increasing  eagerness  sought  for  from  Rome, 
and  in  all  judicial  causes  in  the  Church  the  Roman  Curia  was  looked  upon  as 
the  court  of  ultimate  appeal.  The  office  of  supreme  judge,  in  which  he  was 
responsible  only  to  God,  and  the  general  reputation  which  he  had  obtained 
of  being  the  most  perfect  depositary  of  the  pure  faith,  produced  in  some 
instances  a  belief  that  the  pope  was  infalllhle.  (Luke  22,  32  was  appealed 
to.)  This  view,  however,  was  never  entertained  without  limitations,  or  ad- 
vanced without  opposition.  The  popes  always  acknowledged  tlie  articles  of 
faith  and  the  established  laws  of  the  Church  as  tho  guide  and  limit  of  their 
powers.  They  were  far  from  appealing  to  their  own  arbitrary  authority,  but 
they  looked  to  the  law  of  God,  or  what  was  generally  regarded  as  such,  for 
the  sole  rule  of  their  conduct,  (h)  The  FaUiura  was  considered  indispensa- 
ble to  the  performance  of  the  archiepiscopal  functions,  and  Gregory  based 
upon  this  a  demand  that  all  the  archbishops  should  swear  allegiance  to  him 
from  whom  it  was  received.  The  same  demand  was  gradually  made  of  all 
bishops  whenever  their  elections  were  confirmed  by  the  popes.  At  first  this 
confirmation  was  sought  only  when  an  election  was  disputed,  but  soon  after 
the  time  of  Gregory  it  was  considered  essential  to  all  elections,  and  supplied 
occasions  for  innumerable  interferences  in  the  business  of  the  dioceses.  Gre- 
gory himself  still  adhered  to  the  freedom  of  the  canonical  choice,  (c)  !N"ew 
dioceses  Avere  erected,  and  changes  in  the  relations  of  the  old  were  to  bo 
made  only  with  the  consent  of  the  pope.  When  appointments  were  made 
to  other  benefices,  the  pope  interfered  only  in  particular  instances,  and  by 
way  of  recommendation,  although  such  recommendations  were  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  commands.  The  bishops  were  generally,  by  their  political  position, 
beyond  all  danger  from  the  violence  of  the  popes,  who  had  a  right  to  exer- 
cise jurisdiction  over  them  only  in  cases  of  manifest  crime,  and  with  the  co- 
operation of  the  Synods.  But  as  a  membership  in  the  principal  councils 
depended  frequently  upon  tho  papal  will,  very  few  of  them  ever  opposed  or 
thwarted  what  was  known  to  be  tho  desire  of  the  pope,  and  most  of  them 

a)  Cone  Saletninstad.  a.  1022.  c.  IS.  (J/imsJ  Tb.  XIX.  p.  395.)    Greg.  Til.  L  YI.  Ep.  4.  (75.  Th 
XX.  p.  2«>0.)    Comp.  De  Jfarca,  de  Sacerd.  et  Imp.  IV,  S,  2. 

I)  Grntian :  V.  I.  DUt  XL.  c.  6.  and  P.  II.  Cans.  XXXII.  Quest.  T.  c.  li  Innoc,  III.  de  consecT 
Pont  Serm.  8.    Comp.  Hase,  Streitschr.  H.  2.  p.  90ss. 

c)  Greg.  VU.  1.  V.  Ep.  11. 1.  VI.  Ep.  14. 

• 


CHAP.  II.     ECCLE3.  LAW.     §  19ö.  TRIMACY.     §  196.  CAEDIN'ALS.  215 

vrere  assembled  only  to  receive  and  perform  it.  The  ascendency  of  the  pope 
above  councils  was  claimed  with  great  caution,  and  only  in  some  occasional 
instances.  His  authority  was  much  increased  by  the  j^ihjrimages  to  the  eter- 
nal city,  for  even  in  the  midst  of  her  ruins,  tlie  glory  of  the  ancient  and  the 
sacrcdness  of  the  modern  "world  combined  witli  her  wondei-ful  attractions  to 
render  it  a  place  of  concourse  for  tlie  people  and  princes  of  the  "West.  The 
first  instance  of  the  canonization  of  a  person  at  a  distance  was  that  of 
Ulrich,  the  holy  Bishop  of  Augsburg  (993),  and  was  occasioned  by  peculiar 
external  circumstances.  In  the  twelfth  century-,  this  privilege,  which  in 
itself  maj'  be  regarded  as  trifling,  but  became  important  on  account  of  the 
idea  from  which  it  sprung,  and  to  whose  realization  it  contributed,  (</)  was 
claimed  as  exclusively  belonging  to  the  frope.  A  jiapul  Coronation  is  no- 
where met  with  until  after  the  time  of  Kicolas  I.,  and  on  the  first  occasion 
of  the  kind  on  which  they  were  both  present,  the  emperor  led  the  animal  on 
which  the  pope  was  carried.  The  kissing  of  the  pope's  foot  sprung  from  an 
Italian  custom.  In  the  estimation  of  the  i)eople  it  was  not  an  idle  display, 
but  very  significant  as  the  oficring  of  pious  liumility  to  Ilim  whom  the  pope 
represented.  By  means  of  Legates^  the  papal  power  became  almost  oumi- 
present.  The  rapacity  of  these  legates,  the  venality  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts,  and  the  illiberal  Italian  spirit  of  some  of  the  popes,  began  to  bo  mat- 
ters of  public  complaint  and  derision.  But  as  a  general  thing,  the  affections 
of  the  people  were  still  firmly  attached  to  the  papacy,  and  the  blessings 
which  it  procured  in  the  unity,  freedom,  and  reformation  of  the  Church 
were  generally  acknowledged. 

§  196.      The  OirJinah. 

Ti'iomasHini  vet.  et  nov.  Ecc.  disc.  P.  I.  1.  II.  c.  113.S.S.  .BiicJrfciM  de  orijr.  cardinalitiae  dign. 
Jena,  lööi  12.    Murutori,  de  Cardin,  institiiti.-ne.  (Antiqq.  Ital.  med.  aevL  voL  IV.  p.  1Ö2.) 

In  the  primitive  Church  the  cardinals  were  the  ordinary  spiritual  officers 
of  tlie  Church  (incardinatij.  Even  after  the  tenth  century  they  were  the 
canons  of  a  cathedral.  But  in  the  Romish  sense  of  the  term  during  the 
eleventh  century,  the  cardinals  were  tlie  Jiighest  spiritual  officers  (i.  e.,  the 
deacons  and  presbyt<;rs)  of  the  Church  in  Kume,  and  seven  suburbican  bishops 
whose  sees  were  then  for  the  most  part  much  reduced  in  size.  (")  These  car- 
dinals, in  opposition  not  only  to  the  Roman  people  and  the  emperor,  but  gradu- 
ally even  to  the  other  clergy,  maintained  tliat  it  was  their  solo  prerogative  to  elect 
the  i)ope  (§  180).  Alexander  III.  ordained  (llY'J)  that  no  one  could  be  a  legally 
elected  i)ope  who  had  not  received  tlio  .votes  of  two  thirds  of  the  legally 
a.ssembled  cardinals,  (b)  The  canlinals  were  generally  selected  by  the  pope 
from  among  tlie  Italians,  and  constituted  Ids  ecclesiastical  and  civil  council. 
Though  they  possessed  no  power  to  control  any  person  of  eminent  talents  in 

£/)  Mami  vol.  XIX.  p.  ICOss.  MabiUoii,  Acta  5S.  Ord.  Ben.  Sacc  V.  rracf.  N.  99.— Deer.  Greg. 
1  IlL  tit.  45.  c  i.—Lambertiiii,  de  Bcrvor.  Dil  canoniznllonu  L  IV.  {IktieJicti  .VIV.  Opp.  Koni, 
1747.  vol.  I. -IV.  4.)  Heiliiumn,  Consecratln  Sanctorum  ad  ÖTfüSfiitrcir  vctoruni  Koni.  efBcta 
Hal.  1754.  4. 

a)  Bunsen,  Hlppol.  p.  l.'>2s. 
'    b)  CoBc  Later.  III.  c.  1.  {ifausi  vol.  .XXII.  p  217.)    [/,</n(/o;i,  p.  292.] 


21G  MICDIAKVAL  Ciniirll  IIISTOKV.     I'KU.  III.     A.  I).  S<K>-1'JH 

the  papnl  clniir,  flicir  iriflucnco  was  generally  Bufficlcnt  to  insure  a  certain 
nniformity  of  action  in  opposition  to  those  sudden  olianpcs  wiiicii  individuaL» 
would  liavc  introduced.  In  consequence  of  tlieir  rank  above  tlie  archbishops, 
the  pojie  Avas  surrounded  witli  a  courtly  sjdendor,  and  an  oi)portunity  waa 
allbrded  hy  wldch  he  could  reward  great  services,  and  place  men  of  eminent 
talents  under  obligations  to  himself. 

§  197.     Tlie  Bishojis^  and  the  Bivhopa'  Chapters. 

So  hiph  did  the  pope  stand  in  the  estimation  of  the  people,  that  the 
bishops  lost  nothing  in  dignity  by  their  subordination  to  him.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  was  by  his  assistance  that  they  Avere  generally  able  to  preserve  their 
independence  in  opposition  to  the  princes  of  the  various  countries  in  which 
they  lived.  There  were  a  few  great  bishoprics  whose  Chorlishops  had  from 
the  most  ancient  times  acted  as  the  bishops'  vicars  in  all  spiritual  affairs 
with  an  authority  which  was  uncertain  and  often  usurped  by  the  princes, 
but  never  dangerous  to  the  bishopric,  (a)  The  right  of  the  bishop  to  ap- 
point all  ecclesiastical  officers  in  his  diocese,  was  limited  by  the  rl'jht  of 
patronage.,  which  even  a  layman  could  lawfully  acquire  by  founding  a 
church  or  a  prebend.  (5)  The  ai'chlishopjs,  besides  the  power  of  presiding 
in  the  synods  of  their  own  dioceses,  merely  possessed  that  of  confirm- 
ing and  ordaining  the  bishops,  in  ■svhich,  however,  they  were  obliged  to  have 
the  concurrence  of  the  popes  or  their  legates.  They  generally  possessed 
very  extensive  dioceses,  and  on  account  of  their  rank  they  acquire<l  special 
political  privileges.  At  the  coronation  of  Otho  I.  the  three  lihenish  arch- 
bishoi«  for  the  first  time  took  precedence  of  all  the  officers  of  the  empire. 
Some  of  the  other  archbishops  acquired  a  kind  of  primacy  over  a  whole 
kingdom,  as  Adalbert  of  Bremen  (d.  1072),  a  man  of  a  brilliant  mind,  but 
consistent  only  in  his  vanity,  and  ready  to  sacrifice  the  whole  Church  to  the 
promotion  of  the  interests  of  his  see,  in  Avhich  he  hoped  to  become  a  patriarch 
of  the  North,  (c)  In  such  instances,  however,  the  popes  always  hastened  to 
form  another  archbishopric  in  the  same  country  to  guard  against  the 
establishment  of  a  national  patriarchate.  In  many  dioceses,  when  their 
bishojis  w'ere  to  be  appointed,  the  nobility  and  people  of  the  archbishopric  con- 
tended with  the  king  and  neighboring  bishops  for  the  right  of  choice,  and  nol 
unfrequently  those  who  were  appointed  by  the  latter  were  most  terribly  re- 
pulsed, {d)  After  a  gradual  attainment  of  their  exclusive  rights  in  this  matter, 
the  canons  obtained  by  their  prerogative  and  their  prospect  of  the  election,  a 
position  more  and  more  independent  of  the  bishop,  and  secured  to  them  by 
treaties.  The  canonical  life  was  generally  abandoned  during  the  tenth  centm-y, 
but  some  zealous  popes  and  bishops  insisted  upon  its  re-establishment.  In  the 
midst  of  much  contention  two  classes  of  canons  were  then  formed  (canonici 
saeculares  and  reguläres),  and  even  monks  became  possessors  of  some  chap- 
ters.    The  canons  were  not  all  clergymen,  but  they  were  required  by  the 

fl)  Balue.  Capitul.  vol.  I.  p.  327s.  SSOs.   Against  Gfrürer:  W.  B.  WencX;  d.  fVank.  Eeicli.  nach  deac 
Tertr.  t.  Vonliin.  Lpz.  \<!)\.  Append.  3. 

h)  IT.  L.  JJj'pert.  L.  V.  Tatronat.  Giess.  1S29.    J.  Kaiin.  KPatronat  Lps.  1345.  rol.  I. 
f)  Adam.  Brem.  1.  III.  comp.  Jujfc  p.  571.        </)  E.  g.  Lambert.  Scha/ji.  ad.  ann.  1066. 


CHAP.  IL    KCCI.KS    L.VW.     §  197.  CHAPTERS.    §  198.  JURISDICTION.  217 

synodal  regulations  to  have  at  least  a  subdeacon's  charge.  Any  vacancies 
which  occurred  in  the  Chapter  were  supplied  generally  by  a  vote  of  its  own 
members,  from  whose  number  its  various  officers  were  chosen.  A  dean  or 
prior,  sometimes  both,  presided  over  the  whole.  After  the  clo.'^e  of  the 
eighth  century,  it  gradually  bccanio  common  to  divide  the  large  dioceses  into 
archdeaconries,  and  these  again  into  rural  cliapters.  The  archdcaconn  were  the 
regular  and  sometimes  even  then  tlic  troublesome  deputies  of  the  bishops,  but 
they  were  not  regarded  as  indispensable  to  a  complete  chapter.  When  the  ca- 
nons were  absent  for  a  long  period,  they  now  began  to  hire  vicars  to  officiate  in 
their  places,  and  to  mark  the  hours  by  singing.  The  liviugs  connected  with 
the  cathedrals  were  then  sutTicicnt  to  become  objects  of  cupidity  to  the  no- 
bility, whose  still  increasing  importance  enabled  them  to  take  possession  of 
most  of  the  benetices.  Against  the  coteries  fonned  by  a  petty  aristocracy, 
wealthy  proprietors,  patronizing  relatives,  and  provincial  prejudices,  the 
popes  endeavored  to  maintain  the  liberal  principles  of  Christianity,  which 
asserted  the  derivation  of  all  men  from  the  same  original  ancestry,  pro- 
nounced the  poor  blessed,  acknowledged  no  kindred  but  the  children  of  God, 
and  recognized  no  birthright  in  the  kingdom  of  God  but  that  which  is  ac- 
quired in  regeneration,  {e)  The  domestic  chaplains  employed  by  the  nubility 
easiily  made  themselves  independent  of  the  bisliops  by  a  servile  dependence 
Dpon  their  employers,  {f) 

§  198.     Ecclesiaatical  Jurisdiction. 

Grfg.  Deer.  II.  de  jiidiciis.    Biener,  Beitrage  2.  Gescli.  des  Inquisitionsproc.  Lpz.  IS'27.    St 
Turd;  de  jurisdietlonis  civ.  iicr  med.  aevum  cum  eccl.  conjunctae  orig.  et  progressu.  Monast  1832 

1.  The  clergy  could  be  tried  only  before  the  episcopal  tribunal.  Tiie 
civil  authorities  were  utterly  unable  to  enforce  their  penal  code  in  opposition 
to  the  indulgence  or  partiality  of  this  court,  except  in  those  instances  in 
which  the  wounded  honor  of  the  Church  itself  required  the  surrender  of 
the  culprit.  The  highest  ecclesiastical  penalty  was  a  hopeless  banishment  to 
a  convent,  and  sometunes  a  walling  in  of  the  culprit.  2.  The  ecclesiastical 
court  also  claimed  jurisdiction  over  all  matters  more  or  less  intimately  con- 
nected with  the  Church,  or  with  religion  in  general,  such  as  marriages, 
wills,  oaths,  usury,  and  all  legal  causes  relating  to  the  crusades.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  confusion  of  moral  and  kgal  subjects,  this  court  invaded  very 
considerably  the  sanctuary  of  the  family.  Ecclesiastical  laws  were  formed 
against  nearly  all  public  offences,  and  when  might  every  where  prevailed 
against  right,  were  powerful  enough  to  extort  respect  from  tho.se  who  would 
have  despiscMl  every  human  autiiority.  The  cause  of  humanity  and  of 
national  rights  formed  also  a  powerful  advocate  in  the  CJiurch  by  means  of 
these  penal  courts.  3.  A  few  individuals  only  arrogated  to  themselves  the 
right  to  interfere  in  every  munici])al  cau.se  when  requested  by  one  of  the 


«)  Innoc.  III.  L  VI.  Kp.  121.  IX.  130.    Moro  nainoroiis  examples  can  be  Tuiiml  in  the  next 
.vricKl,  0.  g.  Greg.  Deer.  III.  tlL  5.  c.  37.  comp.  Stu/ert,  Go.<cli.  il.  deiitscb.  Adel.--  In  d.  Uumc.iplteln, 
790.     IfurUr^  Innoc.  vol.  III.  p.  2-SC. 
/)  AgvlarJ,  de  prlvlleg.  et  jure  sncerdotuiti.  p.  12S. 


218  MKDIAKVAI-  CIITM:t'l[  IflSTOKV.     I'Ki:.  IH.     A.  D.  S00-121C. 

party,  or  wlion  tlio  oflenco  clinrf,'C(l  wnn  of  n  moral  nnture  Mcnunciatio  cvan 
pt'liea).*  The  nnoiont  rnstoni  of  llio  synodal  courts  was  f,'ra<lu;illy  restrained 
bv  tlio  iiitnxlnrfioii  of  tlie  Roman  law. 

§  199.     Property  of  the  Chirch 

The  i)roi)erly  of  tlio  Church  was  continually  augmented  by  donations,  by 
bequests,  by  profitable  investments  and  loans  for  jiawns  esi)ecially  to  cru- 
saders, by  royal  fiefs,  by  free  proprietors  giving  to  the  Church  feudal  lordship 
over  their  possessions  to  secure  them  against  oppression,  and  by  the  increased 
value  of  property.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  diminished  by  the  prodigality 
of  individual  prelates,  wbicb  could  not  be  checked  till,  after  a  dear-bought 
experience,  laws  were  carefully  formed  against  all  pawning  or  alienation  of 
Church  property ;  by  the  claims  and  ojipressions  of  Church  wardens,  by 
transference  of  fiefs  to  those  who  could  protect  them  and  become  their  liege 
lords,  by  expenses  for  the  support  of  legates  and  princes,  and  by  the  claims 
of  feudal  lords  upon  the  property  of  deceased  prelates,  and  upon  the  reve- 
nues of  vacant  Church  oflSces  (jus  spolii  et  rcgaliae).  This  spoliation  of  the 
Church  was  zealous^ly  resisted  by  the  popes.  Otho  IV.  in  Germany  was  in- 
duced to  surrender  his  claims,  but  other  sovereigns  renounced  them  only 
in  particular  instances.  Even  the  fatronarje  (advocatia)  of  ecclesiastical 
foundations  which  had  been  originally  intended  for  legal  and  military  pro- 
tection, and  which  had  sometimes  originated  with  the  act  of  endowment,  or 
had  been  conferred  upon  a  powerful  neighbor,  was  frequently  perverted,  so 
as  to  be  an  instrument  of  oppression  and  robbery,  (a)  The  principal  por- 
tion of  the  Church  property  consisted  of  real  estate  and  tithes.  The  legal 
titles  by  which  the  former  was  held  were  of  various  kinds,  but  the 
latter  were  claimed  by  a  natural  law  propounded  by  God  himself,  al- 
though they  were  resisted  in  many  ways  when  fully  carried  out,  and 
were  in  collision  with  various  local  customs.  The  revenues  even  of  the 
pope,  in  accordance  with  peculiar  ancient  usages,  were  paid  in  articles 
of  natural  produce,  varying  in  different  places.  (U)  Surplice  fees  (jura 
stolae)  belonged  chiefly  to  the  lower  clergy,  but  were  only  voluntary 
offerings  of  the  people.  Salaries  from  the  state  were  indignantly  rejected 
by  the  Church  as  dangerous  to  its  independence  and  dignity,  (c)  The  clergy 
claimed  exemption  from  all  taxes  on  persons  or  property,  with  the  exception 
of  the  feudal  aids  and  voluntary  contributions  in  cases  of  extraordinary  state 
necessity.  A  regular  assessment  was  generally  unknown  in  the  feudal 
monarchies,  but  as  late  as  the  twelfth  century  the  Church  was  often  com- 
pelled to  contribute  for  special  objects,  and  in  the  free  cities  it  had  to  bear 
its  share  in  all  general  taxes.  Alexander  III.  proclaimed  the  great  funda- 
mental principle  of  the  Church,  which  was,  that  the  clergy  might  contribute 
of  their  own  free  will  when  they  perceived  the  utihty  and  necessity  of  an 

•  Greg.  Deer.  II.  tit  1.  c  13.  comp.  Räumer  vol.  VI.  p.  198s. 

a)  P.  GaUade,  dc  advocatis  ecc.  Ileidlb.  176S.    {A.  Schmidt,  Thes.  jur.  ecc.  vol.  T.)    Muratori 
deadvv.  ecc.  (Aniiqq.  ItaL  vol.  V.)     IP.  T.  Kraut,  die  Vormundscli.  GOtt  15-35.  vol.  I. 

b)  Cencii  Cumenirii  L.  censuuin  Rom.  Ecc.  a  1102.    Comp.  Tfurter.  Innoc  vol.  UI.  p.  12183, 

c)  Diomedea  Cronica  di  Cypro,  according  to  Kaamer  vol.  VL  p.  147. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  200.  POPULAR  SPIRIT.    TRUCE  OF  OOD.        219 

assessment.  (<l)  Tiie  protection  -vvliich  the  bishops  received  from  the  popes 
against  tlie  demantls  of  tlieir  respective  kings,  gave  occasion  to  the  legal 
maxim,  that  the  Church  could  never  be  taxed  without  the  papal  sanction,  (e) 
The  natural  right  of  the  clergy  to  inherit  property  was  finally  legalized  in 
spite  of  the  opposition  of  the  laity.  Every  Church  was  regarded  as  the  pro- 
per lioir  of  all  ecclesiastics  who  died  intestate  in  connection  with  it.  There 
were  different  opinions  respecting  the  riglit  of  such  persons  to  bequeath  their 
possessions,  but  it  was  generally  conceded  that  they  might  freely  dispose  of 
all  which  had  not  been  acquired  from  ecclesiastical  revenues.  At  an  early 
period  the  attempt  was  frequently  made  to  bequeath  the  property  of  tlie 
Church  to  children,  (/)  by  which  it  would  soon  have  been  either  impover- 
ished, or  subjected  to  a  sacerdotal  caste.  This  was  afterwards  frustrated  by 
the  law  which  required  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy.  In  consequence  of  the 
munificent  donations  which  it  bestowed  upon  the  poor,  the  people  were  gene- 
rally pleased  to  see  the  Church  in  tlie  possession  of  the  greatest  wealth. 


CHAP.  III.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LIFE. 

§  200.      The  Edigious  Spirit  of  the  People. 

This  was  a  period  in  which  violence,  power,  and  artifice  were  enlisted  in 
the  service  of  a  rude  sensuality.  But  a  profound  religious  spirit  ardently 
engaged  in  the  pursuit  of  everlasting  life,  was  no  less  prevalent  among  tho 
people.  These  tendencies  were  sometimes  in  conflict  with  each  other,  and 
sometimes  they  were  reconciled  by  the  most  remarkable  compromises.  The 
hierarchy,  addressing  itself  to  tho  religious  spirit,  but  in  a  manner  conformed 
to  the  age,  endeavored  to  establish  the  ascendency  of  tho  law  and  of  an  ele- 
vated morality.  A  period  in  whicli  brute  force  (Faiist-recht)  was  tho  only 
law,  was  interrupted  by  one  in  wliitli  tho  Truce  of  God  was  sustained  by 
ecclesiastical  threatenings  and  miracles,  {a)  "Women  and  children,  defence- 
less persons,  and  every  thing  constructed  or  planted  for  jtnrposes  of  i)eace, 
were  in  times  of  war  under  the  jjrotection  of  the  Church,  {h)  It  ottered  an 
asylum  to  all  who  wore  persecuted,  without  inquiring  whether  they  were 
pursued  by  lawless  violence  or  justice.  Violent  persons  were  terrified  by 
frightful  roi)rcsentations  of  a  i)resent  God,  and  by  narratives  of  divine  judg- 
ments ;  and  when  those  who  ])ossessed  great  power  became  penitent,  they 
were  compelled  to  undergo  the  most  severe  and  cflective  penances.  Tho 
tenth  century  is  remarkable  for  liaving  been  the  most  degraded  of  all  theso 
periods  for  its  reckless  struggles  and  general  rapacity.  A  vague  i)resontiment 
of  death,  a  remnant  uf  tho  pagan  notion  of  tho  Twilight  of  tljo  gods,  (c)  passed 

d)  Cone.  Later.  III.  c.  19.  (Mansi  Tli.  XXII.  p.  229.) 

e)  Cone.  LaUr.  IV.  c.  40.  (.VanH  Tli.  XXII.  p.  108(1.) 

/)  E.  g.  Bened.  VIII.  about  1014  In  Cone.  Tidnensl.  (J/i/»#/  Th.  XIX.  p.  348.) 
a)  Trcuga  Dei,  first  proclaiinod  In  1041  In  .Vqnitanta.     GUiher  lladulph.  V.  1.  {Botiqufl  Th.  i 
p.  69.)    M>in.n  TIl  XIX.  p.  593.        ?.)  Jiiße,  p.  032. 
c)  Oomp.  Jlitspilli,  edit  by  Schnieller,  Munich.  1$32. 


220  MEDIAEVAL  CllUnCII  IIISTOIIV.    VIM.  III.    A.  U.  S<^»(>-121«. 

through  tlic  youtlit'iil  imtioriM,  and  fixed  xipon  the  close  of  the  first  millenninn) 
of  the  Cliristian  era  as  tlio  period  for  tlie  end  of  tlio  -world,  (d)  liut  new 
life  was  awakened  by  the  conflict  witli  the  Saracens  in  Spain,  as  well  as 
by  their  heroic  example.  The  struggle  between  the  pai)acy  and  the  mon- 
archies of  (liat  period  contributed  also  to  the  same  result.  The  pleasures 
of  the  world  were  principally  enjoyed  by  the  nobility  and  clergy.  An 
independent  estate  of  burghers,  if  it  did  not  always  contend  for  public 
freedom  and  justice,  certainly  strove  to  obtain  special  liberties  and  preroga- 
tives for  themselves.  In  accordance  with  both  the  tendencies  above  men- 
tioned, the  female  sex  was  regarded  with  extravagant  admiration,  or  as  frail 
and  dangerous.  The  peculiar  spirit  of  the  age  was  fully  developed  in  the 
crusades.  In  them  was  displayed  the  absolute  ascendency  of  the  imagination 
and  the  feelings.  Human  life  became  so  corrupted  that  it  degenerated  into 
a  coarse  sensual  existence,  or  an  ideal  struggle  for  something  beyond  human 
attainment.  All  the  peculiarities  of  the  European  nations  Avere  amalgamated 
with  each  other,  or  combined  with  the  fanciful  speculations  of  the  East.  The 
contracted  horizon  to  which  the  people  had  been  accustomed  became  much 
enlarged,  and  it  was  not  without  serious  injury  to  themselves  that  many 
walked  beneath  the  lofty  palm-trees.  (< )  This  sensuous  piety  required  and 
put  confidence  in  all  kinds  of  miracles.  The  sepulchres  of  the  East  were 
opened,  and  the  sacred  antiquity  of  the  Church  became  realized  once  more 
in  the  present,  by  means  of  peculiar  relics,  whose  genuineness  the  understand- 
ing would  no  more  think  of  proving  than  it  would  venture  to  suspect  the 
miracles  by  which  they  were  certified  to  the  faithful.  Many  vessels  and 
emblems,  gradually  or  accidentally  invested  with  a  sacred  character,  received 
at  that  time  a  place  in  the  primitive  ecclesiastical  usage  by  means  of  the 
legends,  or  became  connected  with  the  old  German  ]>opular  traditions,  (j") 
Superstition  was  especially  congenial  with  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  the  hiei'- 
archy  made  it  subservient  to  their  purposes,  increasing  or  diminishing  it 
.•ujcording  as  their  interests  prompted  them.  As  instances  of  the  latter,  may 
be  mentioned  their  opposition  to  the  ordeals  or  judgments  of  God,  especially 
by  duels,  (y)  While  God  was  brought  down  to  the  level  of  humanity,  men 
were  invested  with  the  attributes  of  God.  Ancient  saints  were  once  more 
discovered,  and  the  present  age  felt  competent  even  to  create  new  saints. 
Tlie  ardent  feelings  of  the  people  prompted  them  to  pray  even  to  a  dog,  as  a 
martyr  and  a  patron  saint,  because  he  had  lost  his  life  in  behalf  of  his  master"^ 
child,  (h)  The  Mother  of  God,  however,  was  above  all  other  saints  the 
object  of  chivalrous  gallantry.    But  notwithstanding  the  profound  veneration 

d)  Ahbo  Ahhas  Floriac.  Apologet  {Galland.  Bibl.  PP.  Th.  XIV.  p.  141.)  In  a  variety  of  ways 
in  deeds  of  gift  tlicn  ru.ide.     Comp.  Lücke,  Einl.  in  d.  Offenb.  Job.  Bonn.  1S32.  i).  514s. 

e)  Comp.  Placidua  Mtit7i,  Disq.  in  big.iniiam  Comit  de  Gkichen.  Erf.  ITSS.  TMlow,  Beschr.  d. 
Grebes  u.  d.  Gebeine  d.  Gr.  v.  GI.  u.  seiner  beiden  Weiber.  Goth.  u.  Erf.  1S36. 

/)  Comp.  G.  Gerberon,  Hist  de  la  robe  sans  couture  du  inonast.  d'ArgenteuiL  Par.  16T7 
/  Jlürr,  Gesch.  d.  b.  P.oeks.  Treves.  1S44.  J.  Gihiemeister  u.  II.  v.  Sybel,  d.  h.  Rock  z>i  Trier  u. 
a.  20  andern  b.  ungenähten  EOeke.  Dusseld.  (1S4-1.)  3.  ed.  1S4Ö.— Der  ungenUlite  graue  P.ock 
Christi.  Altdeutsclies  Gedieht,  edit  by  F.  II.  v.  (I.  Iligen,  Berlin.  I'i^. 

g)  Cone.  ValenUnum  III.  a.  SÖ5.  c  11.  12.  (.I/jhai  Th.  XV.  p.  9.)  Innoc.  III.  1.  XL  Ep  4ö.  ! 
XIV.  Ep.  138. 

A)  SUpK  de  B>rbone,  in  Echard,  Scrr.  Praed.  vol.  L  p.  193. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  201.  CLEEGT.    DUXSTAN.  221 

in  which  the  Church  was  lield,  the  exuberant  spirit  of  the  age  sometimes  ex- 
ceeded the  limits  of  its  own  due  reverence.  Accordingly  the  devil,  in  spito 
of  all  his  dismal  enchantments  and  temptations,  generally  appears  in  popular 
traditions  as  a  very  poor  and  simple  being.  The  wanton  spirit  of  the  trou- 
badours sometimes  ventured  to  treat  with  familiarity  the  sacred  person  of 
the  holy  Virgin  and  even  of  God  the  Father.  The  priests  themselves  in  an 
innocent  way  sometimes  made  parodies  of  the  holy  mysteries  and  offices  of 
the  Church  at  their  festivals  of  fools  and  asses,  (i) 

§  201.     Manners  of  the  Clergy. 

According  to  the  feudal  law  of  Germany  the  bishops  were  bound  to  ap- 
pear personally  with  their  quota  of  men  in  the  army  of  their  liege  lord.  On 
the  other  hand  they  were  carefully  reminded  by  the  popes  that  they  should 
devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  preaching,  and  to  the  care  of  souls,  and 
that  the  Church  should  abstain  with  horror  from  the  shedding  of  blood  in  all 
its  forms.  («)  We  are  therefore  not  surprised  to  find  such  a  character  a.s  that 
of  Christian,  Bishop  of  Alcntz,  the  heroic,  learned,  and  rapacious  general  of 
the  emperor  Frederic,  who  slew  his  enemies  with  a  club,  (b)  But  even  those 
bishops  who  were  more  spiritual  in  their  dispositions  were  sometimes  com- 
pelled to  become  leaders  of  armies,  and  as  soon  as  they  had  administered  the 
Holy  Sacrament  to  their  warriors  they  were  called  upon  also  to  prepare  them 
for  the  battle,  (o)  "What  was  called  simony  was  in  some  instances  only  the  cus- 
tomary tribute  given  to  the  i)riiices  and  to  the  popes  soon  after  the  time  of 
Gregory.  Even  the  better  portion  ai  tlie  clergy  could  not  entirely  abstain 
from  this,  but  as  it  was  proscribed  by  the  Church  it  was  ensnaring  to  the 
conscience.  In  England,  Dunstan  (d.  about  990),  an  abbot  and  a  triple 
bishop,  versed  in  all  the  knowledge  prevalent  in  his  day,  so  powerful  that  he 
held  even  the  devil  in  his  tongs,  and  though  personally  devoted  to  his  own 
visions  in  worldly  matters,  so  politic  that  he  entirely  controlled  three  succes- 
sive kings,  and  broke  the  heart  of  another  who  presumed  to  resist  him, 
attempted  to  reform  the  voluptuous  lives  of  the  priesthood  by  putting  his 
monks  in  the  place  of  those  clergymen  who  would  not  give  up  their  wives,  {d) 
Ilis  efforts,  however,  were  attended  by  no  very  lasting  results.  JJainiani, 
who  with  llildebrand  was  a  severe  censor  of  the  manners  of  his  age  and  even 
of  the  papacy,  and  who  desired  nothing  from  the  world  but  a  monastio  cell  in 
Avhich  he  could  scourge  himself,  presents  in  his  writings  >ucli  a  naked  and  Tivid 
picture  of  the  exce.sses  of  the  clergy,  that  Alexander  II.  prohibited  tlie  peru- 
sal of  them  on  the  ground  of  their  injurious  influence  upon  the  morals  of  the 

i)  Tlie  hierarchy  were  at  first  zealous  against  these  «port«,  but  gradually  they  relaxed  In  their 
opposition,  and  at  a  later  period  attempted  to  Imiirovo  them.  Da  Fretnt,  Qloss.  ad  Scrr.  med.  et 
Int  Lat  V.  CiTVula.  Calendae.  Tiliot,  Mciiiolres  pour  eorvir  i^  I'hlstolre  de  la  fete  des  fou.x. 
Laus.  1751. 

a)  Damiani  1.  IV.  Ep.  9.  Cone.  Tnron.  a.  10C<1.  c.  7. 

I)  Albert.  StuJeiis.  p.  291b.  (Schilterl  Sorr.  .\rcent.  lTii2.) 

c)  S.  Ulrici  Vita  in  MahiUon  Acta  S.S.  Sacc.  IV.  (..  440. 

rf)  yrUkin»,  Cone.  Angl.  vol.  I.  p.  257sa.  G.  M.ilmfubir.  Ocst.i  Keg.  Angl.  I.  IL  Vita  S.  Dunst, 
p.  SrHfortk  ct  Oaborn  :  Acta  SS.  Mnj.  vol.  IV.  p.  344.  Afiibillon,  Ann.  Ord.  3.  BeneJ.  vol.  III.  ji 
«:!4ss. 


222  Mi:i)iAi;vAr,  i  iituc  ii  iiistouv.    v\:n.  iii.   a.  n.  800-1216. 

readers,  (c)  Marriago  was  not  dcclarod  unlawful  to  tlio  clergy  in  England 
and  Spain  unlil  tlic  twoltlli  century,  and  in  tlic  Northern  kinf,'doni.s  till  some 
time  in  llio  tliirtcontii.  Sonic  even  died  because  they  could  not  endure  this 
teiiuralion  froni  their  wives  and  cliildren.  But  ultliough  Gregory  succeeded 
in  abolishing  marriage,  he  could  not  jircvent  licentiousness  among  the  clergy. 
Before  bis  time  this  had  prevailed  publicly,  but  in  a  loss  offensive  form, 
■whereas  after  his  enactments  it  was  practised  in  secret,  and  frequently  in  the 
most  unnatural  manner,  so  that  many  regarded  the  remedy  as  worse  than  the 
evil.  The  clergy  partook  also  of  the  faults  peculiar  to  the  times,  and  were 
Bomctimes  involved  in  the  most  shameless  acts  of  violence,  (f)  But  such  in- 
dividual instances  of  irregularity  among  the  bishops,  or  of  criminality  among 
the  clergy,  which  were  generally  put  down  in  the  Church  after  tlie  influence 
of  Ilildebrand  had  been  put  fortli,  should  not  be  regarded  as  specimens  of  the 
general  character  ofthat  period.  ((/)  The  declamations  which  are  sometimes 
found  in  the  writings  of  that  day,  respecting  clerical  de[iravity,  in  many 
cases  j)roceeded  from  monastic  prejudices  or  secular  antipathies.  (/>)  The 
clergy  must  also  have  participated  in  the  virtues  of  that  period,  for  without 
these  their  increasing  influence  among  the  people  would  appear  incomprehen- 
sible. This  consciousness  of  control  over  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and 
the  true  conception  which  they  possessed  of  what  a  clergyman  should  be, 
contributed  much  to  elevate  even  the  inferior  multitude  of  priests  al)ove  their 
ordinary  position  and  made  them  share  in  the  common  spirit  of  their  order. 

§  202.     Church  Dlsci2)Unc.     Comp.  §  G6.  132. 
Eu«.  Amort  de  origine,  progressu  ac  frnctu  Indulgentiar.  Aug.  Vlnd.  1735.  f. 

By  the  great  body  of  the  people,  the  act  of  binding  and  loosing  on  the 
part  of  the  priest  was  regarded  as  equivalent  to  an  admission  to  heaven,  or  an 
exclusion  from  it.  Even  death,  which  sunders  all  otlier  ties,  was  supposed  to 
bring  men  more  perfectly  under  this  influence.  Conscientious  clergymen  were 
often  distressed  in.  the  exercise  of  a  power  which  extended  even  beyond  the 
grave,  and  eminent  theologians  arrayed  themselves  in  opposition  to  this 
error,  (ft)  The  synodal  courts,  when  they  had  become  corrupt,  imposed  fines 
upon  otfenders,  or  consented  that  the  ecclesiastical  penance  should  be  dis- 
charged by  the  payment  of  alms,  of  which  the  Church  was  to  be  the  dispen- 
ser. Penitential  books  were  formed  in  which  a  choice  of  penances  was  pro- 
posed, and  a  kind  of  price  current  was  kept  for  all  kinds  of  crime,  (b)  The 
popes  were  generally  supposed  to  possess  a  peculiar  power  of  absolving  from 
the  guilt  of  the  more  heinous  crimes,  and  they  made  use  of  this  public  con- 
fidence very  extensively  when  they  sold  complete  absolution^  professing  to 
devote  the  proceeds  to  the  relief  of  the  crusaders.    Particular  sanctuaries 

t)  Llbcr  Gomorrliianus.  Epp.  II,  6.  0pp.  den.  ed.  Gaetani,  Par.  1743.  Life  of  Dam.  by  his  pnpli 
Jo.  ironaclntsin  0pp.  and  Acta  SS.  Febr.  vol.  III.  p.  40C.— Tita  S.  Dam.  scr.  J.  Laderchio,  Eom. 
171)2.  3  vols.  4. 

/)  E.  g.  Lamhe-rt.  Scha/n.  ad  a.  106."?.      g)  E.  g.  ITnrier,  Innoc  vol.  III.  p.  327s5. 

7i)  Witli  respect  to  the  former,  see  Damian,  and  with  regard  to  the  latter,  the  songs  of  tli«  Troa 
Dsdours  and  Minnesin^era. 

u)  Petnis  Lomh.  Sentt,  L.  IV.  Dlst  IS.     I)  liegino,  de  disc.  ceo.  II,  43^ss. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  202.  DISCIPLINE.    §  203.  "WO  HS  II I  P.  223 

also  "were  invested  with  the  privilege  of  bestowing  absolution  on  condition 
of  a  certain  period  of  penance,  to  all  who  should  visit  them,  either  on  sonio 
festival  or  at  any  time,  (c)  A  period  of  penance  which  might  ordinarily  ex- 
ceed the  limits  of  human  life  might  be  accomplished  in  a  brief  space  of  time 
by  means  of  the  two  kinds  of  absolution.  Persons  who  were  in  a  high 
degree  the  victims  of  remorse  were  required  to  build  a  church,  to  go  upon  a 
crusade,  or  to  enter  a  convent.  In  all  cases  when  services  were  performed, 
or  money  was  paid  to  obtain  such  a  pardon  for  sin,  a  cordial  repentance  and 
an  amendment  of  life  was  made  a  prerequisite  in  the  applicant.  Intelligent 
teachers,  however,  perceived  that  the  Church  was  placing  itself  in  a  position 
of  extreme  peril.  (</)  According  to  an  oi)inion  which  had  now  become  es- 
tablished, but  was  still  opposed  in  some  quarters,  a  mortal  sin  could  be  for- 
given only  in  the  confessional.  The  Church  required  that  at  least  once  in 
each  year  every  person  should  confess  all  the  sins  of  which  he  was  conscious,  (e) 
By  this  means  the  priests  became  possessed  of  aU  the  hearts  and  secrets  of 
the  people.  The  interdict  which  had  been  on  several  occasions  attempted  in 
former  times,  but  had  been  always  regarded  as  an  arbitrary  exercise  of  an 
nnchristian  power,  became  during  the  eleventh  century  a  legitimate  measure 
in  opposition  to  those  who  violated  solemn  treaties.  It  soon  after  became  a 
terrible  weapon  in  the  hands  of  the  popes  by  which  a  nation  was  conii)elled 
to  atone  for  the  crimes  of  its  rulers,  or  was  armed  against  those  in  authority 
over  it.  "When  the  Church  possessed  a  powerful  induence  over  the  life  of 
every  one,  no  people  patiently  endured  a  protracted  discontinuance  of  eccle- 
siastical services,  and  frequently  they  did  not  hesitate  to  comjiel  their  clergy 
to  open  their  churclics  for  public  worship.  Innocent  also  obtained  a  promise 
that  every  one  whom  he  should  excommunicate  should  be  subjected  in  üke 
manner  to  the  ban  of  the  emjiire,  but  such  an  engagement  it  was  found  im- 
Ijossible  always  to  fulfil. 

§  203.     Puhlic  Worship. 

Walafrid  Sirnlo,  died  S49,  de  exordiis  ct  incroni.  rer.  ecc  fco,  died  1115,  Miorologus  de  ecc.  ob- 
servatt  (Both  fmind  in  Jlittorp.  oee  §  IOC.)  </.  Brltth,  about  11S2,  div.  offieior.  brevls  e.Tplic  cd. 
Corn.  Laurimann.  Anlu.  1553.  (r.  Duruuti,  died  1206,  Rationale  div.  offieior.  1.  VIIL  Mog.  1497.  f. 
aud  often. 

The  Wessohrunnen  prayer,  a  monument  of  the  ancient  language  and  i)iety 
of  Germany,  contains  an  exalted  poetical  representation  of  tlie  aiitemundano 
existence  of  God,  and  an  humble  supplication  for  sjiiritual  ble.-sings.  {a) 
But  the  sensuous  disposition  of  the  people  was  necessarily  jiredominant. 
In  consequence  of  the  sensuous  tendency  then  so  prevalent,  public  wor- 
ship appeared  to  be  little  else  than  a  worship  of  the  saints.  I'reaching  was 
hardly  an  essential  part  of  the  service  on  jjublic  festivals  although  several 
synods  and  popes  endeavored  to  introduce  into  cliurches  only  those  who  were 
able  to  instruct  tlie  people,  and  the  i»opularity  of  those  preachers  who  dis- 
coursed in  an  atlecting  style,  jiroved  tliat  tlio  multitude  were  susceptible  of 

t)  Comp.  Cone.  Luterun.  IV.  a  C2.    (Man»it\\.  XXII.  p.  loe«».".) 

d)  AoiUndi  Etiiica  c.  16.  85.    (/Vni  Anecd.  Th.  III.  P.  L  p.  66&U. 

«)  Cone.  Lnitnin.  IV.  c,  21.     (Miinxi  Tli.  XXII.  p.  litOTs-s.) 

o)  According'  In  uie  e.xtiacts  by  W;ickerneö>il  '.Hrl.  IVJT.)  in  liMbertj,  vol.  IL  p.  big. 


224  MKDIAKVAL  CIHTHCII  HISTOIiY.     PEi:.  III.     A.  I).  800-1216. 

bciiotit  from  tho  Word  f>f  God.  (/')  Tlie  use  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  -wag  re- 
qnircd  in  nil  tho  chnrclics  ns  the  vi.siblo  bond  of  general  unity.  The  Gothic 
Liturgy,  although  it  was  protected  by  an  affectionate  people,  and  liad  even 
passed  tho  ordeal  of  fire,  was  gradually  snppres.sed  in  Spain  after  the  eleventh 
century,  (r)  Tiie  Sabbath  Avas  especially  devoted  to  the  service  of  the  Vir- 
irin  ^lary,  in  whose  honor  a  particular  service  Avas  composed  principally  by 
Dainian  (Officium  S.  Virginis)  to  be  performed  in  the  convents.  "When 
Pimchasixs  Jiadlert^  a  monk  and  (844-851)  an  abbot  at  Corvey  (d.  abont 
865),  maintained  that  the  virginity  of  Mary  was  unimpaired  even  by  the 
birth  of  the  Son  of  God,  the  learned  divines  of  his  day  shrunk  from  the 
position  as  containing  a  Docctic  sentiment.  {(T)  That  every  thing  might  be 
removed  which  could  throw  the  slightest  suspicion  upon  the  virgin  purity  of 
the  Queen  of  heaven,  the  doctrine  was  finally  set  forth  according  to  which 
slie  also  Avas  conceived  in  a  miraculous  manner,  and  some  canons  of  Lyons 
(about  1140)  solemnized  this  faith  by  instituting  the  festival  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception.  St.  Bernard,  however,  and  all  learned  theologians  of  that 
period  were  opposed  to  this  innovation,  {e)  In  popular  traditions  many 
pleasant  things  Avhich  had  been  told  of  the  goddess  Freyja  were  transferred 
to  Mary.  (/)  A  festival  of  All  Souls  (Nov.  2)  for  the  deliverance  of  those 
who  were  confined  in  purgatory  was  also  established  by  the  monks  of  Clugny 
(1010),  Avho  obtained  a  hint  from  the  popular  tradition  asserting  that  the 
gate  of  purgatory  was  in  one  of  the  volcanoes  of  the  Lipari  islands,  (fj)  Some 
time  after  the  ninth  century  the  practice  extended  from  Rome  to  the  provinces, 
of'observing  St.  Gregory''s  day,  as  a  festival  for  schoolboys,  derived  from  the 
old  Minervan  festival.  (A)  Among  the  sacred  usages  of  the  Church  the  Sa 
craments  gradually  became  remarkably  prominent,  and  the  representation  of 
them  as  the  signs  and  actual  communications  of  divine  grace,  as  Avell  as  their 
number  seven,  so  divided  as  to  sanctify  all  the  important  relations  of  human 
life,  were  especially  defended  and  established  by  Peter  Lomlard  and 
Gratian.  (J)  The  haptism  of  infants  could  be  postponed  without  giving  of- 
fence. (IS)  That  abuses  might  be  avoided,  those  children  who  had  not  been 
confirmed  were  (12th  century)  kept  back  from  participation  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  and  Avhen  many  other  attempts  had  been  made  to  render  the  Avasting 
of  the  least  particle  of  the  divine  blood  impossible,  the  laity  were  entirely 
debarred  from  participation  in  the  sacred  cup.  The  doctrine  of  the  presence 
of  the  entire  Christ  in  the  bread  Avas  defended,  and  the  poAverful  influence  of 

I)  Cone.  Mogunt.  a.  S4T.  c.  2.  {Jfanei  Th.  XIX.  p.  903.)     Cotio.  Latera/i.  IV.  c  lOs.  (/&.  Th. 
XXII.  p.  99Ss.)    Jacohi  a  Vitriaco  Hist  occld.  c  63S. 

c)  lioderico  Tulet.  de  reb.  Hisp.  "VI,  26. 

d)  Bittramni  K  dc  eo,  quod  Chr.  es  virgine  natus  est  (_D'Ackery,  Spicileg.  Th.  L  p.  52.)    Tr. 
Walch,  H.  controv.  S.  IX.  de  partu  Virginia.  Goet  175S.  4. 

e)  Ant.  Gravois,  de  ortu  et  progressu  cultos  ac  festi  immaculati  conceptus  Dei  Genetricis.  Luc 
1762.  4. 

/)  Grimm,  Deutsche  Mythol.  pp.  192,  417,  694.  XX. 

0)  Jotmldi  Vita  S.  Odilon.  c.  14.  {Mahillon,  Acta  SS.  S.  VI.  P.  I.  p.  615.)  Sigeh.  Gemhl.  ad  a.  99% 
h)  A.  Wtlei;  Origo  festi  Gr.  Illmst  1714.  4.    Mirui,  de  Gr.  iL  et  festo  Gr.  P.  II.  Ulmst  176S.  4. 
Mücke,  T.  Urspr.  d.  Gr.  Festes.  Guben.  1793. 
t)  Pei.  Lotnb.  Sent  IV.  Dist  1^2. 
k)  Petri  de  Vineis,  1.  IIL  Ep.  21.    Böttiger  Ilelnr.  d.  LGwe.  Aum.  G3, 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.     J  203.  MAKEIAGE.    §  204.  MONASTIC  LIFE.        225 

the  priesthood  maintained  this  custom  of  witliholding  the  cup  against  all  sub- 
sequent opposition,  (l)  The  solitary  mass  of  the  priest  was  at  first  decidedly 
reprehended,  (m)  In  the  tenth  century  adultery  continued  to  be  regarded  by 
the  popes  as  a  sufficient  gi-ound  for  divorce,  but  the  ecclesiastical  view  of  the 
marriage  rite  was  completely  carried  out  when  it  was  soon  after  declared  ab- 
solutely inviolable,  and  Innocent  III.  insisted  upon  the  reunion  of  husband 
and  wife,  even  after  a  double  adultery  had  been  proved.  Human  frailty, 
however,  was  supplied  with  abundant  opportunities  for  sundering  this  bond 
by  means  of  the  ])rohibition  of  all  marriages  between  relatives,  even  of  tha 
seventh  degree,  since  such  a  consanguinity  wa3  very  generally  proved  when 
it  was  desirable.  Innocent  limited  the  degrees  of  relationship  within  which 
marriage  was  invalid,  to  four,  and  in  fact  regarded  even  these  limits  as  pro- 
scribed only  by  human  and  natural  laws,  (n) 

§  204.  Monastic  Life. 
The  convents  were  regarded  in  the  ninth  century  as  the  hereditary  fiefs 
of  the  secular  lords,  under  whose  control  they  were  more  perfectly  wasted 
and  misgoverned,  than  by  the  irruptions  of  the  Normans.  («)  But  the  ex- 
alted contempt  of  the  world  displayed  in  the  monastic  life  corresponded  with 
the  spirit  of  the  times.  Some  who  from  their  youth  had  never  become 
attached  to  the  enjoyments  of  the  world,  felt  the  need  of  such  a  pious  seclu- 
sion and  fellow.ship.  Others  felt  the  same  necessity  after  the  agitation  of  a 
sudden  conversion,  or  that  they  might  make  an  atonement  in  this  way  for  the 
sins  of  an  irregular  life.  Simultaneously,  therefore,  with  the  newly  awakened 
energies  of  the  people,  and  the  general  movement  of  multitudes  in  favor  of 
corporations,  a  series  of  successful  efibrts  Avero  put  forth  to  attain  the  proper 
objects  of  the  convent  by  a  renewal  and  completion  of  the  Benedictine  rule. 
The  abbots,  sustained  by  papal  privileges  and  royal  fiefs,  Avere  favorable  to 
the  party  of  the  bishops  and  princes.  The  popular  element  of  the  Church, 
however,  was  especially  maintained  in  the  convents,  and  it  was  through  these 
that  Gregory  was  enabled  to  obtain  his  victory.  Monasticism,  though  fre- 
quently arrayed  in  opposition  to  particular  individuals  among  the  clergy,  was 
closely  allied  to  the  general  body ;  and  on  account  of  its  exemption  from  epis- 
copal supervision  it  was  generally  in  the  immediate  service  of  the  pope. 
After  the  tenth  century  it  was  regarded  as  a  peculiarly  spiritual  order  (ordo 
of  the  religiosi),  which,  however,  made  use  of  lay  brethren  (conversi),  to 
attend  to  their  secular  affairs.  In  this  way  the  larger  Benedictine  convents 
carried  on  within  themselves  all  the  mechanical  arts,  at  any  time  needed  in 
them,  especially  those  connected  with  masonry.  The  seclusion  necessary  for 
the  convent  was  sometimes  obtained  even  in  the  cities,  but  the  spot  best 

I)  J.  6.  de  Lith,  de  adoratlono  panls  consecr.  ct  Intcrdictlono  cnllcis.  Snob.  1778.  Spittler,  Gesch. 
des  Kelchs  Im  Abendtn.  Lemgo.  ITaO. 

m)  Conc.  MogMnt.  a.  SM.  c.  4-3. 

n)  Leo  VIT.  Ep.  ad  Ebcrliard.  (Aventinl  Annal.  Bojor.  IV,  28.)  Comp,  G.  W.  Böhmer,  ü.  d.  Elie- 
pesetzc  im  Zeitalt.  Carls,  d.  Or.  u.  seiner  näch.st  Nachfolger.  GötL  \S26.—Innoc.  I/f.  1.  I.  Ep.  143, 
IX.  Ep.  75.  XI.  Ep.  101.     Coiic.  Laif  ran.  IV.  c.  50-52. 

a)  Episcopor.  Ep.  ad  Ludov.  a.  S58.  c.  8.  {Walter  ^\i.  IIL  p.  80.)  Conc  Troslejan.  a   909.  c  8 
iManii  Th.  XVIII.  p.  270s.) 
15 


226  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUUCII  HISTOIIY.     I'EU.  III.     A.  IJ.  S«0-1216. 

adapted  for  iL  wiis  generally  found  in  some  beautiful  wilderness.  It  then  fre- 
quently bccatno  the  central  i)üint  for  all  the  business  of  the  surrounding 
rof,'ion.  iSoniutinies  convents  were  erected  upon  soil  wliich  bad  been  stained 
with  blood,  or  some  sentimental  legends  were  connected  with  their  gloomy 
walls.  (A)  The  uniform  of  the  cloister  which  was  at  first  nearly  the  same 
with  the  ordinary  dress  of  the  people,  was  gradually  changed,  until  it  became 
the  peculiar  habit  of  the  order.  The  enlargement  or  diminution  of  the  ßro- 
pcrty  of  convents  was  produced  by  the  same  causes  as  those  which  affected 
Church  property  in  general,  but  inheritance  from  the  monks  was  the  ordi- 
nary, and  the  cultivation  of  the  desert  soil  was  the  noblest  method  by  which 
wealth  was  acquired.  In  consequence  of  the  rigidity  of  their  rules  and  the 
sanctity  of  their  founders,  many  of  these  orders  rapidly  increased  in  numbers, 
and  became  soon  involved  in  the  inconsistency  of  having  devoted  themselves 
to  poverty,  and  yet  being  in  the  enjoyment  of  immense  wealtli.  Monks  and 
nuns  sometimes  resided  iinder  the  same  roof  (monasterium  duplex.)  The 
secret  sins  or  the  public  offences  of  individuals  and  of  whole  convents,  are 
only  occasionally  mentioned,  and  then  only  because  they  Avere  brought  before 
the  ecclesiastical  courts.  In  the  establishment  of  monasteries  the  Church 
allowed  the  various  dispositions  of  individuals  to  be  gratified,  and  only  pro- 
vided by  their  legislation  that  these  diversities  should  ail  be  confined  within 
the  limits  required  by  the  general  objects  of  the  order.  And  when  the 
monastic  life  had  assumed  a  great  variety  of  individual  forms,  and  appeared 
to  have  taken  every  possible  shape,  Innocent  III.  prohibited  the  formation 
of  any  new  orders,  (c) 

§  205.     The  Congregation  of  Clugny. 

Bihliotheca  Cluniacensis,  in  qua  SS.  Patrum  Abbatum  Vitae,  miracula,  scripta  rec.  Paris.  1C14.  f. 
rUe  Ordo  Clioi,  was  accurately  described  in  the  lltli  cent,  by  Bernctrd  who  belonged  to  it.  (Vetus 
discipL  monast.  ed.  Herrgott,  Par.  1726.  4.  p.  133.)  The  Antiquiores  Conmett.  Clun.  1.  III.  by  Ul- 
rich, one  of  the  order  1070,  has  preserved  a  good  representation  of  affairs  at  Hirsau.  {D'Achery,  Spi- 
cil.  vol  I.  p.  ^\.)—Bernonis  Vita.  {Muhillon,  Acta  SS.  S.  V.  p.  66.)  Odonis  Vita  by  his  pupil  Jo- 
hannes, {lb.  p.  150.)  Odilonis  Vita  hy  his  pupil  Jotsitldus,  (lb.  S.  VI.  p.  597.)— 5.  Wilhelmi  Constt. 
Hiersaugiens.  (Herrgott,  p.  375.) 

The  rule  of  Benedict  had  been  re-established  by  Berno,  one  of  the  family 
of  the  Burgundian  Counts,  in  two  of  the  monasteries  under  his  control. 
Being  invited  by  William^  Duke  of  Aquitania,  to  foi-m  a  convent  after  the 
same  model,  he  founded  that  of  Clugny  (Cluniacum,  910),  and  placed  it 
under  the  immediate  supervision  of  the  pope.  His  successor,  Odo  (927-41), 
who  had  been  a  monk  in  his  habits  even  before  taking  the  monastic  vow,  was 
well  acquainted  with  the  true  method  of  governing  the  minds  of  men.  A 
rule  of  discipline  was  formed  under  him,  which,  by  severe,  uninterrupted, 
mechanical  employments  of  a  religious  nature,  so  completely  destroyed  all 
individuality  of  feeling,  that  the  ecclesiastical  and  monastic  spirit  became 
exclusively  active  in  the  hearts  of  the  members.  Under  Odilo  (994r-10-18), 
who  has  been  called  the  Archangel  of  the  monks,  and  during  the  administra- 


V)  E.  g.  the  priory  of  the  deux  amoureiir  at  Rouen,  see  Ilelyot,  vol.  II.  p.  471. 
<•)  Cone.  Lateran  IV.  c.  13.  (.Vnn-sri  Th.   XXIL  p.  1002s.) 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFK.    §  205.  CLUGNT.    §  206.  GEAMMONT.  227 

tion  of  a  series  of  abbots,  whose  inflexible  good  sense  never  allowed  them  to 
act  inconsistently  with  their  monastic  sanctity,  most  of  the  convents  in 
France,  carried  away  with  the  universal  admiration,  or  compelled  by  their 
princes  or  protectors,  became  subject  to  the  rule  and  government  of  the  con- 
gregation of  Clugny.  This  gave  rise  to  a  Congregation  of  Benedictines, 
which  in  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  embraced  about  2000  convents, 
principally  in  France.  At  the  head  of  these  was  placed  the  Abbot  of  Clugny, 
always  chosen  by  the  monks  of  his  own  convent,  from  whose  ranks  also  he 
almost  invariably  selected  the  priors  of  all  the  convents  belonging  to  the 
congregation.  The  legislative  and  supervisory  powers  were  vested  in  a 
General  Chapter  which  assembled  annually  at  Clugny.  The  very  heart  of 
the  French  nation  was  in  the  hands  of  the  monks  of  Clugny,  until  about  the 
commencement  of  the  12th  century,  when  the  order  withdrew  from  public 
affairs  and  lived  upon  its  own  resources.  An  instance  of  a  reformation  in  the 
midst  of  extreme  disorder  was  exhibited  in  Germany,  when  the  congregation 
of  Hirsau  was  established  there  (1089)  by  the  Abbot  William  after  the  model 
of  that  of  Clugny. 

§  206.  Minor  Orders  of  the  Uth  Century. 
1.  In  the  wilderness  of  the  Apennine  mountains  were  established  two  or- 
ders of  monks,  originally  composed  of  hermits,  but  gradually  connected  with 
convents.  The  first  of  these  was  called  the  Order  of  Camaldoli^  and  was 
founded  (about  1018)  by  the  pious  zeal  of  Romuald.^  one  of  the  fomily  of  tho 
Duke  of  Ravenna.  The  second  was  called  the  Order  of  Vallombrosa,  and 
originated  (about  1038)  in  the  rigid  austerity  of  John,  Guallert,  a  Florentine. 
The  members  of  these  orders  vowed  that  the}'^  would  abstain  even  from  or- 
dinai'y  intellectual  enjoyments,  and  from  all  conversation  with  their  fellow- 
men.  At  a  later  period,  however,  they  endeavored  to  reconcile  this  con- 
tempt of  the  world,  and  self-mortitication,  with  the  enjoyment  of  the  vast 
possessions  acquired  by  the  orders,  (a)  2.  Stephen  of  Tigerno  was  unwilling  to 
be  regarded  either  as  a  monk  or  a  hermit,  and  acknowledged  no  rule  but  that 
of  the  gospel.  With  tho  sanction  of  Gregory  (1073)  he  founded  an  order 
.subsequently  called  by  the  name  of  Grnmmont.  Tliis  determined  to  rolin- 
quisli  its  own  beloved  convent  rather  than  to  defend  a  just  claim  by  a  legal 
process,  and  even  sincerely  declined  the  honor  of  the  miracles  imputed  to  its 
illustrious  founder,  because  it  tlioiight  such  a  reputation  would  be  prejudicial 
to  humility.  After  a  rapid  growtii.  however,  it  was  powerfully  agitated  by 
disputes  between  its  monks  and  th(>>e  lay  brethren,  who,  according  to  tho 
Rule,  had  tlie  charge  of  its  secular  atfairs.  The  re.-;ult  was  that  in  the  12th 
century  it  entirely  lost  its  independence,  (i)  3.  Bruno  of  Cologne.,  the  rector 
of  the  cathedral  school  and  a  Chancellor  at  Rheims,  disgusted  with  the  dis- 

n)  liomualdi  Vita,  scr.  Daminni.  (mihUl.  Acta  SS.  S.  VI.  P.  I.  p.  247.)  Rule  In  ffulsten.  Th. 
II.  p.  192.  Archang.  r/<istivi!!,  Roiminlillrm  s.  Camnliliilcnsls  O.  Hist  Par.  1C81.  Vl.—Gualhertt 
Vita  (MahUL  Acta  SS.  S.  VI.  V.  II.  p.  273.)  liiillarlnin  Vulliiiiil)r.>«aDiim,  s.  bullae  Pontiflcuni,  qui 
euudeni  Ord.  privilegiis  dccorarunt,  a  Ful(/entio  Xanlin  Flor.  1729. 

h)  Vita  Ä  Stephani  by  Ger/iard,  the  7tli  prior  of  riraminont.  (}f'trUnf,  atnplisji  Col.  Th.  VI.  i^ 
1050.  JfabiUon,  Ann.  Ord.  S.  Ben.  Th.  V.  p.  65.)  Hist.  proli.\ior  Prior,  üraiidlmont.  {Jfitrtene.  iU 
V.  125.) 


228  MEDiAKVAL  ciiUKcii  iiiöToiir.   pnii.  III.   A.  1).  m-ma. 

grarefnl  life  of  liis  iircliMshoi),  renounced  the  world.  Tlicro  is  a  raelanclioly 
tide  wliich  nssipiiH  anotlier  cause  fur  tliis  act,  but  it  was  not  known  until  tbo 
close  of  the  tliirteentli  century,  (c)  lie  erected  huts  for  himself  and  a  few 
companions  (104S)  in  the  wild  mountain  gorge  of  Chartreuse  near  Grenoble. 
He  was  induced  by  his  former  pupil,  Urlan  11.^  to  visit  Rome  (1090),  but  he 
soon  became  weary  of  a  secular  life  in  that  city,  and  after  refusing  the  bish- 
opric of  Reggio,  ho  founded  a  new  Carthusian  monastery  in  Calabria,  in 
wliicli  he  ended  his  days  (1101).  The  order  was  not  organized  into  a  society 
until  1141  in  the  mother  convent.  For  a  long  time  the  Carthusians  perse- 
vered in  the  practice  of  an  abstinence  so  strict  that  they  rejected  all  gifts 
except  necessary  food  and  skins  for  parchments.  The  wealth  they  received 
at  a  later  period  was  expended  in  the  embellishment  of  churches,  id) 
4.  "WTien  France  "was  visited  by  a  disorder  called  St.  Anthony's  fire,  the  order 
of  the  Ilospitallers  of  St.  Anthony  was  founded  for  the  relief  of  the  sick  by 
Gaston^  a  wealthy  nobleman  of  Dauphine,  from  gratitude  for  the  recovery 
of  his  son  (1095).  At  first  it  consisted  entirely  of  lay  brethren,  but  after- 
wards it  was  composed  of  canons  under  the  Rule  of  Augustine,  (f)  5.  Robert 
of  Arh'issel,  at  an  early  period  a  divine,  then  a  superintendent  of  a  diocese,  and 
subsequently  a  preacher  of  repentance  and  of  the  crusades,  was  the  founder 
of  the  Benedictine  Congregation  of  Fontevraud,  for  penitents,  especially  of 
the  female  sex  who  had  once  fallen  from  virtue.  For  this  class  of  persons 
he  seems  to  have  felt  a  pecidiar  interest,  and  therefore  fell  under  the  re- 
proaches of  his  contemporaries.  In  compliment  to  the  Queen  of  Heaven  the 
supreme  direction  of  the  society  was  intrusted  to  female  hands.  (/) 

§  207.     The  Cistercians  and  St.  Bernard. 

1)  Bfelfttio  qualitcr  inccpit  Ordo  Cisterciensis.  (Auherti  Miraei  Chron.  Cist  Ord.  Colon.  1G41.  p. 
Sss.)  Ifenriquez,  Eegula,  Constitt  et  Privil.  Ord.  Cist,  Ant.  1G.30.  t.—Munrique,  Ann.  Cist  Lugd. 
lt>42.  4  Th.  f.  Pierre  le  Xain,  Hist  de  TOrdre  de  Clteaux.  Par.  1696ss.  9  Tb.  2)  Bernardi  0pp. 
(Letters,  Discourses,  Poems,  ascetic  writings.)  ed.  Mahillon,  Par.  1G67. 1690.  6  Th.  f.  1719.  2  Th.  £ 
Yen.  1726.  2  Th.  £  Par.  1S89.  2  Th.  Med.  1851s.  3  vols.  4.  H\s  life  by  contemporaries:  GuUelmm, 
Abbot  of  S.  Thierry,  Gaufredun  and  Alatius  de  Instdis,  Monks  of  Clairvaux.  {MnbiUon  Th.  I.  and 
\\.)—Xeander,  d.  h.  Bernh.  u.  s.  Zoitalt  Bcrl.  (1S1.3.)  1348.  [Tr.  into  Engl,  by  WrencJt,  Lond!  1S45. 
12mo.]    J.  Ellendorf,  Bernh.  u.  d.  Hier.  1833.  2  vols.     liaihlonne,  nist  d.  S.  Bern.  Par.  1S43.  2  Th. 

Robert,  who  had  been  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  by  his  mother  before  his 
birth,  became  dissatisfied  while  yet  an  abbot  with  the  comfortable  life  of  the 
wealthy  monks,  and  founded  a  convent  at  Citeaux,  under  regulations  requir- 
ing the  most  extreme  poverty  (1098).  In  the  order  which  sprung  from  this, 
the  most  rigid  abstemiousness  was  demanded,  all  splendor  in  churches  was 
condemned,  and  its  members  promised  absolutely  to  submit  to  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  as  well  as  to  abstain  from  all  the  ordinary  employments  of  life, 
not  excepting  even  the  charge  of  souls.  The  internal  alfairs  of  the  society 
were  directed  only  by  the  law  of  love ;  (a)  the  position  of  the  Abbot  of 


c)  Launoii  de  vera  causa  secessus  S.  Brnnonis  In  eremnm.  Par.  1646.  (0pp.  Th.  II.  P.  II.  p.  S-24.) 

d)  Mdhill.  Ann.  Th.  V.  p.  202ss.  and  Acta  SS.  S.  VI.  P.  II.  Prae£  p.  STsi  Legends  respecting  th« 
lie*  of  Bruno  may  bo  seen  in  Acta  SS.  Oct  Th.  III.  p.  491ss. 

e)  Acta  SS.  Jan.  Th.  II.  p  160.— A'r;)/),  de  fratrib.  S.  Ant  Lps.  1737.  4. 
/)  Mahillon,  Ann.  Th.  V.  p.  81  «ss.  Acta  SS.  Febr.  Th.  IIL  p.  593s8. 
a)  Cliarta  Charitatis.  (^itanriqueTXx.  I.  p.  109ss.) 


CHAP.  ILL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  207.  CIST£ECIA>'S.    BECNARD.  229 

Citeaux  and  the  government  by  annual  General  Chapterg,  were  all  modelled 
after  the  Constitution  of  Clugny,  although  the  abbots  of  the  four  oldest 
affiliated  convents  gradually  attained  equality  with  the  Abbot  of  Citeaux 
(1119).  The  black  dr.o.ss  of  the  Benedictines  wa^  exchanged  for  a  white 
cowl.  By  the  extreme  veneration  which  the  Cistercians  acquired  among 
their  contemporaries,  who  regarded  them  as  perfect  representatives  of  apos- 
tolic simplicity,  and  by  tlie  splendor  of  St.  Bernard's  name,  this  new  order 
was  able  to  vie  successfully  with  the  congregation  of  Clugny.  The  latter 
was  indeed  considerably  shaken  by  the  excesses  of  its  abbot,  Fontim 
(1109-25),  who  carried  the  staff  of  the  shepherd  and  of  tlie  pilgrim  in  the 
same  hand  which  bore  the  sword  of  the  highway  robber.  It  was,  however, 
enabled  to  close  this  controversy  honorably  to  itself  under  tlie  direction  of 
Peter  the  Vencrulle  (1122-50).  {h)  Uernard  was  born  at  Fontaine,  of  a  fami- 
ly distinguished  for  monastic  piety.  Even  during  the  struggles  of  his  early 
youth  he  showed  that  he  was  by  natural  temperament  inclined  to  a  monastic 
life.  Accordingly  in  the  year  1113  he  became  a  monk  at  Citeaux,  and  in 
1115  the  Abbot  of  Clairvaux,  a  convent  founded  by  persons  belonging  to 
that  community.  By  his  entire  disengagement  from  the  world,  he  seemed 
utterly  independent  of  the  rules,  and  was  actually  superior  to  all  those 
laws  by  which  men  are  usually  governed.  lie  wa.s  certainly  highly  endowed 
by  nature,  and  in  popular  estimation  as  well  as  in  his  own  opinion  he  pos- 
sessed the  power  of  working  miracles.  Educated  beneath  the  foliage  of  a 
mighty  forest,  his  thoughts  were  continuall}'  directed  toward  heaven.  In 
spite  of  the  general  insipidity  of  the  age,  he  was  distinguished  by  an  elo- 
quence which  was  irresistible  even  by  tho.^e  who  could  not  fully  comprehend 
his  discourse.  He  was  rather  jealous  of  human  learning,  and  so  zealous  in 
behalf  of  the  Church  that  he  engaged  in  a  sanguinary  persecution.  He  was 
enthusiastic  in  his  efforts  to  promote  the  power  of  the  priesthood,  and  yet 
candid  and  severe  Avith  respect  to  their  irregularities.  In  almost  every  part 
of  Europe  he  beheld  those  whose  minds  he  had  formed  by  his  instructions 
seated  upon  episcopal  thrones,  he  himself  acted  as  an  umpire  in  nearly  all 
the  quarrels  which  took  place  between  ditferent  princes  and  nations,  and  by 
the  diffusion  of  his  highly  theocratic  spirit  among  the  priesthood,  he  became 
the  most  influential  man  of  his  age.  By  his  influence  his  order  became  so 
powerful,  that  soon  after  his  death  (1153)  it  endeavored  to  excel  its  rivals  of 
Clugny,  not  so  much  in  humility  and  contempt  of  the  world  as  in  indepen- 
dence and  wealth. 

§  208.    jPraemonst rants  and  Cai'melites. 

ITennannl  Monochi  do  niirne.  s.  Moriao  Iniidcs  III.  2m.  {Guiherii,  0pp.  cd.  d'Acherij,  p.  544.) 
Acta  S?.  June.  Th.  I.  \\.  ^04^?.  Chrij».  ran  iler  ifterre.  Vita  i?.  Norb.  Aiitu.  ICöö.  I/tigo,  Vie  de  S. 
Norb.  Lmoiiib.  1704  4.  Eibl.  Onl.  Praonionst.  per  Jo.  le  Puigt,  Par.  l&VJ.  f. 

Joan.  DiocdK,  cornpcndlaria  dcscriptio,  etc.  {Leon.  AWitii  Symnilcta.  Von.  17.3-3.  f.  p.  17.)  Jo- 
toll  de  Vitriaco  Illst.  Ilieroo.  c.  52.  (ISongars  Tb.  I.  p.  1075.)  Kiilc  In  UoMen.  Th.  III.  p.  ISsa, 
Daniel  a  Virg.  Maria,  Ppecuhiin  Carrnclitnnum.  Antu.  lOSo.  4  Th.  f. 

Xorhert  Avas  originally  a  canon  at  Cologne,  and  as  the  chaplain  to  Henry 

I)  Bentardi,  Apol.  ad  Guif.  (.Ifahillon  Th.  IV.  p.  88.)  Petri  Ven.  »d  Bern.  I.  Ep.  29.  IV.  Ep. 
17.  Vr.  Ep.  4.  (r.ibl.  PP.  >[:ix.  Th.  XXII.)  Pi.ilogns  Inter  Clunlac  nion.  et  Ci.-t  de  divcrsis  utriusqu« 
Ord.  obstrvv.  (Jfarteite,  Thcs.  Th.  V.  p.  1500.) 


230  MKDr.VKVAL  UHURCII  HISTORY.   TKi:.  III.     A.  D.  SOO-121«. 

V.  lived  111  tlic  oiijoyiiicnt  of  wealth,  with  the  hn{,'hto.st  prospects  of  prrmo 
tion  in  (ho  priosthootl.  By  an  event  Avhich  -wa.^  supposed  to  hear  a  .strong 
reseinblaiiccto  the  ronver.'^ion  of  Pjiu],  ho  wa.s  induced  to  throw  all  these  aside, 
and  enter  upon  the  huinhlo  cni[iloyTnent  of  a  preacher  of  repentance.  After 
some  ineffectual  attempts  to  reform  other  canons,  he  founded  an  order  of  mo- 
nastic canons  in  the  unhealthy  vale  of  Premontre  (1120).  When  he  appeared 
])reaching  repentance  at  the  Diet  of  Speyer,  he  was  elected  as  if  by  a  divine 
inspiration  to  the  vacant  archbishopric  of  Magdeburg,  and  entered  that  city 
in  the  garb  of  a  beggar.  A  powerful  storm  of  opposition  was  raised  against 
him  on  account  of  his  strenuous  efforts  to  induce  his  wealthy  retinue  there 
to  practise  the  same  abstemiousness  which  ho  shoAved.  The  peoi)le,  how- 
ever, before  whose  fury  he  was  once  obliged  to  save  his  life  by  flight,  main- 
tained possession  of  his  body  as  though  it  were  the  sacred  palladium  of  their 
city,  in  opposition  to  the  demands  of  the  monks  of  Premontri-.  Before  his 
death  (1134)  Norbert  witnessed  the  rapid  increase  of  his  order  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  numerous  chapters  and  convents  for  monks  and  nuns. — BeriJioM, 
a  crusader  from  Calabria,  who  with  a  few  companions  had  resided  for  a  time 
in  a  cave  of  Mount  Carmel,  was  the  founder  of  the  order  of  the  Carmelites, 
though  his  claims  to  that  honor  have  been  denied  by  his  followers.  On  ac- 
count of  the  hallowed  recollections  connected  with  the  mountain  where  they 
resided,  and  the  similarity  of  the  habits  of  their  order  with  those  of  Elias, 
they  have  always  maintained  that  it  was  founded  by  that  ancient  prophet, 
and  continued  until  modern  times  by  a  series  of  successive  prophets,  (a) 
"When,  by  the  conquests  of  the  Saracens,  the  Carmelites  lost  possession  of 
their  original  seat,  they  allege  that  the  holy  Virgin  gave  her  scapular  to 
Simon  Stocl-,  the  general  of  the  order,  that  it  might  become  thenceforth  the 
habit  of  all  its  members,  with  the  assurance  that  Avhoever  should  die  in  this 
dress  would  never  suffer  in  everlasting  fire,  (h)  New  possessions  were  ac- 
quired by  these  Brethren  of  our  Lady  of  Mount  Carmel  in  every  country  of 
Europe. 

§  209.     The  Trinitarians. 
Bonaventura  Büro,  Annales  Ord.  S.  Trin.  Kom.  1CS4.    Rule  in  Höhten.  Th.  III.  p.  3s& 

The  vague  and  visionary  efforts  of  two  hermits,  Jo?in  de  JIatha,  pre- 
viously a  Parisian  divine,  and  Feli.v  de  Vahis,  appear  to  have  been  finally 
directed  to  a  definite  object  by  Innocent  III.,  and  an  Order  of  the  Holy 
Trinity  was  established  for  the  redemption  of  Christian  slaves  (1198).  The 
first-fruits  of  its  efforts  were  exhibited  in  the  yeq^  1200,  when  a  multitude 
of  Christians  purchased  from  slavery  in  Morocco  returned  to  their  homes. 
The  order  of  the  'Trinitarians  (de  redemptione  captivorum,  Mathurins,  frires 
aux  lines)  spread  itself  rapidly  in  all  parts  of  Southern  Europe.  Female 
convents  were  also  instituted,  and  through  many  vicissitudes  the  primary 
object  of  the  order  has  not  been  altogether  abandoned  even  to  a  very  recent 

a)  Papehroch  (Acta  SS.  April.  Th.  I.  p.  774ss.  and  in  some  controversial  writings)  has  given  tb« 
Vrne  history  In  opposition  to  the  jroli.x  volumes  of  the  Carmelites.  [J/o«Aeim  Hist  Cent  XII.  Part 
II.  §  21.  McLaln's  transl.] 

V)  Launoii  Dss.  dc  Sim.  Stochii  \1so.  Par.  1655.  (Opp.  Th.  XL  P.  II.) 


CHAP.  III.     KCCLEä.  LIFE.     §  210.  lU'MILIATES.     §  211.  RELIG.  KXIOIITS.       231 

period.  The  residence  of  its  General  (minister  generalis),  and  the  place 
where  its  general  chapter,  composed  of  all  the  superiors  of  its  convents,  con- 
vened, was  at  Cerfroy,  wlicre  the  two  orifrinal  hermits  were  once  visited  by 
a  white  deer  with  the  mark  of  a  cross  between  its  horns. 

§  210.     The  Ilumiliateg. 

Tirahoschi,  Vetera  Iluniiliiitorum  monnmenta.  Mciliol.  ITßCss.  3Th.  4. 

Many  felt  that  the  reli;.,'iou3  should  be  brou;,'ht  into  more  intimate  connec- 
tions with  the  secular  life  than  the  general  Church  at  that  time  was  able  to 
afford.  The  community  of  the  Humiliates  was  therefore  instituted  in  the 
eleventh  century,  composed,  at  first,  of  an  association  of  pious  Milanese  who 
had  been  exiled  from  their  native  city.  Gradually  it  became  extended  over 
all  parts  of  Lombardy,  and  embraced  principally  mechanics,  especially  weav- 
ers of  woollen  fabrics,  connected  together  by  the  bond  of  a  commou  employ- 
ment, and  a  love  of  pious  exercises.  All  their  property  was  held  in  common. 
At  a  later  period  even  monks  and  priests  united  with  them,  and  took  part  in 
the  labors,  the  business,  and  the  trade  of  the  Society.  Their  community  Avas 
tolerated  by  the  hierarchy  on  the  ground  of  its  being  a  point  of  connection 
between  the  convent  and  the  world.  Innocent  III.  endeavored  to  give  it  a 
definite  position  by  imposing  upon  it  the  rule  of  Benedict,  and  it  was  sup- 
plied with  a  grand  master  in  1246.  Finally  it  became  secularized,  and  was 
abolished  by  Pius  V.  (1571). 

§  211.     Establishment  of  the  Orders  of  Knighthood. 

I.  Wil.  Tijr.  I,  10.  XVIir,  4ss.  Jac.  de  Vilriaco  c.  C4.  Ptol.  reUroniun,  Statuta  Ord  hosp.  ?. 
Jo.  Rom.  15Sa  f.  Hallten.  Th.  II.  p.  -MJss.— 11.  (  Vei-tot.')  Hist,  des  Chevaliers  liospitalicrs  de  9.  Jean. 
Par.  1726.  4  Th.  4.  IVGl.  7  Th.  {Xiethamtner)  Gesch.  d.  Maltheserord.  nach  Vcrtot,  Jen.  1792.  2  vols. 
PitoU,  dell'ori'.'ine  ed  instituto  del  ord.  di  S.  Giovanni.  Bom.  17S1.  4  FalkenHein,  Gesch.  d.  Joh. 
Ord.  Dre«d.  1S33.  2  vols. 

I.  Wil.  Tijr.  xn,  7.  Jac.  de  Vitr.  c.  C5.  JSernardi  Tract  de  nova  militia  s.  adhort.itio  ad  milites 
tempH.  (0pp.  Th.  IV.  p.  9S.)  IloUUn.  Tli.  II.  p.  429s.s.  Munter,  Statntcnbiich.  Brl.  1794.  1  vol.— 
IT.  P.  du  Pu>j,  Hist  d«  Teinpliers.  Par.  1050.  Brux.  1751.  4  Ucbers.  Frankf.  1605.  4.  D'Extivnl. 
Hist  crit  et  apol.  des  Chev.  du  Temple.  Par.  17S9.  2  Th.  4.  An  Epitome:  Die  Ritter  des  Temp,  zu 
Jems.  Lpz.  1790.  2  vols.  Wdcke,  Oesch.  d.  Temp.  Ord.  Lpz.  1820s.  2  vols.  Falkenst^in,  Oescli.  d. 
Temp.  Ord.  Dresd.  1S33.  2  vols.  [O.  O.  Addison,  Hist  of  the  Knights  Templars,  Ac.  L.md.  1S4;1  2 
ed  8.  8  ed.  ISM.  8.] 

I.  Statuten  des  dent  Ord.  edited  by  K  ITennig,  Kiiniarsb.  1S06.  Petri  de  Dmhurg  (about  1320), 
Chronic.  Prussiac  s.  Tlist.  Ord.  Teut  ed.  ITtirtknor/i.  .len.  1079.  4.  Codex  diplomatlciis  Ord.  Tent. 
Urkundenbucli  z.  Gesch.  d.  deut  0.  cd.  by  .1  G.  Ifenne.  Mentz.  1S4,\— II.  Dnellii,  Hist.  Onl.  Eqult. 
Teut  Vind.  1T27.  f.  Juh.  Voigt,  Gesch.  Preuss.  b.  z.  Untergänge  d.  Herrsch,  d.  deutsch.  Ordens. 
Künigsb.  1627SS.  4  vols. 

The  various  orders  of  knighthood  which  sjjning  up  during  the  tcntli  cen- 
tury, were  the  legitimate  result  of  the  feudal  system  and  the  military  occupa- 
tions of  the  youth.  "When  regarded  as  an  aff'air  of  pa.st  times,  this  sy.«tem  is 
extolled  as  the  iiloal  toward  wliicli  noble  minds  were  induced  to  a.-'pire,  but 
in  its  bitter  reality  it  was  the  a.scendency  of  a  groat  corporation,  whoso 
power  was  restrained  by  Cliristian  customs,  and  embellished  by  the  princi- 
ples of  love  and  honor.  Duels  and  tournaments  were  always  zealously 
opposed  by  popes  and  synods,  but  the  system  of  knighthood  itself  was  sanc- 
tioned by  tlie  Church  because  it  enlisted  men  in  the  service  of  God,  and  for 


2S'Z  Mi;i)i\i;\  .\r,  ciirncii  iii.sroitv.   veil  hi.    \.  v.  i.;<)-i2io. 

the  (iefoncc  «»f  all  wlio  were  opprcswd.  The  two  most  powerfii.  tendenciei 
of  tho  ftge  were  united  during  the  lioly  wars  in  forming  a  spiritual  kniglit- 
hood  which  combined  the  three  monastic  vows  with  the  solemn  promise 
never  to  desist  from  a  conflict  with  unbelievers.  1.  Some  citizens  of  Amalfi, 
while  trading  with  Palestine,  had  (1048)  founded  a  hospital  for  the  reception 
of  pilgrims  to  Jcrnp;dcm.  The  fraternity  which  had  tlie  management  of  this 
hospital,  after  tho  conquest  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Christians,  took  the  monas- 
tic vow  under  the  name  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Hospital,  dedicated  to  St. 
John  the  Baptist,  in  Jerusalem.  Enymond  du  Puy,  the  second  principal  of 
the  order,  to  their  former  duty  of  hospitality  and  attendance  upon  the  sick, 
added  that  of  knighthood  in  opposition  to  infidels  (about  1118),  and  this  soon 
became  the  principal  object  of  the  order.  2.  Nine  knights,  with  Jlurio  dc 
Payens  as  their  ma-ster  (inagister  militiae),  took  from  the  hand  of  the  Patri- 
arch of  Jerusalem  the  knightly  monastic  vow  (1118),  and  from  their  location 
in  the  royal  palace,  by  the  side  of  the  former  Temple  of  Jerusalem,  they 
assumed  the  name  of  Temiüars  (pauperes  commilitones  Christi  templique 
Salomonis).  3.  During  the  siege  of  Aine  (1190),  some  citizens  of  Bremen 
and,  Lübeck  founded  a  hospital  which  was  favored  by  the  German  princes, 
and  under  Henry  of  Walpot  became  the  Order  of  the  German  Knights  of  the 
Virgin  Mary.  Each  of  these  orders  embraced  three  estates,  viz.,  Knights, 
Priests,  and  Serving  Brethren.  In  this  latter  class  were  included  not  only 
all  who  were  engaged  in  manual  labor,  but  squires.  The  whole  was  arranged 
in  accordance  with  an  aristocratic  constitution,  under  the  government  of  a 
Grand  Master,  Commanders,  and  Chapters  of  Knights.  They  formed  the 
standing  army  of  the  Church  in  the  East,  but  as  a  general  society  of  noble- 
men they  acquired  vast  possessions  in  every  part  of  Europe.  The  Templars 
especially  soon  became  independent  by  their  o"mi  power,  and  the  privileges 
granted  to  them  by  the  pope.  So  highly  was  their  spirit  of  devotion  to  tho 
order  cultivated,  that  they  became  a  military  society  of  noblemen,  combining 
their  hereditary  powers  with  the  privileges  of  the  clergy.  It  was  not  long, 
therefore,  before  they  found  themselves  in  a  hostile  position  to  both  bishops 
and  kings.  Wherever  the  Churcb  in  any  way  stood  in  need  of  worldly 
weapons,  especially  in  Spain  while  contending  with  the  Moors,  and  in  Germa- 
ny in  connection  with  the  Cistercians,  similar  orders  of  knights  were  estab 
lished  of  a  purely  national  character. 


CHAP.  IT.— STATE   OF  SCIENCE  IN  THE   CnURCII. 
§  212.     Scientific  Education  of  the  Xinth  Century. 

Lnunotl  D?.  de  scholis  celebr.  a  Car.  M.  et  post  eiindem  instauratis.  Par.  1672.  TIatnb.  171".  Hist 
littiJraire  de  la  France  par  des  rel.  Benedictins.  Par.  173-3s&  Th.  IV.  V.  Cramer,  Bossnet  Th.  V.  vol. 
IL  Il^fiU.  \(m.  zust  im  sftdwest  Deutschl.  9.  10.  und  11.  Jahrhh.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S-3S.  P.  2.) 
Bahr,  Gescb.  d.  riiin.  Lit  im  Carol  Zeita.  Carlsr.  1S40. 

The  diffusion  of  education  :ommenced  by  Charles  the  Great  was  con- 
tinued under  the  Carolingians  by  the  schools  established  in  the  cathedrals 
and  convents.     The  most  efficient  agent  in  it,  so  far  as  related  to  Germany, 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  212.  R.  MAUPXS.    CLAUDIUS.    EUIGENA.      233 

was  Rabaniis  Manrus,  the  pupil  of  Alcuin,  and  the  friend  of  the  Emperor 
Louis  when  that  monarch  was  in  distress.  lie  had  travelled  in  Palestine,  and 
in  822  was  called  to  preside  over  the  convent  of  Fulda.  Compelled  to  fly 
from  that  place  in  842,  he  soon  after  (847)  became  Archbishop  of  Mentz,  and 
died  in  856.  With  great  humility  he  devoted  himself  to  the  lowly  task  of 
collecting  the  various  e.xplanations  of  the  Scriptures  found  in  the  writings 
of  the  fathers,  and  gave  a  minute  description  of  the  universe,  (x)  The  hibors 
of  scientific  men  were  i)rincipally  directed  to  the  consideration  of  the  exter- 
nal forms  of  the  Church.  In  this  kind  of  literature,  as  well  as  in  his  course 
of  life,  Agolard,  Archbishop  of  Lyons  (died  8-il),  may  be  regarded  as  tlie 
representative  of  the  moderate  opposition  raised  in  the  French  Church 
against  praying  to  images,  and  all  kinds  of  superstition,  (h)  Claudius, 
BLshop  of  Turin  (d.  about  840),  a  great  admirer  of  Augustine,  presents  us 
with  a  specimen  of  the  stormy  battle  then  waged  against  the  worship  of 
images,  popes,  and  saints.  ('•)  Jlincmar,  Archbishop  of  Rheims  (died  882), 
shows  the  position  of  an  ecclesiastical  statesman  standing  between  kings, 
popes,  and  bishops,  sometimes  in  tlie  character  of  a  friend,  and  sometimes  in 
that  of  an  opponent,  frequently  with  great  earnestness,  but  always  with  dex- 
terity and  dignity  in  times  of  extreme  peril,  defending  the  riglits  of  the 
national  Church  and  of  his  archbishopric.  ('?)  JIa)/mo,  Bishop  of  Ilalber- 
stadt  (died  853),  brouglit  to  the  recollection  of  his  contemporaries  the  views 
of  the  primitive  Church  by  means  of  a  much-used  epitome  of  tlie  Latin 
translation  of  Eusebius.  {e)  Jonas,  the  successor  of  Theodolf  in  the  bishopric 
of  Orleans,  in  opposition  to  Claudius  defended  the  customs  of  the  Church  of 
that  period,  so  far,  at  least,  as  they  proceeded  from  a  pious  disposition.  The 
advice  he  gave  to  laymen  Avas  superior  to  the  prejudices  of  the  Church,  and 
frequently  attained  the  enlarged  ])liilanthropy  required  by  the  gosple.  (/) 
John  Scotits  (or)  Erigena  (d.  about  880),  who  resided  at  tlie  court  of  Charles 
the  Bald,  though  he  was  originally  educated  in  the  British  school,  under  the 
influence  of  the  writings  of  Origen  and  the  Areopagite,  stood  so  isolated 
from  his  contemporaries,  and  so  far  su[)erior  to  his  times,  that  his  doctrines 
were  not  sufficiently  understood  to  be  condemned  by  the  Church  until  the 
thirteenth  century,  (y)     To  his  profound  conceptions  of  the  divine  immen- 

fl)  0pp.  ed.  Colneneriiis,  Col.  1C2T.  C  Tli.  f.  ^Hgne.  (Patroloj.  Par.  1S52.  vol».  CVIL-XIM— 
F.  11.  C.  Schwarz,  de  Plmb.  M.  primo  Gc-rm.  praocopt.ire.  Ileidclb.  1811.  4.  Tub.  Quartalsclir.  1S.3S. 
P.  :3s.     F.  Kitnittmann,  IIral)!in.  Moiitz.  1S41. 

I)  0pp.  cd.  BitUiz.  Par.  1GG6.  2  TIi.  {Gull'tixf.  Th.  XIII.  p.  405.)  /fundfslutffen,  do  Agob.  vita 
ft  script!^.  Gloss.  1832.  P.  I. 

c)  Frasin.nts  in  Flacii  Catal.  test,  vorlt.  p.  936.  Ilibl.  PP.  Max.  Th.  XIV.  p.  197.  Mahillon. 
tett  Anal.  p.  90.  nurlfllacli,  Claud.  Inedltopp.  spcclmlntu  Ilafn.  1S24.  C.  SchmUl,  Claud.  (Zcltscbr. 
hist.  Tb.  1843.  11.  2.) 

J)  0pp.  cd.  Sirmonil,  Par.  lf.4.1.  2  Tb.  f.  F!«<fnarJ,  Hlsf.  eco.  Pern.  Ill,  IS- 29.  Illst  lit  de  la 
France.  Tli.  V.  p.  .%44-s.     Oi-ss,  MiTkwünlU'k.  a.  Leben  u.  Setirr.  Hincm.  Oött.  ]8(iC. 

e)  Do  clirisL  ronini  inoiiiorla  s.  Hist.  ece.  brcvlarlnni,  e<l.  ßn.rhorn.  Lnsd.  1630.  Jfiidfr 
nelnist  1671. 

/)  Decultu  imadniim  1.  III.  a.  840.  (Ribl.  PP.  Lnsd.  Tb.  XIV.  p.  167.  Pe  Institut,  laicall  I.  Ill 
a.  82S.  (D'Acliert/,  ?piill.  ed.  2.  Tb.  I.  p.  258.)  De  Institut  resla.  (/&.  p.  324.) 

g)  De  divi>ione  naturae  1.  V.  ed.  GnU,  Oxoo.  1681.  t.  S<filütfr,  Monast.  18r?8.— /•.  //)ort,  ,T.  Scot 
c.  V.  Urspr.  c.  cbr.  Pliil.  Kopcnb.  182.3.  FronnuifUr,  Lebre  des  J.  Sc  v.  Bösen.  (Tub.  Zeit-sohr. 
1S30.  P.  1.  8.)  Stuudemnaier,  J.  Sc,  u.  d.  Wissonsch.  sr.  Zeit  Frkf.  1S34.  vol.  I.    Ifoik,  ,T.  Sc.  (Ronn 


234  MKIHAKVAL  CIirKCII  mSTOUV.     riCR.  III.     A.  I).  SOO-1216. 

nily,  tlio  world  was  one  vast  TliODjihany  in  different  forms  of  development, 
tlio  Incarnation  was  simply  the  reconciliation  of  the  finite  with  the  infinite, 
the  sacred  Scriptures  were  the  necessary  terms  in  whicli  tlie  truth  must  he 
cxprcssen,  m  adai)tation  to  human  infirmity,  and  relijL^ion  and  pliilosophy 
■were  the  twofold  form  in  wliich  the  same  essential  sjjirit  was  manifested.  A 
Gorman  poetic  composition,  (/<)  in  which  the  evangelical  history  was  repre- 
sented with  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  Germanic  popular  life,  was  a  dawn 
without  a  day,  since  all  literature  continued  to  be  written  in  Latin,  and  sci- 
ence, even  wlien  laymen  took  part  in  it,  was  wholly  of  an  ecclesiastical  char- 
acter (clergic).  During  the  stormy  period  which  followed  tlie  subversion  of 
the  house  of  Charles  the  Great,  the  more  eminent  lights  of  literary  culture 
were  either  wholly  extinguished,  or  were  concealed  behind  the  walls  of  con- 
vents, where  their  beams  were  only  occasionally  visible.  That  portion  of 
Anglo-Saxon  Christian  literature  which  Alfred  the  Great  (871-901)  saved  by 
his  sword,  and  animated  with  the  antique  traditions  of  ecclesiastical  learning, 
was  apparently  lost  at  his  death.  (/) 

§  213.  First  Eucharistie  Controversy. 
While  attempting  to  present  the  mysterious  import  of  the  Liturgy,  Pm- 
cliasius  Radiert  advanced  the  doctrine  that  the  substance  of  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Eucharist  was  changed  into  the  very  body  of  Christ 
which  was  born  of  the  virgin.  This  was  declared  to  be  an  act  of  creation 
by  almighty  power,  though  invisible  to  any  but  an  eye  of  faith,  {a)  This 
sentiment  was  opposed  by  the  learned  writers  of  that  age,  especially  by 
Jxabaiuis  Mannis,  by  Eatramnus^  a  monk  of  Corbie,  who  maintained  the 
indefinite  view  prevalent  in  the  primitive  Church,  according  to  which  there 
was  simply  a  commnnion  of  the  earthly  with  the  heavenly,  and  by  Erigena. 
to  whom,  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  could  present  nothing  but  a 
sign  of  an  omnipresent  God.  {]>)  The  doctrine  of  Paschasius  must  have  been 
Avell  adapted  to  the  popular  understanding,  from  which,  indeed,  it  may  have 
taken  its  rise,  since  even  before  this  the  consecrated  bread  had  been  changed 
under  the  hands  of  Gregory  the  Great  into  a  bleeding  finger,  (f) 

Zeitschr.  f.  Phil.  u.  Th.  1S35.  H.  16.)  li.  MMer,  3.  Sc.  Maiuz.  IS-U.  A.  Torstrick,  Pbil.  Erigenae 
ex  ip.<ius  principiis  tlelincata,  Gott.  1S44.  P.  I. 

h)  Comp.  {Ifase's)  Leben  Jesu.  p.  3S. 

i)  Asserii  Hist  do  reb.  Alfr.  ed.  Wise,  Oxoa.  1723.  F.  L.  v.  Stolherg,  Leb.  Alfr.  Münst  1S15. 
[Rob.  Poicell,  Life  of  A.  tlie  Great.  Lond.  1034.  12.  Reinhold  Pauli,  King  Alfred,  &c.  Transl.  Lend. 
1SÖ2.  Lifo,  of  A,  bj-  Spelman,  Lond.  1S40.  F.  Steinet^,  The  Mod.  Mon.  &c.  in  a  Life  of  Alfred  tlio 
Gr.,  from  the  German  of  A.  V.  I/oUer,  &c  Lond.  1S49.]     Wei^%  Gesch.  Alfr.  Scliaffh.  1S52. 

a)  De  corpore  et  sang.  Domini  s.  de  sacramentis,  S-31.  the  later  edition,  S44.  dedicated  to  Charles 
the  Bald,  is  in  Marlene,  Col.  ampl.  Tb.  IX.  p.  367.  Ep.  ad  Frudegardum  in  Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  Th 
XIV.  p.  754SS. 

h)  liahani  Ep.  ad  Ileribald.  (ifahillon,  vett  Analeet.  ed.  2.  p.  17.)  Jiatramni  de  corp.  et  sang. 
Dom.  L.  ad  Carol.  Col.  582.  ed.  J.  Boileau,  Par.  (16S6.)  1T12.  12.  Often  attributed  to  Erigena.— ia(tj( 
0.  d.  verloren  gelialtne  Schrift  des  Joli.  Sc.  v.  d.  Euchar.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S2S.  vol.  I.  H.  4.) 

c)  Pauli  Diac.  Vita  Grog.  M.  c.  23.    Joan.  Diac.  II,  41.    Pasctu  Pad.  c  14. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  214  GOTTSCHALK.    §  215.  nßOSNVITlIA.       235 

§  214.     Gottschalk.     Cont.  from  §  212. 

G.  Maugitin,  vett.  auctorum  qui  a  IX.  de  praed.  scripserunt,  opp.  ct  fragm.  Par.  IG&O.  2  Th.  4. 
Mansi  Th.  XIV.  XV. — J.  Csseriu/>,  Gottesclmlcl  et  praodestinatianae  controv.  HisL  (DiiM.  IfrJl.  4.) 
ll.in.  166'.:.  Against  Gottschalk  :  L.  Cellot,  IIlsL  Gotteso.  praedestinatiani.  Par.  1655.  f.  [Biblical  Re- 
pertory, vol.  XII.  No.  II.  p.  225SS.  tTeander,  Hist  of  Cbr.  Eel.  Transl.  by  Torrey,  vol.  111.  p.  472ss.] 

The  authority  of  Augustine  had  continued  unimpaired  till  the  middle 
ages,  though  his  peculiar  doctrines  were  generally  misunderstood,  and  almost 
universally  rejected.  Gottsclialk  was  a  monk,  of  a  noMe  Saxon  family,  who 
even  in  his  childhood  had  been  devoted  to  a  monastic  lifo.  At  a  synod  which 
met  at  Mentz  (829),  ho  obtained  a  release  from  his  mona.stic  vow,  but  by  the 
influence  of  his  abbot,  Bahanus^  this  decision  was  subsequently  reversed. 
His  excited  sph-it  now  sought  tranquillity  in  the  perusal  of  the  writings  of 
Augustine,  in  a  removal  to  the  convent  of  Orbais,  and  in  a  pilgrimage  to 
Rome.  In  the  most  decided  forms  of  expression  he  announced  his  doctrine 
of  a  double  predestination,  founded  upon  the  absolute  foreknowledge  of  God, 
according  to  which  some  were  elected  to  life,  and  others  were  consigned  to 
destruction.  Personal  bitterness  was  combined  with  the  aversion  felt  in  the 
Galilean  Church  towards  Augustinism,  and  Gottschalk  was  condemned, 
through  the  influence  of  Eabanus,  at  the  second  Synod  of  Mentz  (848),  and 
delivered  into  the  hands  of  his  metropolitan,  Ilincinar  of  Rheiins.  {a)  The 
cause  of  Gottschalk,  or  rather  of  Augustine,  was  sustained  by  all  the  learning 
of  Ratramnus^  and  the  hierarchical  authority  of  Bcmiffiun,  Archbishop  of 
Lyons.  On  the  other  hand,  Hincmar  defended  the  Frankish  doctrine  that 
man  was  indeed  free  and  yet  needed  divine  grace,  and  Erigena  contended  for 
the  perfect  unity  of  the  divine  decrees,  {h)  The  controversy  remained  unde- 
cided, but  Gottschalk,  woi-n  down  by  hierarchical  violence,  and  absorbed  in 
private  reveries  by  which  his  life  was  beguiled  away,  died  excommunicated 
but  unsubdued  in  prison  (868). 

§  215.     Literary  Interest  during  the  Tenth  Century^  under  the  Othos. 

So  strong  were  the  recollections  of  classic  antiquity  awakened  in  the 
court  of  the  imperial  house  of  Saxony  by  its  connection  with  Constantinople, 
that  it  began  to  indulge  the  dream  of  restoring  the  Roman  empire  to  its 
original  form.  The  decisions  pronounced  by  the  various  emi)erors  with  re- 
gard to  the  popes,  gave  them  an  opportunity  to  .speak  freely  respecting  the 
abuses  then  practised  in  the  Church.  The  Arabians  had  ever  since  tiie  eighth 
century  monopolized  the  natural  sciences  as  the  appropriate  product  of  their 
own  civilization,  together  with  every  thing  in  Greek  literature  which  related 
to  them.  The  school  they  had  established  at  Cordova  (after  980)  excited  the 
attention  of  the  neighboring  Christian  countries.  («)  As  an  evidence  of  the 
classic  education  which  existed  in  the  imperial  court,  Hroawitha  (Helena  v 


a)  De  praedest.  contra  Gott'ch.  Ejip.  III.  cd.  Sirmonü,  Par.  IWT.  (The  Letters  of  Kabanus  are 
»Iso  in  Miiuijuin  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  Ss.«.)  Two  imprinted  letters  of  Hub.  respecting  Gotisch.  (Tub 
Qiiartalsflir.  1^:30.  II.  3.)    Flodourd,  II.  ccc.  P.em.  Ill,  2S.     Manxi  Th.  XIV.  p.  919. 

0)  Rtitramni  de  pried.  1.  II.  {.}fiiU{fuiH  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  27.)  Jlemigii  X^  de  trib.  epp.  (/?'.  TIi. 
II.  P.  I.  p.  Gl.)  Ifincnutr,  do  prae<l.  Dei  et  lib.  arb.  (1st  sect  lost  Oj.p.  vol.  I.)  De  tribus  epp.  I* 
Opp.  vol.  I.  Miitiff.  Th.  11.  P.  II.  p.  67.)    Erigena,  de  praed.  Dei.  (Muuguiu  Th.  I.  P.  I.  p.  Ittl.) 

a)  Middledorpf,  de  institutis  literariis  in  lllsp.  quae  Arabes  auctores  babuerunt  OoetL  ISIO.  'L 


23G  MEDIAKVAL  CIIUKCII  HISToIlV.     VFAl.  III.     A.  I).  S0(i-121C. 

Rossow,  (lied  abont  f'b4j,  a  nnn  of  GanderHlieim,  may  be  mentioned.  She 
recounted  the  exploits  of  Otho  the  Great  in  rbymc  and  in  hexameter  verse, 
and  expressed  tlie  great  princi[)le3  of  Christianity  in  the  style  of  Terence.  (J) 
On  the  other  hand,  Notker  Laheo^  superintendent  of  the  school  in  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Gall  (died  1022),  availed  himself  of  his  knowledge  of  the  ancient 
languages  to  give  translations  from  them  into  the  High  German.  ('•)  Jiatfierius, 
Bisliop  of  Verona  and  Liege  (d.  074),  though  sometimes  a  wanderer  and  even 
a  prisoner  in  consequence  of  the  political  commotions  of  Italy  and  his  own 
ardent  temperament,  in  bitter  and  pointed  language  held  up  before  his  cleri- 
cal brethren  a  picture  of  their  own  corruptions,  and  the  duties  required  of 
them  by  the  ancient  laws  of  the  Church.  ((7)  The  Arabic  influence  was 
rejtresented  by  Gerhert.  (e)  In  subsequent  times  he  has  been  looked  upon  as 
a  magician,  and  perhaps  the  spirit  of  his  age  rendered  it  necessary  that  astro- 
nomy sliould  partake  in  some  degree  of  the  character  of  astrology.  But  the 
importance  which  the  school  of  Eheims  attained  under  his  management,  and 
the  estimation  in  which  he  was  held  both  in  France  and  Germany,  proves 
that  he  was  not  as  isolated  and  unappreciated  in  his  own  day  as  the  Italian 
accounts  imply.  It  is,  however,  certain  that  the  clergy  in  general  were  by 
no  means  in  advance  of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and  it  required  no  great 
skill  on  the  part  of  any  one  to  subject  a  bishop  who  should  exhibit  his  know 
ledge  of  Latin  in  the  sacred  desk,  to  the  most  awkward  imputations.  (/) 

§  216.  Academical  Studies  in  the  EleventJi  and  Twelfth  Centuries. 
No  sooner  was  there  sufficient  order  secured  in  the  state  and  in  the 
Church  to  afford  opportunity  for  a  tranquil  elevation  and  communion  of 
spirit  among  men,  than  the  exuberance  of  life  which  had  long  been  concealed 
broke  forth  in  the  cultivation  of  science.  An  appropriate  instrument  for  the 
intellectual  energy  then  awakened  was  found  in  the  recently  discovered  Latin 
translation  of  the  dialectic  writings  of  Aristotle,  (a)  There  were  still  pre- 
served some  remnants  of  a  Eoman  empire  and  laws,  and  the  condition  of  the 
Lombard  cities  rendered  the  development  of  these  a  matter  of  considerable 
importance.  Accordingly,  about  the  close  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  Ro- 
man law  was  reduced  by  Irncrius  to  a  new  scientific  form,  and  applied  to 
new  relations  as  a  European  Christian  law.  (&)  For  the  cultivation  of  these 
Liws  several  universities  were  established.  That  of  Bologna  was  at  first 
merely  a  school  for  the  study  of  Law,  while  that  of  Paris  was  for  the  study 
of  Dialectics  and  Theology.  In  the  former,  the  highest  powers  of  the  corpo- 
ration (universitas)  were  vested  in  the  pupils,  but  in  the  latter  they  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  Doctors.     They  owe  their  establishment  not  to  the  favor  of 

6)  Carmina  Ottonis  I.  Comediae  sacrae  VI.  (0pp.  ed.  Schurefleiseh,  Tit  1707.  4.) 

c)  Catalogue  In  Jl.  v.  Raumer,  p.  3Sss. 

d)  De  Conteintu  canonum.  Apologia  eui  ipsins.  De  discordia  inter  ipsum  et  clerieos.  Medit.i- 
tioncs  cordis  s.  praeloq.  (0pp.  ed.  Balleriui,  Veron.  \'6b.)—En{/eUuirdt,  ü.  Eatber.  (KGeschichtl 
Abbb.  Erl.  1S32.  N.  5.)    Keatider,  Leben  d.  Kather.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f  chr.  W.  1S51.  N.  36.) 

e)  Comp.  §  ITS.  note  g.    Kespecting  Gerberfs  works,  see  ITock,  GerberU  p.  löGss. 

/)  Vita  Meiincerci  c.  SI.  {Leibn.  Scrr.  »-er.  Brunsv.  p.  555.)  Comp.  Saxo  Gramm.  -  XI.  o4 
Wphan.  p.  209. 

a)  Jourdain.  Eeehcrcbcs  critiq.  svir  rjgc  et  I'origine  des  traductions  lat  d'Aristote.  Par.  1S19. 
h)  Sacignt/,  Gesch.  d.  rüa.  EecUts  in  Mit.  Alt  3  i;  4  vols. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLEÖ.  SCIEXCE.    §  216.  UNIVERSITIES.     §  217.  BERENGAR.       237 

popes  or  prince.s,  but  to  the  necessities  of  the  times,  as  thousands  of  students 
•were  drawn  together  by  the  reputation  of  some  distinguished  teacher.  Acts 
of  incorporation  were  not  .sought  for  from  the  pope  until  a  hitor  period,  when 
the  younger  universities  endeavored  by  such  means  to  rival  those  wliich  de- 
pended upon  their  own  reputation.  Tlie  advantages  springing  from  these 
seats  of  science,  which  controlled  the  opinions  of  the  succeeding  generation, 
were  so  apparent  that  the  popes  were  anxious  by  special  favors  to  secure 
their  attachment  to  tlicmsclves,  and  render  tliem  institutions  in  which  Chris- 
tian studies  generally  (stndium  generale)  might  be  pursued.  ('•)  By  the  influence 
of  these  universities  science  became  generally  dilfused,  at  least  among  the 
higher  classes,  but  in  spite  of  the  freedom  of  its  development,  it  still  con- 
tinued subservient  to  partial  corporate  interests,  enveloped  in  barbarous 
Latin,  and  almost  exclusively  of  an  ecclesiastical  character. 

§  217.     'The  Second  Eucharistie  Controversy. 

I.  Manni  Th.  XIX.  p.  757ss.  Adelmani  Ep.  de  verit  Corp.  et  sang.  Dom.  ed.  C.  A.  Schmidt, 
Brunsv.  1770.  Lan/ranci  L.  de  euchar.  sacr.  c.  Bcr.  (1063-70.)  Bas.  1528.  and  oAen.  (Opp.  cd. 
D'Aehery,  Par.  164S.  f.  p.  230.)  Bereng.  L.  de  s.  coena  c.  Lanfr.  before  1073.  (The  edit  of  the 
W'olfenbiittel  MS3.  made  known  by  Lesaing,  and  half  finished  by  Släudlin  and  Uetmen  in  6  P;;. 
Qoctt.  1S20-29.  4.)  Edd.  A.  F.  and  F.  Th.  Viscfter,  Ber.  1834.  Acta  Cone,  Rom.  sub  Greg.  VII. 
a  Bereng.  conscript.i.  {Jfansi  Th.  XIX.  p.  761.)  JSernaldita  Const,  (an  opponent  of  Beren^ar)  do 
Ber.  damnatione  multiplici.  lOSS.  (^Mutth.  Rielerer,  Raceolta  Fcrrareso  di  opp.  scientifai.  Vcn.  178D. 
Th.  XXI.) 

II.  Mitlillon  de  niultiplic.  Ber.  damnatione.  (Analcet  Th.  II.)  Leasing,  Ber.  Turon.  o.  Ankünd. 
c.  wichtigen  Werks  dess.  Brunschw.  1770.4.  (Schriften,  vol.  VIII.  p.  314ss.  Stäiidlin,  anniinti:i,iar 
editio  libri  Ber.  simul  omnino  de  scriptis  ejus.  Goctt  1814.  4.  Jbid.  Bcr.  Tt#.  {Slüuill.  u. 
TzscMrn.  Archiv.  1814.  vol.  IL  St.  1.)  [//  Sudendorf,  Ber.  Tur.  o.  c.  Samml.  ihn  betrett  Briefe. 
llamb.  1550.] 

Dcrcnrjnr  (after  1031),  the  superintendent  of  the  cathedral  school  of 
Tours,  and  (after  1040)  archdeacon  at  Angers,  maintained,  in  o])positi()n  to 
the  new  doctrine  advanced  by  Paschasius,  that  there  wa^  a  change  in  the 
sacramental  elements  only  in  a  figurative  sense.  He  contended  that  not  tho 
earthly  elements  themselves,  but  their  influences  were  changed  by  their  con- 
nection with  Christ  in  heaven,  who  was  to  be  received  not  by  tho  mouth 
but  by  the  heart.  These  views  he  expressed  in  a  letter  to  his  learned  friend 
Lnnfra7ic,  at  that  time  Scholasticus  (superintendent  of  a  cathe<lral  school) 
in  tho  convent  of  Bee,  but  afterwards  (1070)  Archbi.shop  of  Canterbury. 
The  latter  carrie<l  out  the  doctrine  of  Paschasius,  by  saying  that  tho  actual 
body  of  Christ  in  heaven  remained  entirely  unaffected  by  tho  change  in  the 
elements  on  earth.  This  letter  of  Berengar  being  denounced  before  tho  cccle- 
siastical  authorities,  (a)  his  doctrine  was  condemned  at  synods  held  at  Jiotne 
and  VercelU  (1050).  Learned  friends  advocated  his  cause,  but  jiublic  opinion 
was  against  him.  His  doctrine  admitted  of  a  variety  of  interpretations,  and 
left  the  subject  in  the  vague  state  in  whicli  it  had  been  held  in  p.ist  times; 
while  that  of  his  opponents  presented  a  ckarly  defined  idea,  and  threw  great 

c)  Bulaei,  Hist  Univ.  Paris.  1665-73.  6  Th.  f.  Cierier,  IT.  de  lUniv.  do  Paris,  Par.  1761.  7  Th. 
12.  Dubarle,  II.  de  I'Univ.  Par.  1S29.  Th.  l.—Suvigtuj,  Gesch.  d.  röm.  Keclits  im  MA.  vol.  Ill 
p.  136S9. 

a)  Mansi  Tli.  XI.X.  p.  768. 


238  MKDIAl.VAI-  CIll'KCM  IIISTO):Y.     I'l.n.  III.     A.  J>.  S00-121ß. 

Iionoi-  upon  tlie  forms  of  worsliip,  ])y  making  the  sacrifice  of  tl»c  mass  a  glo- 
rious Tin.'opliaiiy.  //i/'/ihniiid  was  at  tiiat  time  legate,  and  not  only  person- 
ally tile  frioii'l  of  I5ereiigar,  but  in  sentiment  tolerant  toward  his  opinions. 
But  at  the  Synod  of  7 ours  (1054),  this  prelate  was  prudent  enough  to  save 
his  reputation  for  orthodoxy  by  the  simple  scriptural  confession  that  the 
bread  and  wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper  were  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ. 
Berengar,  however,  was  without  sufficient  influence  at  Rome  (1059)  to  de- 
fend liis  oi)inions  against  the  rude  violence  of  his  enemies,  and  finally  he  con- 
sented to  subscribe  a  confession  in  which  a  grossly  carnal  participation  in  the 
flesh  and  blood  of  Christ  was  asserted.  But  no  sooner  were  his  feet  beyond 
the  Alps  than  he  recalled  this  confession,  with  bitter  execrations  against  what 
he  called  Satan's  seat  at  Rome.  The  controversy  was  continued  with  equal 
literary  skill  on  both  sides,  in  a  learned  correspondence  between  him  and 
Laufranc,  the  keenest  dialectician  of  the  age.  The  whole  spirit  of  the  times, 
however,  was  arrayed  against  Berengar,  because  he  contended  for  a  spiritual 
and  against  a  sensuous  conception  of  Christianity.  At  a  Synod  licld  at  Ji'o)i>e 
(107S),  Gregor^/  made  one  more  effort  to  secure  indulgence  for  the  conscience 
of  his  friend  by  presenting  a  formula  of  a  general  nature,  but  even  he  was 
obliged  to  give  way  before  the  zealots  who  surrounded  him,  and  (1079)  to 
demand  a  more  decided  declaration.  Although  even  this  was  subsequently 
recanted  by  Berengar,  he  was  protected  by  the  influence  of  Gregory,  and 
lived  in  retirement  on  the  island  of  St.  Come,  where  he  died  (1088) 
amidst  the  blessings  of  the  Church.  Ilis  memory  was  for  a  long  time  hon- 
ored in  Tpurs,  but  the  doctrine  that  there  was  a  change  in  the  nature  of  the 
sacramental  elements,  although  the  outward  phenomena,  in  order  to  try  the 
faith  of  believers,  remained  the  same,  bad  now  obtained  the  victory.  Traii- 
mlstantiation  by  the  hand  of  the  priest  was  made  an  article  of  faith  at  the 
great  Council  of  Lateran.  Qj) 

§  218.     Scliolmtickm.     First  Permi. 

L.  Danaem,  Prolegg.  in  Scntt  Lomb.  (0pp.  theol.  Gen.  15S3  f.  p.  1093.)  Trihlechotiux,  de 
doctorib.  schol.  (1G6Ö)  ed.  neumann,  Jen.  1719.  Cramer,  Bossuet,  vol.  V.-VII.  EbersUin,  natürl. 
Tlieol.  der  Schol.  Lpz.  1S03.  Hitter,  ü.  Begr.  u.  Verlauf,  d.  ehr.  Phil.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  lS-3.3.  H.'  2.  p. 
286s?.)  Histories  of  Philosophy,  especiallj  bf  Degerando,  Hegel,  Ititter,  [G.  H.  Lewes,  Dagald 
Stewart,  V.  Cousin,  and  C.  S.  Henry.] 

In  the  Berengarian  controversy  Scholasticism  had  commenced  its  develop- 
ment. This  was  a  kiiid  of  knighthood  in  Theology,  a  natural  result  of  the 
free  power  of  thought  in  connection  with  the  absolute  ascendency  of  the 
doctrines  of  the  Church.  Academical  studies  were  pursued  without  restraint, 
Aristotle's  Logic  was  universally  admired,  and  the  whole  movement  of  the 
age  was  vigorous,  though  partially  turned  aside  from  what  experience  shows 
to  be  the  sober  reality  of  life.  All  these  circumstances  had  given  occasion 
for  its  existence,  and  its  whole  power  was  now  to  be  exerted  in  proving  that 
the  doctrines  which  had  been  previously  adopted  by  the  Church  were  abso- 
hitely  true  in  the  view  of  an  intelligent  mind,  and  in  defending  their  neces- 
sity.    After  a  brief  struggle  it  was  completely  triumphant  over  the  Theology 


6)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c.  1.  (.Jfanst  Th.  XXII.  p.  931.)    [Landon,  p.  2988s.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLE3.  SCIENCE.     §  21S.  ANSELM.     V.  LOMBARD.  239 

which  had  no  other  hasis  than  that  of  authority,  and  during  its  first  period  it 
"was  whollj'  employed  in  giving  subtlety  to  the  thoughts  of  the  common  mind  by 
Aristotelian  formulas.  In  the  very  commencement  of  its  course  we  find  Aiisehn 
of  Aosta,  the  pupil  of  Lanfranc,  and  the  successor  ofthat  prelate,  not  only  in  the 
monastic  school,  but  also  (after  1093)  in  the  archiepiscopal  office  (died  1109). 
Though  always  humble,  he  exhibited  extraordinary  powers  of  mind  not  only 
as  a  theologian,  but  as  a  dignitary  of  the  Church.  The  knowledge  he  sought 
was  that  with  Avhich  faith  supplied  him,  though  he  endeavored  to  complete 
the  ecclesiastical  system  of  truth  on  the  basis  of  Augustine's  Tlieology,  by 
his  doctrine  of  Satisfaction  for  sin,  and  to  found  a  rational  system  by  his 
proof  of  the  divine  existence.  According  to  him,  a  recognition  of  the  divine 
existence  is  necessarily  involved  in  a  complete  self-consciousness,  and  immor- 
tality and  salvation  were  the  direct  result  of  the  love  of  God.  This  religion, 
•which  had  been  wholly  lost  by  sin,  could  be  restored  in  no  other  Avay  than 
by  the  expiatory  death  of  the  incarnate  God.  («)  At  the  close  of  this  period 
appeared  Peter  Lombard^  an  academical  teacher,  and  (after  1159)  Bishop  of 
Paris  (d.  11G4).  In  his  SentenccK^  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  Church  is  de- 
rived from  the  writings  of  the  thtliers,  but  it  is  compiled  and  arranged  in 
such  a  way  as  to  constitute  a  scientific  whole.  This  work  became  the  man- 
ual in  universal  use  during  the  century  in  which  it  was  published,  and  gave 
its  character  to  that  which  followed.  This  distinction  was  due  not  so  much 
to  its  acuteness  or  its  profundity,  as  to  the  ecclesiastical  position  of  its  author, 
its  happy  adjustment  of  opposite  view.«,  and  its  plainness  to  the  popular 
mind,  {h)  In  the  speculative  views  whicli  constituted  the  basis  of  its  s^-stem 
of  truth,  Avas  apparent  a  principle  wliicli  had  been  much  discussed  in  the  old 
Greek  philosophy  under  the  name  of  Nominalism  and  Realism.  The  former' 
regarded  all  general  ideas  (universalia)  as  nothing  but  abstractions  of  the 
human  understanding,  and  derived  from  the  objects  presented  to  its  observa- 
tion (post  rem) ;  while  the  latter  viewed  them  as  having  their  origin  entirely 
in  the  mind  itself  (ante  rem),  or  according  to  a  turn  of  expression  at  one 
time  prevalent,  and  introduced  for  the  sake  of  com))romi.se,  as  that  which  is 
essential  in  every  thing  actual  (in  re),  (r)  Tiiese  opi)Osite  views  had  a  theo- 
Iogic;d  significance  in  the  controversy  which  sprung  up  between  Anselm  and 
RosceUmi»^  a  canon  of  Compeigne.  The  latter  was  a  nominalist,  and  was 
consequently  accused  of  Tritheism  at  the  Synod  of  Soissons  (1092),  where  he 
was  compelled  to  retract  his  assertions  on  this  subject.  ('/)  Nominalism,  after 
this,  wore  a  suspicious  aspect  in  the  view  of  the  Church  generally. 


a)  Monnlofflimi,  Proslopliini,  Ciir  Dens  liomo?  (Erl.  18-14.)  Dc  conccptii  vlrsln.'ili  ct  orfg.  pc c- 
cato.  Opp.  (eii.  Ot-rbgroti,  I'ar.  1075.)  odd.  Jieii^dicll.  Pur.  1721  Th.  f— Act«  SS.  Apr.  Th.  II.  p. 
SCCss.  (.Vö/iler)  Ansflmus.  (Tub.  Quartalstlir.  lS-.'7.  H.  4.  II.)  BiUroVi,  do  Aus.  I'roslo-lo.  et  Mono!. 
Lps.  18.32.    6ee  §  184.  note  a. 

h)  Sentontinriiin  1.  IV.  Yen.  1477.  rcc.  ./.  Alenume,  Lovan.  1540.  f.  and  oflcn. 

c)  J.  Siilitherii  riill.  Xoinlnnlliiiii  vindloata.  I'lir.  lOftl.  Jiiiiiing(irtgn-Crii»iiin,<ie  veto  Schol. 
Realium  et  Nominalt'.m  dlscr.  dccrolUque  ijisuruin  tlieoL  (Opuscc.  1S36.  p.  55ss.  KcmudulUng  of  tho 
ProsT.  of  1S2I.) 

(?)  Jo'fiDiix  Jfon.  Ep.  An?.  (Balm.  Mi?cell.  I.  IV.  p.  478.)  Anstlmi  1.  II.  Ep.  85.  41.  and  (1094) 
L.  de  fide  Trin.  et  de  incjirn.  vtrM  c.  bla^plioiiilas  KuzcliuL 


2-10  MKUiAKYAL  ciirnrn  iiif^ronv.   i'i:i;.  iii.   a.  ix  800-1216. 

§  219,     Jli/sticism.     First  Period. 

II.  Schmiit,  <1.  >ry»tlc  <1.  Mitt.  Alt  In  s.  Entstühungsper.  Jen.  1824.  Alb.  Liehner,  Hugo  v.  9 
Victor,  u.  d.  thiol.  KlohtunKcn  sr.  Ztlt.  Lpz.  1S32.  J.  Carres,  die  chrisll.  Mystik.  Kctrensb.  lS.3C9-i 
3  vols.  A.  llrlferirh,  (1.  clir.  Mj^tik  in  Hirer  Entw.  u.  ihrer  Dcnkin.  voL  I.  Entwlcklungsgesch. 
Ootli.  1842.     [A.  Koiiek,  Gtsch.  d.  clir.  Mystik.  Lps.  185-3.] 

The  tendency  of  tho  age  in  the  direction  of  the  feelings  and  of  the  imagi- 
nation was  shown  in  a  mysticism  of  a  lively  and  vigorous  character.  This 
was  an  cftbrt  of  the  human  mind,  by  means  of  its  affections,  to  connect 
itself  immediately  with  the  Deity.  It  was  not  unfriendly  to  the  Church,  hut 
it  was  earnest  against  the  moral  abuses  found  there.  Bernard  discovered 
tho  higliest  life  which  man  can  attain  in  a  perpetual  lovo  of  God,  which, 
while  it  is  vigorous  in  action  and  in  self-denials,  poetic  in  its  utterances,  and 
tho  source  of  all  spiritual  knowledge  of  God,  is  nevertheless  conscious  that 
it  is  itself  inexpressible.  («)  liichard  of  St.  Victor  (d.  1173),  by  means  of 
biblical  allegories,  made  known  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart  struggling  for 
words,  for  he  describes  the  process  of  contemplation  as  one  in  whose  highest 
flights  the  soul  in  ecstatic  rapture  is  perfectly  blessed  with  intuitions  of  the 
divine  glory.  {]>)  The  fanciful  nature  of  this  spirit  appears  in  the  revelations 
of  JIiMe(/ard,  Abbess  of  the  convent  of  Rupert,  near  Bingen  (d.  1178). 
Under  the  sanction  of  St.  Bernard,  they  were  acknowledged  to  be  actual 
divine  revelations,  because  the  figures  and  allegories  in  which  they  were 
clothed  were  agreeable  to  the  taste  of  her  contemporaries.  But  although  they 
revealed  nothing  supernatural,  they  contained  many  profound  views  of  the 
mysteries  of  history.  (<■)  In  the  convent  of  St.  Victor  near  Paris,  ever  since 
its  founder  (1109),  William  of  Chamjyeanx^  had  been  obliged  to  give  way 
before  the  more  brilliant  reputation  of  his  pupil  Abelard,  a  reconcihation  had 
been  sought  between  Mysticism  and  Scholasticism,  on  the  ground  that  the 
latter  was  represented  by  inspired  men,  and  the  former  professed  to  be  a 
series  of  spiritual  elevations,  (d)  The  profoundly  spiritual  mind  of  Hugo  of 
St.  Victor  (died  11-il),  naturally  inchned  to  discover  the  points  of  agreement 
between" difterent  systems,  regarded  Scholasticism  as  an  excellent  preparation 
for  Mysticism,  since  it  intelligently  established  the  doctrines  of  the  latter, 
and  in  its  perfection  must  lead  the  soul  up  to  the  enjoyment  of  ecstatic  emo- 
tions. He  therefore  regarded  each  of  these  tendencies  of  the  mind  as  the 
complement  and  correlative  of  the  other,  (e)    The  union  of  these  distinct  ele- 


a)  Especially,  De  contemtu  mundi,  do  consideratione,  de  diligendo  Deo,  Tr.  ad  Ilugonem  de  S. 
Tlct.  comp.  §  207. 

i)  Especially,  Dc  statn  inter  hominis,  de  praepar.  animi  ad  contempl.  s.  Benjamin  minor,  de  gra- 
tia contempt,  s.  Bcnj.  major.  0pp.  Kothom.  1650.  f. — Liehner,  Eich,  a  S.  Vict:  de  contempl.  doctrina. 
Gott  1S37.  P.  I.    Engelhardt,  Eich.  v.  S.  Victor  u.  Euysbroek.  Erl.  ISSS. 

c)  Scitias,  (Revclationes  S.  Virgg.  Hildeg.  et  Elis.  Col.  162S.  f.)  Liber  divinorum  opp.  simplicis 
hominis,  comp.  Marisi  ad  Fabric.  Bibl.  med.  et  in£  Lat  Th.  III.  ed.  Patav.  p.  263ss.— (^.  Meiners, 
de  S.  Hild.  vita.  (Comm.  Soc  Gott  Tb.  XII.  Class,  hist  et  ph.)  J.  K.  Dahl,  d.  h.  Ilild.  Mainz.  1S32. 
Gorres,  vol.  I.  p.  2>5ss.  II.  p.  210s. 

d)  Schlo-iser,  Abh.  zu  Vincent  v.  Beanvais'  Ilandb.  Frkf.  1S19.  vol.  II. 

e)  Especially,  de  sacramentis  chr.  fidei  1.  II.  Opp.  Rothom.  164?.  3  Th.  f.  According  to  the  prooft 
■dducod  by  Liebner.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S31.  part  2.  p.  254ss.)  the  Tractatus  thcol.  ascribed  to  Hildebert 
(Ilildeb.  Opp.  ed.  Beaugendre,  Tar.  1703.  f.)  contains  notblug  except  the  first  four  books  of  Hugos 
Summa  Scntontt 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  SCIENCE.     §  219.  JOUN  OF  SALI3.     §  220.  ADELABD.       241 

ments  of  tlie  age  after  all  never  became  a  promiüent  resnlt,  for  even  Hugo's 
fcuccessor,  Richard,  declared  decidedly  in  favor  of  Mysticism,  and  Walter  of 
St.  Victor  (1180),  who  had  studied  under  Richard,  assailed  the  most  celebra- 
ted leaders  of  the  French  Scholastic  party  as  sophists  and  heretics.  (/)  He 
defended  Mysticism  without  really  being  a  Mystic,  but  JoJin  of  SaUabur)/,  a 
faithful  companion  of  Eecket,  and  who  became,  after  the  assassination  of  that 
prelate,  a  bishop  of  Chartres  (d.  118-2),  stood,  like  one  conversant  with  Ro- 
mans and  Greeks,  in  an  entirely  dilierent  position.  It  is  true  that  he  justi- 
fied philosophy  on  account  of  its  general  utility  for  moral  purposes,  but 
honestly  exposing  his  pride  of  an  empty  knowledge  to  the  ridicule  of  his 
contemporaries,  he  predicted,  as  a  warning  to  others,  that  Scholasticism,  in 
the  course  of  its  scientific  investigations,  would  lose  the  truth,  (y) 

§  220.     Abclard,  1079-1142. 

I.  Letters  of  Abelard  and  lleloise,  especially  Ep.  I.  in  tlie  Ruits  De  historia  calaniitatum  snarum, 
witli  notes  by  l>it.  Chesne.  Introductio  ad  Tlieol.  L  III.  incomplete.  {Abatl.  et  Ihl.  Opp.  ed.  Am- 
hoise.  Par.  161G.  4.)  Theol.  chr.  1.  V.  {^lartene  Thos.  Anecd.  Th.  V.  p.  11&6.)  Etliica  s.  L.  scito  te 
Ipsum.  (Pezii,  Anecd.  v.  III.  P.  II.  p.  G27.)— Dial,  inter  I'bilos.,  Judaeum  ct  Christian,  cd.  Illiein- 
wald,  Ber.  1S31.  Sic  et  non.  Dialectica.  (and  dialectic.il  fragments  in:  Ouvrages  inodils  cTAMard 
publi6s  par  Victor  Cousin,  Par.  1S3C.  4.)    Sic  et  Non.  Priinum  integrum  edd.  K  L.  Jf>nike  et  O.  S. 

'  Lindenkohl,  JIarb.  1S51.  From  bis  school:  Ahael.  Epitome  Theol.  chr.  ed.  Jiheinwald,  Ber.  1S35. 
[Abailardi  et  IIcl.  Epp.  Oxon.  1728.  8.  Lettres  d'Ab.  et  Hol.  traduita  sur  les  nianuscrita  de  la  bib- 
lioth.  royal  p.  E.  Oddoul,  precedes  d'un  Essai  hist  p.  M.  et  Mmo  Giiizot,  Par.  1S39.  2  vols.] 

II.  Gertaiie,  vie  de  P.  Ab.  et  Hol.  Par.  (1720)  172^^.  2  Th.  Hist  lit  de  la  Fr.  Th.  XH.  p.  86.  629ss. 
J.  Berington,  Hist  of  the  Lives  of  Ab.  and  llel.  from  Ki'O-llM,  with  the  Letters  from  the  ColL  of 
Amboise.  Birming.  17SS.  4.  Schlosser,  Ab.  u.  Dulcin,  Leben  e.  Schwärmers  u.  e.  Pldl.  Goth.  1S07. 
J.  IT.  F.  Freridin,  de  Ab.  doct  dogm.  et  inor.  Jen.  1727.  Counin,  Introduction  to  his  edition. 
«/!  D.  n.  Goldhorn,  de  summis  princlpiis  Theol.  Ab.  Lps.  18-36.  E.  A.  Letcald,  de  Opp.  Ab.  quaö 
Cousin  ed.  Heidelb.  1S39.  4.  Franck,  Beitr.  zu  Würdig.  Ab.  (Tub.  Zeitsclir.  1S40.  H.  4.)  M.  Ca- 
riere,  Ab.  u.  Hel.  Giess.  1S14  J.  L.  Jacohi,  Ab.  u.  H.d.  Brl.  liSi).  F.  Braun,  do  Ab.  Ethica.  Marb. 
1852.  [0.  W.  Wight,  The  Romance  of  Ab.  and  Hel.  New  York.  1*53.  12.  Btthringer,  Church  ot 
Christ  and  its  Witnesses,  in  last  vol.  1S54.] 

In  its  opposition  to  Scliolasticism,  ^tlysticism  found  its  most  distinguished 
antagonist  in  Abelard.  Ilis  reputation  in  the  schools  was  more  brilliant,  his 
spirit  more  liberal,  liis  familiarity  with  the  ancient  Roman  writers  more  inti- 
mate, and  his  independence  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  greater,  than  that  of 
any  of  his  associates  of  the  scholastic  party.  He  regarded  the  principle,  that 
nothing  is  to  be  believed  which  is  not  understood,  as  the  primary  ma.xim  of 
that  school.  This  doctrine  of  the  supremacy  of  reason,  when  taken  in  con- 
nection with  that  of  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Church  in  matters  of  faith, 
which  was  equally  sustained  by  Abelard,  jiroduced  an  obvious  incongruity  in 
his  fundamental  principles.  Even  in  his  youth  ho  took  delight  in  vanquish- 
ing the  most  renowned  teachers  of  that  period  by  his  dialectic  .'^kill.  Ho 
taught  (after  1115)  on  Mount  St.  Genevieve,  and  became  the  most  celebrated 


/)  Contra  nova»  haoreses,  qnas  Soplilstno  Abaclsrdus,  Lonibardns  Petrus  PIcfav.  ct  Qllber- 
tus  Porrctan.  libris  sentt.  puarum  acunnt  Generally  c.illed:  Contra  <pi«liiiir  labyrlntlios  Gulliao 
Extracts  in  Bidaei  H.  Univ.  Paris.  Th.  II.  p.  2;l0.  402.  502.  029ss.  A.  I'Uinck,  ü.  d.  Sehr.  d.  Walth 
V.  S.  V.  (Stud.  u.  Krlt  1S44.  H.  1.) 

g)  Policraticus  S.  de  nngls  curialium  et  vcstlgÜM  phllosophor.  I.  VIII.  Lugcl.  Ifi.'JD.  Mctaloglcu% 
I.  IV.  Jb.  ICIO.  Epp.  8U3.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  vol.  XXIII.  p.  'Hi.)— If.  Keuttr,  Job.  v.  Saliab.  Ber- 
lin. 1342. 

16 


242  MICDIAKVAI.  cmi'.CH  IIIrtTOItY.     TKU.  III.     A.  I>.  i,(tO~V2\r,. 

instructor  in  i)liil()S()|)liy  jldiI  tlicology  tlion  in  Paris.  It  W!i.s  there  that  he 
lonnd  the  Ijij^iiest  rapture  and  llio  deepest  grief  in  his  love  of  Ileloise.  Her 
lufty  spirit  Bcorncd  to  become  the  wife  of  Abelard,  for  slie  thought  such  a 
connection  incompatible  with  his  attainment  of  those  ecclesiastical  dignities 
whic'li  she  rcfiardcd  as  his  proper  right.  Even  this  hope  her  relatives 
attenijjted  to  baflle  by  an  act  of  most  shameful  atrocity  (1110).  Abelard 
then  took  refuge  from  the  world  in  the  convent  of  St.  Denys,  where  in  an 
earnest  penitential  spirit  he  was  gradually  enabled  to  praise  God  for  the 
chastisements  which  he  had  endured.  Ileloise  was  induced  solely  by  her 
attachment  to  him  to  take  the  veil.  Compelled  to  return  to  his  station  as  an 
instructor  by  the  solicitations  of  the  academical  youth,  he  was  opposed  by 
the  coinLiued  jealousy  of  the  Scholastics  and  the  hatred  of  the  Mystics.  At 
a  synod  held  at  SoiMons  (1121),  at  which  a  legate  presided,  his  "Introduc- 
tion to  Theology"  Avas  condemned  to  be  burnt  as  an  infidel  representation 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  and  he  himself  was  sentenced  unheard  to 
be  confined  in  a  very  retired  convent.  But  such  severe  ill-treatment  only 
increased  the  sympathy  of  the  people  with  him,  and  he  was  soon  after  per- 
mitted by  the  legate  to  return  to  St.  Denys.  When,  however,  he  was  per- 
secuted by  the  monks  on  account  of  his  discovery  that  Dionysius  of  Paris 
was  not  the  Areopagite,  he  betook  himself  to  a  wilderness  near  Xogent.  Im- 
mense multitudes  followed  him  to  this  retreat  that  they  miglit  listen  to  his 
instructions,  and  in  a  forest  they  constructed  a  multitude  of  huts,  and  a  temple 
which  he  dedicated  to  the  Spirit,  the  Comforter.  When  threatened  with  new 
persecutions,  he  committed  this  Paraclete  to  the  care  of  Heloise  as  its  abbess, 
and  consented  to  become  the  abbot  of  the  convent  of  St.  Gildas  at  Euits,  in 
Brittany,  to  which  he  had  been  elected  (1126).  Here  for  ten  years  he  strug- 
gled unsuccessfully  to  establish  monastic  discipline,  when  he  gave  up  the 
attempt  and  retm-ned  to  give  lectures  once  more  as  a  professor  in  Paris. 
There  he  was  opposed  by  a  crowd  of  enemies  under  the  direction  of  St.  Ber- 
nard. A  catalogue  of  alleged  heresies  Avas  extracted  from  his  writings,  many 
of  which  were  contrary  to  the  ordinary  mode  of  instruction  in  the  Church, 
or  would  admit  of  inferences  inconsistent  with  the  orthodox  creed.  The  real 
controversy  related  to  the  subject  of  Scholasticism  itself,  which  was  accused 
of  desecrating  divine  mysteries  by  its  daring  attempts  at  analysis.  («)  The 
spirit  of  Abelard  was  now  broken,  and  when  his  writings  were  condemned 
at  a  synod  held  at  Sens  (114:0),  he  appealed  to  the  pope,  by  whom  he  was 
doomed  on  Bernard's  representation  to  a  perpetual  confinement  in  a  con- 
vent. Qi)  An  asylum  was  finally  secured  for  him  by  Fetcr  of  Clugny,  and 
when  he  died  the  body  of  her  friend  was  committed  to  the  hands  of  He- 
loise (r)  a.s  an  oftering  richly  adorned  by  God  himself  in  behalf  of  mental 
freedom,  not  only  in  the  literary  but  in  the  social  world.  It  is  difficult  to 
tell  whether  he  was  most  beloved  or  hated  by  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 

<i)  £<!inardi  Ep.  1S8.  ad  Cardinales.  ISO.  ad  Innoc  Tr.  de  crrorib.  Ab.  ad  lanoc.  (Opp.  Th.  IV. 
J).  U4.)    Also  «iih  the  Index  XIX.  capitul.  in  the  works  of  Abelard. 

b)  Document:*  of  Synoil,  sent  to  the  iK)pe  bj  LWiiara,  Ep.  870.  Abelard  s  Apdnsy  in  Opposition 
to  Bernard  in  his  Ep.  20.  (Opp.  p.  S3ÜSS.)  Satires  re.'ipcctins  the  Synod  and  SL  Bernard  by  Beren^ 
garim  Sc/iolusticun,  Apologet  pro  magistro  e,  Bernard.  {Ahaelardi  Opp.  p.  302ss.) 

c)  P<tri  Yen.  Ep.  ad  Hol.  lUloUsae  aiX  relruni.  (^Ahad.  Opp.  p.  837fs.) 


CHAP.  IV     ECCLES.  SCIENCE.    §  221.  SAC.  SCRIPT.    §  222.  XIEBELÜNGEN.      24a 

§  221.     The  Sacred  Scriptures. 

Many  v.-orks  upon  the  Scriptures  were  written  by  persons  belonging  to  the 
circles  of  tlie  Mystics  and  the  Scholastics,  but  although  they  exhibited  a  high 
degree  of  mental  acutencss  and  sprightliuess,  they  displayed  an  entire  want 
of  a  proper  conception  of  the  peculiarities  of  ancient  times,  Tiiough  these 
peculiarities  were  not  unknown  to  the  authors,  tliey  nevertheless  received  a 
deep  coloring  from  the  outward  relations  of  the  modern  world,  and  yet  were 
represented  as  a  tradition  from  the  past.  An  abundant  literature  was  also 
formed  around  the  sacred  writings.  In  her  Pleasure  Garden,  JAnad,  the 
Abbess  of  Landsperg  (about  1175),  has  contrived  to  weave  into  the  scrip- 
tural history  a  general  summary  of  all  secular  knowledge.  (<<)  All  kinds 
of  literature  are  full  of  allusions  to  something  in  the  Bible.  But  although 
the  Jews  were  induced  by  their  Arabic  learning  to  investigate  the  lie- 
brew  text,  the  Scriptures  were  interpreted  b}*  ecclesiastical  Avriters  with- 
out any  important  aid  from  a  knowledge  of  other  languages.  The  vari- 
ous manuscripts  of  the  Vulgate  ditlered  widely  from  each  other.  Tlio  glosses 
of  Walafrid  Stralo  (849)  and  Anselm  of  Lao n  (d.  1117),  were  generally  used, 
although  they  Avere  nothing  but  verbal  definitions  and  paraphrases  derived 
from  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  (h)  In  the  more  extended  commentaries,  four 
different  senses  were  presupposed  in  every  scriptural  passage  ;  the  historical 
meaning  was  regarded  only  as  the  vestibule  to  the  sanctuary,  and  wliatever 
life  appeared  was  expended  in  the  play  of  allegorical  interjjretations.  IiU- 
2)crt^  Abbot  of  Deutz  (d.  1135),  endeavored  to  re-establish  all  theology  upon 
the  basis  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  the  great  Book  through  which  God  has 
intelligently  presented  the  way  of  salvation  to  all  nations,  (c)  "When  the 
Slaves  endeavored  to  retain  the  use  of  their  own  national  language  in  their 
religious  worship,  they  were  opposed  by  Gregory  VIT.  (1080),  who  was  the 
first  that  ventured  to  censure  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vernacular 
tongue,  and  justified  this  opposition  by  a  roferonce  to  the  mysteries  of  tlie 
primitive  Clmrch.  ('/) 

§  222.  Commencement  of  a  National  Literature  in  the  2'icelj'th  Century. 
A  faint  reflection  of  the  ancient  national  glory  long  remained,  almost  en- 
tirel\'  unaffected  by  the  influence  of  Cln-istianity,  in  the  hearts  of  tlie  [leople, 
and  was  exhibited  in  tlie  German  epic  jioetry.  This  finally  received  a  per- 
manent written  form  during  tlic  tliirteenth  century,  in  the  comjiosition  called 
The  Niehclungen.  («)  The  popular  fable  of  the  Court  of  the  Beasts  was  a 
pleasant  representation  of  human  society  among  a  jieoplo  conversant  with 
the  simple  life  of  tlio  forest.  As  this  story  had  already  been  to  some  extent 
similarly  applied  by  some  of  his  predecessors,  it  was  formed  by  a  monk  of 
Clugny  about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century  into  the  fable  of  JicinarduSy 

a)  Ilortus  delicinruin,  a  mnniiscript  with  niiiiliiturcs  in  the  Lib.  at  Strasbiirsr.  Engelhardt,  Her» 
rad  V.  L.  u.  llir  II.  delie.  Stutt;:.  1S18. 

V)  Wuld/rUH  Glnssa  orilinnria  in  r.iWI.i,  (Oiip.  Pur.  l'<52.  2  vol?.  In  tlio  Patrol,  cd.  JAiV»«",  vol 
CXIII.)    Anselmi  Glo.'ssa  InterHnoari».  Ha«.  \f^'i.  f.  and  often. 

c>  Riiiierti  TuUienxi»,  0pp.  Mofr.  1031.  2  Tli.  f.      d)  Grrg.  1.  VII.  Ep.  11. 

<()  [Tlio  Kail  of  tlio  Mebclungors,  hv.  trans-l.  by  ir.  K.  LetiHom,  Lond.  1S50.] 


844  MF.niAKVAL  CIIL'KCU  lIIsTOUY.     PKR.  III.     A.  !>.  W»-mG. 

which  contained  an  ironical  sntiro  upon  the  gluttony  of  the  monks,  and  th< 
avarice  of  the  popes,  (i)  Independent  of  the  clergy,  and  yet  in  the  midst 
of  the  enthusiasm  of  the  first  Crusades,  sprung  up  the  joyous  art  of  the 
Trouhadoiim.  With  passionate  zeal  it  entered  into  ail  the  discussions  of  the 
age,  and  though  its  inspirations  Avere  sometimes  employed  in  singing  the  ex- 
j.loits  of  the  Oiurch,  it  was  at  other  times  equally  fearless  in  opposing  the 
had  practices  of  the  hierarchy,  and  was  always  independent  of  ecclesiastical 
control,  (c)  The  Suahianmijinesingcrs,  the  nightingales  of  the  middle  ages, 
near  the  close  of  the  first  half  of  the  twelfth  century  began  to  sing  of  earthly 
love,  joy,  and  sorrow.  The  ordinary  feelings  with  which  men  regarded  the 
Blessed  Virgin  were  transferred  by  these  minstrels  to  the  whole  female  sex.  Ul) 
Walter  of  the  Vogelweide  penetrated  far  into  the  mysterious  emotions  of  genu- 
ine Christianity,  and  yet  confessed  with  childlike  candor  that  he  found  in  his 
heart  nothing  like  love  toward  his  enemies.  On  the  other  hand,  with  the 
spirit  of  a  real  German,  he  set  himself  in  opposition  to  all  priestly  dissimula- 
tion and  the  unrighteous  ban  which  the  pope  had  imposed  upon  his  country. 
A  vivid  picture  of  the  Crusades  is  presented  in  the  legends  and  songs  relat- 
ing to  the  expedition  of  Charles  the  Great  into  Spain.  In  these  poems  that 
monarch,  who  is  called  pre-eminently  the  servant  of  God,  with  his  twelve 
l^aladins,  are  described  as  exposing  their  bodies  to  the  most  imminent  perils 
for  the  benefit  of  their  souls.  Instead  of  the  treasures  of  the  Niebel- 
ungenlied  with  its  heathenish  spirit,  we  now  have  the  story  of  the  San 
Graal.  The  knightly  epic,  however,  when  it  became  fully  developed,  was 
not  much  pervaded  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  The  meditative  Wolfram 
of  Esclienlach^  in  his  poem  of  the  Parzival,  enters  indeed  into  the  proper 
ideas  of  the  Church,  distinguishes  between  the  ideal  and  the  actual,  and 
describes  the  expiations  and  the  external  holiness  which  are  necessary 
to  the  enjoyment  of  a  higher  life,  but  what  he  describes  is  not  an  eccle- 
siastical expiation,  and  the  guardians  of  his  sanctuary  are  not  priests,  bat 
holy  knights  and  a  divinely  consecrated  king.  The  luminous  Godfrey  of 
Strasburg  in  his  Tristan  described  the  sumptuous  life  of  the  court,  in  which, 
totally  regardless  of  the  decisions  of  the  Church,  the  eternal  rights  of  the 
heart  were  treated  as  inviolable,  even  when  opposed  to  what  was  then  called 
the  sacrament  of  marriage,  {e)  As  early  as  the  time  of  the  Othos,  laymen 
generally  scorned  the  cultivation  of  every  kind  of  science,  and  towards  the 
close  of  the  twelfth  century  the  clergy  entirely  renounced  the  study  of  all 
literature  in  the  language  of  the  people.  The  general  result  of  all  the  influ- 
ence of  this  age  was,  that  the  clergy  entirely  lost  the  monopoly  they  had  pre- 
viously possessed  in  the  mental  cultivation  of  the  people.  (/*)  Hence,  at  the 
same  time  with  the  ecclesiastical  sciences,  a  species  of  poetry  was  formed, 
dictated  solely  by  those  feelings  which  exist  in  every  human  bosom.  It  was 
not,  however,  a  poetry  altogether  popular  in  its  character,  for  it  was  highly 


h)  Gertimis,  Gesch.  d.  poet  Nation.  Literatur,  voi.  I.  p.  102s8. 

c)  The  particulars  in  MUM,  Raynouard  u.  unserm  Dietz. 

d)  C.  £arth<;l,  Oppos.  gegen  die  Hierarchie.  Walther  v.  d.  V.  (Zelt5ch.  f.  hist.  Tb.  1S45.  H.  Z.) 
t)  The  particulars  in  Görres,  Lachmann,  Grimtn,  Gervinus,  and  Hagen. 

/)  Comp.  //.  Leo,  v.  d.  sieben  Vrumicheiten.  (.Hal.)  1S39. 


CUAP.  V.    EXTEXS.  OF  THE  CnGPXII.    §  223.  DENM.^^K.    SWEDEN.        245 

artificial,  and  adapted  only  to  the  chivalrous  tastes  of  the  knights.  The 
most  brilliant  exhibitions  of  its  power  were  presented  at  the  court  of  the 
Hohenstaufens, 


CHAP,  v.— EXTENSION  OF  TIIE  ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH. 

Adam.  Brem.  (§  ITO.)  EJiisd.  de  situ  Daniae  et  reliqnarum,  quae  trans  Daniam  sunt,  rcjionam 
natura,  morib.  et  reL  cd.  Fabric.  Hamb.  170C.  f. 

§  223.     The  Uohj  Ansgar.    801-865. 

I.  A  letter  of  Ansgar  and  the  Life  of  St.  Willehad.  {PerU  Tli.  IL  p.  8T3.)  Si\A  Ani>karii  by 
his  follower  üimleit.  (Ed.  DaJdmanr.  in  Pertz  Th.  IL  p.  6S-3.)  Life  of  S.  Willehad  and  S.  Ansgar, 
uebers.  m.  Anm.  v.  Cumten  Misegaes,  Brin.  1S2C.  S.  Anskarii  Piginenta.  Written  with  the  assist- 
ance of  Lappenl/urg,  llanib.  1S44. 

II.  E.  C.  Kruse,  S.  Ansgar.  Alton.  1S23.  F.  A.  Krxtmmacher,  S.  Anspar,  alte  u.  neue  Zeit 
Bretn.  1828.  //.  Reuterdahl,  Ans^.  o.  d.  Anfangspunkt  d.  Clir.  in  Schwed.  from  the  Swedish  by 
Mayerhoff,  Brl.  1S.37.  F.  C.  JCraJfi,  Narr,  do  Ansg.  aquilonarium  gentium  Ajwst.  Hamb.  1840.  4. 
G.  IT.  Klippel,  Lebensbeschr.  d.  Erzb.  Ansg.  Brem.  lS-1.5.  [Diplom.ifarlum  Xorvcgicuui,  ed.  by 
<?.  Lange  and  C.  R.  Unger,  to  be  in  10  vols.,  but  only  the  1st  part  in  1S49,  and  the  2d  in  ISWJ,  are 
ret  pubL  Christiania.  4to.] 

The  Danish  prince  Uarcdd  Laving  obtained  the  throne  of  his  ancestors 
by  the  assi.^tancc  of  Louis  the  Pious,  after  a  long  contest  with  his  competi- 
tors, became  a  willing  instrument  by  which  tlie  policy  of  the  Prankish 
monarch  might  be  carried  out  in  his  own  country.  lie  was  baptized  in  the 
cit}'  of  Mentz  (820),  and  bis  followei*s  were  delighted  with  the  splendid  gifts 
conferred  on  them  by  the  spon-sors.  On  his  return  to  Jutland,  he  "vvas  accom- 
panied by  Ansgai\  a  monk  of  Corvey,  who  bad  been  induced  by  his  religious 
feelings  and  a  vision  of  Christ,  to  consecrate  himself  to  the  work  of  convert- 
ing the  heathen.  The  archbishopric  of  ILnnlnirg  was  founded  for  him  by 
Louis  the  Pious  with  tlie  papal  consent  (831),  for  the  propagation  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Northern  countries.  As  this  city  was  soon  after  pillaged  by 
pirates,  from  wboso  ravages  nothing  was  saved  by  Ansgar  but  some  relics, 
his  archbishopric  was  attached  by  the  German  king  and  the  pope  to  the 
bishopric  of  Bremen  (849).  Having  been  appointed  the  papal  legate  and  the 
imperial  ambassador  for  the  northern  nations,  An.sgar  resided  in  tiiis  latter 
city,  and  possessed  an  influence  among  those  people  which  prepared  the  way 
for  his  subsequent  eftbrts  in  Jutland  and  Sleswic.  lie  was  not,  indeed,  very 
seriously  opi)Osed  in  his  labors,  except  by  the  inditference  of  the  peojjle. 
This  he  endeavored  to  overcome  by  obtaining  possession  of  heathen  children, 
and  by  ransoming  those  persons  who  had  been  carried  into  captivity,  and 
training  them  to  be  future  missionaries.  On  his  first  mission  to  Sweden 
(829),  he  found  some  perms  of  Christianity  already  existing  there,  and  by 
the  favor  of  the  court  he  was  permitted  to  plant  some  further  seeds  of  the 
gospel  among  the  peojjle.  These,  however,  were  soon  after  entirely  de- 
stroyed in  a  popular  insurrection.  His  second  visit  to  that  country  (855)  was 
more  successful,  since  tlie  proclamation  of  the  new  faith  was  then  tolerated 
by  the  people  and  their  gods,  on  account  of  the  protection  afforded  by  tlie 
God  of  the  Christians  to  those  who  went  to  sea.    He  was  often  discovered 


246  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUUCII  lIISTOItY.     I'KR.  III.     A.  I).  ^00-1216. 

by  Iiciml)crt  in  tears,  because  he  was  not  regarded  by  Iiis  Lord  worthy  ol 
the  iiKirtyrdoin  whicli  he  supposed  had  been  promised  him. 

§  224:,     German  Xaiions  of  the  Xurtli. 

The  foundation  which  had  been  laid  by  Ansgar  in  DenmarTc  was  protected 
and  enlarged  by  the  influence  of  the  Saxon  emperors,  although  it  was  viewed 
with  great  dislike  by  many  as  the  religion  of  their  national  enemies.  The 
cause  of  Christianity,  however,  gained  new  strength  by  the  continuance  of 
their  connection  with  the  Normans.  Tliis  people,  ever  since  the  commence- 
ment of  the  tenth  century,  had  obtained  jtossessions  by  conquest  in  England 
and  France,  and  had  adopted  the  faith  as  well  as  the  higher  civilization  of 
the  conquered  nations.  The  triumph  of  the  new  religion  was  finally  secured 
through  the  conquest  of  England  by  the  Danish  kings.  Canute  the  Great 
secured  the  imion  of  Denmark  with  England,  and  the  reconciliation  of  the 
two  nations  by  the  establishment  of  the  Church  among  the  Danes;  and 
while  he  was  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Eomc  (1027),  in  accordance  with  his  pre- 
vious stipulations,  it  was  connected  with  the  Roman  Church,  (a)  By  means 
of  persons  sent  forth  from  Bremen,  Christianity  continued  to  extend  itself 
in  Siceclen.,  and  though  at  first  its  progress  was  slow,  it  was  without  opposi- 
tion, and  connected  with  many  harmless  heathen  customs.  Alms  and  fasts 
were  vowed  to  the  Lord  Christ  by  a  city  in  time  of  distress,  though  it  was 
still  in  a  state  of  heathenism.  The  drinking  horns  of  heathen  chiefs  were 
not  unfrequently  emptied  to  the  health  of  Christ  and  of  the  archangel 
Michael.  The  series  of  Christian  kings  commenced  with  Olaf  Schoossl-onig 
(1008),  but  the  temple  of  Odin  at  Upsala  was  not  destroyed,  until,  after  a 
sanguinary  contest,  it  was  levelled  with  the  ground  by  King  Inge  (1075).  (b) 
The  gospel  was  conveyed  to  Xorwaij  in  the  ninth  century  by  some  seafaring 
youth,  but  the  white  Christ  was  generally  regarded  by  the  people  as  the  god 
of  a  foreign  nation.  Harald  Ilarfagar,  in  a  public  assembly,  took  an  oath 
that  he  would  never  again  present  an  ottering  to  deities  whose  sway  extended 
merely  to  his  own  country,  but  only  to  one  who  was  Lord  of  the  whole 
earth,  and  by  whose  help  he  hoped  to  extend  his  authority  over  all  Norway. 
And  yet  when  his  son  Hacon  the  Good  (936-950),  who  had  been  educated 
and  baptized  in  England,  thereupon  proposed  that  all  the  people  should  be 
baptized,  not  only  was  the  proposal  rejected,  but  the  prince  was  compelled  to 
feign  that  a  cross  which  he  had  formed  upon  Odin's  cup  was  intended  for  the 
sign  of  Thor's  hammer.  At  his  funeral  the  Skald  proclaimed  that  he  had  been 
admitted  to  the  Valhalla,  because  he  had  mildly  forborne  to  destroy  the  sacred 
things  belonging  to  the  ancient  gods.  The  cause  of  Christianity,  however, 
had  now  become  identified  with  that  of  the  supreme  monarchs  of  the  coun- 

a)  Saao  Grammaticus,  (died  about  1204.)  Hist  Danlcae  1.  STI.  ed.  Stephanius,  Sor.  1644.  2 
Th.  f.  Xlotz,  Lps.  1T71.  A.—Pantoppidan,  Annal.  Ecc.  Dan.  diplomatici.  Ilanv.  1741ss.  Th.  I. 
Munter,  KGesch.  v.  Dänem.  u.  Norw.  Lpz.  lS-23.  vol.  I.  F.  C.  Dahlmann,  Gesch.  t.  Dfinneni. 
Ilamb.  1S40.  vol.  I.  p.  28.-^. 

I)  Claudii  Oernfijulm,  Hist  Siieonum  Gothorumque  ecc  1.  IT.  Stockh.  16S9.  4.  Statnta  syno« 
dalia  vet  Ecc.  Sucvogothicae,  ed.  lieuterdaM,  Lond.  1S41.  i.—Geijer,  Gcsch.  Schwed.  A.  d.  schwed 
llandfclir.  v.  Leßer,  Hanib.  1S."3.  vol.  1.  \_F.  C.  Geijer,  H.  of  the  Swede&  Transl.  from  the  Swediäl^ 
l.y  J.  II.  Tunter,  Lond.  1S47.  S.] 


CHAP.  V.    EXTEN3.  OF  THE  CHURCH.    §  '224.  XOUWAY.    ICELAND.  24? 

trj,  and  the  former  kings  of  the  particular  tribes  were  as  tenacious  of  their 
ancient  gods,  as  they  were  of  the  private  rights  sanctioned  by  those  deities. 
The  wild  and  intriguing  influence  of  Olaf  Trygvesen  (995-1000)  was  ex- 
pended in  accomplishing  the  triurapli  of  the  Church,  to  effect  which  he  was 
supplied  with  priests  from  England  and  Bremen.  01"/  tl)e  Thicl,\  wlio  be- 
came king  of  Norway  in  the  year  1019,  in  an  expedition  he  made  at  the  head 
of  his  array  throughout  his  kingdom,  arranged  the  affairs  of  the  Church  on 
a  permanent  basis.  Dissatisfied,  liowever,  with  his  policy,  the  heathen  por- 
tion of  the  nation  delivered  up  his  kingdom  into  the  hands  of  Canute  the 
Great.  In  defence  of  the  cause  of  the  cross,  Olaf  appealed  to  the  religious 
enthusiasm  of  his  subjects,  and  finally  perished  in  a  disastrous  battle  (1033). 
But  even  in  the  succeeding  year,  wlien  hatred  began  to  be  awakened  in  the 
bosoms  of  the  Nonnans  against  the  dominion  of  foreigners,  a  strong  feeling 
of  attachment  for  Olaf  was  revived,  and  his  body  being  taken  from  its  grave, 
was  found  free  from  decay.  From  that  time,  under  the  name  of  >yt.  Ol(ij\ 
he  has  been  invoked  as  the  patron  saint  of  Norway,  and  after  a  single  cen- 
tury he  was  honored  by  all  tlie  Northern  nations.  (<■)  In  Icclawl^  Christian- 
ity having  been  proclaimed  by  several  transient  messengers,  Olaf  Trygvesen 
at  last  found  a  permanent  lodgment,  and  after  a  severe  conflict  it  Avas  for  the 
sake  of  peace  accepted  at  a  general  assembly  of  the  people  (1000),  though 
with  the  condition  that  men  might  worsliip  tlie  ancient  gods  in  private,  and 
that  children  might  be  publicly  exposed  without  molestation.  (</)  About  this 
time,  also,  a  flourishing  bishoprio  was  erected  by  some  emigrants  from  Iceland 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  O'rceiilaml,  whose  tithes  were  paid  at  Rome  in  tlie 
teeth  of  walruses,  (e)  In  all  these  Northern  countries  the  moral  and  social 
sjjirit  of  Christianity  had  to  contend  with  the  custom  of  private  revenge  for 
blood  shed  by  enemies,  the  right  of  a  freeman  to  commit  suicide,  the  expo- 
sure of  children,  and  the  eating  of  the  flesh  of  horses  and  of  vultures. 
When  the  images  of  the  gods  were  destroyed  by  bold  and  powerful  men  with 
no  divine  judgments  following  the  action,  the  people  generally  acknowledged 
tliat  Christ  was  tlie  superior  Deity.  Tlie  ancient  world  of  tlie  gods  was  not, 
however,  entirely  renounced,  but  only  thrown  back  into  a  mysterious  abyss, 
and  converted  into  a  gloomy  kingdom  of  magic,  peopled  by  trolds,  nixies, 
and  elves.  There  waa  indeed  a  legend  current  among  the  more  indulgent 
I)ortion  of  the  people,  which  held  out  a  hope  that  even  the  spirits  of  nature 
would  in  some  future  period  be  redeemed  from  their  state  of  banishment.  (/) 


c)  I.  Siiorro  Sluiieson,  (diod  12-11.)  irtlmskrinirla,  cd.  iSchoeniiig,  H-ifn.  ITTT.is.  Ö  Th.  f.  [Tr.insl. 
Into  Engl,  by  Ä  Laing,  3  vols.  Lond.  1S44.]  II.  Jlt'iiiUr,  KOcscli.  v.  U.  ii.  Norw.  vol.  I.  p.  4.3]s.s 
[.1.  Crichton,  Scandinavia.  Anc.  nnd  Mod.  Ac.  Kdlnb.  1S:>9.  2  vol».  S.  Jf.  h'ne<itoti,  llihL  of  the 
Northmen,  fee.  Nfw  ed.  New  York.  1SI7.  2  vol.>>.] 

(I)  I.  Metxlingiihok  (by  priest  Are  tlio  WIv,  dlccl  lUS.)  c.  T.<p.  robcr?.  In  Diddiiinnn's  Forsch. 
Alton.  1822.  vol.  I.  p.  •4T2.<3.  llungurrak-u  s.  lll.st,  prinioruiii  V!^kallloltcn^lllIIl  in  U\.  Kpiscc.  (13tb 
cent.)  Hafn.  177S.  KriHtiil-Sugn  8.  Hist.  rol.  clir.  in  I-l.  introd.  (Utli  cent)  Hafn.  17T4.— II.  Finnl 
Julutnnei,  Hist.  cce.  \A.  Hafn.  1772ss.  4  Th.  4.  .Stuudlhi,  fi.  kirchl.  Gcscli.  u.  Grcpor.  v.  l>\.  (KHist. 
Arch.  vol.  H.  i)t.  1.)  Miiiiter,  \q\.  I.  p.  .'»IOsü,  [An  Hist  and  Dcscrlp.  Account  of  Iceland,  Green- 
land, and  the  Faroe  Islands,  &c.  (Kd.  Cab.  Lib.)  Kdlnb.  and  New  York.  Is40.] 

e)  y^f/i/^t  Groenl.  antiqna.  Hafn.  17iiC.  J/«H^cr,  vol.  I.  p.  &55.ss.  Comp.  Anliqultates  A«fri 
lanae  b.  Sern  scptentr.  rcruin  ante  Cuhiinlji.innr.  Hul'n.  tS37.  4. 

/)  Orimm,  Mytliol.  p.  279. 


248  MKDIAKVAI,  CiniU  H  IIISTOKV.     TEK.  III.     A.  I).  8(K)-1216. 

Ono  result  at  least  of  the  conversion  of  these  Northern  nations,  was  that 
those  countries  of  Europe  whiih  bordered  on  the  sea  were  no  longer  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  pirates,  (y)  The  ecclesiastical  supervision  of  them  whicli 
liad  previously  been  vested  in  the  see  of  Breuieu  was  now  (1104)  transferred 
to  the  areIihlsho])ric  of  Lund. 

§  225.     The  Slavic  Kations. 

The  Slavic  nations  acknowledged  the  existence  of  a  Sujjreme  Being,  whom 
they  regarded  as  the  original  Creator  of  all  things,  but  they  also  paid  divine 
honors  to  a  race  of  gods  which  they  believed  to  have  sprung  from  him. 
Those  were  divided  into  two  classes,  called  the  white  and  the  black  deities. 
Although  the  latter  represented  the  destructive  powers  of  nature,  they  were 
not  viewed  as  absolutely  evil,  since  they  allowed  the  germ  of  life  to  remain 
even  in  the  things  which  they  decomposed.  These  divinities  were  repre- 
sented by  uncouth  symbolical  forms,  and  in  the  several  tribes  there  were 
found  sacred  cities  and  a  hierarchy,  («)  Some  conversions  effected  among 
the  Slaves  by  Charles  the  Great  were  as  transitory  as  his  conquests.  The 
conversion  and  spiritual  superintendence  of  the  people  who  resided  near  the 
Danube  were  intrusted  to  their  neighbors,  the  Archbishops  of  Salzburg  and 
Lorch,  whose  rights  were  subsequently, possessed  by  the  Bishop  of  Passau. 
The  Slavic  nations,  however,  were  too  much  opposed  to  any  connection  with 
Germany,  and  too  little  acquainted  with  the  German  or  Latin  languages,  to  be 
influenced  by  a  Christianity  coming  to  them  from  that  quarter.  The  Holy 
Scriptures,  the  preaching  of  the  gospel,  and  the  services  of  rehgion,  were 
introduced  to  the  Moravians  in  the  Slavonian  language  by  two  Greek  monks 
(8G3),  Cyrillus  (Constantine)  and  Methodius,  who  became  connected  with 
Rome,  but  did  not  relinquish  their  peculiar  Greek  forms  of  worship.  Metho- 
dius was  consecrated  at  Rome  Archbishop  of  Moravia,  and  the  Slavish  forms 
of  worship  received  the  papal  sanction  (880),  on  the  ground  that  God  under- 
stood all  languages  and  should  be  worshipped  by  all  nations.  His  efforts, 
however,  to  erect  a  distinct  national  Church  met  Avith  continual  o]>position 
on  the  part  of  the  Gei-man  bishops,  and  finally  (908)  the  Moravian  kingdom 
was  divided  by  the  swords  of  the  Hungarians  and  Bohemians.  The  Slavish 
ritual  was  kept  up  under  these  new  rulers  in  only  a  few  churches,  principally 
in  Illyria.  (h)  Towards  the  close  of  the  ninth  century,  Borziwoi,  Duke  of 
Bohemia,  was  induced  by  the  flattering  promises  of  Methodius  to  receive  bap- 
tism. His  last  days  were  spent  with  his  sainted  wife  Ludmilla  in  retirement 
from  the  world.     Wenceslaus  (928-938),  his  grandson,  urged  forward  the 

0)  Adam  Brem.  Dc  situ  Dan.  c.  QQ. 

a)  Fi-encel.  de  diis  Sorabor.  et  al.  Slavor.  {IToffmanv,  Scrr.  rer.  Lnsat.  Th.  II.)  Mone,  Gcscli. 
A.  Ileldenth.  Im  nördl.  Eur.  vol.  I.  p.  lllss.  GieseUr,  ü.  d.  Verbreitnng  cliri.<tl.  dual.  Lcbrberr 
unter  d.  Slaven.  (Stud.  n.  Krit  18.37.  II.  2.  p.  857ss.)  Ilanusch,  d.  "SViss.  d.  s!ar.  Mythus.  Lenib 
1S42.    P.  J.  Schofnrik,  slaw.  Alterlhümer,  edit  by  Wutlke,  Lpz.  1S4.3.  2  vols. 

h)  I.  Vita  Constantini,  by  a  contemporary  writer.  (AcLi  SS.  Mart  Th.  II.  p.  19.)  rreslnj- 
teri  Diocleatis  (ahowiW&X),  Rc^ium  Slavor.  c.  Sss.  (Schlozer's  Nestor,  vol.  III.  p.  15-3ss.)  J/(t)i6i 
Th.  XVIII.  p.  13'2?s.— II.  Assennirii  Kalondaria  Ecc  nniv.  Kom.  1756.  4.  Th.  III.  Pihirs  ct  Jfora- 
tceb,  Moraviae  lli-^t  eccl.  et  pol.  IJrunni.  1Tn">s.-.  S  Th.— ,/.  Pohroic-l:!/ :  Cyrill.  n.  Meth.  der  Slave» 
Apostel.  Prag.  1S-23.  Mähr.  Leirende  v.  Cyr.  u.  Motli.  Prag.  ISiC— GlasolUlca,  L\»ber  den  Urspr.  d. 
T.'ni.  Slav.  Liturgie.  2  ed.  Prog.  1S32. 


CUAP.  V.     EXTEXS.  OF  THE  CUUKCII.     §  225.  •«  ENDS.     POLES.  24S 

progress  of  Christianity  more  by  lii.s  influence  as  a  monk  than  as  a  temporal 
prince.  Dissensions  were  produced  among  the  people  by  the  hostility  some 
felt  against  the  Christian  faith,  and  finally  entered  even  tlie  ducal  palace. 
According  to  popular  tradition,  Ludniilla  was  put  to  death  by  her  own 
daughter-in-law,  and  "Wenceslaus  by  his  brother.  Christianity,  however, 
having  passed  through  severe  persecutions,  obtained  a  sanguinary  triumph 
under  Bolealaus  the  Mild  (after  9C7),  and  with  the  establishment  of  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Prague  (973),  a  permanent  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  adopted. 
As  the  only  condition  on  which  that  see  could  be  procured  from  the  pope, 
the  Roman  ritual  was  also  then  introduced,  {r)  The  Weuch,  who  resided  in 
the  country  between  the  Saale  and  the  Oder,  and  were  divided  into  many 
tribes  under  as  many  princes,  being  assailed  by  the  Germans,  defended  them- 
selves with  extreme  difficulty.  Otho  I.  was  anxious  to  render  the  dominion 
he  had  acquired  over  them  by  the  sword  more  secure  by  tlie  bajitism  of  the 
people,  and  hence  the  bishoprics  which  he  established  among  them  were 
intended  to  be  quite  as  much  the  citadels  of  his  OAvn  power  as  the  castles  of 
the  Church.  Hence,  by  the  same  act  in  which  the  Wends  under  Jlistetcoi 
threw  off  from  their  necks  (983)  the  yoke  of  the  German  civil  power,  Chris- 
tianity was  also  cast  away.  Gotti<cIiuU\  his  grandson,  succeeded  in  uniting 
the  several  "Wendic  tribes  into  a  single  kingdom  (1047),  and  was  successfully 
endeavoring  to  establish  a  national  Christian  Church,  when  he  was  assassina- 
ted in  the  midst  of  his  efibrts  (1060).  The  people  then  consecrated  anew 
the  altars  of  their  ancestors  with  the  blood  of  Christian  priests,  and  every 
trace  of  Christianity  among  them  was  obliterated.  Pomerania  having  been 
conquered  by  Boleshnis  III.^  Duke  of  Poland,  Otho^  Bishop  of  Flitmlurg^  was 
invited  by  him  to  baptize  the  inhabitants.  This  work  was  finally  efiected  by 
that  prelate  (1124,  1128),  ('/)  and  other  tribes  were  likewise  overcome  and 
converted  by  the  Saxon  princes,  especially  by  Jleiu-;/  tho  Lion  (1142-62). 
The  desolated  country  became  settled  by  various  German  colonies,  until 
finally  only  a  few  miserable  remnants  of  tlie  ancient  peojilo  preserved  the 
Wendic  language  and  customs,  and  the  whole  country  became  German  and 
Christian,  (r)  The  last  refuge  which  the  gods  and  the  liberty  of  the  Wends 
had  found  in  liugen^  wa.s  burned  by  Ahmlon  (Axel),  Bishop  of  Roc^kilde, 
the  statesman  and  the  hero  of  the  seas  (11G8).  (/')  The  gospel  was  carried 
into  Poland  by  certain  persons  who  took  refuge  there  on  the  overthrow  of 
the  Moravian  kingdom,  and  on  the  marriage  of  Mucislam,  Duke  of  Poland, 


c)  Cosmas.  rrag.  (iliodllS.'x)  Clirnn.  Bolicnior.  (Scriptt  rcr.  Bolifin.  Prag.  1744.  Tli.  1.)  Vila  S. 
Lu<1iii1IIbc.  (Dohiier,  Ablinii.ll.  d.  Röbiii.  C.^cli.  <1.  Wis.«.  17*6.  p.  AXln».)  Vila  S.  Lmlm.  ct  S.  Wen- 
cesliii  auct.  ChrMitnno  <fe  fkabi  Mon.  (Act«  SS.  Sopt  Th.  V.  p.  3.'>4.  Tli.  YII.  p.  ^2.V)  /'.  PaUtcky. 
Gesch.  V.  Böhm.  Prag.  1S80  v«!.  L     Torr.irahlt,  Adalb.  v.  Prag.  (Zollsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  ISii  11.  2.) 

d)  Do  vita  b.  ()tt<in.  1.  III.  (Cuniiii  Ix'ctt,  c<I.  Rimitgf,  Th.  III.  P.  II.)— (Ä")  Otto  v.  Banib. 
Stettin.  1792.     Bunch,  Mciiuirh»  (»Ihon.  Pniiicnini  Apostoll.  Jen.  1^24. 

e)  I.  After  Wittlcliiiul,  Tliii^triiar,  .Ailatii  iif  Brenicn  (%  170).  ami  S.ixo  Ciramm..  cnn»\ilt  ITelmolil, 
(p.istor  at  Bosow  near  I.iiliccliVChriui.  Slavoriiin  (till  117(i),  cJ.  lianyert,  Lub.  1G.')9.  1702.  4.  (LUhnit. 
Bcrr.  Briinsu.  Tli.  II.)— II.  Kitnngiiniit'r,  Bokohrunpsccscli.  il.  Pominern.  Grelfsw.  Ib24.  I'.  W. 
Biirthold,  Gesell,  v.  Poiiiniern.  u.  Kügen.  Ilaiiib.  1S39.  voL  I.  L.  OUndrecht,  wend.  Gesch.  v. 
T90-11S2.  Berl.  1S43.  3  vols. 

/)  Munter,  vol.  II.  Abth.  I.  p.  820.  Ablli.  II.  p.  7'jts.'>.  Extrup,  AWlon.  from  tho  Danish  by 
Xohniki:  (Zoltsclir.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S32.  vol.  II.  pt.  i.) 


250  MKDIAKVAL  ciit:i:<n  msToiiv.    i'i:i;.  iii.    a.  d.  soo  1218. 

with  n  Bolieriiiiui  ])ririco.Hs,  Christianity  became  the  religion  of  tlie  state  (96G) 
By  liis  second  inarrinfro  witli  the  daughter  of  tlie  Margrave  Dietrich,  and  by 
its  dependence  ni)on  the  German  enii)irc,  Poland  was  drawn  into  connections 
with  the  lioinan  Cliurch.  Sncli  connections  being  cheriphed  with  specia,' 
care,  tiie  Polish  cliurchcs  were  induced  to  pay  tribute  to  St.  Peter,  the  Slavic 
ritual  which  liad  previously  been  iiscd  in  tlieni  was  gradually  abandoned,  and 
in  tlie  subsequent  political  commotions  of  the  nation  the  papal  power  was 
sometimes  very  great.  ((/)  Long  after  this  period  the  people  were  accustomed 
to  celebrate  the  droAvning  of  their  ancient  gods  with  lamentations  and  par- 
tial sorrow.  (//) 

§  226.     7'he  Hungarians. 

Sclticandtner,  Scrr.  icr.  Ilnng.  Vind.  1746.  f.  Tli.  I.  Fejer,  Codex  diploinaticus  Hung.  eccl.  et 
civ.  Budne.  1S29.  Tb.  \.—J.  v.  Mailath,  Gescli.  dor  Magyaren.  Wien.  1S23.  vol.  I.  [Godkin,  Iliit 
of  ir.  Lond.  1S54.] 

A  few  Hungarian  princes,  while  on  a  visit  to  Constantinople,  consented 
to  be  baptized,  and  their  country  was  filled  with  Christian  slaves  captured 
during  the  inroads  of  their  people  in  Germany.  By  these  means  Christianity 
had  obtained  a  foothold  in  the  country,  until  more  peaceable  relations  with 
Germany  were  established  by  the  victories  of  the  Saxon  emperors.  The  em- 
peror then  requested  the  bishops  PiUgrln  of  Passau  and  Adalhert  of  Prague 
to  undertake  the  conversion  of  the  Hungarians.  Duke  Gcysa  (972-997), 
being  sufficiently  wealthy  and  powerful,  was  in  the  habit  not  only  of  build- 
ing Christian  churches,  but  of  offering  sacrifices  to  the  gods.  («)  Ilis  son 
Stephen  (997-1038)  brought  Hungary  into  the  political  community  of  civil- 
ized nations,  gave  to  the  Church  a  permanent  form  of  government  in  subjec- 
tion to  Rome,  and  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor  and  the  sanction  of  the 
pope,  assumed  the  royal  crown.  (Jb)  Surrounded  as  he  was  by  Christians  and 
Germans,  the  new  king  ventured  in  various  ways  to  curtail  the  ancient  privi- 
leges of  the  people.  In  the  political  commotions  which  occurred  during  the 
ten  years  immediately  following  his  death,  the  most  violent  efforts  were  put 
forth  to  re-establish  idolatry,  and  were  repelled  with  equal  violence. 

§  227.     The  Finns,  Livonia ns,  and  Esthonians. 

Eric  the  Saint,  King  of  Sweden,  effected  the  conquest  of  the  Finn* 
(1157),  and  subjected  them  to  the  authority  of  his  own  croAvn  and  of  the 
Church.  For  a  long  time,  however,  their  magicians  were  much  more  hon- 
ored than  their  clergy,  (a)  But  an  intercourse  had  already  been  commenced 
with  Livonia  by  the  German  maritime  cities.     Ifeinhard,  a  canon  of  Bremen, 

(7)  I.  After  Thietmar  consult  Martini  Galli  (about  1180),  Cliron.  Toi.  ed.  Bandtkie,  Varsov 
1S24.  Vincent  de  Kadluhek  (d.  1226),  de  gestis  Pol.  (Dhigo^,  Hist  Pol.  Lps.  ITll.  C  Th.  I.)- 
IL  Ch.  G.  V.  Friene,  KGesch.  d.  K.  Pohl.  Brsl.  17S6.  vol.  I.  Ropell,  Gesch.  Pol.  Hamb.  1540.  vol 
I.  Append.  4.        7i)  Grimm,  deutsche  Mythol.  p.  446s. 

a)  Thietmar  I  \ III.    (Leibtiit.  p.  420.) 

h)  Charivitiim,  (13th  cent)  Vita  S.  Stephani.  {Schirnndtneri  Scrr.  rer.  Ilun?.  Vind.  1740.  f.  p. 
<14.)  Respcctins  the  story  of  the  Crown  adorned  with  Greek  characters,  and  the  s-ilutation  as  P.es 
ApostoIicHS  and  Lesrate,  see  -1.  F.  Kolhir,  de  origsr.  et  usu  perpctuo  potestatis  legisl.  circa  sacra  app 
Eognm  Hung.  Vind.  1764.    IToränyi,  de  s.  corona,  Ilung.  Pcsth.  1790. 

a)  Oenthjalm  \.  c.  IV,  4.    Mone,  vol.  I.  p.  4-3ss. 


CHAP.  VI,    PROT.  PAP.TIES.    §  223.     CATIIAP.ISTS.  25 1 

made  some  attempts  to  convert  its  inhabitants  (after  118G),  for  we  find  that 
he  assisted  them  to  build  fortresses  against  their  enemies,  and  was  consecra- 
ted to  the  bishopric  of  Yxkiill.  Proceeding  from  that  point,  the  bi-sliops 
ODtained  their  respective  dioceses  by  military  conquests,  in  the  course  of 
Avhich  they  were  often  in  danger  of  losing  their  lives,  and  tliey  confirmed 
the  results  of  their  preacliing  by  leading  the  Germans  in  miniature  crusades 
against  the  people.  The  bishopric  of  JiU'ja  was  founded  by  Albert.,  the  second 
in  succession  after  Meinhard,  and  the  ecclesiastical  subjugation  of  the  country 
was  finally  completed  by  the  weapons  of  an  order  of  knights  instituted  by 
him  (1202),  called  the  Brethren  of  the  Sirord.  "With  the  aid  of  this  order 
and  of  the  Danes,  the  Eathonians  were  also  subdued  and  converted  to  the 
faith  (after  1211).  The  ascendency  of  this  order  and  of  the  bishops  was 
afterwards  undisputed,  (i) 


CHAP.  VI.— PARTIES  PROTESTING  AGAINST   THE   CliUKClI. 

C.  du  Plessis  d'Arffentre,  Col.  judlciorum  dc  novis  error,  ab  initio  XII.  S.  usqno  ad  ann.  1C32. 
Par.  1728.  3  Th.  f.  Füemlen,  K.  n.  Ketzerliist,  d.  mittlem  Zeit.  Fr.  ii.  Lf.z.  ITTOss.  8  vols.  Flathe, 
Gesell,  der  Vorläufer  d.  Eef.  Lpz.  lS35s.  2  vols.  U.  Ilahn,  Gesch.  d.  Ketzer,  im  MA.  Stuttg. 
1S4Ö-60.  3  vols. 

§  228.  The  Catharhts. 
A  feeling  of  dissatisfaction  now  began  to  manifest  itself  on  tlie  jiart  of 
many  persons  on  account  of  the  extravagant  worldly  spirit  of  the  i)riest- 
hood,  and  the  religious  spirit  of  the  people  began  to  j)ut  forth  a  strong  pro- 
test against  the  Church  itself.  Persons  of  this  tendency  were  at  first  burned 
(1022)  at  Orleans,  ('*)  and  were  found  in  various  parts  of  Germany  (Z^;  and 
England,  but  the  great  body  of  them  inhabited  Lombardy  and  Provence,  (c) 
In  these  latter  countries  the  Troubadours  had  contributed  much  to  the  spirit 
of  independence  with  which  the  hierarchy  wxis  spoken  of  in  that  country, 
while  in  Italy  the  Church  was  principally  regarded  as  a  political  power.  The 
emperor  had  no  interest  in  destroying  the  enemies  of  the  papacy,  and  the 
popes  were  obliged  frequently  to  regard  the  friendship  of  the  Lombards  as 
of  more  importance  than  the  extermination  of  heretics.  Even  the  contest  to 
which  Gregory  excited  the  liiity  against  the  married  priests,  either  produced 


I)  Uenrivi  LetU  (about  122G),  Orlpp.  Livoniao  sacrae  ct  civ.  a.  Chron.  c.  notb  J.  D.  Gruheri,  Fr. 
■iX  Lps.  1740.  t— Parrot,  Entwickl.  d.  Spr.icho,  Abstamni.  Gesch.  Mythol.  d.  Liwen,  Letten,  Eesten 

Stuttg.  1&2S.  2  vols.     If.  A.  G.  f/rf  Pott,  dt>  Glii.Iifirls  .s.  fratrib.  niilitlne  Cllri^ti.  Krl.  ISOö.     Kurd  v. 
Scklöier,  Livl.  u.  d.  Anfiinse  deut-solicn  Lebens  im  bnltisclien  Xoril.  ISrI.  \^>. 

a)  Ademar,  a  monk  of  Anjfoulemo  about  1209,  Cliron.  (Botujittt  Tli.  X.  p.  IMss.)  Costa  Syn. 
Aurelian.  {Munsi  Th.  XIX.  p.  376ss.)  Glahtr  JiaJii//.  Ill,  8. 

b)  1140  on  tlio  Lower  Khine :  Kcervini,  Pmcpos.  Stcinreld.  Ep.  nd  Hornard.  {Argfutrf  Th.  I.  p. 
33ss.)  1163.  Eckherti  Scrinm.  XIII.  adv.  Catliarorum  crrorcs.  Col.  530.  (Bibl.  PP.  iiia.\.  Th.  XXIII. 
p.  COO.) 

c)  The  documents  are  In  Illst  generale  do  Lan^nedoc  par  on  Benedlctin  dc  S.  Manr.  Par.  173". 
Tol,  III.  Polemical  writ^  rs  near  the  end  of  the  12th  cent. :  Ehrardi  FUtndrensis  L.  anllliaorcsls. 
(Bibl.  PP.  ni.ix.  Th.  XXIV.  p.  ISiS.)  Krmfngardi  Opso.  c  h.iorollcos.  qui  dlcunt  onmia  vl>il.illa 
non  esse  a  Poo  facta,  sed  a  dlabolo.  {Th.  p.  1002  )  AUtni  de  Insulin  I.  IV.  c  haoroticos  .<ul  foinp. 
(The  two  first  vols.  In  Aluiii  0pp.  ed.  C.  de  Vmch.  Antn.  16,'>4.  f.  The  two  last  in  C.  de  Viach 
BlbL  Scrr.  Cist  Col.  1C50.  \.)—C.  Schmidt,  Hist,  et  doctrine  des  Cathares  ou  Albigcols.  Par.  1S49.  2  vols. 


252  MKDIAKVAL  CIUIKCU  HISTOUV.     I'iAi.   III.     A.  I).  Si)0-12ie. 

or  al)sorl)C(l  olenients  liostilo  to  every  tiling  connected  with  tlic  ecclesiasticiii 
authorities  (I'atcrini).  (//)  The  name  of  CatfuirinlSy  by  which  this  sect  was 
usually  (lcsi^;:iiate(l,  shows  what  were  their  ordinary  pretensions.  A  similar 
opposition  prepared  the  way  for  the  influence  exercised  by  the  Paulicians 
who  had  hoeti  transferred  into  the  western  countries  of  Europe  (lience  called 
ruhlicani,  IJugri).  The  accounts  wo  have  respecting  them  are  almost  exclu- 
sively from  their  enemies,  or  from  apostates  from  tliem,  and  are  consequently 
full  of  errors  and  calumnies.  (<;)  All  agree,  however,  in  describing  them  as 
universally  and  absolutely  opposed  to  the  Catholic  Church  and  all  its  pomp, 
in  consequence  of  what  they  professed  to  be  an  immediate  communication  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  exalting  them  above  alL  conscious  necessity  of  ecclesiastical 
or  civil  laws.  Their  opposition  to  every  thing  of  a  sensuous  nature  made 
them  practically  renounce  all  carnal  pleasures,  and  led  them  theoretically  to 
ascribe  the  whole  visible  universe  to  an  evil  cause  and  to  deny  the  real  hu- 
manity of  our  Redeemer.  This  dualistic  tendency,  however,  may  have  gone 
no  further  than  the  popular  notion  of  a  devil  and  his  subordinate  spirits,  and 
in  a  portion  of  the  Catharistic  Church  it  appears  to  have  been  modified  in 
various  ways,  to  have  been  full  of  moral  seriousness  and  religious  sincerity, 
and  yet  to  have  laid  great  stress  upon  fastings,  genuflexions,  and  Latin  forms 
of  prayer.  (/)  Scriptural  preaching  and  the  gospels  were  held  in  much 
esteem,  but  various  opinions  prevailed  among  them  respecting  the  prophets. 
The  baptism  of  the  Spirit  (consolamentum)  was  substituted  for  baptism  by 
water,  and  was  administered  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  all  persons 
present  who  had  themselves  received  it.  In  this  ordinance  only  perfect 
Christians  (bos  homes,  boni  homines)  received  their  consecration,  for  the 
duties  which  it  imposed  were  so  rigid  that  most  persons  remained  catechu- 
mens (credentes,  of  two  different  degrees),  and  did  not  receive  the  consola- 
mentum, which  they  regarded  as  necessary  to  salvation,  until  their  dying 
hour.  The  dualistic  view,  however,  could  consistently  forbid  nothing  but 
marriage  and  the  eating  of  flesh.  In  the  midst  of  a  people  thus  professing 
to  be  filled  with  the  Spirit,  and  whose  pope  was  the  Holy  Ghost  himself,  none 
of  the  existing  officers  of  the  Church  could  exercise  any  of  their  hierarchi- 
cal prerogatives.  The  prohibitions  contained  in  the  Sermon  on  the  Mount 
were  accepted  in  their  most  literal  and  painful  sense,  and  those  who  went  to 
a  dualistic  extreme  resolved  the  ordinary  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  even  all 
historical  Christianity,  into  mere  allegories  illustrative  of  the  Christian's  inner 
life.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Pasagii  of  Lombardy  maintained  the  absolute 
authority  of  the  Old  Testament  in  opposition  to  the  Mauicheans  who  rejected 


d)  Sigebert.  Gemblac.  ad  ann.  1074. 

e)  Jionaeorsi,  one  of  tho?e  teachers  who  returned  to  the  Cath.  Church,  about  1190,  Vit-i  haereti- 
cor.  s.  nianifosLitio  haeresis  Catharor.  (D'Achenj,  Spicil.  Th.  I.  p.  203.  Supplements  in  Biiliisii 
Mlscell.  ed.  Jtatisi  Th.  II.  p.  5S1.)  J.  3foneta,  Dominican,  about  1240.  adv.  Cath.  et  Waldenses,  ed. 
HivcJtini,  Rom.  1743.  f.  Jiaineriiis  &iec?ioni,  once  a  chief  of  the  sect,  but  afterward.^  a  Dominican 
and  Inquisitor,  1250.  Snmma  de  Calharis  et  Lconistis.  (Marine,  Thes.  nov.  Anecd.  Th.  V.  p.  1750.  and 
Aro^utre  Th.  I.  p.  4S.  (The  edit,  by  GreUer  is  no  fürther  the  .actual  work  of  Rainerius,  but  a  latei 
collection  made  by  some  German.  Gieseler,  de  Rainerii  Sacch.  Summa.  Gott  15-34.  4.)  [C.  ScJimidt 
Ilist.  et  doct  de  la  .s?cte  des  Cathares,  etc.  Tar.  1S49.  2  vols.  Stud.  u.  Krit,  1S50.  H.  4.] 

/)  Thus  accordinii  to  an  orig.  doc. :  Ein  Kathari?ches  Ritu.ile,  ed.  by  £".  KuniU,  Jtn.  1S52 


CIIAr.  VI.     PKOT.  PARTIES.     $  223.  PASAGIL    §  229.  PETEE  OF  BRL'YS.        253 

it,  and  tlio  Ebionite  and  Arian  doctrines  concerning  Christ  in  oi)position  to 
the  views  of  the  Docetae.  (y)  The  name  of  this  sect,  as  well  as  the  time  in 
which  it  sprung  up,  suggests  that  this  revival  of  Jewish  Christianity  may  have 
Deen  occasioned  by  the  conquest  of  Jerusalem.  (/<)  The  ecclesiastical  rulers 
were  at  first  very  lenient  toward  these  various  sects,  but  they  were  soon  com- 
pelled to  resort  to  the  severest  punishments.  Even  then  they  could  not  pre- 
vent multitudes  from  embracing  these  doctrines  in  secret,  and  barely  suc- 
ceeded in  escaping  from  a  general  and  public  defeat.  Some  who  urged  that, 
according  to  the  teaching  of  Christ  and  the  example  of  St.  Martin,  such  un- 
fortunate persons  ought  to  receive  instruction  rather  than  hanging,  could 
gain  no  attention.  (I) 

§  229.  Peter  of  Bruys  and  Henry.  Tiinchchn  and  Eon. 
In  the  course  of  the  opposition  which  sprung  up  against  the  Church  in 
the  twelfth  century,  a  few  individuals  became  prominent  either  as  advocates 
or  leaders  of  sects.  Peter  de  Bruys,  who  had  been  deposed  from  the  priest- 
hood, but  preached  (after  1104)  in  the  south  of  France,  was  one  of  these. 
He  declaimed  against  the  baptism  of  infants,  the  mass,  and  celibacy,  burned 
the  cross  which  had  been  the  instrument  of  our  Lord's  passion,  and  called 
upon  his  hearers  to  destroy  the  churches,  since  God  was  as  willing  to  hear 
prayer  offered  to  him  in  an  inn  or  a  stable  as  from  before  an  altar.  Many 
disturbances  of  a  violent  nature  were  created  by  him,  but  he  was  finally 
burned  by  a  mob  at  St.  Gilles  (1124).  (a)  Henry,  a  monk  who  had  with- 
drawn from  his  order,  and  was  sometimes  thought  to  be  a  pupil  of  Peter  de 
Bruys,  labored  in  the  same  region  of  country  (lllt>-48),  and  was  at  first 
highly  honored  even  by  the  clergy,  lie  was  a  strenuous  preacher  of  repent- 
ance, and  though  not  opposed  to  ecclesiastical  authority,  held  up  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  clergy  to  the  derision  of  the  people.  He  was  finally  overcome 
by  his  powerful  opponent,  and  ended  his  days  in  prison,  {h)  Tanchclm  (about 
1115),  who  resided  on  the  sea-coast  of  the  Netherlands,  preached  zealously 
against  ecclesiastical  organization.s,  collected  around  himself  an  armed  train  of 
followers,  claimed  to  be  God  equal  to  Christ  on  account  of  the  Holy  Ghost  which 
he  professed  to  have  received,  held  public  celebrations  in  honor  of  his  espou- 
sal to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  was  finally  slain  (about  1124)  by  a  priest,  (r) 
Eon  (Eudo  de  Stella)  proclaimed  that  he  had  been  sent  into  the  world  to  bo 
the  judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead.  He  made  his  appearance  sometimes  in 
one  and  sometimes  in  another  place  in  dilferent  parts  of  France,  attended  by 

(/)  Bonacorsi  in  D^Acheri/,  p.  211s8.  G.  BergomtrutU  c  Cath.  ot  Paso^os  a  a.  1230.  (ifuraton 
Antlqq.  Ital.  Med.  aevl.  vul.  V.  p.  152ss.)  {C.  U.  l/ahn,  Oesch.  d.  KoUer  im  MA.  bes.  im  11.  12.  u 
13.  Julirli.  Stultpr.  1850.  3  vol».] 

!i)  Comp.  I.ÖMcher,  Kef.  Acta.  vol.  I.  p.  857.  On  tiio  otlier  hand:  Baumg.  Crxuiut,  Comp,  d. 
DQescli.  p.  302. 

t)  Ilermanni  Contr.  Cbron.  ad.  ann.  1052.  Gesta  Eplscc.  L«odIens.  c.  50.  G0&  {JJarUne,  ampliss. 
Col.  Th.  IV.) 

a)  Petri  Vener.  Ep.  adv.  Petrobrassiano«  hacr.  (BibL  PP.  max.  Tli.  XXIL  p.  10238a. 

1)  Acta  Episc.  Ccnonianenslum  c.  85s.  (Hahillon  ye\X.  Analccta.  Tli.  Ill)  Bernardi  Vita  scr. 
OaufriJ.  Ill,  6. 

c)  Ep.  Trajcctensis  Ec^.  ad  Frid.  Arclilep.  Colon,  (.irgentre  Tli.  I.  p.  Uss.)  AbaelarJi  Intr.  ad 
fheol.  (0pp.  p.  1006.)  Vita  Xorberti,  §  3Ö.  (AcU  SS.  Jun.  Tli.  I.  p.  S«.) 


254  MKDIAKVAL  OIllK'.'lI   lIlSToItV.     riCK.  III.     A.  I).  S00-V2Iß. 

ft  Ixilil  ivtiiiiu-,  iiiid  liviii-j  ill  so  sumptuous  a  style  on  the  -wealth  of  the 
i-hurchori  iiiul  iii(.n:i.sterio;4,  that  tlio  people  generally  believed  him  to  be  a  ma- 
gician, lie  was  at  last  taken  by  siiri)rise,  arraigned  before  a  Synod  at 
Kiu'iiiis  (114S),  and  witliout  despairing  of  the  success  of  his  cause,  died  in 
tlie  prison  of  .St.  Denys.  ('/) 

§  230.     The  Waldenses. 

I.  >[oiiiorlii!s  of  the  AVald.  ^fannscripts  in  Geneva  and  Dublin,  generally  afTected  by  later  I'rot«»- 
tant  Influences  (comp.  Plecklioff,  modified  by  Herzog),  especially  with  respect  to  times  before  Hii!«: 
Cantica,  described  by  Ilei-zog,  p.  72ss.  and  la  nubia  Leyczon  in  Itaynouartl,  Clioix  des  poeslM 
orig.  des  Troul)ad.  Par.  1S18.  vol.  II.  p.  73ss.  According  to  tlic  Geneva  and  Dublin  text  in  Jlersog, 
p.  41  Ks.  Katli.  Verdicts  and  Protocols  of  the  Inquisition  in  Argentre,  (Col.  jud.  vol.  I.  p.  71ss.) 
and  I'll,  a  I.imhoreh,  Hist.  Inquisit.  in  tlic  conclusnon  mentioned  as  L.  sententt.  Inqiil«.  Tolosanae. 
C'alliarislic  accounts  and  polem.  writings:  IScrnarihix,  Abbas  Fontis  calidi  (d.  before  1200)  adv.  Val- 
densium  scctam.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  vol.  XXIV.  p.  15S5.)  Alanus  de  Jnsulix  (d.  1202),  c.  Ilaeretic 
L  II.  (Opj).  0(1.  A'.  V.  Viscli,  Antu.  1054.)  Walther  Mapes  in  Ilahn,  vol.  II.  fi.  2."ns.  Stfjihanm  de 
liorhone  (about  1250),  de  Septem  donis  Sp.  S.  VII,  81.  {Argentre  vol.  I.  p.  &5ss.)  Jlaiiieriux.  Jfo- 
neia  (§  228.  n.  e.) 

II.  GMes,  llist  ccc.  des  ögl.  reform^'es  en  quelques  vallöes  de  Piemont.  Gen.  1C44.  J.  Leger, 
Hist  gen.  des  ^-gl.  cvang.  des  vallees  de  Picm.  ou  Vaudoises.  Leid.  10C9.  2  vols.  f.  Uebers.  v.  Schiai- 
niU,  Lpz.  1750.  2  vols.  4.  {J.  Brez)  IlisL  des  Vaud.  Laus.  179C.  2  vols.  Lpz.  ITOS.  A.  Jlnnaelier, 
Ilist.  dV'gl.  Vaudoise.  Gen.  1S47.  2  vols.  A.  Miiaton,  Tlsrael  des  Aljies,  prem.  Ilist.  complete  des 
Vaud.  Par.  1S51.  4  vols. — IIali.n  (see  before  §  22S.)  vol.  II.  comp.  Preface  to  vol.  III.  p.  X.  K  Ben- 
der, Gesch.  d.  AV.  Ulm.  1S50.— J.  W.  Dieckhoff,  d.  W.  im  MAltor.  Gott.  Ii51.  Herzog,  d.  ronian. 
W.  ihre  vorref.  Zust.inde  n.  Lehren,  ihre  Pef.  im  16.  Jhli.  u.  d.  Rückwirk.  drs.  llal.  1S53.  \_Pey- 
rrtn,  Ilist.  Defence  of  the  Wald.  Lond.  6vo.  E.  Uenderson,  Origin,  &c.  of  the  Vaudois.  W.  & 
Gill'/,  The  Albigenses  in  Littell's  Eel.  Mag.  vol.  I.  p.  6.  A.  MonaHtier,  Hist  of  the  Vaudois 
Church  from  its  Origin.  New  York.  1S49.  12mo.  Roht.  Baird,  Waldenses,  Aibig.  and  Vaud.  Phllad. 
1S4S.  Svo.  C.  U.  Iluhii,  Gesch.  d.  Ketzer  im  Mittelalter,  bes.  im  11. 12.  und  13.  Jahrb.  Stnttg.  1547.  C. 
C.  Ifahn,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1851.  IL  4  p.  SG2.  Herzog,  d.  Waldenser,  vor  n.  nach  d.  Ref.  Lps.  1S5.3. 12.] 

The  dissatisfaction  and  ferments  which  prevailed  during  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, gave  occasion  during  the  last  half  of  it  to  the  appearanc>e  of  the  "Wal- 
dcnses.  As  they  were  generally  conversant  with  the  Scriptures,  they  main- 
tained in  opposition  to  unworthy  priests,  that  all  who  truly  imitated  Christ 
ia  his  life  of  poverty,  had  a  right  freely  to  preach  the  gospel.  As  the  natu- 
ral result  of  their  demand  that  Christians  should  hve  in  complete  poverty 
and  virginity,  a  distinction  was  formed  soon  after  the  excitement  of  their 
origin  had  subsided,  between  the  Perfect,  who  forsook  all  and  went  forth 
two  by  two  in  their  sandals  preaching  repentance,  and  the  mere  Believers, 
who  forsook  the  pleasures  of  the  world,  but  who  continued  in  the  enjoyments 
of  conjugal  and  social  life.  Witnesses  whose  testimony  is  beyond  suspicion, 
though  they  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church,  inform  us  that  their  name  and 
origin  is  to  be  traced  to  (Peter)  Waldus^  an  opulent  citizen  of  Lyons,  who 
was  transported  by  his  own  ideal  of  evangelical  iterfection,  had  the  gospels 
and  many  sentiments  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  which  harmonized  with 
them  translated  into  the  Romanic  vernacular  language,  gave  all  his  posses- 
sions to  the  poor,  and  from  a  desire  to  attain  a  state  like  that  found  in  the 
apostolic  Church,  went  forth  (about  IIGO)  as  a  preacher  of  repentance.  Tlie 
tradition  more  recently  entertained  among  the  "Waldenses  themselves,  accord- 
ing to  which  their  origin  is  to  be  traced  to  primitive  and  even  to  apostolic 

rf)  Wilhelm  Xeuhrigens  de  reb.  Angl.  L  19.  {Argentri  Th.  L  p.  8688.)    Otto  Fris.  de  gest  Fria 
I,  Ma,     Albenci  Chron.  ad  ann.  114S.  ".149. 


CnAP.  VI.     PEOT.  PARTIES.     §  230.  WALDENSES.     §  231.  ALBIGEXSE3.        255 

Hmes,  is  trno  only  so  fiir  as  the  same  spirit  has  always  been  sustained  among 
them  by  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  has  always  protested  again,st  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  Church.  It  is  also  probable  that  in  some  of  their  Alpine  val- 
leys a  spirit  has  been  maintained  ever  since  the  time  of  Claudius  of  Turin, 
which  harmonized  with  and  Avas  best  defined  by  the  preaching  of  the  Wal- 
den.^es.  These  Poor  People  of  Lyom  (Leonistae,  Ilumiliati,  Sabatati)  had  no 
idea  of  breaking  away  from  the  Church,  and  when  their  archbishop  com- 
manded them  to  be  silent,  they  turned  with  the  utmost  confidence  to  Alex- 
ander III.  (1179),  who  treated  them  with  scorn.  Their  doctrine  that  laymen 
might  teach  the  people  necessarily  brought  them  into  collision  with  the 
clergy,  and  they  Avere  soon  (1184)  excommunicated  by  Lucius  III.  But  obey- 
ing God  rather  than  men,  they  established  congregations  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Germany,  and  had  their  principal  residences  in  Provence  and  in  the 
lofty  valleys  of  Piedmont.  Altliougli  they  diflfered  from  the  Catholic  Church 
not  so  much  in  their  doctrines  as  in  their  manner  of  life,  which  was  strictly 
conformed  to  the  letter  of  Christ's  sermon  on  the  mount,  they  were  con- 
strained to  deny  that  the  Church  of  the  pope  was  the  Church  of  Christ,  even 
Avhen  they  allowed  that  many  had  been  saved  who  had  never  forsaken  it. 
Their  moral  convictions  were  strongly  against  the  doctrine  of  a  purgatory, 
with  all  its  auxiliary  additions;  they  required  a  confession  of  all  sins,  but 
expected  forgiveness  from  God  alone,  and  they  honored  the  saints  as  models 
of  piety,  but  not  as  intercessors  before  God.  Wherever  their  congregations 
were  properly  organized,  their  Masters  or  Barbs,  chosen  from  among  the  Per- 
fect, preached,  heard  confessions,  and  in  cases  of  necessity  administered  tlio 
sacraments*.  Innocent  III.  at  one  time  indulged  the  hope  that  he  could  bring 
their  evangelical  poverty  under  the  control  of  monastic  vows  (pauperes  catho- 
lici),  but  the  fortunes  of  this  sect  soon  became  involved  with  those  of  the 
Catharists,  and  it  was  said  that  even  if  the  faces  of  these  heretics  were  dif- 
ferent, tlieir  tails  were  all  twisted  together.  They  frequently  lived  concealed 
in  the  midst  of  the  Catholic  Churcli,  recognizing  each  other  by  s^ecret  signs, 
anil  wherever  they  were  thoy  always  formed  a  light  amidst  surrounding  dark- 
ness, were  active  in  promoting  evangelical  virtues  and  familiarity  with  the 
Scriptures,  and  always  stood  ready  to  aid  with  tlic  power  of  a  Scriptural 
Christianity  every  higlier  development  of  man's  moral  nature. 

§  231.      The  Alhi'jcnsian   W.u: 

I.  Petri  .Vniiachi  (ilo  Vaiix  Ci-rnay')  lllsf.  Alblpcnsliim.  GnU.  <le  Poilin  Liiiiroidi  {CUa\t\mn  to 
naymninl  VH.)  ?ii[)er  Hist  nesotH  Fnincor.  a.lv.  AIM?.  (Both  foiiniJ  in  Bniuiiift-Bi-hil  Tli.  XIX.) 
Hist,  (le  ia  cnii-ade  contre  los  hiT^tlqiios  Allii^'ciiiü.  (Vrltc  en  vers  provonraiix.  pnlil.  par  ^^.  C  Fiiit- 
••iV/,  Par.  1*37.  4.  Hist,  de  la  guerre  dos  \\h\z.  (Tou'other  with  otiicr  dociiiiicnts  in  llio  Hist,  do  Lnn- 
pnoJ.  Til.  III.  Preuvcs.'»  J.  du  TUM,  Ili^t.  lieKI  c.  Alb.  iiilti  comp,  ox  ISibl.  Vat,  od.  .1.  Drts- 
»el,  1S45. 

II.  Si'timonile  <U  Sixinomfi,  los  crolsnilo»  oonlro  les  Alblj.  Par.  1S2S.  [tran.sl.  Into  End.  Lond. 
1S26.  8vo.]  J.  J.  Biii-nm  et  A.  B.  D,irrtii/,»i.  Hist,  dcs  crols  e.  Ics  Alb.  Par.  Iä^l3.  C.  Schmidt^ 
(§  22S,  note  c.) 

The  Catharists  and  Waldenscs  having  become  in  some  parts  of  Provence 
more  powerful  than  the  Church  itself,  their  examjdo  was  exceedinglv  danger- 
ous. Complete  authority  was  therefore  bestowed  by  Innore/it  III.  for  the 
suppression  of  these  heretics.     His  legates  travelled  about  barefoot  in  the 


256  MKDIAICVAL  ClIUIiCH  IlISTOUY.     I'KU.  III.     A.  D.  800-121G. 

manner  of  t}io  npostles,  soraotimes  preaching  and  disputinj:,  and  sometimes 
txctfing  np  judicial  jirocccdinf^s  and  popular  acts  of  violence.  Peter  of  Cna- 
ttlnan^  one  of  flicso  Icfratos,  in  order  to  accomplish  his  object,  seized  upon 
those  powers  Avhich  belonf,'ed  exclusively  to  the  civil  magistrate,  and  thus 
became  embroiled  in  a  quarrel  with  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Toulouse,  one 
of  the  most  powerful  princes  of  the  country.  The  result  was  that  the  legate 
was  assassinated,  and  the  guilt  of  the  deed  was  imputed  to  the  Count  him- 
self. Innocent  then  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  him  and  all  other  heretics, 
under  the  conduct  of  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  as  legate,  and  of  Simon  de 
Montfort.  Raymond  endeavored  to  escape  the  danger  by  humbling  himself 
and  taking  the  cross  against  bis  own  people.  The  arms  of  the  crusaders  were 
now  turned  against  Raymond  iJcj^rcr,  Viscount  of  Beziers  and  Albi,  and 
hence  the  heretics,  and  especially  the  Catharists,  against  whom  this  crusade 
was  principally  directed,  were  generally  called  Albigcnses.  (a)  Beziers  was 
taken  by  storm,  and  the  legate  boasted,  that  as  a  messenger  of  divine  wrath, 
he  had  utterly  destroyed  the  city,  (b)  Montfort  now  turned  the  fury  of  his 
excited  followers  again&t  the  territories  of  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  and  when 
he  had  conquered  them  be  was  recognized  at  the  Synods  of  Montpellier  and 
the  Lateran  (1215)  as  the  lawful  lord  of  all  that  he  had  thus  acquired,  (c) 
Innocent  perceived  the  impolicy  of  this  proceeding,  but  lest  he  should  lose 
the  great  object  at  which  he  was  aiming,  he  did  not  venture  to  rend  the  prey 
from  the  possession  of  the  tigers  whom  he  had  let  loose,  (^d) 


CHAP.  VII.— THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

§  232.  Extension  of  the  Church. 
The  Bulgarians,  originally  of  Turkish  extraction,  but  after  their  settle- 
ment in  Moesia  very  extensively  blended  with  the  Slaves,  were  for  a  long 
time  the  most  formidable  of  all  the  neighbors  Avith  whom  the  Greek  empire 
was  obliged  to  contend.  For  a  considerable  period  they  scornfully  rejected 
a  system  of  faith  proposed  to  them  by  their  enemies.  Christianity,  however, 
was  gradually  introduced  among  them  at  various  epochs  (845-865) ;  once  when 
the  daughter  of  their  prince  returned  from  captivity  among  the  Greeks,  then 
when  in  time  of  famine  they  made  supplication  to  the  God  of  Christians  and 
were  delivered,  and  finally,  under  the  influence  of  Methodius,  who  is  reported 
to  have  exerted  his  talents  among  them  not  only  as  an  apostle  but  as  a  paint- 
er, {a)  That  portion  of  the  Bulgarians  who  resided  on  the  Volga  were  con- 
verted to  Mohammedanism,  and  the  kindred  tribe  of  the  Chazars,  who  re- 
sided in  the  Chersonese,  was  divided  between  Mohammedanism,  Judaism,  and 
Christianity,  {h)     The  Mainots,  who  inhabited  the  rocky  caverns  of  the  Tay- 

a)  P.  Jas,  de  Valdensium  secta  ab  Albigens.  bene  flistlnguenda.  L.  B.  1S84.  4. 

b)  Caesar  I/einUrbac.  V,  21.    Innoc.  1.  XII.  Ep.  lOS. 

c)  Mansi  Th.  XXII.  p.  1069. 

d)  ffiirter,  Innoc.  vol.  II.  p.  eSTs!». 

o)  Constontini  Porpht/r.  Contlnuator  IV,  13ss.    Xicetas  iJarid,  Ignat  {Jlaiisi  Th.  XVL  p. 
MS.)    Comp.  §  225. 

b)  Frähn,  Ibn-Fosslan's  und  andrer  Araber  Berichte  ü.  d.  Küssen  ült  Zelt  Petcrsb.  1S23.  4  Pr^ 


CHAP.  VII.    ORIENT.  CHUKCII.     §  232.  RUSSIANS.    §  223.  ROMAN  EMPIRE.      257 

getus,  continued  to  resist  tlie  elTorts  of  the  Church  until  the  latter  half  of 
ihe  ninth  century,  when  tliey  also  yielded  sulycction  to  it.  About  the  same 
time  the  Slaves,  who  at  different  periods  had  broken  into  the  territory  of 
ancient  Greece,  became  Christians,  and  were  connected  with  the  Greek 
Church,  (c)  The  Riissians  became  acquainted  with  Christianity  on  the  bat- 
tle-field. Traditionary  accounts  tell  us  of  the  extraordinary  success  of  some 
efforts  to  convert  tlieni  during  the  ninth  century,  but  no  traces  of  the  results 
appear  in  subsequent  ages.  Photius  proclaimed  that  they  were  enthusiastic 
in  their  desires  for  the  gospel,  but  tlio  event  proved  that  his  announcement 
was  premature.  Ohja,  their  excellent  dowager  princess,  procured  baptism 
for  herself  in  Constantinople  (955),  but  even  to  the  close  of  her  life  she  could 
enjoy  the  services  of  a  Christian  priest  onl}'  in  secret.  Her  grandson  Vladi- 
mir, after  a  careful  investigation  of  the  ditlerent  forms  of  religion  then  preva- 
lent, received  baptism  from  the  Greeks  (988).  The  people  beheld  with  tears 
the  abuse  which  was  heaped  upon  their  ancient  gods,  and  submitted  them- 
selves silently  to  baptism  in  the  river  Dnieper.  A  motropolitanate  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Greek  Patriarch  was  established  in  liiew,  then  the  capital 
of  the  empire.  A  convent  (Petschera)  established  in  a  cave  near  Kiew,  be- 
came, after  the  middle  of  the  eleventh  century,  the  seminary  from  which  the 
whole  country  was  supplied  not  only  with  bishops  and  saints,  Avhose  bodies 
never  decayed,  but  with  a  Eussian  literature.  ('/) 

§  233.     The  Roman  Empire  and  the  Church. 

The  Koman  Empire  in  the  East,  continually  pressed  more  and  more  by 
the  power  of  the  Turks,  the  Normans,  and  the  Crusaders,  maintained  its 
courage  by  the  proud  recollections  of  its  former  greatness,  and  its  existence 
merely  in  consequence  of  the  fortunate  position  of  its  capital.  The  mechan- 
ism which  prevailed  in  the  secular  and  spiritual  administrations  then  united 
in  the  head  of  the  imperial  government,  generally  continued  unaffected  by 
the  revolutions  which  so  frequently  took  place  in  the  palace.  The  spirit  of 
the  Church  sympathized  with  the  universal  torpidity,  and  orthodoxy  took 
the  place  which  belonged  to  morality  and  religion.  The  patriarchs  of  Con- 
stantinople perpetrated  and  endured  all  those  acts  of  violence  Avhich  the 
highest  civil  officers  are  accustomed  to  infiict  and  receive  where  feeble  despot- 
isms prevail.  A  party  of  the  clergy  was  kept  under  restraint  by  another 
party  in  the  army.  The  enthusiasm  of  the  crusaders  met  with  no  response 
hero  except  ridicule  and  suspicion.  The  number  and  power  of  these  sacred 
warriors  was  such  that  Constantinople  finally  became  a  mere  colony  of  the 


face.    J.  V.  Klaproth,  Besclir.  d.  russ.  Prov.  zw.  d.  kasp.  u.  Schwarz  Mcoro.  Berl.  1814.  p,  119ss. 
262S8. 

c)  Le  Quien,  Orlens  chr.  Th.  II.  p.  lOSsa.  Fallmerayer,  Oesch.  d.  llalblns.  Morea  wahrend  des 
Mlttolalt.  Stuttg.  u.  Tub.  1S30.  vol.  I.  p.  liSss.  21G.  22T.'«.  The  stateim-nts  and  spirit  of  this  work 
should  be  corrected  by  a  perusal  of  Zinkeisen,  Oesch.  Qrlcchenl.  Lpz.  1S32.  vol.  I.  p.  TOlsa.  7GTs^ 
650SS. 

d)  Nestor  (died  about  1113),  Annals  (till  llin.  Petcr^b.  ITOTss.  5  Th.  4.)  m.  Uebcrs.  u.  Anm.  (tlU 
Vladimir)  by  ScMuzer,  Oott  lS02s9.  5  vols. — JC(iram«in,  Oesch.  d.  russ.  Reichs.  Uebcrs.  by  Ifauenr 
Schild,  P>ig.  1S20SS.  vol.  I.  II.    Strahl,  Oesch.  d.  russ.  KIrcho.  Hal.  1S30.  vol.  I. 

17 


258  MKDIAKVAI.  CIICIUII  IIISTOnV.     I'Ki:.  III.     A.  I).  SOO-l.MC. 

Wofitoru  uatloriH,  und  wliat  remained  of  tlie  Grecian  Empire,  Avilli  all  or 
which  its  liopes  could  rest,  was  transferred  to  Trebizond. 

§  234.      J'hotius. 

Photii  Epp.  cii.  AfoiUacHliiie,  Lond.  1051.  f.  Ori^rinal  docnments  In  JfanH  Tli.  XV'.  XVI.  Vita 
B.  corlniiipn  S.  Ignatil,  Xty  Nicettis  David,  (ilaiui  Tli.  XVI.  p.  2ft9.)  An'intaifii  IJibl.  Pracf.  ad 
tunc.  VIII.  ciec.  [Munsi  Tli.  XVI.  p.  Iss.)  Ejusd.  Vita  Nicholal  I.  ViU  Iladriani  II.— jE".  B.  Suialve, 
(!,■  dls.slill()  Kit.  clir.  in  Rr.  et  lat  Photll  auct  maturato.  L.  B.  18.30.  {O.  Finlay,  II.  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  Lond.  IS.")».  8.] 

The  real  ruler  of  the  emperor  and  the  empire  wa.s  Barda.i^  the  uncle  of 
Michael  III.  The  Patriarch  Jr/nathts,  a  eunuch  of  the  detlironed  imperial 
family,  zealously  protested  against  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  Bardas  and  the 
immoralities  of  the  emperor,  in  Avhose  drinking  revels  the  sacred  rites  of  the 
Church  were  caricatured.  To  get  rid  of  him,  Photius,  through  the  influence 
of  the  court,  was  elevated  to  the  patriarchal  oflBce  (858).  This  man  had 
passed  through  the  highest  ofBcos  of  the  state,  and  was  posses,sed  of  much 
diversified  learning.  By  his  promotion  to  that  ofl[ice  a  schism  Avas  created  in 
the  Church,  which  the  court  attempted  to  heal  by  means  of  the  Roman 
bishop.  Legates  were  sent  to  Constantinople  by  Kicholas  /.,  but  they  were 
soon  won  over  to  the  party  of  Bardas,  and  gave  sentence  against  Ignatius 
(861).  Nicholas,  however,  annulled  their  decisions,  and  rejected  Photius  as 
an  intruding  lajinan  (863).  This  disagreement  became  still  more  serious 
when  the  Bulgarians  were  drawn  into  ecclesiastical  connection  with  the 
Church  of  Rome,  {n)  A  circular  Avas  then  sent  forth  by  Photius,  severely 
censuring  as  heresies  all  those  usages  in  which  the  Roman  differed  from  the 
Greek  Church.  Among  the  heresies  enumerated  were  the  observation  of 
fasts  on  Saturday,  the  curtailment  of  the  great  fasts,  the  contempt  of  con- 
firmation when  performed  by  the  hand  of  a  presbyter,  and  tlie  prohibition 
of  the  lawful  marriage  of  priests.  To  these  charges  was  added  the  bitter 
reproach  that  the  Roman  Church  had  sinned  against  the  Holy  Ghost  by  cor- 
rupting the  Apostles'  Creed,  (i)  For,  the  doctrine  of  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (§  105)  from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father,  though  it  had 
been  maintained  as  truth  by  Leo  III.,  had  been  disapproved  as  an  addition  to 
the  Creed,  ('■)  and  yet  had  finally  found  admission  into  the  Latin  version  of 
that  symbol.  At  a  synod  convened  by  Photius  in  Constantinople  (867),  the 
pope  Avas  excommunicated  and  deposed.  During  the  same  year,  hoAvever, 
Basil  became  sole  ruler  in  the  empire  by  the  murder  of  Michael,  with  whom 
he  had  before  been  associated  in  authority,  and  for  this  bloody  crime  the 
imperial  murderer  was  debarred  by  Photius  from  the  communion  jf  the 
Church.  With  calm,  lofty  dignity,  the  Patriarch  stood  before  his  judges, 
and  was  condemned  in  the  Synod  of  Constantinople  (869),  which  claimed  to 
be  oecumenical.  {J)  By  the  same  assembly  Ignatius  Avas  restored  to  the  pa- 
triarchal oilice,  and  sought  to  regain  his  former  friendship  Avith  Rome,  but 

<i)  Comp.  Gf rarer,  CaroUngcr.  vol.  I.  p.  409.  449ss. 
I)  Ep.  2.  Montacut,  p.  47ss. 

c)  M,i»si  Th.  XIA'.  p.  iTss.    Anast  Vit.<i  Leon.  III.  {^MunitoH  Th.  III.  P.  L  p.  208.) 

d)  Munxi  Th.  XVL  p.  l>2.ss.  371ss. 


CHAP.  Vir.   oi:iE>'T.  cuurxiL  §  2.54.  photius.   §  235.  scnis.\L  259 

the  dispute  respecting  the  Bulgarians,  whom  one  in  his  position  could  not 
honorabl\'  surrender,  soon  produced  a  renewed  occasion  for  strife.  On  the 
death  of  Ignatius  (878),  the  emperor  became  reconciled  to  Photius,  and  John 
VIII.^  hoping  to  effect  a  favorable  compromise  of  his  difficulties,  recognized 
the  claims  of  the  restored  patriarch.  At  the  Synod  of  Comstantinojjle  (879), 
which  is  regarded  by  the  Greek  Church  as  the  eighth  oecumenical  council, 
and  was  attended  by  Roman  deputies,  all  decrees  which  had  been  issued 
against  Photius  were  annulled,  (c)  The  pope,  however,  soon  found  that  he 
had  been  deceived  in  his  expectations,  and  pronounced  sentence  of  excom- 
munication against  the  patriarch  and  his  synod.  Photius  was  also  hated  by 
the  heir- apparent  to  the  throne,  who  had  no  sooner  assumed  the  imperial 
crown  under  the  name  of  Leo  the  "Wise  (880),  than  he  was  sent  to  a  convent, 
where  he  found  his  grave  (about  891). 

§  235.     The  Dicision  of  the  Church. 

Leo  AllatiiiK,  do  Ecc.  occ  et  or.  perpetua  consens.  Col.  IC-IS.  4.  Maimhourg,  Hist,  du  sclilsme 
des  Grecs.  Par.  1GT7.  4.  and  others.  C,  A.  v.  ReiclUin-ileldegg,  d.  Ursachen  d.  Trennung.  (Theol. 
AbUh.  Greiz.  liiO.) 

The  previous  relations  of  the  Oriental  to  the  rJomau  Church  were  never 
again  re-established  in  a  definite  form.  The  Circular  which  had  been  issued 
by  Photius  has  ever  since  continued  a  perpetual  monument,  in  which  the 
actual  differences  between  the  two  churches  are  exhibited  in  their  most  ob- 
noxious form.  The  political  separation  of  Italy  from  the  Grecian  Empire 
necessarily  involved  also  its  ecclesiastical.  The  more  the  power  of  the  pope 
increased  in  the  West,  tlie  more  decidedly  Avas  it  needful  to  repel  his  claims 
in  the  East.  A  full  declaration  of  the  schism  was  delayed  by  nothing  but 
the  hope  which  the  emperor  entertained,  that  he  might  obtain  some  assist- 
ance against  the  Infidels  from  the  warlike  nations  of  the  West.  But  in  an 
epistle  of  the  Patriarch  J/«V7iaeZ  Cerularius  (1053),  the  usual  reproaches  which 
had  been  heaped  upon  the  Romish  Church  were  increased  by  another,  which 
accused  it  of  the  Jewish  heresy  of  using  unleavened  bread  in  the  Eucha- 
rist, {(t)  A  violent  epistolarj'  controversy  ensued.  Roman  legates  in  Con- 
stantinople demanded  satisfaction  for  the  offence,  and  the  patriarch  sought 
support  against  the  policy  of  the  emperor  in  the  passions  of  the  people.  On  the 
16th  July,  105-t,  the  Roman  legates  deposited  on  the  great  altar  of  the  Church 
of  St.  Sophia  the  sentence  of  excommunication  which  ha<l  been  issued  against 
the  patriarch,  and  shook  off  the  dust  from  their  feet.  (A)  A  (ireek  Synod 
hurled  back  a  sentence  of  cxcomnmnication  against  the  Roman  Church,  and 
the  other  Catholic  patriarchs  became  coimected  with  Constantinople,  (c) 
Both  Churches,  the  Eastern  and  the  AVestern,  each  in  like  manner  claiming 
to  be  Catholic  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other,  became  henceforth  permanently 
separated.     In  conseqtience  of  the  crusades,  this  division  of  the  Church  be- 

e)  M'Uifti  Th.  XVII.  p.  .'?73s'<. 

a)  To  lie  found  only  in  n  Latin  transl.  in  Huron  hi»  nd  snn.  ]0.')3.  N.  22. 

h)  Bicvis  coiiiineinoratio  eoruMi,  quae  cissorunt  Afwcrlsiarli  S.  I!uni.  Sedls  In  regta  urbc,  by  Car- 
dlnal  lliiniljert,  in  Burnn.  ad  ann.  loSl.  N.  19. 

e)  Mich.  Cerularu  Ep.  II.  ad  I'clruni  Pair.  Antiocli.  (CoMeril  Ecc,  gr.  Monuiii.  Tli.  IL  p. 
185sa.  1Ü2SS.) 


2CC  MKDIAKVAL  CIirKCII  HISTORY.     I'F.i:.  IH.     A.  I).  ^••i-Ul«. 

camo  prndiially  ripened  iiiti)  u  national  hatred.  While  they  Avere  in  j»ro;?res9 
several  cttbrts  were  made  by  those  engaged  in  them  to  unite  with  the  other 
ecclesiastical  parties  of  the  East,  without  success  on  account  of  national  dif- 
ferences. The  M(iro7titex,  at  that  time  a  warlike  tribe,  wore  tlio  only  class 
which  lionostly  and  sincerely  submitted  themselves  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
I,atin  patriarch  of  Antioch  {1182).  (fT)  The  Armenians  endeavored  to  pre- 
sent the  appearance  of  a  reconciliation  whenever  they  wislied  for  assistance 
from  the  West,  but  only  a  few  individual  congregations  under  the  control 
of  the  "Western  governments  maintained  any  connection  with  the  Komish 
Church,  and  were  permitted  to  retain  their  own  sacred  language  and  the 
usages  of  their  ancestors. 

§  236.  State  of  Science. 
The  science  of  this  period  corresponded  with  the  rigid  lifelessness  which 
characterized  all  departments  of  society.  But  the  study  of  the  classical 
writers  and  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  which  had  never  been  entirely  discon- 
tinued, served  to  transmit  from  generation  to  generation  the  inheritance  of 
such  an  education  as  they  were  capable  of  imparting.  "When  Bardas  com- 
menced his  administration,  it  began  to  be  perceived  that  the  proud  spirit  of 
the  nation  could  not  long  maintain  itself  by  the  side  of  the  vigorous  cultiva- 
tion of  the  Mohammedans  and  the  Western  nations,  without  keeping  up  a 
superiority  to  them  in  learning.  He  therefore  became  the  patron  of  science, 
and  Constantinople  was  for  a  considerable  time  the  seat  of  an  eminent  lite- 
rary activity.  Histories  of  the  world,  the  empire,  and  the  Church  were 
written  by  authors  of  various  conditions  in  life  and  with  diflerent  degrees  of 
merit,  but  all  of  them  pervaded  by  the  spirit  peculiar  to  a  resident  of  Con- 
stantinople. The  kind  of  studies  pursued  was  to  some  extent  philological 
and  rhetorical,  or  connected  with  natural  sciences,  without  any  predominance 
of  an  ecclesiastical  element.  JPhotius,  who  was  even  in  scientific  matters  a 
model  for  his  Church,  has  in  his  Bihliotheca  (a)  preserved  for  subsequent 
ages  brief  extracts  and  notices  of  many  Christian  and  heathen  writers,  who 
would  otherwise  have  been  unknown.  His  JS^omocanon,  by  the  common  con- 
sent of  the  Greek  Church,  has  been  adopted  as  its  authoritative  code  of  eccle- 
siastical law.  The  first  part  embraced  the  canons  of  those  synods  which 
were  then  regarded  as  authoritative,  together  with  some  canonicid  epistles. 
These  canons  and  epistles  had  been  collected  together  some  time  in  the  sev- 
enth century,  and  merely  received  some  additions  in  number  from  the  hands- 
of  Photius.  The  second  part  contains  the  civil  laws  relating  to  the  Church, 
systematically  arranged  and  abridged  in  fourteen  sections,  Avith  figures  refer- 
ring to  the  corresponding  canons  of  the  first  part.  (I)    Simeon  Metaphrastes 

d)  IfUh.  Tyr.  XXII,  S.     Kunstmann,  die  Maron.  u.  ihr  Verb.  z.  lat.  K.  (Tub.  Qaartalschr. 
S45.  II.  1.) 

a)  Mvpi6ßtß\ov  s.  Bibl.  cd.  Im.  Bekker,  Ber.  lS24s.  2  Tb.  4. 

6)  Tbe  first  Part,  togetbcr  with  the  Scholiao  of  Zanams  (about  ll'2ö),  and  BaUamon  (1170).  Bett- 
rrgii  'S.vvohtKov  s.  Pandectae  canonum,  0.x.  1672.  2  Th.  £  The  Second  Part  is  in  JustelH  BibL  Th. 
II.  p.  7S5.  and  the  te.xt  of  the  c.inons  which  was  written  out  at  some  time  in  the  10th  cent  in  A. 
Majo  Spicil.  Roman.  Kom.  1S12.  Th.  TIL  Comp.  Biener,  z.  Eovis.  d.  Just.  Codex  Berl.  1883»,  |x 
54&J.    Bickell  in  d.  Jen.  L.  Z.  IS-14.  JJ.  2S2. 


CHAP.  VII.    OKIEXT.  CnURCII.    §  236.  LITERATURE.    §  23T.  TAULICIAXS.      261 

(lOth  cent.)  lias  recorded  in  a  lively  manner  the  old  legends  of  the  ancient 
saints,  (c)  Oecumcnius,  Bishop  of  Tricca  (about  990),  (*/)  T/ieopIiylact,  Arch- 
bishop of  the  Bulgarians  (11U7),  (<)  and  Euthymius  Zifjalcnus,  a  monk  of 
Constantinople  (d.  about  1118),  (/)  formed  collections  for  the  interpretation  of 
the  Scriptures  out  of  tlie  writings  of  the  fathers,  which  are  valuable  because 
they  are  the  only  medium  through  which  we  have  received  a  large  part  of 
the  treasure  from  which  they  were  drawn.  The  Creed  of  tlie  Church  had 
become  firmly  established  on  the  basis  of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  and  was 
now  decked  off  with  a  few  cautious  Aristotelian  fonmilns.  It  had  also  been 
somewhat  tinctured  with  the  peculiarities  of  Platonism  tli rough  the  influence 
of  the  Areopagite  and  the  fathers  of  the  fourth  century.  It  was  obliged  to 
maintain  a  perpetual  conflict  with  the  philosophy  and  heretical  opinions  of 
past  times.  A  peculiar  spirit  is  very  perceptible  in  the  controversial  writ- 
ings of  Nicholas,  Bishop  of  Methane  (died  after  IIGC),  (g)  and  in  the  Treasure 
of  Orthodoxy  (//)  which  Nicetas  Choniates  found  consolation  in  composing  in 
the  midst  of  the  misfortunes  of  his  native  land.  But  the  si)ccial  character  of 
the  age  is  most  distinctly  seen  in  the  FanopUa,  collected  from  the  writings 
of  the  fathers  by  Euthymius  Zigahenus  by  order  of  the  theological  emperor 
Alexius  Oomnenus,  for  the  refutation  and  condemnation  of  all  lieretics.  (i) 
Among  the  Oriental  parties,  the  Jacobites  were  distinguished  for  having  pre- 
served a  lively  current  of  the  old  Syriac  learning  through  several  successive 
generations. 

§  237.     Paulicians.     Section  2.     Continued  from  §  1-tG. 

ConsUintini  Porphyr.  B.isilius  Macedo.  c.  8Tss.  Anna  Comnena,  Alexias.  Par.  Ifi.")!.  f.  I. 
XIV.  p.  450ss.— J/(eÄ.  Pselli.  rrepl  ivepyfiai  SainSvaiv  Siä\.  c<1.  /rusennuiUer,K\l  16SS.  12.  An- 
tui  Conut.  Alex.  XV.  p.  43Gss.  Eathymii  Zijgndeni  Xarratio  de  Bogoin.  sen  Panopliao  tit.  23.  gr. 
recogn.  Ziai  Interpret  add.  Gieseler,  Goctt.  1SS2.  4.    (Also  in  Wolf.) 

Sergius  (after  800),  under  the  name  of  Tychicus,  induced  the  Paulicians 
to  return  to  the  simplicity  of  morals  which  ])revailed  in  the  ancient  Church. 
After  his  death  (835)  no  single  individual  was  elected  to  preside  over 
them,  but  they  were  governed  by  a  council  of  their  teachers.  The  most 
intolerable  oppressions  were  patiently  endui-ed  by  them,  and  it  was  not  till 
the  Empress  Theodora  had  commenced  a  process  by  which  they  were  to 

c)  Xevor  printcsl  .ns  a  separate  work,  some  122  biographies  in  the  histories  of  the  saints  of  the 
Grcclc  and  IJoinan  Clmrches,  and  the  Codices,  seldom  by  tliemsclves.  Leo  Allalitis,  de  varus  Si- 
meonib.  et  Siineonnm  scriptis.  Par.  1ÖC4.  4. 

il)  Comni.  in  Acta  App.  Epp.  Paulinas  et  cath.  ed.  F.  Jforellun,  P.ir.  IWl.  2  Th.  f. 

e)  Conim.  in  XII.  Propli.  niin.  IV.  Evv.  Actn  App.  i:pp.  Paul.  (0pp.  ed.  J.  F.  R  Jf.  d«  linleis, 
Vcn.  1755s.  4  Th.  f ) 

/)  Conun.  in  Psalm.  {Theofhyl.  0pp.)  in  IV.  Evv.  cd.  C.  F.  Matthaei,  Lps.  1792.  3  Th.  f. 

<j)  'AraTTTiifu  T^s  ä{o\oyiKr\s  aroixfiilcatws  Up6K\ou  n\oTü)i'i»cori,  ed.  I'ofmW,  FrcriS25. 

Ä)  Qr](ravph^  opboSu^las  1.  XXVII.,  only  the  five  first  books  in  the  fransl.  by  Pet.  JforeUtis, 
Par.  1509.  (Bibl.  PP.  max.  Th.  XXV.) 

j)  riui'OTrXia  Soyfiariyh  rr\v  op^o5.  iriVrfos,  Terjrov.  1711.  f  (The  e.\travat:antTiL  24.  against 
Islam  in  S'./lUurgi  Saracenic«,  ed.  Ii,urer.  lleiilelb.  1695.)  Lat  cd.  Zino,  Ven.  1555.  f.  (Hibl.  PP. 
Lugd.  Th.  XIX.  Tit.  12  and  13  against  the  Human  Church  is  suppressed.)  Comp.  Anna«  Coiiin.  Sup. 
plenionta  llistdriani  eoc.  Graec.  p.  XI.  et  XII.  fpcctanli:i,  ed.  7'.  /-.  /'.  7i(A'.  Tub.  l^i.—  Lllmanii, 
Nie.  V.  Methone,  Eulh.  Zig.  and  Nie.  Chon.  o.  d.  dogm.  Entwiokl.  d.  Griecli.  K.  im  12  Jahrh.  (Stud. 
a.  Krit  1S83.  P.  8.) 


^G2  MKDIAKVAI,  CIUKCII  llI.STOirY.     ViAi.  III.     A.  I).  W)-V2\i;. 

1)0  Utterly  oxtorminatcd  by  a  f,'oneral  massacre,  that  they  flew  to  arms.  An 
imperial  general  wlioso  name  was  C'arlcas  (844),  actuated  by  a  desire  of  re- 
venj^'O  for  flio  wroii^jjs  which  his  father  had  sustained  from  the  government, 
hooatiio  Ihcir  leader,  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Arabians,  and  strongly  forti- 
liod  Ttji/iricn,  a  mountain-hold  on  the  eastern  confines  of  the  empire.  He 
and  his  successor  ChrysochercK^  with  all  the  cruelty  which  fanaticism  inspires, 
made  excursions  from  this  fortress,  and  laid  waste  the  provinces  of  Asia  Mi- 
nor. Although  the  Emperor  Badl  finally  succeeded  in  destroying  Tephrica 
(871),  many  Paulicians  maintained  their  existence  as  a  people  in  the  moun- 
tainous regions,  and  kept  the  extreme  portions  of  the  empire  in  continual 
agitation.  That  he  might  break  up  their  connections  with  the  Saracens,  John 
Zimisces  formed  a  treaty  with  them  (970),  in  accordance  with  which  tliey 
were  for  the  most  part  removed  to  Thrace,  where  a  colony  of  them  had  been 
formed  even  in  the  eighth  century.  Here  they  acknowledged  a  certain  kind 
of  allegiance  to  the  empire,  bot  in  the  independent  possession  of  PJiilippo- 
polis  they  served  with  great  bravery  as  border  sentinels.  Alexius  Comne- 
nus  having  been  abandoned  by  a  large  band  of  them  in  the  Norman  war, 
effected  their  subjugation  by  stratagem  and  violence  (after  1085).  During  his 
residence  in  his  winter  quarters  in  Thrace  (1115)  he  sought  the  honor  of  their 
conversion,  and  in  fact  many  of  them  yielded  to  the  arts  of  the  imperial 
apostle.  But  the  Paulicians,  under  the  name  of  Biichites^  with  Manichean 
doctrines  and  fanatical  forms  of  prayer,  and  under  Elders  who  were  regarded 
as  apostles  of  Thrace,  had  before  this  become  numerous  among  the  Bulga- 
rians, (n)  The  afSnities  of  these  people  for  the  Slavonic  Dualism  gave  them 
acceptance  in  that  nation  among  which  they  were  commonly  called  Boffo- 
miles.  According  to  their  system  of  faith,  the  original  Source  of  all  Being 
had  two  sons,  called  Satanael  and  Logos.  In  his  attempts  to  attain  equality 
with  the  Father  the  former  became  evil  in  his  nature,  seduced  the  angela 
from  their  allegiance,  and  formed  the  visible  universe.  Through  the  divino 
powers  which  he  still  retained  he  created  man,  and  by  Eve  he  became  the 
lather  of  Cain.  All  ecclesiastical  organizations  were  established  under  the 
influence  of  Satanael,  and  had  their  principal  seat  formerly  at  Jerusalem,  but 
then  at  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia  in  Constantinople.  The  holy  Virgin  con- 
ceivea  in  consequence  of  an  influence  through  the  ear,  and  Christ  in  the 
body  of  an  angel  succeeded  in  overcoming  his  elder  brother.  The  Bogomilea 
acknowledged  the  authority  of  the  Psalms  and  of  sixteen  prophets  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  received  many  apocryphal  books,  (V)  but  they  gave  an 
allegorical  interpretation  to  the  sacred  history,  and  to  the  usages  of  tho 
Chm'ch.  In  the  garb  of  mouasticism  they  concealed  themselves  even  in  Con- 
stantinople until  Alexius  extorted  a  confession  from  them,  and  burned  Basl- 
lius  their  leader  at  the  stake  (1118).  (<*)  Small  communities  of  Bogomiles 
were  found  among  the  Bulgarians  through  the  whole  period  of  the  middle 
ages,  and  Paulicians  have  continued  to  exist  under  many  changes  in  and 
around  Philippopolis  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Ilaemus  until  the  present  day. 

a)  Schniher,  d.  Ench.  Im  11.  Jahrh.  {Stirm's  Stud.  d.  Geistl.  Würt.  vol  II.  H.  1.) 
?')  Llbor  S.  .Toftnnis.  (Thilo  Cod.  apocr.  Th.  I.  p.  8*4.)    Visio  Isa.  (§  S9,  note  d.) 
c)  J.  C.  WoU\  Hist.  Bogoni.  Vit  1712.  4.    L.  Oeder,  Prodr.  H.  Bog.  erit.  Goctt  1743.  4.    EngeU 
hardt,  d.  Bos.  (KGosch.  Ablib.  Er!.  1S32.  N.  2.) 


dc/lr 


/6/  // 


FOURTH    PERIOD. 

FROM     INNOCENT    III.     TO    LUTIIEE. 

§  238.     General   View  and  Historical  Writers. 

I)  §  170.  Fontes  rerum  Germ.  GeschiclitsquellenDeutschl.  (14.  &  13.  Jbli.)  ed.  by  J.  F.  Boehmtr^ 
Btuttg.  1S43-5.  2  vols,  Albertus  Stadensis,  Benedictine  Abbot,  Franciscan,  died  after  12C0,  Chron. 
till  1256.  cd.  lieinecc.  IwST.  Vit.  ICOS.  4.  (Svhilteri  Scrr.  rer.  germ.  vol.  II.  p.  123.)  ContinuaUon 
1264-1324,  ed.  A.  f/cjer,  Ilafn.  1720.  Vincentius  JSellovacensis,  Dominic,  in  Royemont,  died  about 
1204,  Speculum  bistoriale,  till  1250.  Argent.  1473.  4  vols.  f.  Aug.  1474.  8  volst  f.  {Schlosser,  Vine.  v. 
Beauvais  ü.  Erzicb.  m.  3  Abb.  Frkf.  1S19.  2  vols.)  Matthens  Paris,  Benedict  in  S.  Albans, 
Hist,  nnajor  till  1259.  (1000-1205.  from  the  Chron.  of  Jioger  de  M'endocer,  Lond.  1S4«.)  contin.  by 
W.  nishanger,  m  1273,  cd.  irufo,  Lond.  1044.  1GS4.  [publ.  by  the  Camden  Soc.  edited  by /A/Wi- 
ueU.  Lond,  1S40.]  f.  &  often.  Joannes  de  Winterthur,  FrancifC.,  Chron.  1215— 134S.  (Thesanr.  Hist 
Ilelv.  Tig.  1735.  f.)  Albertus  Argentinensis,  Chron.  1273-137S.  (Ursiis  vol.  IL  p.  95.)  The  Stra-'borg 
Chronicle  by  Closener  (died  13U4.)  closes  at  1362.  ed.  by  a  Lit.  Assoc  in  Stuttgard.  1S43.  Jac.  Twinger 
ot  KÖ7iiffxhofeii,a  priest  of  Stra.sburg,  died  1420.  Elsafs.  Chron.  till  13S6,  cd.  by  &-/((7/^r.  Strasb. 
1098.  4.  (Kunisc/i,  Kimigsfi.  &  his  Chron.  In  W.  MüUer's  Ascaiiia.  Ihid.  1S20.  P.  IL  St  robe  I  äo 
F.  Closneri  Chron.  germ.  Arg.  1S29.)  Gobelintis  Persona,  Dean  of  Bielefeld,  died  1420,  Cosmodro- 
mium,  independently  1340-141S.  {Meibom,  vol.  I.  p.  68.)  Antoninus,  Dominic.  Arcbbish.  of  Flor- 
ence, Summa  bistorialis  till  1459.  Nor.  14S4.  3  vols.  E  &  often.  (0pp.  Flor.  1741ss,  vol.  I.)  Werner 
liolfink;  Carthusian  in  Cologne,  d.  1500,  Fasc,  temfiorum  till  1476.  CoL  1474.  f.  &  often.  Cont  by 
Jo.  Linturius  till  1514.  {Pisior.  Struve  vol  IL  p.  347.)— 2)  Albertinus  Jfussatus,  of  Fadua,  d.  1830, 
Hist  Augusta  Ilenr.  VIL  De  gestis  Italor.  jtost  mortem  Ilenr.  till  1317,  Ludov.  Bavarus,  Fragment 
{.Vurat.  vol.  X.)  Giov.  Villani,  of  Florence,  Storie  Fiortntino  till  1343,  cont  by  JIatleo  & 
FUippp  rilUmi  till  1304.  {iluraf.  vol.  XIIIs.)  Mil.  1729.  f.  &  often.  Jean  Froissart,  of  Valen- 
c^enne^  d.  1441,  Clinm.  dc  Franco,  d'Angl.  etc  1.320-1400.  Far.  1503.  1504.  4  vols.  f.  revue  p.  äj«- 
vage,  Lyon.  1559ss.  4  vols.  f.  In  the  Coll.  des  Cbronlques  par  Buchon,  Par.  1S24.  10-25  vols,  of  the 
13th  cent  {Praetorius  ü.  Froiss.  In  Schlosscr's  Arch,  t  Gesch.  1S33.  vol.  V.)  [Chronicles 
of  Engl.  France,  Spain,  &c.,  transl.  new  ed.  Lond.  1S45.  2  vols.  8.]  P/iil.  de  Commines,  d.  1509,  Chron. 
ot  Histoire  14C4-9S.  Par.  1523.  f  &  often,  rev.  p.  /..  du  Fresnoij,  Lond.  1747.  4  vols.  4.  Fr.  Guicci- 
ardini,  d.  1540.  Storia  d'ltalia,  149;M532.  Yen.  1567.  4  &  often.  [Hist  of  Italy  fi-om  1498-1632, 
.raiisl.  by  A.  P.  Goddard,  2  ed.  1775,  L(>nd.  9  vols.  S.  Froi.ssart,  Commines  &,  Gulcciiirdini  havo 
been  transl.  into  I'.n.L'.  &  publi.<liod  t.igotlicr.  New  York  »t  Lond.  1S4S.]  The  portions  of  Guic  sup- 
pressed by  public  authority  are  in  Heidegger,  \IU\.  Papatns,  ed.  2.  Amst  1C9S.  GoldaM  ^[onarchln 
vol.  III.  p.  17.SS. — 8)  CucciuH  Sabellicus,  IILstorioiir.  of  Yenice,  d.  1500,  Enncades  s.  rhaivs(x1ia  Histo* 
riarum  till  1504,  Yen.  149Sss.  2  vols.  f.  St,  often.  (0pp.  Bas.  1560.  4  vols,  f )— 4)  ItoUmaeus  de  Fiado- 
tiibus,  Lncensis.  Douiin.  Bish.  of  Torcello,  <L  1327,  Hist  ccc  till  1312.  (Jfurat  vol.  XL  p.  741.) 
Trithemius,  A.  1516.  Annales  Iliraaugienxes  <^30-1614.  S.  Galll  1690.  2  vols,  f— 5)  Astronomical 
Hist  of  the  Empire  by  Georg.  Acropolita,  1201-61.  ed.  Leo  Allatius,  Par.  1651.  f.  Gtorg.  Pachtj- 
ineres  125S-130S.  cd.  Poi-tinuH,  Bom.  lOOl.ss.  2  vols.  f.  Im.  Dikker,  Bonn.  1S35.  Xivfph.  Gregoras, 
1204-1359.  ed.  Poirinus,  Par.  1702.  2  vols.  f.  Jmn.  Cunlarucenos  132iV<f4.  ed.  Pontunus,  Par.  1645. 
3  vols.  f.  Joan.  Ducas  1.341-1462,  cd.  Butlinldu.i,  Par.  1019  f.  C/ialcond </las  129S-1462,  ed.  Fa- 
brot,  Par.  lG5i\  f.     Georg.  Phrames  1401-77,  Ijit  td.  Pontanus,  Ingoldst  1604.  4. 

For  a  considcralile  time  the  liiorarcliy  ajiparently  preserved  its  position  at 
the  zenith  of  its  po-\ver.  But  in  coiiscqiitnce  of  those  abuses  to  Avhich  uu- 
iimited  autliurity  nhvays  leads  >v]icn  intrusted  to  human  hands,  public  favor, 
on  -vvliith  it  entirely  rested,  soon  became  alienated  from  it.    The  claims  which 


2G4  MKIHAKVAI,  (  llli:i  II  IllSTOUV.     TKU.  IV.    A.  IJ.  12IC-1.V,7. 

it  8ct  uj»  were  ns  exorbitant  ns  ever,  and  even  more  so,  ]>\\t  as  they  were 
generally  rei)elle(l,  tiny  were  i)ro(liictive  only  of  injury  to  itself.  The  power 
of  the  Papacy  and  of  the  empire  were  so  conducted  as  mutually  to  destroy 
ono  another.  The  kings  always  found  support  against  the  encroacliinents  of 
the  popes  in  the  .«onso  of  justice  and  in  the  strong  love  of  independence  which 
existed  in  the  hearts  of  their  people.  Under  the  uniform  improvement  in  the 
dispositions  and  habits  of  the  people,  Avhicli  the  Church  had  fostered  in  every 
European  country,  peculiar  nationalities  noAV  began  to  be  prominently  devel- 
oped. An  intellectual  education  was  extended  among  the  people  without  the 
aid  of  the  Church,  by  means  of  which  the  popular  mind  became  more  ma- 
ture, and  lost  its  peculiar  ecclesiastical  character.  In  these  circumstances 
the  hierarchy  attempted  to  maintain  its  ascendency  by  intrigues  and  direct 
force,  and  while  it  was  struggling  for  its  own  existence  it  could  no  longer 
aflbrd  protection  against  political  despotism.  A  reformation  extending  not 
only  to  the  members  but  to  the  very  bead  of  the  Church  Avas  generally  re- 
garded as  indispensable,  and  was  in  various  quarters  actually  attempted. 
Catholicism  itself  appeared  to  have  become  for  many  nations  an  antiquated 
system,  and  not  adapted  to  tlie  existing  condition  of  things.  And  yet,  as  it 
may  often  be  remarked  in  history,  that  great  spiritual  principles  sometimes 
produce  their  sublimest  forms  just  as  they  are  about  to  be  subverted,  so 
Catholicism  accomplished  its  noblest  achievements  during  this  period.  The 
papacy  was  stiU  the  most  prominent  of  all  actors  in  history,  although  its 
sphere  was  frequently  limited  to  the  circle  of  French  and  Italian  politics. 
The  life  of  a  few  princes  sometimes  becomes  the  leading  object  in  the  picture 
of  events,  and  new  powers  are  raised  up  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Church, 
General  history  was  stiU  written  in  the  same  ecclesiastical  style  in  which  it 
had  formerly  been  composed.  Vincent  of  Beauvah,  in  his  Eucyclopaidia  of 
all  the  knowledge  and  movements  of  his  times,  has  given  us  a  clear  and  true  pic- 
ture of  his  age.  Matthcio  Paris,  in  his  English  history,  containing  also  many 
sagacious  observations  respecting  all  the  countries  of  Western  Europe,  has 
not  hesitated  to  disclose,  with  some  bitterness,  the  crimes  of  the  ecclesiasti- 
cal rulers,  for  this  rigid  monk  was  animated  by  a  supreme  love  to  the  Church 
itself.  Albert  of  Strasburg,  a  candid  and  faithful  writer,  presents  lively 
views  of  individual  characters.  The  Alsatian  Chronicle  presents  a  history  of 
the  people  whose  name  it  bears  in  their  own  language.  Antoninus  of  Florence 
composed  a  general  history,  in  which  the  future  saint  has  displayed  the  most 
undoubting  faith  and  much  modest  criticism.  Several  statesmen  have  also 
given  us  histories,  in  which  are  presented  the  views  of  men  in  secular  life. 
Among  these  were:  Alhertinus  Mussatus,  who  wrote  a  history  of  his  own 
times  and  of  neighboring  countries,  in  a  manner  somewhat  harsh  but  accu- 
rate;  Villani,  who,  with  his  brother  and  nephew,  composed  a  history  of 
Florence,  with  which  also  is  connected  many  notices  of  the  Middle  Ages 
generally,  in  a  style  of  old  Koman  simplicity;  Froissart,  in  whose  Chronicles 
the  wars  and  royal  courts  of  Western  Europe  are  described  with  an  extreme 
relish  for  the  glories  of  the  declining  orders  of  knighthood;  and  Coinmines, 
in  whose  work  we  have  the  memorials  of  an  age  in  which  he  sat  at  the  helm 
of  affairs,  and  kncAv  all  the  secrets  of  its  historv.    The  extreme  character  of 


CHAP.  L  PAPACY.  §  239.  FKEDERIC  IL  GKEGOKY  IX.         265 

this  class  of  writers  may  be  best  seen  in  Guicciardini,  in  whose  hiötorv  of 
Italy  we  have  a  true  and  lively  i)icture  of  events,  in  which  he  was  too  inti- 
mately concerned  always  to  be  impartial.  Finally,  we  have  the  brilliancy  of 
classic  learning  displayed  in  the  General  History  written  by  Sahellicus.  In 
immediate  connection  with  the  subject  of  Chm"ch  History,  Ftolemaeus  of 
Lucca  compiled  a  work  which  is  of  considerable  critical  value,  on  account  of 
the  great  number  of  authorities  which  he  has  carefully  quoted,  with  respect 
to  the  times  immediately  preceding  his  own.  In  a  Chronicle  of  the  old 
Benedictine  Abbey  of  Trittcn7ieim,  is  also  interwoven  the  history  of  the 
general  Church,  esj)ecially  so  far  as  relates  to  Germany,  with  much  learning, 
but  with  an  extreme  bias  for  orthodoxy.  The  Byzantine  historians,  in  the 
lofty  style  of  writing  peculiar  to  their  ancient  authors,  have  described  the 
solemnities,  the  afflictions,  and  the  commotions  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Em- 
pire, in  which  they  generally  bore  so  important  a  part.  But  in  the  opinions 
which  they  express  respecting  western  alhiirs,  allowance  must  be  made  for 
the  asperity  of  feeling  produced  by  the  dominion  of  the  Latins  and  the  abor- 
tive attempts  frequently  made  at  reconciliation. 


CHAP.  I.— EELATIOy  OF  THE  PAPACY  TO  GENERAL  AFFAIRS. 

Mart.  Poloniis.  (at  the  head  of  §  171.)  Bernard lU)  Guido,  Dominic.  Bishop  of  Lodcve,  d.  1881. 
&  Amalricus  Augerii,  Augiistinian,  ahout  13C5,  both  until  John  XXII.  (Murat.  vol.  IIL  P.  I,  II.) 
riatina  {Barthol.  &icchi),  Abbreviator,  d.  14S1,  Yitao  Pontificum  Itoin.  Yen.  1479.  f.  Later  editt. 
altered;  the  Dutch  oilitt,  without  the  name  of  the  place  of  jmb.  are  correct  according  to  the  ed.  prin- 
ceps.  14G0.  1C45.  &  1CG4.  13.  7/ieodoricu,i  de  Nietn,  abbreviator,  d.  about  1417,  named  as  the  author 
of  Yitae  Pontiff.  Rom.  12SS-141S.  additis  Imporatt  gestis.  (Eccard  vol.  I.  p.  14G1.)  Leon.  Areiinus. 
papal  Secret,iry,  d.  1444.  rerum  suo  temp,  in  Ital.  gcftar.  Commtr.  1.37S-1440.  (Jtfurntori  vol.  XIX.  p. 
9u9.)  Yitae  Paparnm  Avenionensiuin,  ed.  Steph.  Baliaius,  Par.  1693.  2  vols.  4.  to  be  corrected  by 
reference  to:  Hist,  des  souverains  Pontifes  dans  Avignon,  Avign.  1777.  4.  Lives  of  particular  Popes 
in  Jfiirat.  vol.  III.  P.  I,  II.  Orig:  Docc.  in  liaynald.  J.  Voigt,  Stimmen  a.  Itom.  fi.  d.  papetL  Ilof 
im  15.  Jahrh.  {liuumer's  hi-'t  Taschenb.  1S32.  N.  'i.)—Boe}tmer,  Rcge?ta  Imperii.  1195-1204.  Lately 
revised.  Stuttg.  1S49.  4    Regesta  Imp.  1240-1313.  Lately  revised.  Stuttg.  1*44.  4. 

§  239.     Frederic  II.     (119^X»<:c.  13,  1250. 

I.  Petri  de  Vinein,  (d.  1249.)  Epp.  1.  YI.  cd.  Iitelin.  Basil.  1740.  2  vols.  Boeltmrr,  Reg.  Imp.  p. 
C6ss.  Pertz  vol.  lY.  p.  223ss  Extracts  from  the  Rcgestis  Honor.  III.  et  Greg.  IX.  in  Bui/nold  Sc 
Raumer.  liiicardi  de  S.  Germano  Cliron.  11S9-1243.  (ifurat.  vol.  YII.  p.  963.)  Conlln.  by  2>'ic, 
dejanuilla  till  125S.  (//;.  vol.  YIII.  p.  4';9.> 

II.  (Funk)  Oe.'^chiohte  Fricdr.  II.  Züll.  1792.  Raumer,  vols.  III-IY.  p.  211.  Ti:  Zimmermann,  die 
Ilohenst.  o.  Kampf  d.  Monarclilc  gegen  Papst  u.  republ.  Frelh.  Stuttg.  1S;33.  2  vols.— C  IF'fler,  K. 
Friedr.  IL  Munich  1S44. 

The  most  enlarged  mental  endowments  and  the  highest  cnrthh-  powers 
were  possessed  l)y  Frederic  II,  for  the  acconipli.-ihmcnt  of  the  destiny  of  the 
house  of  Ilohenstaufen.  By  means  of  the  Saracen  population  of  Sicily,  a 
part  of  whom  he  had  induced  to  settle  in  Ajmlia,  ho  always  had  an  army 
ready  with  which  to  terrify  the  states  of  the  Church.  Hence  tlio  mild  dis- 
position of  Ilonorixis  III.  (after  1216)  was  satisfied  when  tlie  inheritance 
bequeathed  by  the  Counters  Matilda  was  secured  t )  him,  and  ho  made  no 
resistance  when  tlie  emperor's  oldest  son,  already  heir  appai'ent  to  the  throne 


2GG  MKDIAKVAL  CIIIIICII  IIISTOKY.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  D.  1210-1017. 

of  Sicily,  was  elected  to  bo  tlio  next  successor  in  tlic  empire,  and  when  at, 
the  privileges  of  the  Sicilian  monarchy  wero  re-established.  On  his  corona- 
tion nt  Aix-la-Clini)clle,  Frederic  had  taken  the  vow'ot  the  cros.s,  and  had 
.■^uhseciuently  renewed  it  at  Eoine.  By  his  marriapo  with  lolante,  tlie  heiress 
of  the  kin},'doin  of  Jerusalem,  tlio  oblijjfation  to  perform  this  vow  seemed  to 
have  l)ec()me  more  imperious.  Bat  the  emperor,  occupied  with  the  caro  of 
establishing  his  power  in  Italy,  always  i)leadcd  for  a  longer  delay.  The  last 
period  fixed  ujjon  expired  just  as  Ilonorius  died  (March  18,  1227),  and  was 
eucceeded  by  Gregory  IX.  This  pope  was  a  nephew  of  Innocent  III.,  and 
like  that  prince  possessed  much  skill  in  law,  and  an  inflexible  resolution.  In 
his  obstinate  old  age  he  was  even  less  restrained  by  a  regard  to  the  conse- 
quences of  what  he  regarded  as  right,  {n)  On  the  15th  August,  1227,  the  em- 
peror set  sail  from  Brundusium,  but  in  three  days  returned,  on  account  of  a 
pretended  or  at  least  a  very  convenient  sickness.  Gregory  then  issued  against 
him  a  sentence  of  excommunication,  and  was  consequently  driven  from  Rome 
by  the  emperor's  adherents.  Frederic  now  appealed  to  the  Christian  world 
with  severe  accusations  against  the  pope,  and  without  troubling  himself  to 
obtain  a  release  from  a  papal  ban  which  ho  regarded  as  unjust  and  invalid, 
he  again  embarked  for  Palestine,  August,  1228.  But  the  anathema  preceded 
him,  and  induced  his  natural  allies  in  the  East  to  arm  themselves  against 
him.  At  the  same  time  a  great  host  of  ecclesiastical  emissaries  fell  upon  his 
Italian  inheritance.  In  this  extremity,  from  the  personal  favor  of  his  oppo- 
nent. Camel,  Sultan  of  Egypt,  a  truce  of  ten  years  was  obtained,  during 
which  it  was  agreed  that  he  should  retain  possession  of  the  kingdom  of  Jeru- 
salem. He  entered  the  holy  city  in  triumph  (March  17,  1229),  placed  upon 
his  head  the  crown  of  Jerusalem,  hastened  back  to  Italy,  and  drove  the  papal 
soldiers  before  him.  Many  disapproved  of  the  violent  measures  of  the  pope 
against  a  crusader,  and  after  vainly  using  his  utmost  efforts  in  every  place,  to 
stir  up  enemies  against  the  greatest  hero  of  that  century,  Gregory  obtained 
from  his  policy  or  piety  an  honorable  peace  at  St.  Germano  (Aug.  28,  1230). 
The  pope  was  obliged  to  submit  to  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  emperor, 
and  to  accept  of  the  code  of  laws  edited  by  Peter  of  Yinea  (1231),  by  which 
tlie  law  of  the  two  Sicilies  was  firmly  established,  and  though  heretics  were 
Burrendered  to  the  hands  of  the  Church,  the  secular  power  of  the  Church  was 
made  strictly  subordinate  to  the  State,  (h)  But  when  Frederic  again  prose- 
cuted the  struggle  his  family  were  always  obliged  to  maintain  with  the  Lom- 
bards, the  pope  once  more  formed  an  alliance  with  the  friends  of  popular 
freedom,  and  in  a  sentence  of  excommunication  pronounced  against  him 
on  Palm  Sunday,  1289,  released  all  his  subjects  from  their  oath  of  alle- 
giance, and  surrendered  his  body  to  the  devil  for  the  salvation  of  his 
soul.  Each  party  now  sought  by  written  manifestoes  to  gain  over  to  its  side 
the  favorable  judgment  of  the  people,  and  the  two  great  heads  of  Christen- 
dom confronted  each  other  with  charges  of  heresy.  In  their  controversial 
writings  the  specifications  against  each  other  are  clothed  sometimes  in  the 


a)  Tita  Greg,  by  persons  near  Lim.  {MuraL  vol.  III.  p.  575.) 

b)  Constitutiones  Ecguni  Sicili.ie.  Neap.  1TS6.  f.    Raumer,  vol.  Ill  p-  316ss. 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACY.    §  239.  INNOCENT  IV.     §  240.  CONKAD  IV.  267 

most  common  language  of  ordinary  life,  and  at  otlier  times  witli  the  poetic 
imagery  of  the  apocalypse.  Frederic  interpreted  the  favor  which  the  pope 
showed  toward  the  Lombards  as  an  evidence  of  his  partiality  for  the  Cathar- 
ists  living  in  their  midst.  Gregory  accused  the  emperor  of  being  the  author 
of  the  j)rofanc  remark  respecting  the  three  impostors  who  had  deceived  the 
M'orld,  and  justified  the  imputation  by  a  reference  to  the  impartial  justice 
with  which  he  had  treated  the  Saracens,  the  relish  with  which  he  had  en- 
tered into  oriental  pleasures,  and  several  insolent  expressions  with  regard  to 
the  miracles  of  the  Church,  (c)  Frederic,  who  certainly  had  more  faith  in 
astrology  than  in  priests,  not  only  proved  his  orthodoxy  but  conquered  the 
territories  of  the  Church  until  he  sat  down  under  the  very  walls  of  Rome. 
The  pope  called  a  general  council  of  the  Church.  The  emperor  gave  orders 
that  the  fleet  which  conveyed  the  bishops  to  Rome  should  bo  captured. 
Gregory  died  unavenged  (Aug.  21,  1241),  and  after  many  tedious  dissen- 
sions among  the  cardinals,  Innocent  IV.  (Fiesco  of  Lavagna)  was  chosen  in 
his  stead  (June  24,  1243).  The  new  pope  had  been  the  friend  of  the  empe- 
ror, but  after  various  ineffectual  eflfbrts  to  conclude  a  peace  he  became  a  mor- 
tal enemy.  By  the  aid  of  his  countrymen  the  Genoese,  he  escajjcd  from 
Italy,  and  at  the  general  council  of  Lyons  (1245),  {d)  he  once  more  hurled 
forth  all  the  curses  of  the  Church  against  the  emperor,  as  a  heretic  and  a 
sacrilegious  robber.  The  contest  was  waged  not  only  with  spiritual  but  with 
carnal  weapons,  for  the  pope  endeavored  to  secure  assistance  by  exciting 
insurrections  in  Germany  and  in  Sicily.  Frederic  died  without  yielding  to 
the  papal  claims,  (e)  but  among  the  people  many  believed  that  his  body  would 
see  no  corruption,  and  at  the  proper  time  that  ho  would  return  and  over- 
throw the  exorbitant  power  of  the  priesthood. 

§  240.     Ocerthroic  of  the'IIoitse  of  IloJienstanfcn. 

I.  Boehmer,  Reg.  p.  255ss.  JamsUla,  conL  by  an  unknown  lianJ  till  12C5.  {Jfurat.  vol.  VIIL  p. 
5S0.)  and  by  the  Guelph  Saba  Malaspina,  rer.  Sicul.  1.  VI.  1250-76.  {lb.  p.  78!.) 

II.  \V.  Jäger,  Gesch.  Coiirads  II.  Nureüib.  HsT.  Pßster,  Gesch.  v.  Schwaben.  Ilcilb.  1808.  vol 
II.    Baumer,  vol.  IV.  p.  52Sss. 

Innocent  IV.  now  proclaimed  that  the  sacrilegious  house  of  Iluhenstaufca 
had  for  ever  forfeited  all  title  to  .sovereignty,  and  ho  hastened  to  take  posses- 
sion of  Sicily  as  a  vacant  tief  of  the  Church.  But  Conrad  IV.  abandoned 
Germany  to  its  own  dissensions  and  conquered  his  Italian  patrimony.  Italy, 
however,  was  fatal  to  him,  and  at  his  early  death  (1254)  ho  loft  nothing  for 
his  son  Conradiu  but  the  remnant  of  his  paternal  iulicritanco  in  Suabia.  The 
German  crown  was  purchased  by  foreigners  from  the  imperial  princes,  whc 
were  controlled  by  pai)al  influence.  The  Two  Sicilies  were  seized  upon  b> 
Manfred^  a  natural  son  of  Frederic,  and  in  them  ho  established  a  popular 
government,  against  which  Innocent  preached  a  crusade  in  vain.    The  popes, 

c)  The  reiiinrk  was  first  mnile  by  Simon  de  Tournay,  1201,  ifc  llio  treatise  do  tribiis  impostoribus 
(ed.  pr.  559.  8.)  belongs  to  tho  IGtli  cent.  Bvxenkntn:,  d.  Zweifel  am  glauben.  Kritik  d.  l?crT.  <le  trih. 
impost.  Hal.  u.  L.  1830.  Do  iiiipostura  rel.  breve  coinpond.  s.  L.  de  trib.  impost  edit,  with  lit,  Inlj-iul. 
by  Genthe.  Lps.  1S33. 

d)  Vila  Inn.  by  his  Confessor.  Nie.  do  Ciirbio.  (.Viirat.  vol.  III.  p.  ^02.)  Boehmer,  Iteg.  p.  312äe. 
«)  His  Will  Muratori  Th.  IX.  p.  661s.  Boehmer,  p.  810. 


2G8  MKDIAKVAL  CllLi:(  II  IIISTOKV.     I'KK.  IV.     A.  D.  121C-l.'ilT. 

perceiving  timt  Hair  j)()wer  was  insufficient  to  keep  possession  (if  the  two 
Sicilies,  sold  tlicir  title,  first  to  Enj^'liind  and  tlien  to  France.  linally  Charla 
of  Anjou,  by  tlio  aid  of  Clement  IV.  (12C5-G8),  became  king  of  tlie  Two 
Sicilies  after  the  death  of  Man/red  in  the  battle  of  Benevento  (12CGj.  But 
Cotvradin  folt  called  upon  by  the  spirits  of  liis  ancestors  to  leave  the  cir'cle 
of  his  youthful  associates  in  Suabia,  and  attempt  the  conquest  of  his  patri- 
nioniid  i)osscssions  beyond  the  Alps.  lie  no  sooner  made  his  appearance  there 
than  he  was  hailed  as  a  deliverer  by  all  disaffected  persons.  But  being  de- 
feated at  the  battle  of  Tagliacozzo,  he  was  taken  prisoner  while  flying  from 
his  pursuers,  and  having  passed  through  the  miserable  farce  of  a  legal  trial, 
the  last  of  the  Ilohenstaufens  closed  his  life  on  the  scaffold  on  the  29th  Octo- 
ber, 1268.  The  popes  now  had  the  satisfaction  of  having  utterly  destroyed 
the  family  of  their  most  powerful  enemy,  and  their  triumph  was  purchased 
by  the  complete  distraction  of  Germany,  the  dismemberment  of  Italy,  and 
the  ascendency  of  France. 

§  241.    St.  Louis.     (1215.)     122%.— Aug.  25,  1270. 

I.  Joincille,  (Seneschal  to  Louis)  Hist  de  S.  Lonis,  p.  Ch.  du  Fresne,  Par.  166S.  f.  17G1.  f.  Lu- 
dovict.  Vita  et  Conversatio  per  Gaufredum  de  Belloloco,  Cotifossorem,  et  Giiil.  Cürnotensem,  Ca- 
pellanum  ejus.  {Du,  Cliesne  vol.  V.  p.  444.)  Ludotici  Ep.  de  captione  et  liberatione  sua.  (lb.  p. 
895SS.) 

II.  Wilken,  7lh  vol. :  Die  Kreuzzüge  Lwl.  des  Heil.  u.  der  Verlust,  des  h.  Landes.  Lps.  1832. 

Louis  IX.  was,  in  his  pious  conscientiousness,  a  sincere  Christian ;  in  his 
scrupulous  austerities  and  saintly  humility,  a  rigid  monk  ;  and  in  the  energy 
and  equity  of  his  transactions,  even  with  the  hierarchy,  a  noble  prince.  On 
his  recovery  from  a  dangerous  illness  he  assumed  the  vow  of  the  cross,  and 
maintained  his  resolution  against  all  France  with  such  success  that  by  his 
policy  and  enthusiasm  the  Avhole  nation  was  induced  to  co-operate  in  tlip 
sacred  struggle.  The  Holy  Land  had  been  devastated  by  the  incursions  of 
the  wild  tribe  of  the  Chowaresmians,  and  had  once  more  fallen  into  the 
hands  of  the  Sultan  of  Egypt  (12-47).  Palestine  could  be  conquered  only  in 
Egypt.  Damietta  was  taken  by  Louis  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1249,  but 
when  the  crusaders  advanced  into  the  interior  of  the  country,  between  the 
dykes  of  the  Xile  which  had  been  cut  through,  they  were  attacked  by  famine 
and  pestilence.  Louis  was  at  last  obliged  to  purchase  a  return  to  his  own 
land  with  the  wealth  of  his  kingdom.  But  in  the  midst  of  his  misfortunes  ho 
was  still  unsubdued  in  spirit  and  unseduced  to  evil.  By  the  encouragement 
■which  he  showed  to  the  third  estate,  and  by  the  record  which  he  made  of 
the  established  usages  of  the  nation  he  gave  a  firm  legal  basis  to  the  state,  and 
by  the  pragmatic  sanction  (12G9)  gave  stability  to  the  national  church.*  In 
heart  he  was  not  unmindful  of  his  vow,  and  even  when  advanced  in  age.  with 
Christ's  crown  of  thorns  in  his  hand  he  called  upon  the  nobility  of  France 
by  their  love  and  honor  to  prosecute  the  crusades.  When  the  expedition 
accordingly  set  out,  it  was  induced,  by  the  hope  either  of  an  easier  conquest 
or  of  the  conversion  of  their  enemies,  or  by  the  influence  of  Charles  of  An- 


♦  Leibnitii  Mantissa.  P.  I.  p.  15T.     Comp.  Raumer,  vol.  VL  p.  »»s- 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACr.     §  241.  ST.  LOUIS.    §  243.  P.UDOLPH  OF  IIAPSBÜKG.        2G0 

jou,  to  turn  asifle  for  the  invasion  of  Tunis.  The  plan  of  establisliing  a 
French  colony  there  was  frustrated  by  the  carelessness  of  tlie  king,  and  the 
unfavorable  character  of  the  climate.  Louis  died  of  the  plague  before  Tunis, 
and  "with  him  as  with  the  Emperor  Frederic,  perished  the  "work  to  "which  he 
had  dedicated  liis  life.  Louis  belonged  rather  to  a  former  age,  "while  Fred- 
eric labored  for  results  which  could  be  attained  only  in  the  distant  future. 
Hence  both  of  them  seemed  to  toil  in  vain,  but  both  were  illustrious  in  their 
lives. 

§  242.     The  Termination  of  the  Crusades. 

The  Latin  empire  in  Constantinople  continued  still,  but  it  was  perpetually 
torn  by  internal  divisions,  and  regarded  by  the  people  as  a  foreign  yoke.  Its 
capital  therefore  fell  an  easy  prey  even  to  the  feeble  arms  of  the  Greeks 
under  Michael  Palaeologus  (1261).  Palestine  and  Syria,  though  frequently 
reconquered,  were  alwaj's  again  lost  in  consequence  of  the  divisions  in  the 
Christian  host.  God  seemed  to  have  forsaken  his  own  cause,  {a)  The  ro- 
mantic enthusiasm  which  had  exhibited  so  many  interesting  forms  had  now 
given  place  to  a  more  sober,  but  more  selfish  spirit,  and  Mount  Calvaries  were 
constructed  nearer  home.  Gregory  X.  (1271-76)  exerted  all  the  influence 
which  a  pope  possessed,  to  obtain  possession  of  the  East  by  a  new  crusade, 
and  thus  preserve  it  for  Christianity,  but  his  efforts  were  entirely  vain,  {h) 
Plolemais  (Acre),  the  last  fortress  of  the  crusaders,  was  stormed  by  the  Egyp- 
tian host  on  the  18th  May,  1291.  (f)  The  only  benefit  which  the  crusades 
could  accomplish  was  for  tlie  spiritual  and  commercial  interests  of  the  West- 
ern nations,  and  this  office  they  had  now  fulfilled.  {<!) 

§  243.  EudolpTi  of  Eapslurg.  1273-91.  The  Sicilian  Vespers. 
The  German  throne  had  been  for  a  long  time  vacant  when  the  Count  of 
Ilapsburg  became  king  by  the  choice  of  the  more  powerful  princes  of  the 
empire.  lie  now  endeavored  to  obtain  the  papal  acknowledgment,  and  took 
the  oath  which  had  been  customary  ever  since  the  time  of  Otiio  lY.,  because 
Alphonso  of  Castile,  a  rival  king,  whom  Gregory  X.  had  persuaded  to  re- 
nounce all  claims  upon  the  crown,  was  yet  living.  "With  the  moderation  of 
a  mind  powerful  in  its  proper  sphere,  Kudolph  abandoned  all  the  rights  of 
the  empire  to  its  Italian  dependencies,  and  confined  his  attention  to  the 
establishment  of  a  legal  government  in  Germany,  and  to  the  attainment 
of  the  power  which  his  fimiily  needed  for  its  maintenance.  He  therefore 
succeeded  in  living  on  terms  of  honorable  peace  with  the  pope,  who  needed 
a  powerful  support  against  the  iiitiuence  of  France  in  Lower  Italy,  and  ho 
had  opportunity  to  pave  the  way  for  the  future  independence  of  the  empire,  (a) 

a)  Comp.  Slrventes  des  TempK-r»  In  Diet;,  Lebon  u.  Werke  d.  Troubad.  Zwiok,  1S29.  p.  589. 
h)  Uumhertiis  tie  /ioiiKtnin  (in  tlic  service  of  the  pope,)  de  his  QUiio  triictanda  vldebnntnr  in  Cone 
gen.  Lugd.  {.UdnHi  vol.  XXIV.  p.  109»».) 

c)  3f(irinm  Siiniitim,  Secretorum  fldelliiin  cruols  1.  III.  P.  XII.  c.  21s.».  (Bungars  vol.  II,)  Abul- 
feda  (himself  present.)  Annnl.  Moslem,  vol.  V.  p.  95s.». 

d)  Heeren,  Entwlckl.  d.  Kol;;en  d.  Kreuzz.  C  Kiiropa.  Oött  1S03.  (Hi-^t.  W.  vol.  II.)   lifgenhogtn, 
de  fructibus  qnos  hiimanlta»,  libert»»,  mercatura  etc.  perceperliit  e  bcllo  sacro.  Amst.  1S09 

a)  Codex  epistolarls  Ilud.  I.  cd.  Ofrbert,  S.  IJlasil.  1722.  f.  aus.  Bodmann,  Lps.  1306.    Bo<hm«r 


270  MKDIAKVAL  (  IUKCII  lIISToKV.     VKll.  IV.    A.  I).  lülC-lSlT. 

Clement  71'.  had  iviisoii  to  doubt  tlic  wi.-id(jrii  of  lii.s  policy  witli  respect  tc 
tlio  .Sicilies,  for  instead  of  deriving  nny  pecuniary  aid  from  Charles  of  Anjou, 
that  prince  was  continually  exacting  money  from  him.  (Jj)  So  intolerable 
were  tho  oppressions  of  the  French  in  Sicily  that  even  Gregory  X.  predicted 
that  a  day  of  Vengeance  would  soon  arrive  against  his  royal  vassal,  (c)  But 
when  Martui  IV.  (1281-85)  a  Frenchman,  and  subservient  to  French  inter- 
ests, was  seated  in  the  i)apal  chair,  {(T)  at  the  ringing  of  the  vesper  bells  on 
the  third  day  in  Easter,  1282,  an  insurrection  broke  forth,  and  every  French- 
man on  the  island  was  slain.  Peter  of  Aragon,  on  account  of  his  marriage 
with  Constantia,  the  daughter  of  Manfred,  was  proclaimed  King  of  Sicily,  and 
■was  immediately  excommunicated  by  the  pope.  Charles  of  Anjou  retained 
possession  only  of  Naples,  and  the  popes  lost  all  influence  in  Sicily  until  new 
relations  were  formed  with  France  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  century, 
when  a  reconciliation  was  etfected.  {e) 

§  224.     The  Hermit  in  the  Papal  Chair.    July  5.— Dec.  13,  1294. 

Soehmer,  Regest  p.  338.  Ptolemaei  Luc.  (an  eye-witness)  11.  ecc.  XXIV,  29ss.  EaynsM.  aJ 
nnn.  1294.  Jacohi  Cardinalh  Carmen  de  vita,  and  de  caiionisatione  Coel.  {3Iiir<it.  vol.  III.  P.  I.  p. 
613ss.  65.5SS.)  Petrus  de  Alliaco,  Vita  Coel.  (Acta  SS.  M.nj.  vol.  IV.  p.  ii5.)—Coeleiiiini  0pp.  (asce- 
tic) ed.  Telera,  Neap.  1640.  4.  (Bibl.  PP.  Lugd.  vol  XXV.) 

The  French  influence  in  Naples  had  gained  over  a  party  among  the  cardi- 
nals, which  was  opposed  by  another,  embracing  various  shades  of  distinction, 
called  the  papal,  the  Italian,  and  the  German.  But  when  neither  of  these 
parties  was  found  strong  enough  to  elect  one  of  its  own  number  to  the  papal 
chair,  at  the  suggestion  of  the  name  of  Peter  de  Murrhone,  a  hermit  and  a 
popular  saint,  residing  at  Abruzzo,  all  agreed  to  bestow  their  votes  on  him, 
each  party  hoping  to  find  in  him  an  instrument  for  its  own  purposes.  He 
assumed  the  name  of  Celestine  F.,  and  never  renounced  his  saintly  poverty 
and  his  former  simplicity  of  life.  But  with  the  exception  of  the  King  of 
Naples,  to  whose  influence  he  surrendered  himself,  and  Avhose  favorites  he 
appointed  cardinals,  all  parties  soon  perceived  his  utter  unfitness  for  the  otfice 
of  government.  Hence,  when  he  had  confirmed  the  rigid  regulations  of 
Gregory  X.  with  respect  to  the  limitation  and  seclusion  of  the  conclave,  {a) 
he  was  induced  by  Cardinal  Cajetamis,  who  acted  in  behalf  of  the  older  car- 
dinals, although  with  the  view  of  himself  becoming  po]>e,  voluntarily  to 
resign  his  oflice.  Instead  of  the  solitude  of  the  mountain  for  whith  he  had 
I'^nged,  his  successor  consigned  him  to  the  solitude  of  a  prison,  in  which  he 
died  (1296).  By  his  third  successor  he  had  assigned  to  him  (1313)  a  place 
among  the  saints,  and  by  Dante  a  place  in  hell,  (h) 


Reg.  p.  51ss.    Pertz  vol.  IV.  p.  8S2ss.— Ze  Bret,  de  prnd.  Kud.  in  rebus  cum  Curia  peractis.  Tub 

17&8.  4. 

h)  Marlene,  Thea.  nov.  vol.  II.  p.  174  179.    c)  &iha  MalaDpina  VI.  4    d)  Boehmtr,  Reg.  SSÖäs 
e)  Mich.  Amari,  la  guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano.  Palermo.  1S42.  ed.  4.  Fir.  18ÖI. 
a)  Procmfmed  at  Lyons,  1274    Muim  vol.  XXIV.  p.  Slss.    I)  Inferno  III,  öSsa. 


CHAP.  L    PAPACY.    §  245.  BOXIFACE  VIIL    PHILIP  AUGCSTIS.  271 

§  245.     Boniface  VIII.    Dec.  24,  \'2'd-L— Oct.  11,  1303. 

Ptol  Luc.  n.  ecc.  XXIV,  86.  (Comp.  Cod.  Patav.  In  Murat.  voL  XI.  p.  121Sss.)  For  Hist.  Jk 
oiig.  document.«,  {P.  du  Puy)  Hi.sL  du  difTi-rend  entre  le  Pape  Boniface  et  Phil,  lo  Bel.  Par.  1655.  t 
£ailM,  Uht  des  demelez  du  P.  Bc.nif.  nvec  Phil.  od.  2.  Par.  ITIS.  V2.—Pubeus,  Bonif.  et  faniUia  On- 
Jetanorum.ltom.lC51.  7b«</,  Storia  dl  Bon.  VIII.  e  dc' suoi  tempi.  Rom.  ISlC— If!  Drumann, 
Gescb.  Bon.  d.  VIII.  Königsb.  1S52.  2  Th. 

Cnjetanns  of  Anajrni,  a  jurist  and  a  priest,  wbo  hail  grown  eld  while 
employed  in  the  affairs  of  the  Roman  court,  ascended  the  papal  chair  under 
the  name  of  Boniface  VIII.  This  distinction  he  attained  tlirough  the  recom- 
mendation of  his  enemy  the  King  of  Naples.  Actuated  hy  a  frantic  hatred 
to  the  Ghibelline  party  he  sent  into  banishment  the  powerful  family  of  the 
Colonna  who  now  declared  Celestine's  resignation  invalid,  and  drove  the 
plough  over  Palestrina  the  town  in  which  they  resided,  lie  reproved  Philip 
of  France  for  having  seized  upon  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  for  an 
adulteration  of  the  coin,  and  according  to  a  right  then  conceded  to  the  hier- 
archy, he  proposed  to  act  as  a  mediator  (1205)  in  the  sanguinary  war  between 
that  prince  and  Edward  I.  of  England.  Pliilip  the  Fair  forbade  his  inter- 
ference, and  when  Boniface  forbade  all  taxation  of  Churcli  property,  (<•/)  the 
king  prohibited  any  exportation  of  the  precious  metals.  That  he  might  not 
lose  all  his  revenues  from  France,  and  as  he  was  already  forsaken  by  a  por- 
tion of  the  French  clergy,  the  pope  sought  to  become  reconciled  to  Philip  by 
giving  the  mildest  construction  to  his  own  prohibition.  Both  kuigs  now  con- 
sented that  he  should  decide  their  difficiüties,  not,  however,  as  the  pope,  but 
as  one  selected  by  the  parties  for  that  special  purpose.  No  sooner,  however, 
was  his  decision  made  known  in  a  Bull  (Juno  30,  1298),  than  Philip  refused 
to  comply  with  its  requisitions,  because  it  did  not  properly  re3i)ect  the  riglit 
of  prior  possession  against  that  of  recent  conquest.  Reproaches  of  roya^ 
oppression,  and  papal  treachery  to  the  Church,  were  exchanged  between 
them,  and  the  legate  in  France,  as  a  French  bishop,  was  thrown  into  prison 
for  high  treason.  Angry  edicts  were  proclaimed  by  Boniface  on  the  oth  of 
December,  1301,  summoning  the  French  prelates  to  Rome  for  the  purpose  of 
reforming  the  king  and  the  empire.  The  king,  whoso  ordinary  government 
was  eminentl}'  despotic,  now  appealed  to  his  j)cople,  and  convened  a  general 
Diet  of  his  kingdom.  The  three  estates  were  unanimous  in  maintaining  the 
independence  of  the  French  kingdom  (1302).  An  extract  from  the  papal 
decrees  which  had  been  so  falsified  as  to  make  it  in  tlio  liighest  degree  often- 
sive  to  the  royal  feelings,  decl.ired  every  one  a  heretic  who  did  not  believe 
that  the  king  in  temporal  as  well  as  in  sjiirifual  matters  was  subject  to  the 
pope.  To  this  tlie  king  replied  by  declaring  every  one  a  fool  who  did  not 
believe  that  the  King  of  Franco  was  in  temporal  things  subject  to  no  one.  (b) 
Boniface  now  commenced  a  contest  with  the  whole  French  nation,  and  al- 
though ho  denied  that  he  had  ever  cluimed  Franco  as  a  papal  lief,  ho  never- 
theless maintained  that  every  creature,  under  peril  of  his  final  perdition,  wag 


o)  Clerlois  laicos:  .<Krt.  Dfcret.il.  lib.  3.  tIL  23.  c.  3. 

h)  Thet'eiiuliie:  AuHJulta  till.    The  opiirlous:  Deuui  time,     JSuilM.  p.  in.3,  in.<.     Ihumann, 
ToL  II.  p.  19. 


272  Mi;i)iAi;vAi.  <iii:k(  11  iiisT()i;y.   i'li:.  iv.   a.  d.  121G-151T. 

bi)imtl  to  ohcy  tlio  Pvoinjin  bishop,  (r)  lie  tlien  i>rocec(le(l  to  excommunicate 
the  kiiip,  wlio  appealed  onco  more  to  a  general  Diet  of  liis  empire  (June, 
1808).  ]{of(>ro  that  body  ho  had  the  pope  accused  of  the  most  monstrous 
crimes  and  deiiiaiided  that  a  general  council  should  be  summoned  to  adjudi- 
cate upon  them.  The  pope  pronounced  an  interdict  upon  tlie  Avhole  of 
France,  abrogated  the  privileges  of  the  universities,  and  bestowed  the  French 
crown  upon  tlio  Emperor  of  Germany.  Pliilip\s  chancellor,  Williain  of  Xo- 
garet,  and  Sciarra  Colonna,  the  expelled  cardinal,  surprised  and  imprisoned 
the  pope  (Sept.  7)  in  his  own  city  of  Anagni.  In  the  hands  of  his  enemies 
lie  now  resolved  to  die  like  Him,  whose  earthly  vicar  he  professed  to  be. 
After  a  confinement  of  three  days  he  was  liberated  by  his  own  countrymen, 
but  grief  for  the  dishonor  he  had  suffered  had  broken  his  heart.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  Boniface  thought  more  of  himself  and  of  his  treasures  than  of  the 
general  welfare,  but  ho  was  impelled  forward  by  his  idea  of  the  pontificate, 
his  conduct  was  in  the  very  spirit  of  Gregory,  he  only  mistook  in  some  cases 
the  proper  hour  for  action,  and  in  general  had  not  observed  the  great  changes 
which  had  taken  place  since  the  time  of  his  predecessor.  Subsequent  ages 
have  held  him  responsible  for  his  misfortunes.  But  kings  had  learned  the 
secret  of  repelling  papal  assumptions,  the  universal  dominion  of  the  hierarchy 
had  been  broken,  and  public  opinion,  expressed  in  powerful  tones,  had  pro- 
nounced its  disapproval  of  all  attempts  to  blend  the  spiritual  Avith  the  secu- 
lar authority,  {d) 

%  24G.     Commencement  of  the  Bali/Ionian  Exile. 

Although  Benedict  XL  (Oct.  22,  1303— June  7,  1304),  was  a  steadfast 
friend  of  his  predecessor,  he  was  compelled  to  yield  to  adverse  circumstances. 
Accordingly  he  availed  himself  of  an  honorable  embassy  from  Philip  to  ob- 
tain a  reconciliation  with  that  monarch,  in  which  all  decrees  against  France 
were  revoked,  so  far  as  appeared  consistent  with  the  honor  of  the  papacy.  («) 
"When  the  conclave  was  assembled  for  the  election  of  his  successor,  it  was 
found  that  the  party  of  Boniface  was  a  complete  match  for  that  of  France, 
but  the  superior  policy  of  the  latter  prevailed,  and  Bertrand  d'Agoust,  Arch- 
bishop of  Bordeaux,  a  creature  of  Boniface,  but  secretly  pledged  to  act  with 
the  French  party,  Avas  unanimously  elected,  {b)  Clement  Y.  (June  5,  1305 — 
April  20,  1314)  never  crossed  the  Alps,  but  in  the  year  1309  fixed  upon  Avig- 
non as  his  residence.  By  the  appointment  of  numerous  French  cardinals  he 
secured  the  election  of  a  successor  of  the  same  political  character  with  him- 
self. These  were  generally  French  court  bishops  Avho  directed  the  usurpa- 
tions of  the  hierarchy  only  against  other  nations.  Although  Clement  sub- 
jected the  French  Church  to  the  payment  of  tithes  to  the  king,  repealed 
some  parts  of  Boniface's  bulls,  and  made  others  inapplicable  to  France, 
avoided  with  difficulty  a  formal  condemnation  of  Boniface  himself,  and  ven- 

c)  ünam  sanctam  :  Ertrav.  comm.  lib.  I.  tit  8.  c.  1.    Prumann,  vol.  II.  p.  6Tss. 

d)  Dante,  rur^ator.  XVI,  97ss.  XXVII,  TOss.  Aegiditis  de  Columna,  (Arclibish.  of  Bonreos, 
4  1316)  de  potest.ite  rcj;ia  et  pontiflcla.  {Goldasti  Monarchia  S.  K.  Imp.  Fret  1614.  C  toL  IL  p.  96.) 
Joanru«  de  Parrhisüs,  (Dominic,  d.  1304.)  Tr.  de  pot  regia  et  papalL  {Tb.  p.  lOS.) 

3)  Rayuald  ad.  ann.  1304.    Du  Pay,  p.  20734        h)   YiUanL,  VIII,  80. 


t-JlAl'.  I.     TAPACr.     S  246.  CLEMENT  V.    §  247.  JOHN  XXII.  273 

tured  only  iu  secret  to  recall  a  compulsory  public  recommendation  of  the 
French  prince  for  election  to  the  imperial  dignity,  he  hurled  the  most  terri- 
ble anathemas  (1309)  against  the  republic  of  Venice  for  its  attempt  to  gain 
forcible  possession  of  Fcrrara,  and  -when  Henry  VII.  of  Luxemburg  went  on 
a  military  expedition  to  Rome  he  renewed  all  the  exorbitant  demands  of  his 
predecessors.  Henry  died  in  the  midst  of  Ifn  victories  (131^),  and  it  was  then 
liroclaimed  in  the  papal  bulls  that  the  i)Ope  was  the  emperor's  lord  paramount, 
and  consequently  that  when  the  imperial  throne  was  vacant  the  pope  was 
tlie  imperial  rcijent  in  Italy,  (c) 

§  247.     Louis  of  Bavaria.     1314-47.     Joanna  of  Naples. 

I.  Oris.  Docc.  in  Olenschlager,  Staatsgcsch,  des  roin.  Kaiserth.  1.  nalfte  des  14  Jhh.  Frkf.  175.',. 
4.  Boehmer,  Ilegesta  Imp.  1314-47.  Frkf.  1S89.  4.  &  Additain  I.  Frkf.  1S41.  4.  Vita  Lud.  IV.  AI- 
heru  Massati  Lud.  Uavanis,  Jo.  VictoriensU  and  others  in  Boehmer,  Fontes  rer.  Germ.  vol.  I.  I/er- 
icart  ah  Ilohenburg,  Lud.  IV.  defcnsus.  Mon.  IfilSs.  3  vols.  4.  Geiiti!<f,  Derensio  Lud.  IV.  Ingoist. 
1618.  i.—Jfii7i!t€r(,  Ludw.  IV.  Landsh.  1SI2.    ScMett,  Biogr.  v.  K.  Ludw.  Sulz.  1S22. 

After  a  long  and  violent  assembly  of  the  French  and  Italian  cardinals, 
John  XXII.  was  presented  to  the  people  as  their  pope  (131G~34).  "While  yet 
in  Lyons  ho  gave  his  oath  to  the  Italians  that  he  would  never  mount  a  beast 
except  on  his  journey  to  Eome,  and  accordingly  embarked  by  ship  for  Avig- 
non, and  never  left  his  palace  there.  In  Germany,  Louis  of  Bavaria  and 
Frederic  of  Austria  were  contending  for  the  imperial  crown,  and  at  that  time 
it  appeared  to  be  the  interest  of  France  to  allow  the  power  of  the  empire  to 
expend  itself  in  these  civil  dissensions.  Hence,  when  Louis  had  made  his 
opponent  a  prisoner  (1322),  and  in  opposition  to  the  summons  that  lie  should 
submit  to  the  decision  of  the  pope,  pleaded  that  his  title  to  the  crown  was 
already  complete  by  the  choice  of  the  princes  of  the  empire,  John  simply  re^ 
plied  by  a  ban  of  excommunication  and  an  interdict  (1324).  But  even  the 
papal  sanction  of  a  breach  of  faith  was  ineffectual  to  make  it  tolerable  to  the 
loyal  sjiirit  of  the  German.s.  Louis  came  to  an  agreement  with  his  opponent, 
and  after  a  formal  appeal  to  a  general  council  caused  him.'jelf  to  be  crowned 
emperor  at  Rome,  and  a  pious  mendicant  monk  to  be  placed  in  the  papal 
chair  (1328).  No  sooner,  however,  was  his  army  withdrawn  from  Italy  than 
his  power  in  that  country  ceased,  the  pope  whom  he  had  set  up  was  sent  to 
Avignon,  and  a  papal  decree  announced  that  Italy  was  for  ever  sei)arated  from 
Germany.  On  the  one  side  of  tlio  Alps  the  emperor's,  and  on  the  other  .«lide 
the  pope's  extreme  i>retensions  to  a  universal  dominion  were  advocated  bv 
influential  writer,'^,  {a)  By  his  passionate  interference  in  all  kinds  of  theo- 
logicid  controversy  John  XXII.  gave  occasion  for  the  imputation  that  he  was 
himself  infected  with  heresy.  (6)  In  his  proud  theocratic  pretensions  the 
Germans  could  perceive  nothing  higher  th.an  the  instigations  of  France.  The 
.interdict,  however,  though  but  partially  carried  into  ctiect,  waa  not  without 

c)  F.  W.  Biirthohl,  Kümerzug  lleinr.  v.  Li'it/.olbiir^.  K.'.nlissb.  1'n'KK  2  vols. 

a)  On  the  imperial  side  :  Jfarsilius  of  I'lidua  an<l  John  of  Jundun  \n  their  princiiial  joint  pro- 
duction, about  1.328,  Defensor  pads.  (Goldanti  Monan-hla,  vol.  II.  p.  154.)  On  the  papal  siilo:  Aiir 
tfustinu»  Triumplutu,  Summa  do  potest,  oec.  ad.  Jo.  Aug.  Vlnd.  1473.  and  often.  Alvarua  I'elagiii.i, 
ae  planctu  ecele>iac.  1.  II.  Ulm.  1474.  Ven.  1560.  f. 

b)  Guil.  Occaw,  Comp,  crrorum  Joannis  V.  {fJoldiinti  I.  e.  vol.  II.  p.  357.) 

18 


274  MKDIAKVAI-  CllUIlCIt  IIISTOIiV.     I'EH.  IV.     A.  I).  l-'16-16n. 

ita  inflnenco  in  distiirhin^r  the  popular  trfiiHjuillity.  A  reconciliation  v/itli  tlie 
Chiiroli  was  sonj.,'lit  for  by  Lonis,  and  altliougli  it  was  (lesircd  by  Jiiiie<Hct  XII. 
(1334— i'2;  no  less  tlian  by  tlic  emperor,  it  was  prevented  by  French  influence. 
This  doi)endcnco  of  the  popes  induced  the  imperial  princes  to  form  the  First 
Electoral  Alliance  at  Reme  (July  16,  1338),  and  Louis  announced  that  the 
imperial  dijrnity  came  directly  from  God  alone,  (c)  But  as  the  emperor  had 
done  violence  to  the  feelings  of  his  people,  sometimes  by  arbitrary  invasions 
of  the  prerogatives  of  tlie  Church,  and  sometimes  by  pusillanimous  conces- 
sions, Clement  VI.  (1342-52)  succeeded  in  obtaining  five  electoral  votes  in 
favor  of  Charles  IV.  the  son  of  the  King  of  Bohemia  (134Gj.  But  this  par- 
son-king was  obliged  immediately  to  take  refuge  in  France,  and  did  not  reach 
the  ignominy  of  a  new  election  and  coronation  until  after  the  death  of  Louis, 
and  at  the  expense  of  the  most  ruinous  sacrifices  (1349).  In  Naples  the  Hun- 
garian prince,  Andreas,  the  husband  of  the  young  royal  heiress,  Joanna.,  was 
murdered  (1345),  His  widow,  who  was  soon  after  married  to  her  cousin,  the 
Prince  of  Tarento,  was  compelled  to  fly  before  the  vengeance  of  the  Hunga- 
rians to  Avignon.  Clement  VI.,  her  liege  lord  and  her  judge  in  the  place 
of  God,  solemnly  pronounced  the  beautiful  queen  innocent  of  the  murder  of 
her  husband,  and  confirmed  her  recent  marriage.  She,  on  tlie  other  hand, 
that  she  might  obtain  funds  to  carry  on  a  war  with  the  Hungarians,  sold 
Avignon  to  the  papal  see  (1348),  and  after  various  vicissitudes  of  war, 
obtained  permanent  possession  of  her  patrimonial  estates  through  the  media 
i\on  of  the  pope. 

§  248.  Close  of  the  Babylonian  Exile. 
In  consequence  of  the  absence  of  the  pope  and  the  weakness  of  the  em- 
peror, in  Italy,  every  city  there  made  eftbrts  to  attain  independence,  and 
whenever  this  was  secured,  innumerable  fiictions  and  tyrants  commenced  a 
struggle  with  each  other.  The  result  was  that  all  considerate  persons  began 
to  long  for  some  powerful  head  who  could  rule  over  the  whole.  These  de- 
sires, however,  were  not  satisfied  by  Charles  IV.,  whose  expedition  to  Rome 
(1354)  was  welcomed  with  great  enthusiasm  by  the  people,  for  the  only 
object  of  that  monarch  Avas  to  obtain  the  pageant  of  a  coronation.  Innocent 
VI.  (1352-62),  a  prince  Avell  versed  in  legal  science  and  of  strict  integrity, 
recognized  the  necessity  of  a  reformation,  and  he  even  entered  upon  it  him- 
self by  reducing  the  splendor  of  his  court,  and  attempting  to  appropriate  to 
the  actual  service  of  the  Church  the  treasures  accumulated  from  various 
benefices.  The  estates  of  the  Church  had  been  divided  into  many  indepen- 
dent cities  and  principalities,  or  had  been  taken  possession  of  by  neighboring 
governments.  In  vain  the  popes  resorted  to  terrible  excommunications  to 
frigliten  these  ecclesiastical  robbers  ;  the  papal  government  was  not  restored 
until  Alhornoz,  the  cardinal  legate  (1353-07),  succeeded  in  raising  a  bold  cru- 
sade on  a  small  scale,  and  brought  into  action  all  the  arts  of  a  skilful  diplomacy. 
The  Romans  had  been  for  a  brief  period  intoxicated  with  the  idea  of  free- 
'lom  and  universal  dominion,  excited  by  their  tribune  Cola  äi  liieuzo*  but 

c)  OUiutcruaijer,  X.  (H.    Bi^fhmei;  Reg.  p.  1'20. 

♦  y.  Papencordt,  Cola  di  Eienzo  u.  s.  Zelt  U.imb.  1S41. 


CHAP.  I.    PAPACY.     §  2iS.  IXXOCEXT  VL     §  240.  THE  SCUIsM.  275 

when  tliey  saw  the  eternal  city  becoming  almost  desolate  in  consequence  of 
the  absence  of  the  pope,  all,  especially  those  to  whom  the  higher  object  of 
the  papacy  was  dear,  became  anxious  for  his  return.  Urban  Y.  (1362-70), 
in  opposition  to  the  wi.shes  of  his  cardinals  and  the  king  of  France,  at  last 
returned  to  Rome  (1367).  He  was  soon,  however,  compelled  to  return 
to  Avi<rnon  by  the  unsettled  condition  of  affairs  in  Italy.  Grcfjory  XI. 
(1370-78)  once  more  yielded  to  the  solicitations  of  his  Italian  subjects,  and 
was  carried  back  by  the  Romans  in  triumph  (1877).  Yet  the  cities  of  the 
Ecclesiastical  States  were  not  unmindful  of  tlieir  independence,  for  they  were 
careful  to  intimate  that  all  regard  for  religion  must  be  laid  aside  when  it  be- 
comes hostile  to  freedom,  and  that  nothing  but  death  could  render  the  resi- 
dence of  the  pope  in  Italy  absolutely  certain. 

§  249.     The  Schhm. 

I.  Orig.  Docc.  in  IlaynaUl.  Balus.  and  in  BuUtei  Hist  Univ.  Paris,  vol.  IV.  Theodoricus  d« 
Xiem,  do  schistnate  inter  Papas  et  Antipapas  (till  1410.)  1.  III.  et  ncmus  unionis.  Bas.  15C0.  f. 
Ar?.  1600. 

II.  Du  Pay,  Hist  du  scliisme  137S-1429.  Par.  1C54.  and  often.  JSaimlotiro,  Hist  dn  prand 
ecbisme  d'occident  Par.  167S.  Ucbers.  1792. 

The  election  of  an  Italian  pope  was  at  last  obtained  by  the  persevering 
obstinacy  of  the  Roman  people.  The  Archbishop  of  Bari,  Urhan  VI. 
(137&-89),  a  Keapolitan,  was  favorably  inclined  toward  the  people,  though 
toward  the  cardinals,  who.se  opposition  to  himself  be  well  knew,  he  evinced 
the  natural  severity  of  his  character.  The  twelve  cardinals  from  beyond  the 
Alps  therefore  fled  to  Anagni,  hired  a  band  of  condottieri,  declared  the  elec- 
tion of  Urban  invalid  because  under  constraint,  drew  three  Italian  cardinals  by 
artful  promises  into  their  conclave  at  Fondi,  and  cho.*o  Cardinal  Robert  of 
Geneva  for  their  pope,  under  the  name  of  Clement  VII.  (1378-94).  He  took 
up  his  residence  at  Avignon,  and  through  the  influence  of  France  he  was 
gradually  acknowledged  in  the  Spanish  peninsula,  in  Scotland,  Savoy  and 
Lorraine,  and  was  regarded  as  the  proper  successor  of  the  French  popes.  In 
opposition  to  Joanna  of  Naples,  who  had  likewise  declared  in  fovor  of  Cle- 
ment, Urban  .stirred  up  Charles  of  Durazzo,  the  heir-apparent  to  lier  throne, 
and  recalled  the  memory  of  her  deed  of  blood.  The  queen  then  adopted  the 
French  prince  Louis  of  Anjou,  whom  Clement  invested  with  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  and  sustained  in  the  expenses  of  his  war.  Charles  liaving  seized 
upon  the  per-son  of  Joanna,  had  her  put  to  death  in  prison,  and  maintained 
possession  of  Naples.  But  Unban  soon  after  became  displeased  witli  him 
because  he  refused  to  bestow  Capua  on  a  nephew  of  the  pope,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  assi.fitance  he  had  received,  excommunicated  him,  was  besieged  by 
him  in  Nocera,  and  was  finally  compelled  to  take  refuge  in  Genoa.  In  his 
flight  through  the  midst  of  his  enemies  ho  had  five  cardinals  bound  and  con- 
veyed with  him  to  Genoa,  whero  they  were  put  to  death.  Both  popes  were 
surrounded  by  a  train  of  cardinals,  so  that  the  decease  of  both  would  have 
no  eflect  in  diminishing  the  schism.  To  sustain  the  expenses  of  the  war  be- 
tween two  popes  and  of  two  distinct  i)apal  courts  it  was  necessary  to  devise 
new  methods  of  extortion  by  wbicli  ovory  tiling  on  earth  and  in  heaven  was 
put  up  for  sale.     Each  poi'c  was  under  tlie  other's  ban,  tlie  people  were 


27G  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUKCH  IIISTOIIV.     TKI:.  IV.    A.  D.  1216-1517. 

nccc3!*aril3'  tho  only  arl)itrntor3  of  this  controversy,  and  tho  organ.s  of  tho 
popiilnr  will  woro  those  who  rci)resentc(l  the  interests  of  science.  The  first 
ftctual  movement  for  the  attainment  of  peace  was  made  by  tho  University  of 
Pari».  Tho  only  practicable  method  by  wliich  this  strife  could  be  composed 
Beomed  to  bo  the  simultaneous  abdication  of  both  competitors.  Peter  do 
Luna,  under  tho  name  of  Benedict  XIII.,  was  then  reigning  (after  1394)  in 
Avignon,  and  Angelo  Corrario,  under  that  of  Grcrjory  XII.,  in  Rome  (after 
140G).  On  their  election  both  had  promised  to  make  the  sacrifice  which  tho 
interests  of  the  Church  required,  but  both,  on  various  pretexts,  refused  to 
abide  by  their  engagements.  Benedict  was  then  abandoned  by  the  French, 
and  Hod  into  Spain.  Both  popes  were  finally  forsaken  by  their  cardinals, 
who,  appealing  to  Clirist  himself,  a  general  council  and  a  future  pope,  assem- 
bled at  Leghorn  (1408). 

§250.     The  Council  of  Pisa.     JUarck  25-Äuff.  7,  liOO. 

I.  Acts  of  Council,  in  Mansi  vol  XXVIs.  Tlicod.  de  2fiem,  de  schism.  Ill,  3>ss.  [Landon, 
pp.  4SS-192.] 

II.  Lenfant,  Hist  du  Cone,  de  Tise.  Amst,  1724.  1727.  2  vols.  4.  J.  H.  v.  Wesseuherg,  die  gros- 
sen KVcrsnmml.  des  15.  u.  10.  Jahrh.  (Const  1S40.  4  vols.)  vol.  II.  p.  4S5S.  Comp.  I/>'/ele,  krit 
Belcuclit  Tub.  1841. 

There  appeared  to  be  no  way  in  which  tliis  struggle  between  the  rival 
claimants  of  the  papal  dignity  could  be  legally  terminated,  but  by  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  whole  Church,  in  whom  the  highest  degree  of  power  could 
be  combined.  The  cardinals  now  laid  aside  their  divisions,  and  bj^  the  advice 
of  the  Universities,  convoked  a  general  Council  at  Pisa.  The  priesthood 
was  represented  by  twenty-four  cardinals  and  two  hundred  bishops,  present 
either  in  person  or  by  proctors  ;  the  monastic  orders  by  three  hundred  ab- 
bots ;  scientific  bodies  by  deputies  from  the  universities,  one  hundred  and 
twenty  masters  in  theology,  and  three  hundred  graduates  of  the  Roman  and 
canonical  law ;  and  the  state  especially  by  the  envoys  of  France  and  Eng- 
land. In  opposition  to  the  protests  of  the  two  popes,  Rupert,  Emperor  of 
Germany,  and  Ladislaus,  King  of  Naples,  the  council  confirmed  the  principle* 
defended  by  Gerson,  Chancellor  of  Paris,  affirming  that  the  power  with 
which  Christ  invested  the  Church  was  independent  of  the  pope.  Both  Bene- 
dict and  Gregory  Avere  then  summoned  before  the  council,  and  after  a  formal 
trial  were  deposed  for  contumacy  and  the  violation  of  their  engagements. 
The  representatives  of  the  Church,  however,  well  knew  that  they  could 
hope  for  no  influence  or  success  unless  they  removed  the  innumerable 
abuses  then  prevalent.  The  cardinals  therefore  bound  themselves  by  an 
oath,  that  whoever  should  be  elected  from  their  number,  shoidd  never  dis- 
solve the  council  until  it  had  completed  the  work  of  reformation  in  the  head 
and  members  of  the  Church.  Peter  of  Candia,  an  aged  and  quiet  man  who 
afterwards  bore  the  name  of  Alcxamler  V.,  was  made  choice  of,  and  that  he 
might  make  those  preparations  which  he  alleged  to  be  necessary,  he  imme- 
diately postponed  the  work  of  reformation  to  a  council  which  he  promised 
to  convene  in  three  years  from  that  date.    By  his  unrestrained  liberality  the 

•  Tr.  de  nnitate  Ecc.  and  Llbellus  de  auferibilitatc  papae  ab  Ecc  (0pp.  vol.  II.  P.  I.) 


CHAP.  I.    r.VliCV.    §  251.  COUNCIL  OF  CONSTANCE.  277 

resources  of  the  Church  Avere  in  a  short  time  squandered.  Benedict  stUl 
maintained  his  claims  in  Spain  and  Scothind,  and  Gregory  was  acknowledged 
by  Kupert  and  Ladislau«.  Christendom  beheld  with  amazement  three  popes 
within  its  bounds,  and  all  its  abuses  continued  without  restraint. 

§  251.     The  Council  of  Constance.     Xov.  5,  li^l^April  22,  1418. 

L  Kespecting  John  XXIII.,  after  Platina  liis  secretary,  consult  Theod.  de  Xiem,  Vita  Jo.  {llardt, 
Cone.  Const  vol.  IL  P.  XV.  p.  335.)  Invecliva  in  diffugiontem  a  Const  Cone.  Jo.  {Ih.  P.  XIV.  p. 
290.)  and  L.  Aretimis,  Coininontar.  {Jfurat.  vol.  XIX.  p.  9278?.)— Magnum  occum.  Constantienso 
Cone,  od  Ifenn.  ton  der  llardt,  FrcC  ot  Lps.  697s.«.  7  vols.  f.  Theod.  Vrie,  an  Au^stlnian  of  Osna- 
tMTUck,  <lu  consolatione  Kec.  (also  Hist  du  Cone.  Const,  in  Ifardt,  toI.  I.  p.  1 ) 

II.  L'mfani,  Hist  du  Cone,  do  Const  Amst  (1714.)  1727.  2  vols.  4.  Bourgeois  du  Chaetener, 
nouvelle  Hist  du  Cone,  de  Const  Par.  171S.  4.  Hoyko,  Gcscli.  d.  KVcrs.  zu  Kostnitz.  Vien.  ifc 
Prague.  1782ss.  4  vols.  (1st  &  2d  vols.  2d  ed.  1796.)  Aschbach.  Leben  K.  Sigism.  (aeconiing  to  AVln- 
d«ck.)  Frki  (lS3Ss.)  vol.  IL  Wcssenberg  vol.  II.  p.  69s8.  [Landon,  pp.  150-162.  /-.  Boimechose, 
(§  300.)  on  Gerson,  John  Huss,  and  the  Council  of  Constance,  rcpubl.  in  1S53.  Pur.] 

Cossa,  the  cardinal  legate,  Avho  displayed  great  talents  in  the  management 
of  secular  atlairs,  but  was  totally  destitute  of  all  spiritual  character,  had 
Alexander  V.  brouglit  to  Bologna,  that  he  might  close  his  days  in  that  city 
(1410).  Having  expelled  the  Visconti  from  Bologna,  Cossa  ruled  without 
restraint  as  the  tyrant  of  that  city,  and  the  cardinals  were  obliged  to  make 
choice  of  him  as  the  successor  in  the  papal  chair.  He  assumed  the  name  of 
John  XXIII.,  and  was  soon  driven  from  the  Ecclesiastical  States  in  a  war 
with  Ladisiaus.  The  emperor  Sigirmund  refused  to  aiford  him  any  assistance 
unless  ho  would  appoint  some  place  beyond  the  Alps  in  which  a  council 
should  be  assembled  for  the  removal  of  the  schism,  and  the  accomplishment 
of  the  ecclesiastical  reformation  demanded  by  the  people.  The  place  agreed 
upon  by  the  pope  and  the  emperor  was  Constance,  and  the  council  was  sum- 
moned to  convene  on  the  first  of  November.  Full  of  anxiety  and  perplexed 
with  conflicting  view.=!,  John  XXIII.  repaired  to  Constance  on  the  29th  Oct., 
1414.  Besides  the  representatives  of  the  clergy,  a  great  multitude  of  secu- 
lar lords  came  together  there,  presenting  an  array  of  all  the  glory  of  Europe. 
At  the  head  of  the  civil  powers  stood  the  emperor  with  the  sincere  intention 
of  effecting  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  Gerson  and  the  Cardinal  Peter 
cVAilly  were  the  principal  leaders  of  the  reforming  party.  Their  superior 
power  in  the  a.'^sembly  was  evinced  and  increased  by  the  arrangement  that 
the  voting  should  take  place  by  nations.  This  rule  was  adopted  on  account 
of  the  numerical  m.ijority  of  Italian  prelates,  and  even  in  the  preliminary 
meetings  business  had  been  transacted  in  separate  sections  under  the  name 
of  the  German,  the  Italian,  the  French,  the  English,  and,  after  the  ab;in- 
donment  of  Benedict,  the  Spanish  nations.  (</)  The  cardinals  constituted  a 
college  by  themselves,  with  no  defined  prerogatives.  "Within  their  respective 
nations,  the  prelates,  it  is  true,  maintained  that  their  voles  were  decisive  of 
all  questions  which  came  before  tliem,  but  they  Avere  generally  swayed  by 
the  influence  of  the  princes  and  doctors.  There  were  only  a  few  pubhc  ses- 
sions in  which  all  these  nations  were  united  in  one  body,  and  even  in  these 
there  were  seldom  any  debates,  but  simply  solemn  communications  and  pro- 


o)  IlardI,  vol.  II.  p.  224*8. 


278  MF.niAKVAL  riU-l:Cir  MSTOHY.    VER.  IV.     a.  D.  121C-1M7 

clainntions  of  (U-cisiotis  clscwliero  formed.  The  mnjority  finally  announced, 
tliat  in  tlic-ir  ojjinioii  the  scliism  could  never  be  eftectually  healed  but  by  the 
Himultaneous  abdication  of  each  of  the  three  pojjos,  and  the  froneral  voioo 
hecanio  more  and  more  decided  in  its  demands  for  the  impeachment  of  John 
XXIII.,  on  account  of  his  dissolute  course  of  life.  John  then  appeared  will- 
ing to  resijin  the  tiara,  but  soon  after,  in  spite  of  his  oath  to  the  contrary, 
■with  the  aid  of  Frederic  of  Austria,  he  made  his  escape  (March  20,  1415)  to 
SchafFhausen.  lie  afterwards  removed  still  farther  down  the  Rhine,  and 
revoked  all  his  promises  on  the  ground  that  they  were  given  under  con- 
straint. After  a  brief  suspense  the  council  declared  itself  independent  of  all 
popes,  and  superior  to  them.  (A)  The  trial  of  John  XXIII.  was  regularly 
carried  forward,  he  was  proved  guilty  of  a  long  catalogue  of  crimes,  sus- 
pended from  his  dignities,  after  the  submission  of  Austria  imprisoned,  and  on 
the  29th  of  May  finally  deposed.  Gregory  also  resigned,  but  on  honorable 
terms  (d.  1417).  After  long  and  fruitless  negotiations,  Benedict  was  gene- 
rally deserted  by  his  friends,  and  deposed  by  the  council  as  a  heretic  with 
respect  to  the  article  asserting  that  there  is  only  one  Catholic  Church  (July 
26,  1417).  With  as  much  expedition  as  possible  a  new  papal  election  was 
now  held.  In  vain  did  the  German  nation  urge  that  the  reformation  of  the 
head  and  members  of  the  Church  should  first  be  completed  ;  they  were  over- 
ruled by  those  who  dreaded  the  predominance  of  an  ultra-hberal  party,  if 
the  Church  should  continue  without  a  head.  Six  deputies  from  each  nation 
were  added  to  the  twenty-three  cardinals  in  the  conclave,  and  on  Nov.  11, 
Otho  Colonna  was  elected  pope,  under  the  name  of  Martin  Y.  He  had  pre- 
viously been  regarded  as  a  courteous,  skilful,  and  moderate  man,  and  he  now 
knew  well  how  to  thwart  the  general  demands  for  a  reformation  by  separate 
treaties,  conceding  some  privileges  as  to  ecclesiastical  offices  to  particular  na- 
tions, and  some  claims  of  the  papal  chancery.  The  patience  of  the  council 
was  completely  exhausted.  With  great  pomp,  on  the  IGth  May,  1418,  the 
pope  took  his  departure,  and  the  bafiled  hopes  of  such  as  longed  for  reforma- 
tion were  now  turned  to  a  future  general  council  promised  in  five  years 
from  that  time, 

§  252.    Martin  V.    Nov.  11,  UlT-Fd.  20,  1431. 

The  Concordat  which,  Martin  proposed  to  the  French  nation  was  rejected 
by  the  Parliament  (1418),  and  all  remittances  of  money  to  Rome  for  crimi- 
nal trials  and  ecclesiastical  benefices  were  once  more  forbidden.  But  in 
spite  of  the  protests  of  the  Parliament,  the  king  was  induced  by  court 
intrigues  to  eflect  an  acceptance  and  a  partial  introduction  of  the  Concordat 
(1424).  The  activity  and  caution  of  the  pope  was  also  sometimes  successful 
in  renewing  all  the  ecclesiastical  claims  and  pecuniary  extortions  which  had 
formerly  prevailed.  Cossa,  who  had  beguiled  his  imprisonment  in  Heidel- 
berg by  writing  verses  on  the  fickleness  of  fortune,  met  his  successor  at  Flor- 
ence, sued  for  clemency,  and  obtained  peace  and  honor  for  the  remainder  of 
his  hfe.    In  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding  between  Martiu  aud  the  King 

I)  Eardt,  vol.  11.  p.  265ss.  9Sss. 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACY.     §252.  MARTIN  V.     §253.  El'GEXIUS  VI.  279 

of  Aragon,  Peter  of  Luna  appeared  once  more  on  tue  public  stage  (d.  1424), 
and  it  was  not  until  his  second  successor  that  this  papacy  at  Peniscola  was 
brought  to  an  end.  Martin  was  obliged  to  tarry  for  a  long  time  among  the 
proud  mercliants  of  Florence,  before  he  could  obtain  possession  of  the  cities 
of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  from  the  liauds  of  freemen,  and  from  tyrants. 
He  finally  became  master  of  Kome  (Sept.  20,  1420),  and  re-estabhshed  the 
government  and  the  churches  which  had  so  long  been  suftered  to  decay.  The 
synods  he  convened  at  Pavia  and  Siena  found  a  reasonable  excuse  in  the 
small  number  of  prelates  assembled  to  postpone  the  reformation  to  a  still 
later  period.  But  public  sentiment  was  so  powerful,  and  the  necessity  of 
«some  assi.st;mce  against  the  Hussites  had  become  so  urgent,  that  lie  was  finally 
compelled  to  summon  the  promised  general  council  at  the  imperial  city  of 
Basle,  in  March,  1431, 

§  253.     The  Council  of  Basic.     1431-1443.  (1449.) 

I.  Acts  of  Council  in  J/ir««i  vol.  XXIX.-XXXI.  and  Würdticein,  Subsidia  diplom.  Ilcidelb. 
1774s.  vol.  VIII.  IX.  [London's  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  5C-74.]  Aeneae  Syle.  Conimtr.  do  geslis 
Bas.  Cone.  (14.39.)  1.  II.  (OrViuini  Gratii  Fascic.  reruni  expetcnd.  ac  fupiend.  Col.  15;35.  f.)  and 
often.  (Comp.  Iltise  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S43.  II.  3.)  Augmtini  Patricii  Suinnia  Concilior.  Basil., 
Florentini,  etc  {ITarzhem.  Ginc.  germ.  vol.  V.  p.  774.)  Vita  F.ucenii.  {Rtluz.  Miscell.  1.  VII.) 

II.  Richerii  Hist.  Cone  gen.  Col.  16SI.  4,  1.  III.  p.  20ss.     Wessenberg,  vol.  IL  p.  271.«s. 

Eugenius'^^{\^\-4:^\m  compliance  with  a  promise  made  at  his  elec- 
tion, confirmed  the  call  which  his  predecessor  had  issued  for  a  general  eccle- 
siastical council.  This  assembly  gradually  convened  in  Basle,  and  immediately 
announced  that  the  extermination  of  heretics  and  the  purification  of  the 
Lord's  vineyard,  Avhicli  in  the  call  had  been  proposed  as  the  object  of  the 
council,  had  refc^'ence  to  the  reconciliation  of  the  Hussites  and  the  removal 
of  abuses  from  the  Church.  This  announcement  was  scarcely  made  before 
the  pope  perceived  the  designs  of  the  council,  and  began  to  dread  the  influ- 
ence of  its  independent  spirit  among  a  free  people,  and  on  the  confines  of 
three  great  nations.  He  therefore  hastened  to  give  directions  that  it  should 
adjourn  to  meet  in  liis  own  city  of  Bologna.  In  this,  however,  he  was  op- 
posed with  the  earnest  remonstrances  of  his  own  legate,  the  Cardimü 
Julian,  (ii)  The  council  solemnly  re-athrmed  the  decrees  of  its  predecessor 
at  Constance  respecting  the  independence  and  supremacy  of  a  general  coun- 
cil of  the  Church  while  engaged  in  matters  of  faith,  schism,  and  reformation. 
The  pope  himself  was  cited  before  it  to  answer  for  his  conduct.  Pressed  as 
he  then  was  by  disturbances  among  the  Roman  people,  Eugonins  sought  to 
become  reconciled  with  the  synod,  and  after  acknowledging  its  indej^nidence, 
his  legates  were  allowed  to  preside  over  it  (April  20,  1434).  (I>)  The  as.sem- 
bly  having  been  increased  by  the  presence  uf  many  deputies  of  chapters  and 
persons  belonging  to  the  lower  clergy,  now  proceeded  to  set  forth  a  strict 
order  of  business.  To  prepare  all  its  decrees,  it  resolved  itself  into  four 
deputations,  each  of  which  was  composed  of  persons  from  all  the  Ecclesias- 

a)  liaynalil.  ad  ann.  1481.  N.  22.  Given  in  full  In  the  Fascic  rcr.  expetend.  et  fbgiend.  CcJ 
.535,  f  275.«. 

b)  Jfansi  vol.  XXIX.  p.  90.  comp.  400.    [rfadjington  Ecc  Hist  Chap.  XXIV.] 


280  MKDIAKVAF,  CllfUc  II   III>T(»i:V.     I'KIt.  IV.     A.  1).  12IG-1.M7. 

ticnl  RtntcH,  ('•)  Evi-ry  tliiiij;  wliicli  could  be  censured  as  an  abuse  iu  the 
Cburch  by  tlie  clerpy  and  prelates  Wiis  brought  forward.  The  papal  court 
was  in  manv  respects  reduced,  significant  references  were  made  to  the  cus- 
toms of  tile  primitive  Cliurch,  the  revenues  of  the  pope  from  countries  be- 
yond the  Alps,  and  his  i)ower  of  bestowing  benefices  there,  Avere  consider- 
ably reduced,  the  illegal  transfer  of  ecclesiastical  trials  to  Rome  was  forbidden, 
the  pope  was  solemnly  admonished  for  his  disregard  of  these  decrees,  and  in 
a  groat  variety  of  ways  even  the  administration  of  ecclesiastical  aöairs  was 
interfered  with.  "When  Eugenius  heard  of  this,  he  adjourned  the  council 
after  its  twenty-sixth  session  to  Fcrrara  (Sept.  18,  1437),  and  subsequently 
to  Florence.  At  the  council  which  he  convened  at  the  latter  place  he  excom- 
municated tlie  rebellious  assembly  at  Basle.  But  this  latter  body  instituted 
legal  proceedings  against  him,  the  issue  of  which  was  that  Eugenius  was  de- 
posed (June  25,  1439)  for  simony,  heresy,  and  disturbance  of  the  public 
peace.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  prelates  had  by  this  time  either  witl- 
drawn,  or  had  gone  over  to  the  council  at  Florence.  Allemanfl.^  Archbishop 
of  Aries,  a  man  of  eminent  piety  but  devoted  to  the  principles  of  liberty, 
being  the  only  cardinal  now  left,  presided  over  the  assembly,  and  the  places 
of  the  bishoi)S  were  occupied  by  doctors  and  the  pastors  of  churches.  That 
they  might  have  a  powerful  protector  near,  Amadeus,  Duke  of  Savoy,  who 
after  a  long  and  glorious  reign  had  transferred  his  territories  to  his  son,  and 
was  then  peaceably  living  as  a  pious  hermit  by  the  lake  of  Geneva,  was 
elected  pope  by  a  committee  appointed  for  that  purpose  by  the  council  (Oct. 
CO,  1439).  lie  assumed  the  name  oi  Fdix  T".,  but  his  autliority  was  acknowl- 
edged only  bj'  his  former  subjects,  the  Kings  of  Aragon  and  Hungary,  a 
few  German  princes,  the  Swiss  confederacy,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  uni- 
versities. But  the  voice  of  the  people,  which  had  hitherto  been  the  princi- 
pal support  of  the  council,  disapproved  of  the  rashness  of  a  proceeding  which 
had  no  means  provided  for  its  support,  and  threatened  the  Church  with  a 
new  schism.  The  council  was  now  placed  in  the  position  of  a  violent  fac- 
tion, comi)elled  to  make  concessions  inconsistent  with  its  principles  to  increnso 
or  confirm  its  party.  («■7)  The  imperial  states  observed  a  careful  neutrality 
between  the  pope  and  the  council,  but  at  a  Diet  convened  at  Mcntz  (March 
26,  1489),  they  accepted  the  decrees  of  reformation  which  had  been  passed 
at  Basle.  Yet  when  Frederic  III.  of  Austria,  a  well-disposed  man,  but  pos- 
sessed of  neither  inclination  nor  ability  to  carry  forward  the  principles  of  lib- 
erty, or  any  thing  else  of  an  elevated  character,  was  raised  to  the  imperial 
throne,  and  Aeneas  Si/Ivius  of  Piccolomini,  the  shrewd  and  enthusiastic 
secretary  and  historian  of  the  council,  found  it  for  his  interest  to  enter  first 
into  the  service  of  the  emperor,  and  then  of  the  pope,  Eugenius  was  induced, 
in  consideration  of  his  recognition  as  pope,  to  withdraw  his  decree  of  depo- 
sition against  the  Electors  of  Treves  and  Cologne,  and  conditionally  to  con- 
cede that  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Basle  might  be  enforced  in  Germany 
(Feb.  5,  7,  1447).  («)     But  the  same  Aeneas  Sylvius  who  had  obtained  these 

<•)  .V,tnsi  vol.  XXIX.  p.  877. 
d)  J/ii n«i  vol.  XXXI.  p.  202. 
t)  Concordat»  rriucipum.  Deines  M  Mont/.,  In  I/orix,  Concordafa  X.it.  Gtrin.  Frcf.  et  Lps.  «1 


ClIAI'.  I.     PATACV.     §253.  BASLE.     S '2W.  NICHOLAS  V.  281 

concessions,  subsequently  induced  Nicholas  V.,  by  a  separate  agreement  ■with 
the  emperor  at  Vienna  (Feb.  17,  1448),  craftily  to  steal  away  from  the  Ger- 
man Church  nearly  all  the  privileges  thus  secured.  This  agreement  finally 
became  possessed  of  imperial  authority  by  di.><tinct  contracts  with  individual 
princes  and  bishops,  under  the  name  of  the  Concordnt  of  Asi'.hifftnlurg.  (/) 
On  the  other  hand,  France  had  on  the  wliolc  faithfully  adhered  to  Eugenius, 
but  in  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  passed  at  Bourrjes  (1438),  it  had  received  the 
decrees  of  Basle  as  far  as  they  were  subservient  to  the  independence  of  the 
Gallican  Church,  {g)  This  ecclesiastical  assembly  at  Basle  having  been  grad- 
ually abandoned  by  the  Church,  by  its  own  pope,  and  finally  by  its  own 
members,  closed  its  ses.sions  after  1443  without  a  formal  adjournment.  Felix 
resigned  his  precarious  dignities  (1449),  in  an  lionorable  compact  with 
Nicholas. 

§  254.     The  Popes  nntil  the  End  of  the  Fifteenth  Century. 

Platina,  from  Sixtiis  IV.  till  Pius  V.,  continued  generally  according  to  good  autborilies  by  the 
Augustinian  Oniifrio  Pantini  (d.  156S.)  Yen.  15G2.  4.  and  often,  especially  Yen.  1703.  Stfphanri« 
In/essura,  Chancellor  of  the  city  of  Itoine  abmit  1494.  I)iariiim  Ronianac  Urbis  1294-1494.  (Eccard 
voL  II.  p.  1803.    Jfuratori,  with  omissions,  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  1109.) 

Nicholas  V.  (1447-55,  Thomas  of  Sarzana),  notwithstanding  his  hasty 
temper,  by  tlie  mildness  and  equity  of  his  government  restored  once  more 
the  glorj'  of  the  papacy.  Himself  a  man  of  extensive  erudition,  he  was 
always  liberal  to  literary  men,  and  to  the  poor.  His  last  years  were  embit- 
tered by  his  grief  respecting  Constantinople.  ('/)  Calixtus  III.  (1455-58, 
Borgia)  armed  on  his  own  account  a  victorious  army  against  the  Turks,  and 
spared  no  pains  to  secure  tlie  throne  of  Naples  to  his  nepotes.  (/<)  Aeneas 
Sylvius  was  in  natural  talents  and  in  learning  among  the  very  first  men  of 
his  age,  and  at  the  expense  of  his  character  succeeded  in  attaining  the  object 
of  his  ambition.  Under  the  name  of  Pirn  II.  (1458-64)  he  vainly  endeav- 
ored to  cast  obloquy  on  the  liberal  tendencies  and  eftbrts  of  his  earlier  yeai"s, 
to  wrest  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  from  the  hands  of  the  French,  and  to  place 
himself  when  old  and  sick  at  the  head  of  a  crusade  against  the  Turks.  Ho 
was  not  a  general  apostate  from  his  principles ;  his  youthful  sins  were  com- 
mitted in  liis  youthful  dream.«,  but  his  wliole  career  as  a  Roman  pontilf  has 
left  us  no  traco  of  its  influence,  (c)     Paul  II.  (1404-71,  Barbo),  though  an 


2.  1772«.  vol.  I.  The  four  bulls  of  Eugenius  aro  in  C.  W.  Koch,  Saiictio  pragin.  Germ.  HI.  Argent 
17S9.  4.     Byll.  docum.  p.  l?.3s.s.     Comp.  HaijnaUl.  ad  «nn.  14-J7.  N.  T. 

/)  All  the  Archives  of  tho  Diet  of  M.ntz  are  in  Wnr(lttrein,^\\hA>\.  diploni.  vol.  IX.  X.  9.  p 
7Ss3.  All  the  .Archives  of  tho  Diet  of  Vienna  are  in  Koch,  I.  c  p.  2i>lss.  On  the  question  wliethei 
the  decrees  of  Uasle  were  abrogated  with  re.-poct  to  Germany,  see  Sjjitllei;  Gef>cli.  d.  Fundanien 
talge.s.  d.  deuUchkath.  K.  (GötL  lilst.  Mag.  vol.  I.  pt  2-s.  vol.  IV.  pt  1.)  On  the  other  side,  see  Koc7i, 
;i.  3Gss.     Uebor  d.  FundaiMontaJpcs.  il.  dt'Ut.«chkath.  K.  Frkf.  u.  L|is.  1790. 

17)  Hist  do  la  pragm.  fanctiim.  (Tiaitoz  <lo  dmiLs  et  libertez  de  I'Egl.  Gall.  Pur.  1731.  C  As  an 
appcn<li.v  to  the  1st  vol.  of  /'.  I'ithou  or  Ihi  J'uin.) 

a)  I.  Vita  Nie.  by  his  Secrotary.  <;itiiif::o  Aftiiiftti  {^fllratori  vol.  IIL  P.  II.  p.  905.)— II.  Dom 
Georgii  Vita  Nie.  Koin.  1742.  4.    Jugrmaun,  Gesch.  d.  fr.  Künste  u.  Wis».  In  Ital.  vol.  III.  P.  3. 

I)  Muraton  vol.  IIL  P.  II.  p.  901  xs. 

c)  I.  0pp.  (hist.,  geogr.,  rhct.)  I?iv<.  I.VjI.  f.  and  ofiin.  Epp.  Nor.  14>1.  and  often.  Oratt.  e<l 
Jfiiiisi,  Lnc.  ITriS.  4.  His  life  by  his  admirers,  Pliithiti,  Citmpani  (Miirat.  vol.  III.  P.  II.  p.  907.) 
»nd  by  himself  in  tho  name  of  his  Secretary,  GoMlini  Commculr.  rcrum.  memor.  qu.10  temp.  PU 


282  MKIiIAKVAL  (  IHIUll   IMSTOUV.     1'»..:.  IV.     A.  I).  12UV151T. 

enemy  t»>  all  tlic  i»iirtisniis  and  policy  of  his  predecessor,  did  not  disturb  the 
trantpiiility  of  Italy.  Ho  was  avaricious,  but  it  was  that  he  might  spend 
what  ho  anias.xed  in  jionip  and  prodigality,  a  persecutor  of  science  on  account 
of  wliat  he  regarded  as  its  heathenisli  tendencies,  tender-hearted  and  easily 
moved  to  tears,  a  fortunate  rather  than  a  holy  father,  and  one  who  regarded 
Ids  own  arbitrary  purposes  as  his  supreme  law.  ('/)  SixtusIV.  (1471-84, 
dolla  liovera),  a  learned  Franciscan  general,  who  had  been  implicated  in  the 
conspiracy  of  the  Pazzi,  ventured  to  issue  sentence  of  banishment  against 
Lorenzo  Medici  for  escaping  the  daggers  of  the  conspirators.  His  interviicts 
were  disregarded  by  the  Florentines  and  Venetians.  Rome  was  much  em- 
bellished by  him,  but  the  Church  was  sold  and  Italy  tilled  with  blood  that  he 
might  acquire  i)rincipalitie8  for  his  nepotes  or  sons.  (<■)  Innocent  VIII. 
(1484-92,  Cybo)  commenced  his  reign  with  the  violation  of  the  stipulations 
he  had  made  at  his  election.  To  obtain  tlie  rents  which  he  claimed  from 
Naples,  then  in  league  with  his  seditious  barons,  he  prosecuted  against  it  a 
disgraceful  war,  which  both  parties  were  finally  willing  to  conclude  with  an 
honorable  peace,  from  a  common  fear  of  the  French.  In  the  very  act  of  call- 
ing upon  Christendom  to  embark  in  a  war  Avith  its  hereditary  enemies,  he 
sold  himself  to  the  Sultan  Bajazet  to  become  a  jailer  for  that  monarch. 
T\"hile  Rome  was  distracted  by  the  factious  struggles  of  the  Colonna  and  the 
Orsini,  he  acquired  for  disgraceful  crimes  the  ambiguous  title  of  father  of 
his  country.  (/) 

§  255.     Alexander  VI.     Aug.  2,  i^'il-Aug.  18,  1503. 

I.  Burchardi  Diarium  Curiae  Eom.  14S4-150G.  (Specimen  Ilist  Arcanae  de  Vita  Alex.  ed.  Leib- 
nit.  Han.  1690.  4.  more  fully  in  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  2017.     Comp.  Paulus,  Sopbronizon.  vol.  IV.  U. 

I.  vol.  VIII.  II.  6.)    Infessura.  (p.  2S1.)    In  the  higher  sense  of  history,  Guieciardini,  1.  I. -VI. 

II.  Mr.  D.  U.  (Dubos?)  la  vie  d'Alex.  Append,  to  the  Hist.  du.  droit  publ.  eccl.  franc.  Lond. 
1737.  Tommasi,  la  vita  di  Cesare  Borgia.  Montechi.iro.  1070.  4.  published  in  French  .is  anonymous 
Memoirs.  Amst.  1739.  2  vols.  12.  Brl.  1782.  Gordon,  la  vie  du  V.  Alox.  et  Cosar  B.  trad,  de 
TAnglois.  Amst  1732.  2  vols.  12.    Epigr.  in  Flacius,  1.  c.  p.  403. 

Alexander  VI.  (Eoderigo  Borgia)  made  use  of  the  whole  power  with 
which  the  Church  supplied  him  to  establish  an  independent  kingdom  for  his 
own  family.  At  one  time  he  appealed  to  all  the  powers  of  Europe  to  assist 
hhu  in  a  struggle  against  France,  when  Charles  VIII.  overran  Italy  to  obtain 
possession  of  Naples,  as  an  inheritance  from  the  house  of  Anjou.  At  another 
be  formed  an  alliance  with  France,  that  he  might  overthrow  some  of  the 
principal  families  of  Rome,  and  spoil  the  Italian  princes  of  their  laAvful  pos 
sessions.     His  son,  the  fratricide  Caesar  Borgia^  renounced  the  Cardinal's 

II.  contiguernnt.  Rom.  1584.  4  Frcf.  1014.  f.— II.  IT.  C.  ITehcing,  de  Pii  II.  rebus  gestis  et 
morib.  Ber.  1S25.  4.  Xic.  Beete,  do  Aen.  Pylvii  mornm  mentisque  mutationis  rationib,  Ilarlem 
1S39.    K.  li.  llitgenhavfi,  Erinnerungen  an  Aen.  Sylv.  Bas.  1&40. 

d)  riatina,  who  suffered  too  much  on  his  account  to  be  impartial  toward  him.  and  hence  should 
be  comp,  wlih  CannfMus,  edit  by  Cardinal  ^uiVin»,  Pauli  Veneti  Vita,  praemissis  vlndiciis  adv. 
Platlnam  aliosquc.  P.om.  1740.  4. 

e)  His  schola'tlc  Treatises,  Rom.  1470.  Nor  1473.  Life,  probably  by  Platina  in  Murat.  vol.  III. 
P.  II.  p.  1052.  Epigrams  in  f/ncii/«,  varia  de  corrupto  Ecc.  statu  poemata.  p.  4iils. —  Walchuer 
pt>lit.  Gesch.  d.  147S.  zu  Flor.  geh.  Synode  u.  des  Zwistes  der  Republ.  mit  Sixt  Rotw.  1S2J. 

/)  Iiifeastira  In  Ei-cord.  p.  1947ss.— T'ia/ti'-t/i,  Vita  dlnnocenzo  VIII.  Ven.  1C13.  f  Epigramj 
In  Flüciu«,  p.  403. 


CUAP.  I.  PAPACY.  §  2Ö5.  ALEXANDER.  §  256.  JUL1U.S  II.        283 

hat  to  become  a  duke  over  the  principality  to  bo  formed  from  the  possessions 
of  the  Church,  and  of  tlie  princes  of  Central  Italy.  The  Italians  were  en- 
coura^'ed  with  the  precious  hope  that  the  great  object  of  his  despotism  was 
the  ultimate  union  of  the  whole  peninsula.  As  a  political  sovereign,  Alex- 
ander gave  great  offence  to  the  Church  by  his  intimate  alliance  with  the 
Sultan  against  France,  (a)  Although  Ins  sensuality  Avas  so  disgusting,  that 
he  was  accused  by  public  rumor  of  even  incest  and  every  disgraceful  crime, 
his  talents  were  yet  so  great  and  his  activity  was  so  \intiring  in  the  pursuit 
of  his  objects,  and  either  he  or  the  papacy  was  so  much  respected,  that  when 
kings  contended  for  the  possession  of  the  newly  discovered  Western  world,  it 
was  finally  divided  between  Spain  and  Portugal  according  to  his  arbitration. 
He  was  nnscrupulous  with  regard  to  the  means  by  which  he  accomplished 
his  plans.  While  yet  only  a  cardinal  he  paid  some  deference  to  public  senti- 
raeni,  but  when  he  had  attained  the  papacy  ho  thought  it  necessary  to  put  it 
down  by  a  censorship  of  books.  This  practice,  originated  by  him,  (I)  was 
regarded  as  amply  sufficient  to  control  the  evil.  Though  he  had  moments  of 
painful  contrition,  he  was  sometimes  false  and  hypocritical  merely  for  his  own 
amusement.  lie  was  never  guilty  of  w-eakness  except  with  respect  to  Ilosa 
Vanozza  and  her  children.  Though  his  vices  could  not  escape  the  general 
hatred,  he  was  always  kind  to  the  people.  The  rich  and  the  powerful  were 
often  the  victims  of  his  policy,  and  he  did  not  shrink  even  from  assassination 
when  he  thought  it  needful  for  his  purposes.  In  the  midst  of  his  career  ho 
fell  a  victim  to  poison,  prei)ared  by  his  son  for  a  cardinal  then  his  guest. 
Uis  government  Avas  so  conducted  that  everj'  vestige  of  an  independent  aris- 
tocracy' was  etfiiccd  from  the  papal  states. 

§  256.     Julius  II.    Kov.  1,  1503-/16.  21,  1513. 

I.  Gulcciardini  L  VI.-XI.  Paris  de  Graasi»,  Diarium  Curiae  Kom.  1004-22.  never  printed 
but  used  hy  Jloi/iiald  ami  Hoscoe  (p.  2S5.)  JAidriiinus  Ow^^W^hsw,  Ilinerarium  Julil.  (Cioconii 
vita  Horn.  Pontiff.  Lugd.  1G03.  vol.  II.)  SjxitiUin,  Leben  Julii.  (Tenzel,  Ber.  v.  d.  Ke£  Lpz.  1719. 
vol.  IL  p.  lis.) 

II.  Dtihos,  Hist,  do  la  ligue  faito  ü  Canibray.  llaye.  1710.  2  vols.  Fruni  tlie  fi[iio  of  Julius 
Bower'«  Ilist  of  llio  Popes  lias  been  iiidepenilently  revised  by  Jiatnbach. 

On  the  sudden  death  of  Alexander,  the  republic  of  Yenice,  Caesar  Bor- 
gia, and  the  various  inferior  tyrants  endeavored  to  obtain  pcssession  of  and 
divide  among  themselves  the  papal  states,  while  the  Roman  emperor,  the 
Catholic  sovereign  of  France,  and  the  Most  Christian  King  had  tlio  same  de- 
sign with  respect  to  Italy  in  general.  Under  these  circumstance.^,  no  one  but 
the  Cardinal  Julian  della  Kovera  ai)poared  capable  of  meeting  the  coming 
storm.  His  election  was  decided  upon  even  before  the  conclave  met,  by  tho 
large  promises  he  was  able  to  hold  forth.  Julius  II.  was  by  necessity  as 
well  as  by  choice  a  military  prince,  but  all  tho  arts  of  peace  wore  in  tho  high- 
est senso  fostered  and  Jionored  during  his  reign.  Considering  his  Genoese 
extraction,  ho  was  remarkably  frank  and  sincere  in  his  disposition,  and 
though  sometimes  swayed  by  an  irascible  temper  and  by  wine,  he  could  not 

n)  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  2n,')3s.s.  Fund(fruben  d.  Orients,  vol.  V.  \\  lS3ss. 
h)  Kaynahi.  od  nun.  IWl.  N.  8(5. 


284  MKDIAKVAI,  (  IIIKCII   lll>TiH:V.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  I>.   I21&-15n. 

hv  inlliiciia-«!  1-y  fVar,  or  l>y  ii  love  of  piM  or  of  relativen.  Private  pasjjioiis 
wero  indeed  foreign  to  liis  nature.  His  »word  and  Ids  political  ollbrts  wcr<> 
entirely  devoted  to  tlio  liberation  of  Italy  and  the  enlargement  of  the  papa. 
Btate,s.  So  eflcctually,  by  stratagem  and  by  violence,  was  Caesar  Borgia  ex- 
])elK'd  from  Italy,  that  the  very  name  of  Caesar  became  contemi)tible.  Bo- 
lofjna  and  other  cities  belonging  to  Borgia's  patrimony,  which  had  been  kept 
back  bv  petty  tyrants,  were  now  conquered  by  the  mere  terror  of  Ijis  mili- 
tary prejiarations.  In  opposition  to  the  republic  of  Venice,  Avhich  had 
refused  to  surrender  several  cities  belonging  to  the  eastern  border  of  the 
ptatcs  of  St.  Peter,  he  now  entered  into  a  combination  with  the  Emperor 
^raximilian  and  Louis  XII.  to  form  the  League  of  Cambray  (1509).  Bat 
when  the  French  had  brought  nearly  the  whole  of  Lombardy  into  subjection, 
he  listened  to  the  entreaty  of  the  Venetians  as  they  besought  him  not  to  give 
up  Italy  to  be  plundered  again  by  the  barbarians.  No  sooner  had  liis  de- 
mands upon  the  Venetians  been  satisfied,  than  he  directed  all  his  civil  and 
ecclesiastical  weapons  against  Louis  XII.  Though  now  an  old  man  and  bro- 
ken down  by  the  gout,  he  hesitated  not  to  throw  himself  into  all  the  cares 
and  dangers  of  a  winter  campaign,  nor  was  he  dismayed  when  his  army  was 
utterly  destroyed,  and  nothing  remained  to  him  but  the  majesty  of  the  papal 
name.  Immediately  by  his  exertions  was  formed  the  Iluhj  Alliance,  by 
which  Venice,  Spain,  England,  and  the  Swiss  confederacy  became  united 
with  him,  and  the  French  were  soon  driven  beyond  the  Alps  (1512).  Louis 
met  the  sword  of  St.  Peter  with  spiritual  weapons,  and  by  means  of  some 
disaffected  cardinals  he  called  a  general  council  at  Pisa  for  the  reformation 
of  the  Church  (Nov.  5,  1511).  A  few  French  prelates  assembled  there,  who 
proceeded  forthwith  to  suspend  the  pope  as  a  modern  Goliath  ;  hut  they  were 
soon  compelled  by  the  displeasure  of  the  Italians  to  remove  their  sessions  to 
Milan,  and  during  the  next  year  they  entirely  disappeared  before  the  tri- 
umphant army  of  the  pope.  The  people,  however,  still  continued  to  hope 
that  a  reformation  of  the  Church  might  be  effected  by  a  general  council,  and 
Julius  had  promised  at  his  election  that  one  should  be  called  together  for  that 
purpose.  Accordingly  a  general  assembly  of  the  Church  was  summoned  to 
meet  in  the  Lateran,  in  opposition  to  that  Avhich  had  convened  at  Pisa.  In 
the  first  session  (May  3,  1512),  a  discourse  was  pronounced  by  Aegidius  of 
Viterbo,  a  general  of  the  Augustinian  order,  in  which  it  was  maintained 
that  the  Church  had  become  great  only  by  the  use  of  the  weapons  of  the 
Spirit ;  that  temporal  possessions  were  of  comparatively  small  importance, 
but  that  every  thing  depended  upon  its  wealth  in  spiritual  blessings,  (n)  On 
the  other  hand  the  peculiar  spirit  of  the  poi)e  himself  was  predominant  in 
the  council,  and  nothing  more  was  done  than  to  summon  France  to  answer 
for  the  adoption  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  and  to  anathematize  all  kinds  of 
simony  in  the  election  of  a  pope.  Just  as  this  was  done  Julius  II.  died  while 
meditating  the  most  gigantic  schemes.  Upper  Italy  was  apparently  free,  a 
full  treasury  had  been  prepared  for  his  successor,  and  the  papal  states  were 
extended  to  their  utmost  limits.  There  was  inaeed  an  evident  inconsistency 
between  his  character  and  his  office,  which  gave  occasion  to  some  bitter  ani« 

a)  [farduini  toL  IX.  p.  1576ss.    JHclierii  L.  IV.  T.  II.  p.  4s6. 


CHAP.  I.     PAPACY.     §257.  LEO  X.     PEAG.  SANCTIOX.  285 

madversions  and  j)lea?ant  satires  (h)  in  countries  beyond  the  Alp.^.  Francs 
had  announced  its  determination  to  destroy  the  great  modern  Babel,  (c)  bu*- 
in  Italy  the  primary  objects  of  this  heroic  man  were  so  popular,  that  his 
name  has  been  invested  there  with  a  splendid  posthumous  renown.  (</) 

§257.     Leo  X.     J/«7r7t  11,  1513-1517.  (1521.) 

I.  Pariit  de  Grassis  (§  256.)  Paulus  Jovius  (Bishop  of  Xocera,  d.  1552),  Vitao  viror.  illustr. 
(Opp.  hist  Bas.  157S.  f.  vol.  I.  Vita  I.)     GuiccUirdini,  1.  XI.-XIV.    SpciUitin  in  Temel.  I.  c.  p.  13. 

II.  Roscoe,  Life  and  Pontificate  of  Leo  X.  [Loud.  (Bohn.)  184C.  2  vols.  S.  Itankc,  Hist,  of  the 
Popes.  Lond.  1845.  (Bohn)  3  vols.  12.  and  Phllad.  1843.  S.]  Hanke,  die  Päpste,  ihre  K.  u.  ihr  Stiat  iin 
10.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  Brl.  1S.34.  vol.  L  p.  C9ss.  79ss.  yludi«,  Gesch.  d.  P.  Leo  X.  from  the  French  of 
7?/'Wjr,  Augsb.  lS45s.  2  vols.  {Bower's  Hist,  of  the  Pojies  to  1759.  and  from  that  time  cont  by  S.  H. 
CoK.  till  1S4G.  New  York.  3.  v.  1843.    J.  E.  Riddle,  Hist,  of  the  Papacy,  2  vols.  Lond.  1854.] 

Giovanni  Medici  was  tlie  successor  of  Julius,  witli  wliose  fortunes  he  had 
been  intimately  and  faithfully  connected  both  in  exile  and  on  the  throne. 
By  the  influence  of  his  father  Lorenzo,  he  had,  even  when  a  boy,  attainea 
some  of  the  most  exalted  stations  in  the  Church,  and  when  he  reached  the 
papal  chair  he  was  yet  in  the  vigor  of  his  manhood.  By  his  natural  power«« 
as  well  as  by  his  uniform  habits  he  was  prepared  to  reli.sh  every  i)leasure 
which  the  world  could  offer,  and  he  therefore  collected  in  the  Vatican  every 
thing  which  could  give  splendor  to  the  arts  and  sciences  of  his  age.  Well 
educated  in  the  classics  and  in  the  liberal  arts,  he  was  qualified  to  do  this 
with  discrimination,  and  from  his  connections  he  was  disposed  to  look  upon 
these  treasures  as  the  appropriate  patrimony  of  his  house.  Under  the  name 
of  Leo  X.  he  always  showed  himself  a  skilful  and  kind  master,  who  could 
appear  with  dignity  whenever  his  levity  of  disi)osition  was  not  drawn  forth. 
He  was  not  indeed  a  great  man  eitlier  in  action  or  in  compreheui-iveuess 
of  views.  Even  the  arts  were  promoted  only  for  his  own  gratification. 
Placed  at  the  very  summit  of  all  human  influence  at  a  time  in  which  God 
created  as  it  were  a  new  world  by  the  hands  of  consummate  artists,  he 
allowed  the  most  exalted  talents  in  his  service  to  exhaust  thoraselvos  in 
trilling  employments.  Although  ho  seemed  regardless  of  even  the  outward 
semblance  of  apo.stolic  or  ecclesiastical  propriety,  he  was  far  from  regarding 
Christianity  as  a  mere  fable.  His  administration  was  characterized  by 
earnestness,  and  when  directed  against  criminals  by  a  due  degree  of  severity. 
His  unbounded  liberality,  however,  as  well  as  his  lavish  profusion,  required 
supplies  of  wealth  which  rendered  all  kinds  of  expedients  indispensable.  In 
the  contest  which  both  Spain  and  Franco  were  waging  to  obtain  possession 
of  Italy,  it  was  his  policy  to  hold  each  at  a  distance  from  the  prey,  and  to 
betray  each  in  turn  to  the  other.  A  glorious  victory  was  achieved  for  the 
papacy  during  his  adminiötration,  in  the  removal  of  the  Pragmatic  Sanction 
(1516),  which  was  yielded  by  Francis  I.,  that  by  the  friendship  of  the  popo 
his  conquest  of  Milan  might  bo  secured,  and  his  hopes  respecting  Naples 
might  be  realized.  The  Council  of  Lateran  continued  in  session  until  March 
10,  1517,  long  enough  to  celebrate  this  victory  and  carry  into  effect  a  few 
papal  edicts. 

b)  (Hütten  f  Erasmus?)  Julius  exclusis.  {PusquUt.  vol.  II.  Elentheropoll  I.  o.  Ba«.  1544.  p.  1234s.) 

c)  Waleh,  Vorbcrlcht,  to  the  15th  vol.  of  Luther's  Werken,  p.  42s«. 

d)  Guicciardini  1.  XL  p.  326. 


286  MKDIAKVAI-  (  IIIKCII   lIl.xToKV.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  I*.  IJIC-lJir. 

ClIAl*.    11.— M'CIAL   CONJ^TITUTION   ÜF  THE   CHURCH. 
§  258.     Corpus  juris  canoniri. 

Flrit  cniiiplcto  oilltinn  by  Jo.  ChappuU,  Par.  1449!«.  8  vols.  e«l.  2. 1503.  The  eillt.  of  tlio  Correc- 
toro»  Kniiinnl,  mill  publislicil  by  Grt-pory  XIII.  tobe  Immutable:  Kom.  1582.  8  vols.  f.  and  often 
frtllfiil  Kdlllons:  e  rec.  nVioeorum  cd.  Cl<iud.  le  Pelletier,  Par.  16S7.  2  vols.  f.  and  often.  J.  It 
Boehiner,  Iliii.  1747.  2  vols.  4,    A.  C.  liichter,  Lps.  lS38ss.  2  vols.  4 

While  the  snpreme  power  in  the  Church  was  still  in  tiie  hands  of  the 
popes,  by  the  side  of  the  more  ancient  Decrees  of  Gratian,  a  new  papal 
code  was  gradually  formed  in  three  Collections  of  Decretals,  Avhich  were 
abridged,  harinoiiized,  sent  to  the  universities,  and  thus  introduced  as  the 
authoritative  law  of  the  Church.     1.     Decretulium  Grtfjoril  IX.  compHntin^ 
svstcmatically  arranged  in  five  books  by  liaymund  de  J'ennaforte,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  orders  of  Gregory  IX.  from  the  rescripts  of  that  pope,  and  a 
iew  older  collections.    It  was  intended  to  supply  the  same  position  in  re- 
spect to  ecclesiastical  law  which  was  occupied  in  civil  law  by  the  kgislation 
of  the  great  house  of  Hohenstaufen,  and  it  was  published  in  the  year  12.34, 
both  in  Paris  and  Bologna.  ('/)      2.  Sextiis  Dccrctalium  Liler.,  compiled  iu 
five  books  by  order  of  Boni/ace  VIII.,  from  Decretals  of  a  later  date,  and 
sent  to  the  universities  in  1298.      3.   Clementinae,  compiled  by  Clement  Y. 
from  Constitutions  principally  issued  by  the  general  synod  held  at  Yienne, 
committed  by  himself  to  the  Consistory  of  Cardinals  (1313)  and  to  his  Uni- 
versity of  Orleans,  and  sent  by  his  successor  (1317)  to  Paris  and  Bologna,  (h) 
Since  this  latter  period,  the  power  of  the  popes  has  not  been  sufficient  to  give 
the  force  of  law  to  their  enactments  throughout  Christendom,  and  hence  the 
general  code  of  the  Church  has  been  regarded  as  complete.     But  a  few  later 
laws  have  been  added  by  various  glossarists  and  editors  as  appendices  to  it 
(Extravagantes).    In  the  first  complete  edition  of  the  code,  a  collection  of 
twenty  Extravagantes  of  John  XXII.  which  bad  been  before  compiled,  was 
added,  together  with  all  the  laws  of  a  later  date,  so  far  as  they  could  be  ob- 
tained (Extrav.  communes),  until  the  time  of  Sixtus  lY.    Both  these  Appen- 
dices have  been  incorporated  in  the  more  recent  editions,  and  have  therefore 
obtained  in  judicial  proceedings  an  indefinite  but  never  a  legal  authority,  (c) 
These  decrees  and  decretals  constituted  the  elements  from  which  has  been 
formed  the  Corpus  juris  canonici,  whose  constituent  parts  are  characterized 
by  the  diversified  peculiarities  of  the  times  in  which  they  originated,  but 
take  cognizance  of  all  relations  in  ecclesiastical,  civil,  and  domestic  life.     It 
was  freely  accepted  by  the  whole  Western  Church,  and  applied  by  them  to 
all  cases  in  which  its  provisions  were  consistent  with  ancestral  usages  and 
local  legislation.    On  the  one  hand  it  often  afl:orded  the  protection  of  law 
against  the  arbitrary  conduct  of  the  priesthood,  and  on  the  other  it  served  to 
sustain  the  power  of  the  hierarchy  by  the  force  of  habit  among  the  people, 

a)  Sleek,  de  interpolationibus  Eaymundl  de  Pennaf.  Lps.  1754.  4.  Aug.  Theiner :  De  Eom. 
Pontiif.  epistolarum  deer,  antiquis  collectt.  et  de  Grog.  IX.  codice.  Lps.  1529.  4.  and  Kechercheä  su» 
plu-Mours coUccti'ns  inudites  dc  dicretales.  Par.  Isji. 

6)  G.  L.  Boehmer,  do  Clementinis.  (Obss.  jur.  can.  Goett  1766.) 

0>  Biekeil,  Ü.  Entsteh,  u.  Gebr.  d.  Extra vagantcnsam ml  Marb.  Iv25. 


CHAP.  II.    ECCLKS.  L.VW.    §  259.  STATE  i\XD  CllUliCII.  287 

and  by  tlie  efforts  of  learned  men,  long  after  tlie  real  basis  of  priestly  au 
thority  bad  been  destroyed.  Many  commentaries  (glossae,  apparatus)  ui)on 
individual  collections  were  produced  by  tlie  learned  industry  of  tbis  period. 
From  tbo  explanations  written  upon  eacli  of  tbese  Collections,  a  summary 
(glossa  ordinaria)  bas  been  formed  under  the  autbority  of  tbe  scbools,  which 
has  obtained  currency  in  the  ordinary  courts,  and  has  the  force  of  common 
legal  usage,  (d) 

§  259.  The  State  and  the  Church. 
The  political  institutions  of  all  the  great  states  of  Europe  were  estab- 
lisbed  near  tbe  close  of  tbe  15tb  century,  just  as  tbe  feudal  system  was  giv- 
iTig  place  to  tbe  monarcbial.  Although  Germany  continued  divided  under 
various  forms  of  government,  some  of  which  were  free  and  others  were  arbi- 
trary, the  independence  of  the  empire  and  permanent  rules  for  tbe  imperial 
elections  had  been  secured  by  means  of  tbe  Electoral  Union  at  Rhense  and 
tbe  Golden  Bull  (1356).  A  definite  legal  condition  bad  also  been  established 
(since  1495)  by  the  Lnndfriede,  or  tbe  Peace  of  the  country,  and  tbe  Impe- 
rial Cliamber  of  Justice.  France,  by  the  despotism  of  some  of  its  kings, 
the  persecution  of  its  great  vassals,  and  the  favor  shown  to  the  Third  Es- 
tate, had  finally  become  a  consolidated  kingdom,  circumscribed  by  power- 
ful subordinate  corporations.  For  a  while  England  had  fought  gloriously  but 
unsuccessfully  for  a  territory  by  nature  assigned  to  France ;  it  bad  then  been 
distracted  by  civil  war.'a,  in  which  its  principal  nobilitj-  contended  for  the 
crown,  until  the  leaders  of  the  great  parties  were  gradually  .«truck  down  by 
a  terrible  judgment  of  heaven,  and  finally  Henry  VII.  (1485-150;"'),  by  de- 
pressing tbe  nobility  and  exalting  tbe  inferior  classes,  bad  established  his 
throne  upon  a  permanent  basis.  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic 
with  the  hereditary  Queen  of  Castile,  Spain  also  had  become  united  as  a  sin- 
gle kingdom,  before  whoso  power  Grenada,  the  last  Moorish  city,  after  an 
heroic  struggle,  was  compelled  to  yield  (1492).  In  Italy  the  popes  were 
themselves  too  feeble  to  obtain  tbe  .sovereignty  of  tbe  whole  peninsula,  and 
yet  too  proud  to  allow  any  other  prince  to  do  so.  From  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Charles  the  Great,  the  people  had  invited  various  foreign  rulers  to 
enter  it,  whom  they  soon  found  themselves  unable  to  endure.  («)  Tbe  power 
of  the  j)riestliood  was  no  longer  needed  or  sufficient  for  the  guardianship  of 
tbe  state.  The  i)rclates  of  tlie  several  countries  were  compelled  to  .«bare  iii 
tbe  various  fortunes  of  tbe  higher  nobility.  "Whenever  any  sec  became  va- 
cant, the  kings  of  France  and  England  claimed  its  revenues  as  regalia  until 
the  new  prelate  had  taken  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  them,  and  tbe  crowu  of 
France  claimed  possession  of  all  vacant  benefices  in  any  diocese  until  it  was 
filled.  By  tbe  Concordat  with  Francis  I.  the  rights  of  the  Galilean  Church 
were  shared  between  the  king  and  tiie  pope.  (Ji)  In  Germany  the  king  pos- 
Be.5sed  a  prerogative,  according  to  which  a  prelate  was  bound  to  comply  with 
tlic  first  request  for  an  appoinlraent  to  a  benefice  which  the  emperor  made 

</)  S'trti  I.  0.  p.  33'2sB.    Stirigvij,  Gescli.  <I.  rom.  K.  vol.  VI.  p.  S7>8, 
(i)  Machhndii,  SHirie  Fit.r.  ((.»jip.  Italia,  1S13.)  vol.  I.  p.  13.  80. 
h)  P.  de  Marat,  VIII,  'I'l.  I  6.     linnke,  rfipstc,  vol.  I.  p.  S2. 


288  MKKIAKVAI-  (  llfUfll  IMSToKV.     riOK.  IV.     A.  I).  121C-1517. 

aftor  liis  consocrntion.  (r)  Tho  loiif,'  contested  ri^'lit  of  requiring  that  all 
\u\\m\  edicts  slioidd  l>c  subject  to.  tho  approval  of  the  civil  authority  before 
tliey  were  publicly  acknowledged,  was  maintained  by  a  few  governments  in 
ft  rntlior  violent  manner,  ('/)  In  spite  of  continual  denials  of  their  compe- 
t«iicy  the  civil  courts  asserted  with  increasing  success  their  jurisdiction  over 
privftto  legal  suits,  in  opposition  to  tho  exorbitant  claims  of  the  spiritual 
courts.  Tlio  powers  of  the  clergy  were  especially  curtailed  by  governments 
and  rulers  of  a  republican  character.  In  France,  when  the  parliaments  had 
once  succeeded  in  attaining  independent  judicial  and  civil  authority,  their 
rights  wore  guarded  with  extreme  jealousy,  and  tho  bishops  were  made  re- 
sponsible for  every  encroachment  upon  them.  Tho  Lombardic  cities,  es- 
pecially Venice,  tho  Swiss  Confederates  (parson's  letter,  1.370),  and  the  Ger- 
man imperial  diet,  demanded  that  the  clergy  should  be  subject  to  the  ordinary 
penal  laws  of  the  country,  should  contribute  their  share  of  public  taxes,  and 
be  restrained  within  certain  limits  in  their  acquisition  of  ecclesiastical  pro- 
perty, (e)  The  Free  Court  of  the  Vehme  in  "Westphalia  went  so  far  as  to 
withhold  their  secrets  from  the  confessional.  (/) 

§  200.     The  Ecclesiastical  Power  of  the  Papacy. 

Tho  papacy  now  essentially  diseased,  and  yet  obliged  to  put  before  the 
world  the  most  exorbitant  claims,  became  henceforth  a  destructive  power  in 
the  Church.  By  the  authority  conceded  to  the  decretals  the  pope  became 
the  creator  of  his  own  prerogatives  at  pleasure.  The  bold  announcement  of 
tlio  papal  decision  that  nothing  could  hinder  the  execution  of  the  pope's  com- 
mands (non  obstante  quocunque),  was  in  utter  contempt  of  the  acknowledged 
rights  of  every  class.  The  power  which  each  party  in  a  suit  possessed  when- 
ever it  pleased  to  have  its  cause  removed  to  Rome,  was  occasionally  almost 
equivalent  to  a  complete  denial  of  justice.  The  influence  of  the  pastors  was 
also  much  impaired  by  the  profitable  papal  usurpation  of  a  general  power  to 
confer  absolution,  and  grant  dispensations.  Then  as  the  pope  alone  could 
confirm  the  elections  of  all  bishops  and  abbots,  no  one,  however  deserving, 
could  reach  the  oflice  of  a  prelate  without  the  friendship  of  influential  per- 
sons at  Rome,  or  some  act  of  royal  authority.  ISTearly  all  other  lucrative  offi- 
ces in  the  Church  were  disposed  of  directly  by  the  Roman  see,  under  various 
legal  forms  (reservation,  prevention,  devolution,  commendam,  accident  of 
death  at  the  Roman  court).  Consequently,  foreigners  and  mercenary  tools 
gained  admission  to  the  Church,  united  several  otfices  and  the  revenues  de- 
rived from  them  in  their  single  persons,  frequently  without  ever  seeing  their 
congregations,  and  while  living  in  extravagance  at  the  papal  court.  This 
power  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  was  an  inexhaustible  source  of  papal  wealth, 

c)  n.  C.  de  S^nkenberff,  de  jure  primarum  precnm,  indulto  papali  band  indigente,  Fret  17S4.  4. 

d)  Stocl-mans.  jus  Belgarum  circa  buUarum  receptionem.  (0pp.  Col.  1700.  4.  cap.  2.) 

<)  lianmer,  Uohenstauf.  vol.  III.  p.  193s.— ÄiZM(i»ar,  bist,  Entwickl.  d.  Freibeiten  u.  d.  Gericbts- 
bark.  d  Eiilgon.  in  geistl.  Dingen.  Zur.  1T6S.  (Fudt«)  Vers.  e.  pragm.  Gescb.  d.  staatsrecblL  KVerC 
d.  Eidgen.  Genn.inion.  1S16.— j;  G.  lieinhard,  Meditt.  de  jure  principum  Germ,  cam  primjs  Sax- 
oniao  circa  sacra  ante  temp,  reformationis.  Hal.  1717.  4. 

/)  C"".  G.  r.  WCuhUr,  15eitrr.  z.  deuticbcn  Gosch.  insb.  d.  Straft-ecbts.  Tub.  1S45.  p.  3S. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLE5.  LAW.     §  260.  ECCLES.  POWER  OF  THE  PAPACY.  2S9 

partly  on  account  of  tho  money  usually  given  at  every  confirmation  and  the 
annatß,  and  partly  on  account  of  the  open  sale  of  offices.  The  protection  of 
ecclesiastical  property,  which  had  formerly  been  confided  to  tho  pope,  became 
gradually  the  occasion  for  a  general  assessment  of  tithes  for  carrying  on  the 
war  with  tlie  Turks,  and  finally  became  recognized  as  affording  a  right  of  tax- 
ing the  Church  to  sustain  the  popes  in  their  various  wars,  (a)  Even  the  bet- 
ter class  of  popes  could  accomi)lish  very  little  in  opposition  to  these  abuses, 
during  the  short  period  of  an  ordinary  pajjal  reign.  The  reversions  had  in- 
deed been  prohibited  after  the  time  of  Alexander  III.,  but  they  had  in  some 
instances  been  bestowed  for  the  Avhole  period  of  a  single  generation,  and  tho 
officers  of  the  Roman  Curia  Avere  exceedingly  depraved.  But  other  popes  of 
an  unworthy  character  were  well  acquainted  with  methods  by  which  even 
this  unhapi)y  state  of  things  might  become  more  disgraceful  and  treacherous. 
Offices  were  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  payment  sometimes  received  from 
different  persons  for  the  same  hving.  (b)  It  was  in  vain  that  individual  pro- 
tective laws  and  acts  of  authority  were  directed  against  these  methods  of 
impoverishing  the  people.  When  the  evil  had  attained  its  utmost  limit  an 
effort  was  made  by  the  great  councils  to  restore  security  to  ecclesiastical  prop- 
erty, and  to  re-establish  the  Christian  character  of  the  offices  of  the  Church. 
But  France  was  the  only  country  which  succeeded  in  this  attempt.  The  new 
pragmatic  sanction,  which  gave  to  that  country  this  distinction,  had  been 
abandoned,  it  is  true,  in  consequence  of  the  royal  policy,  but  it  never  lost  its 
authority  as  an  expression  of  what  was  regarded  by  the  French  people  as 
law,  and  it  was  always  defended  by  the  parliament  and  the  universities,  (c) 
Other  nations  were  satisfied  with  a  few  unimportant  concessions.  The  Ger- 
man people  were  contented  with  the  Concordat  of  Vieima,  by  which  appoint- 
ments to  ecclesiastical  offices  were  withdrawn  from  the  papal  chair  for  one 
half  of  each  year.  But  concessions  obtained  as  a  mere  matter  of  grace  (d) 
were  soon  rendered  useless  by  new  encroachments.  Two  theories  had  been 
out  forth  at  Constance  and  at  Basle — Ejmcopali«m,  according  to  which  the 
pope  was  merely  the  first  officer  of  the  Church,  and  was  subject  to  its  laws 
and  representatives;  and  Curialism.,  which  carried  tho  earlier  doctrine  of  the 
plenary  power  of  the  pope  so  far  as  to  assert  his  absolute  infallibility,  exagge- 
rated his  superiority  to  all  law  until  it  amounted  to  idolatrous  honors,  and 
finally  made  its  flatteries  absolutely  ridiculous,  by  asserting  that  simony  was 
impossible  at  Rome,  {e)  Both  theories  were  founded  upon  positive  laws,  and 
both  were  defended  by  men  of  great  learning.  The  first  was  tho  spontaneous 
a.ssertion  of  tho  whole  French  nation,  and  tho  latter  was  maintained  by  the 
body  of  the  clergy  at  Rome.  The  pious  reverence  which  tho  people  always 
entertained  for  tho  vicegerent  of  God  on  earth,  had  been  essentially  impaired. 
And  yet  they  were  generally  far  from  denying  the  necessity  of  a  pope  to 

a)  The  complaints  and  concesylons  In  the  acts  of  tho  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basier,  and  the 
Gravamina  of  the  Oerm.-in  natiun  at  the  Dii-ts  atrurd  proofs  In  abundance. 

I)  E.  G.  Theod.  de  yittn,  do  schism.  II,  7ss. 

c)  Lalbeiet  CoKmrlii  Cone.  vol.  XIV.  p.  282i>8.  Jiicherii  Hist  Concill.  I.  IV,  2.  e.  4  Munch, 
Concordat,  vol.  I.  p.  255s8. 

(T)  Acn.  Sijh-ii  Ep.  8S5. 

e)  Aui/iut.  Triumphi  1.  c.  Qu.  IX.  Art  1-4.  Qu.  V.  Art  3. 

19 


290  MKKIAKVAI-  CIlUKni  HInTOUY.     TKIl.  IV.     A.  I;.  1210-I6IT. 

inniiifaiii  tin-  unity  and  f,'ovc'nniicnt  of  tlic  Cliurcli.  A  ]iro<liction,  .'iscrilK.'«! 
to  Miilac'irme,  Arclibisliop  of  Anim<.Oi,  a  friend  of  St.  IJornard,  but  which 
probably  liad  its  origin  in  the  time  of  the  great  councils,  describes  with  more 
or  less  accuracy,  in  concise,  obscure,  and  ligurative  language,  tlie  character 
of  tho  popes  from  the  time  of  Celcstine  U.  (1143).  The  centuries  which 
have  since  elapsed  have  developed  nothing  to  bring  discredit  upon  it,  for 
according  to  it  eleven  popes  yet  remain  before  tho  last  pope  shall  rule  over 
tho  Church  in  great  tribulation,  and  tlie  city  of  tho  seven  hills  shall  be 
dostroyotl.  (/)  On  various  occasions  the  Cardinals  endeavored,  by  stipula- 
tions before  a  papal  election,  to  secure  their  persons  and  revenues  from  vio- 
lence, and  to  bind  the  successful  candidate  by  their  decisions,  (g)  But  no 
sooner  had  any  one  actually  reached  the  papal  chair  than  he  utterly  disre- 
garded all  such  illegal  restraints,  so  that  the  privileges  of  the  cardinals  were 
founded  only  upo»  contradictory  precedents,  and  were  respected  on  personal 
rather  than  official  grounds.  In  the  season  of  extremity,  when  the  Church 
was  rent  by  divisions,  thoy  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  tlie  Church. 
The  decrees  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  by  which  the  college  of 
cardinals  was  declared  to  be  the  constitutional  authority  of  the  Church,  and 
which  required  that  it  should  be  composed  of  pious,  learned,  and  useful  men, 
selected  from  all  Christian  nations,  (/()  were  never  carried  into  execution. 
"With  but  few  exceptions  the  cardinals  were  chosen  from  among  the  nepotes 
of  the  popes,  the  scions  of  a  few  great  Eoman  fomilies  (familie  papale),  and 
certain  royal  fovorites,  for  whom  the  kings  of  tho  different  nations,  according 
to  their  intiueuce,  were  able  to  obtain  tho  scarlet  hat. 

§  261.     The  Ecclesiastical  Assemllics. 

In  a  few  bishoprics  regular  diocesan  synods  were  formed,  that  they  might 
afford  counsel  to  the  bishops  and  be  the  depositaries  of  his  will.  Provincial 
synods  from  an  indefinite  extent  of  country  were  seldom  held,  and  only  on 
special  occasions  under  the  presidency  of  a  legate.  The  national  councils 
had  been  almost  universally  absorbed  by  the  assemblies  of  the  estates  of  tho 
empire.  Tlie  greater  or  less  general  councils  which  were  convoked  by  the 
popes  until  some  time  in  the  fourteenth  century,  either  in  the  Lateran  or  in 
the  south  of  France,  were  composed  of  representatives  of  the  states,  assem- 
bled partly  to  ascertain  the  sentiments  and  wants  of  the  Church  tbroughout 
the  country,  and  partly  to  carry  into  effect  the  papal  decrees.  In  these 
assemblies  very  little  regard  was  paid  to  the  peculiar  jmvileges  of  the  seve- 
ral states  either  with  respect  to  their  position  or  to  the  order  in  which  they 
voted,  but  every  one  had  influence  and  precedence  in  proportion  to  his  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  in  hand,  or  to  his  official  or  personal  authority.  It  was 
for  this  reason  that  we  find  so  much  indefiniteness  with  regard  to  the  right 
of  voting  and  the  order  of  business  which  produced  such  want  of  precision 
in  tho  mode  of  conducting  the  assemblies  of  the  fifteenth  century.    As  the 

f)  The  litomtiire  in  Ftthr-ic.  Bibl.  med.  et  inf.  Latin.  T.  V.  v.  Malacbias. 
I/)  l!,i;/n,il<r.  ad  ann.  USl.  N.  5ss.  aii  ann.  14,->S.  N.  5. 

h)  Germ,  n.itionis  Concordafi  c  1.  (//arcU  vol.  I.  p.  1055.)  Cone  Bas.  S.  XXIII.  deer  4.  (ITj«« 
roi.  XXIX.  p.  11&S.) 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLE3.  LAW.    S  261.  ECCLESIASTICAL  ASSEMBLIES.  291 

Ohurch  could  claim  (lie  essential  prerogative  of  infallibility  only  wlien  it 
spoke  tliroHgh  an  individual  and  supreme  organ,  the  confidence  of  the  peoi)le, 
so  far  as  relates  to  this  power,  was  gradually  withdrawn  from  the  dependent 
councils,  and  bestowed  upon  the  independent  pope.  The  liberal  party,  how- 
ever, ever  since  the  Council  of  Constance,  were  obliged  to  maintain  that  this 
infallibility  belonged  only  to  the  councils,  for  otherwise  the  supremo  author- 
ity of  such  assemblies  must  have  been  renounced,  (a)  When  the  three  great 
assemblies  of  the  Church  grasped  after  the  supreme  power,  they  certainly 
could  have  appealed  to  the  example  of  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  but  in  the 
state  in  which  legal  matters  had  stood  for  centuries  before  their  time,  such 
an  assumption  had  all  the  etfect  of  a  revolution.  It  had,  however,  been 
called  for  by  the  force  of  circumstances  without  arbitrary  violence  on  the 
part  of  any  one.  These  general  councils  formed  the  design  of  becoming 
regular  periodical  assemblies  for  the  administration  of  the  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  suiiremo  judicial  atFairs  ot  the  Church.  At  Basle  it  was  also  per- 
ceived that  this  representation  of  the  whole  Cliurch  would  require  the  revi- 
val of  a  Synodal  Constitution,  according  to  which  there  must  be  a  regular 
series  of  assemblies,  beginning  with  the  lowest.  But  from  various  local 
obstacles  it  was  found  difficult  to  secure  an  actual  assembly  of  the  represen- 
tatives of  the  whole  Church,  or  perfect  freedom  to  their  decisions.  Only  in 
times  of  great  extremity,  or  of  universally  acknowledged  necessity,  could 
these  dithculties  be  overcome,  and  hence  the  pope  did  not  ordinarily  find  it 
hard  to  elude  the  action  of  these  dangerous  assemblies,  or  hy  convening  them 
in  the  Lateran  to  reduce  them  to  their  former  insignificance.  Appeals  to  a 
future  general  council  were  forbidden  under  penalty  of  excommunication  by 
Martin  V.,  Pius,  and  Julius  II.,  (b)  since  every  papal  enactment  would 
thereby  have  become  nugatory  on  account  of  the  indefinite  period  in  which 
it  would  remain  in  suspense.  Still  from  tlie  sense  of  justice  which  existed  in 
the  Clmrch,  these  appeals  were  recognized,  and  were  sometimes  made  with 
greater  or  less  success  as  legal  forms  of  opposition  to  the  papal  decrees.  The 
legality  of  the  Council  of  Pisa  was  questioned  by  the  Hberal  party,  (c)  The 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  were  generally  acknowledged  by  the 
Roman  court.  The  validity  of  the  Council  of  Basle  Avas  altogether  denied 
by  those  who  favored  Rome,  but  according  to  the  principles  of  canonical  law 
it  was  certainly  a  legal  assembly,  at  least  until  its  twenty-sixth  session.  The 
popes  were  careful  to  observe  a  prudent  silence  respecting  the  supremacy  of 
the  general  councils,  but  in  practice  they  entirely  disregarded  it.  They  were 
thus,  unfortunately  for  themselves,  victorious  over  a  revolution  which  might 
otherwise  have  preserved  the  unity  and  the  peaceful  development  of  the 
Church. 


a)  (Slau)  Krit.  Ge-ch.  A.  kirchl.  rnfoblbark.  Ennkf.  1700.  p.  SlOss. 

h)  Geriion,  Opp.  vol.  II.  I*.  2  [>.  ^OOs.  (Jobellini  C'inintr.  I.  III.  p.  91.— (r<'r«on,  quouioilo  nt  an 
ijceat  in  cau^i.s  fiiloi  a  Suiiimo  INinlif.  aiipillare.  (vul.  II.  P.  2.  i>.  3lÖ>s.)  GoldosU  Mouarcbia,  voL 
n.  p.  157CfS.  1592SS.    IHcherii,  Hist.  ConcilL  1.  II.  p.  U2. 

c)  /laiät.  Cone.  Constant  vol.  IV.  P.  2.  p.  24.  comp,  vol  II.  p.  104. 


292  MKI>IAKVAI>  CIirKCII  IIIHTOItY.     VVAl.  IV.    A.  D.  1^16-15:7. 

§  202.  'ffie  National  Churchc». 
Th<i  Churches  connected  with  those  nations  wliicli  had  been  developed 
otit  of  the  Kornnn  empire  througli  the  various  Germanic  races,  had  long 
Binco  become  orfranizcd  into  distinct  communities,  in  consequence  of  their 
intimate  connection  witli  the  ]ieo])lc  and  the  civil  government  of  each  coun- 
trv.  And  yet  the  iiiiluence  of  a  common  origin,  and  of  a  central  point  of 
intercourse  was  so  great,  that  they  all  felt  tlicinsclves  as  parts  of  one  vast 
empire  receiving  its  laws  from  Eorae.  Although  the  popes  were  frequently 
requested  to  fill  all  ecclesiastical  offices  with  persons  who  were  natives  of  the 
country  in  which  they  were  to  officiate,  even  such  a  demand  was  rejected 
sometimes  to  maintain  the  grand  doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  Church,  and 
sometimes  that  special  favor  might  be  conferred  upon  the  Italians.*  But  in 
proportion  as  the  centnd  power  became  enfeebled,  these  nationalities  became 
more  decidedly  prominent  first  in  France,  in  opposition  to  the  papal  as  well 
as  to  the  imperial  universal  monarchy,  and  secured  the  peculiar  privileges  of 
their  respective  national  Church  by  concordats  with  Rome.  Accordingly 
we  have  seen  that  they  presented  themselves  at  Constance  and  acted  there 
as  legal  corporations.  It  was  more  especially  by  means  of  the  separate  com- 
pacts then  concluded,  and  the  ground  assumed  by  the  synod  at  Basle,  that 
the  great  fundamental  principle  of  law  was  settled,  that  no  decree  either  of  a 
pope  or  a  council  possessed  legal  authority  in  any  country  until  it  had  been 
accepted  by  the  national  Church  there. 

§  263.  The  Bi)i7i02)S  and  their  Jurisdiction. 
As  the  appointment  of  nearly  all  ecclesiastical  officers  had  been  usurped 
by  Rome,  and  ecclesiastical  acts  of  all  kinds  could  be  purchased  by  the  Ex- 
emptions, especially  during  the  time  of  the  schism,  the  result  was  that  the 
episcopal  power  had  been  very  much  impaired.  This  induced  the  lishops  at 
Constance  and  at  Basle  to  assume  a  threatening  attitude,  and  to  demand  the 
restoration  of  all  that  they  had  lost.  But  every  bishop  had  something  to 
fear  or  hope  for  from  Rome,  and  nearly  every  one  dreaded  to  fall  into  the 
hands  of  a  body  which,  after  it  had  shaken  the  papacy,  had  power  also  to 
overthrow  the  prelatic  sees.  The  prelates  were  therefore  generally  satisfied 
with  their  secular  honors,  and  abandoned  the  great  struggle  to  look  after 
inferior  advantnges.  The  Chapters  became,  especially  in  Germany,  desirable 
places  in  which  the  younger  sons  of  the  nobility  were  provided  for,  and  con- 
sequently their  position  was  entirely  secular  and  without  interest  to  the  body 
of  the  people.  On  the  other  hand,  the  decrees  of  Rome  and  Basle  met  with 
very  trifling  success  when  they  required  that  half  the  vacancies  in  the  chap- 
ters should  be  filled  by  men  of  distinction  in  science  and  in  the  Church. 
The  archdeacons  were  also  circumscribed  on  the  side  of  the  bishops,  by  a 
college  composed  almost  exclusively  of  secular  officials.,  (a)  and  a  kind  of 
pcnitentials,  who  were  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  preaching  and  having 


♦  ITonorii  regosta,  a.  V.  N.  17.  (Raumer,  vol.  VI.  p.  15.)  Comp.  2Iat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1240.  i\ 
8(h\  ad  ann.  1245.  p.  445.  450. 

<i)  Sejrl.  I,  1.3.  Po  officio  ykaTii.—rertsch,  v.  d.  Arcbldi.ik.,  tisch.  Officialen  u.  Vlcarltn 
nildesh.  1*43. 


CHAP.  IL    ECCLE9.  LAW.    §  2U  INQU1SIT:0X.  293 

ilie  charge  of  souls,  (h)  Those  bishops  who  preferred  to  live  as  princes  asso- 
ciated with  themselves,  for  the  performance  of  their  episcopal  and  priestly 
duties,  a  class  of  persons  who  were  called  Chorcjiiacojii  and  Suffragan 
Jiishoji».  These  were  bishops  who  had  been  expelled  from  their  dioceses  in 
the  Oriental  Church,  and  were  afterwards  appointed  by  the  pope  as  an  ex- 
jiression  of  a  perpetual  hope,  and  a  protestation  with  respect  to  those  ancient 
eiiiscopal  .«ees  (Episcopi  in  partibus  infidelium).  ('•)  In  consequence  of  the 
contest  maintained  by  the  University  of  Paris  against  the  encroachments  of 
the  mendicant  friars,  and  as  the  result  of  the  position  assumed  by  the  Synod 
of  Basle,  the  assertion  was  put  forth  in  France,  that  the  2i('»(ors  had  been 
instituted  by  Christ  to  be  an  essential  element  of  his  Church,  with  a  limited 
but  a  pecidiar  sphere  of  action,  (d) 

§  264,     7'he  Inquisition. 

Xic.  Ei/mericus  (d.  1399),  Directorium  Inquisitorum,  Barcin.  150.3.  c.  Coinm.  /*/•.  Pegnae,  Kotn. 
157S.  f.  and  often.  Lud.  de  Paramo,  do  orig.,  officio  ot  progressu  S.  Inquls.  Matr.  159S.  f.  Antu. 
1619.  f.  Phil,  a  Limhorch.  Illst.  Inq.  Amst  1692.  f.  Samml.  d.  In.^truct  d.  Span.  Inquisitionsgor 
uebers.  v.  Reuse,  with  Spittler's  Entw.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Span.  Inq.  Ilan.  17S8.  Zlorente,  Hist  critiqae 
de  Tinq.  d'Espagnc,  Trad,  do  TEspagn.  p.  A.  Pellier,  Par.  ISlTs.  4  vols.  [Limborch"s  (abridged)  and 
Llorente's  Histories  have  been  translated  and  pnbl.  in  London  and  the  latter  in  Philad.  See  also: 
Records  of  the  Inq.  from  the  orig.  MSS.  taken  at  Barcelona.  Boston.  1S2S.] 

When  the  general  massacre  which  took  jilace  in  the  war  against  the  Albi- 
genses  (§  231)  was  closed  by  their  public  subjugation,  the  work  of  extermi- 
nating tho.se  remnants  who  were  known  to  exist  in  secret  was  intrusted  by 
Innocent  III.  to  the  synodal  courts.  The  method  in  which  this  was  to  be 
accomplished  was  determined  upon  at  the  Synod  of  Toulouse  (1229),  and 
was  as  follows :  (a)  "  Any  prince,  lord,  bishop,  or  judge,  who  shall  spare  a  here- 
tic, shall  forfeit  his  lands,  property,  or  otlice ;  and  every  house  in  whicb  a 
heretic  is  found  shall  be  destroyed.  Heretics  or  persons  suspected  of  heresy 
shall  not  be  allowed  the  assistance  of  a  physician,  or  of  any  of  their  asso- 
ciates in  crime,  even  though  they  may  bo  sufiering  under  a  mortal  disease. 
Sincere  penitents  shall  be  removed  from  the  neighborhood  in  which  they 
reside  if  it  is  suspected  of  heresy,  they  shall  wear  a  peculiar  dress,  and  for- 
feit all  public  privileges  until  tlicy  receive  a  papal  dispensation.  Penitents 
who  hrtvc  recanted  tliroiigh  fear  sliall  bo  placed  in  confinement."  But  lest 
bishops  sh.uld  be  tempted  to  show  some  favor  to  those  who  were  dependent 
on  them,  Gregory  IX.  devolved  the  holy  office  upon  foreign  monks  (1232).  The 
Dominicans  gradually  became  possessed  of  this  office,  and  it  was  looked  upon 
as  tlieir  peculiar  inlicritanoe.  Louis  IX.,  from  a  regard  to  religion,  and  Ray- 
mond VII.  of  Toulouse  and  Frederic  II.,  from  a  regard  to  their  own  reputa- 
tion, enacted  certain  laws  which  re(iuired  that  tlio  sentences  passed  by  the 
inquisition  should  lie  carried  into  e.xecution  by  the  civil  authorities.  (A)    These 

h)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c.  10.  (Qrtg.  I,  31.  c  15.) 

<■)  Dürr,  de  Suffrnganels  s.  vlcariis  gcncrnlibus  in  pontiflcalilms  Episcoporuin  Germ.  Mog. 
irS2.  4. 

d)  Gerson,  0pp.  vol.  II.  p.  25(1.  1(167.  . 

a)  Cone.  Later.  IV.  c.  3  {Mansi  vol.  XXII.  p.  956ss.)  Cone.  Tulo»an.  c.  1-2?.  (lb.  vol.  .XXIIL 
p  194ss.)    [Laudon''s  Manual  of  Councils,  p.  594.] 

b)  Ordonances  des  Ilnys  do  France,  p.  J/,  de  Lauriire,  Par.  1723.  f.   vol.  I.  p.  5<V.    Statuta 


294  MKUIAKVAL  fllUKCIl  1II.ST(JKV.     I'Ki:.  IV.    A.  I).  1216-1517. 

holy  fiitlicrs  were  responsible  to  no  ono  but  the  pope  himself,  and  it  was  thoii 
duty  to  sriiroh  for  heretics  in  every  quarter.  They  liad  the  ri^dit  to  imiirigon 
anv  ono  who  was  Ptispectod,  and  instead  of  furnishing  liim  with  a  list  of  the 
cliarjies  alleged  against  him,  they  required  of  him  a  general  confession.  Tor- 
ture was  used  in  their  examinations,  and  witnesses  whose  names  were  con- 
cealed were  sometimes  taken  from  among  convicted  criminals,  the  most 
worthless  of  men,  and  accomplices  in  guilt,  (c)  The  punishments  inflicted 
were,  public  penance,  confiscation  of  property,  perpetual  imprisonment,  and 
death  by  burning,  from  which  even  a  recantation  was  not  always  sufficient 
to  deliver  the  victim.  The  inquisition  now  became,  in  the  hands  of  tlie  hier- 
archy, a  desperate  means  of  sustaining  by  violence  and  terror  that  influence 
whose  true  foundation  had  begun  to  crumble.  In  vain  did  the  people  in  the 
south  of  France  rise  in  rebellion,  and  take  sanguinary  vengeance  upon  some 
of  their  inquisitors.  In  Italy,  where  the  spiritual  power  was  more  limited 
by  peculiar  circumstances,  the  inquisition  found  it  impossible  to  carry  out  its 
murderous  spirit.  In  Germany  the  people  combined  with  the  bishops  against 
this  attempt  to  force  ujjon  them  this  tribunal  for  heretics,  and  Conrad  of 
Mai-lurg,  then  acting  as  its  president,  fell  a  victim  to  their  violence  (1233).  {(T) 
In  Spain,  where  the  Jews  and  Moors  had  recently  been  baptized  (after  1391), 
notwithstanding  a  strong  remaining  attachment  to  their  ancestral  faith,  the 
holy  court  was  introduced  to  take  cognizance  of  all  public  or  secret  relapses 
which  might  take  place  among  them ;  for,  although  ecclesiastical  ethics  would 
allow  of  no  force  in  the  conversion  of  men  to  Christianity,  the  violation  of 
Christian  vows  was  punished  not  only  by  force,  but  by  death  itself,  (e)  It 
was  in  this  country  that  the  inquisition,  under  its  General  Torquemada  (after 
1488),  developed  its  fearful  power.  It  was  there  established  by  the  royal 
authority  (1478),  but  it  soon  became  in  his  hands  a  government  of  terror 
which  dictated  terms  to  the  king  himself,  trampled  upon  the  opposition  not 
only  of  the  imperial  diet,  but  of  every  other  power,  and  finally  crushed  all 
freedom  of  thought  in  Church  or  State.  The  popes  with  some  reluctance 
yielded  their  consent  to  these  proceedings.  Even  Ximenes,  with  a  character 
truly  heroic,  and  worthy  of  Spain  in  its  ancient  and  best  days,  who,  on  ac- 
count of  his  rigid  monastic  sanctity,  had  been  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  Cardinal  of  Spain,  and  finally  Regent  of  Castile  (d.  1517),  and  was  a 
munificent  patron  of  science,  regarded  it  as  not  beneath  his  dignity  to  accept 
of  the  office  of  Grand  Inquisitor,  that  he  might  secure  power  enough  to  cor- 
rect injustice,  defend  the  Christian  faith,  and  rescue  the  monarchy  from  the 
feudalism  of  the  middle  ages.  (/)  Such  an  inquisition  could  be  introduced 
and  sustained  only  among  a  people  which  for  centuries,  and  during  long  pro- 
tracted wars  for  their  country  and  for  their  religion,  had  been  accustomed 

Raimundi  super  haeresi  Albigcnsi  a.  1283.  {Ifansi  vol.  XXIII.  p.  265ss.)  Petri  de  Vineis  L  L 
Epp.  25-2T. 

c)  Maii^ne,  Thcs.  anccdot  vol.V.  p.  lTS6ss.  lT95ss.— Z'.  A.  Biener,  Beitr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  InquisitJons- 
Proce^se?.  Lpz.  1S27.  p.  COss. 

d)  Albericus  ad  ann.  1233.  p.  &Wss.     Ti-ithem.  Cliron.  nirs.  vol.  I.  p.  52:3. 
«)  Thomax,  Suinina,  P.  II.  P.  2.  Qu.  10. 

/)  C.  J.  UefeU,  d.  Card.  Xjnienes  u.  d.  kirchl.  Zustände  Span.  Insbes.  z.  Würdigung  d.  Inquia. 
Tub.  1S44.     lMii:hd  Sandier,  Hist,  de  la  vie  et  de  radniinistralion  du  Card.  Ximeses.  Par.  1S53.  il 


CHAP.  III.     EOCLES.  LIFE.     §205.  FRANCIS  OF  AÖSI5I.     DOMINIC.  295 

to  regard  tlie  purity  and  antiquity  of  their  faith  as  superior  to  all  other  con- 
eiderations.  It  ha.s,  however,  reduced  this  noble  nation  to  the  lowest  state 
of  morals,  and  defrauded  it  of  its  natural  course  of  development. 


CEAP.     III.  — ECCLESIASTICAL     LIFE. 

§  205.     2'hc  Tico  Great  Mendicant  Orders. 

r.  Vita  S.  Francisci  by  Thomas  de  Celano,  1220.  (Acta  SS.  Oct  vol.  11.  p.  6S3.)  completed  in 
1246.  by  I.eo,  Angelus  et  Jiiiffinus  (Trcs  Socii,  lb.  p.  723.)  as  the  holy  book  of  tl)e  Order  by  Bona- 
ventura. {III.  p.  742.)  The  First  I!ule  in  Höhten.  Brockte,  vol.  III.  p.  30ss.  Luc.  Waddiiiff,  An- 
miles  Minotum  (till  1540.)  Lugd.  1625ss.  S  vols.  f.  (till  1504.)  Itom.  1731ss.  19  vols,  f.— Vita  S.  Domiiiici 
by  his  first  follower  Jbrdantis,  (Acta  SS.  Aug.  vol.  I.  p.  545.)  by  Ilumhertus  de  liomanU,  the  fifth 
general  of  the  Order.  1254.  {lb.  p.  858.)  Others  in  Höhten.  Brockte,  vol.  IV.  p.  10. — liipoli  et 
Bremond,  Bullariuiii  O.  I'raed.  lioin.  1739ss.  6  vols.  f.  Jfamachii  aliorumq.  Annales  0.  Praedlca- 
torutn.  Rom.  174G.  f.     Quetif  et  Erhard,  Scrr.  O.  Praed.  Par.  1719ss.  2  vols.  f. 

II.  Legende  dor6e,  ou  8<imm,iire  de  I'llist  dos  frörcs  mendians.  Amst  1734.  12.  {Alemberf) 
Hist,  des  Moines  mend.  Par.  170S.  12.  Nuremb.  1709.  E.  Vogt,  d.  h.  Fr.  v.  Ass.  Tub.  ISIO.  E.  Cha- 
vin  de  Jfalan,  Hist,  de  S.  Franf.  d'Ass.  Par.  1S41.  Municli,  1S42.  [A  life  of  Francis  of  A.  is  given 
in  Bohringer's  Church  of  Christ,  &e.  See  §  192.] — I.acurdaire,  Vie  de  S.  Dom.  Par.  1S40.  Landsh. 
1S41.  [.1  P.  Day.  Monastic  Institutions.  Lond.  lS4fi.  2  ed.  12.  For'»  Monks  and  Monasteries.  Lond. 
1S35.     Stephens,  (in  Edinb.  Rev.  1S47.  and  Eclectic  Mug.  Sept  1S47.)  Fr.  of  As«.  &c.] 

The  enthusiasm  which  properly  belongs  to  the  Church,  and  yet  frequently 
endangered  her  existence,  was  finally  attained  and  enlisted  in  her  service, 
through  the  exertions  of  some  very  peculiar  characters.  "When  Francisco  of 
Assisi  (b.  1172)  heard  (1208),  in  the  church  dedicated  to  Mary  at  Portiuncula, 
the  -words  in  which  our  Lord  sent  forth  his  disciples  to  preach  the  gospel,  an 
idea  was  revived  which  lie  had  entertained  among  his  indistinct  youthful . 
aspirations.  This  was  the  jiroject  of  an  association  which  should  walk 
strictly  in  the  footsteps  of  the  apostles,  preaching  repentance  in  every  part  of 
the  world,  despising  all  kinds  of  private  i)roperty  or  possession-?,  and  obtain- 
ing the  necessaries  of  life  from  the  charities  of  their  fellow-men.  At  first  he 
was  despised  by  his  fellow-citizens,  execrated  by  his  wealthy  father,  and 
while  travelling  through  Western  Europe  and  Egypt  ridiculed  as  a  victim  of 
insanity.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  his  unfiinching  contempt  of  the 
world,  his  honest  humility,  his  burning  luve  to  God,  and  his  imitation  of  Jesus 
Christ  in  a  remarkable  style  of  living,  (")  drew  around  him  thoasands  of  dis- 
ciples. The  law  to  which  they  vowed  allegiance  required  love,  humility, 
poverty,  and  joy  in  Christ.  To  a  degree  which  had  never  before  been  wit- 
nessed on  earth,  it  now  became  a  luxury  to  share  in  the  earthly  sorrows  and 
passion  of  our  Lord,  llie  brown  capoch  or  frock,  which,  according  to  the 
fashion  of  the  country,  was  ftv-^tcned  to  the  waist  with  a  cord,  formed  all  the 
clothing  which  they  deemed  neces.«ary,  and  constituted  the  honorable  badge 
of  the  order.     Imiocent  III.  was  induced  by  the  sinqdicity  and  humility  of 

a)  This  view  was  carried  to  Its  nltlmate  point  in  the  40  Conformities  of  Bartholomaei  Alhicii 
(de  Pisis)  Liber  Conforniitatuni,  13^5,  and  acknowledged  by  the  deneral  Chajiter  at  As.sisl,  1399. 
Mediol.  1510.  f.  and  often.  E.\trael.s  hy  Eiosniu«  Alberu.^,  with  a  Preface  by /.»Mer  .■  Der  Car- 
Tu-scr  Mönche  Eulenspiegel  u.  Alcoran.  1501.  I/.Vicoran  des  Cordeliers.  Oen.  1550.  in  I.at.  and 
French.  Am.st  1734.  2  vols. 


ii{\(]  Mr.DIAKVAI.  ClICKCII  IIIöTüKV.     TKI:.  IV.    A.  D.  1210-1517. 

tlii.><  slruiino  siiiiit  to  allnw  liini  to  consummate  his  plans  witliout  interruption 
( I'iOU).  (/')  Honurius  III.  solemnly  conlirmed  tho  right  of  the  Order  of  the 
l-'ratres  Minores  (1223)  to  prcacli  and  hear  confes-.sions  in  every  jtlace.  A  female 
order  (Ordo  S.  Clarae)  was  also  established  (since  1212)  by  C'Uira  of  Assist, 
whose  disjKxsition  was  similar  to  that  of  Francis,  and  for  whose  followers  the 
latter  was  induced  to  prescribe  a  rule  (1224).  (c)  A  broad  basis  was  finally 
formed  (1221)  for  his  order,  when  he  established  a  fraternity  composed  of 
tiiose  who  wished  to  be  his  disciples,  and  yet  were  under  the  necessity  of 
remaining  in  the  midst  of  worldly  employments  (tertius  ordo  de  poenitentia, 
Tcrtiarii).  ('/)  Whenever  Francisco  attempted  to  pronounce  a  studied  dis- 
course he  was  always  confounded,  but  when  he  spoke  from  a  sudden  impulse, 
his  spirit  broke  forth  from  the  depths  of  his  heart  like  a  storm.  Like  some 
Minnesinger,  he  celebrated  the  delicious  raptures  of  heavenly  love  and  the 
devotion  of  all  nature  for  its  Creator,  (e)  He  seems  to  have  possessed  a 
childlike  spirit,  which  loved  to  commune  with  all  forms  of  natural  life,  auJ 
made  him  salute  all  creatures  as  brethren  and  sisters.  After  many  vain  long- 
ings to  die  in  proof  of  his  love,  he  perceived  that  he  was  to  become  like  the 
crucified  Redeemer,  not  by  a  bodily  martyrdom,  but  by  the  intensity  of  his 
devotion.  He  at  last  died  lying  naked  on  the  ground  in  his  favorite  church 
(Oct.  4,  122G),  with  the  five  wounds  of  Christ  imprinted  on  his  body.  (/) 
The  biographies  of  St.  Francis  were  at  an  early  period  highly  adorned  by 
the  extravagant  fancies  of  his  foUoAvers.  Even  then  among  his  immediate 
att^dauts  many  legends  were  received  and  sent  forth  to  the  world,  and  yet 
we  are  compelled  to  believe  that  this  seraphic  stranger  upon  earth  really 
experienced  many  things  out  of  the  ordinary  com'se  of  nature. — Domingo 
(b.  1170),  a  Castilian  and  a  canon  of  Osma,  was  a  man  of  a  thoughtful 
spirit,  which  in  its  cultivation  and  profound  emotions  sympathized  intensely 
with  the  welfare  and  miseries  of  his  fellow-men.  Deeply  aflected  when  he 
heard  of  the  growth  of  heresy,  he  undertook  a  journey  in  the  manner  of  the 
primitive  apostles  into  ditferent  parts  of  the  south  of  France  (after  1206), 
that  he  might  efiect  the  conversion  of  the  Albigenses.  On  him  and  his  assist- 
ants in  this  enterprise,  Innocent  imposed  (1215)  the  rule  of  Augustine,  and 
Honorius  (1210)  conferred  on  them  the  privilege  of  exercising  a  general  pas- 
toral care  in  the  character  of  preaching  friars  (Fratres  praedicatores,  in 
France  Jacobins).  Even  nuns,  principally,  at  first,  such  as  had  been  con- 
verted from  the  Albigensian  faith,  placed  themselves  under  his  rule,  and  at  a 
later  period  a  class  of  Tertiarians  (Fratres  et  sorores  de  militia  Christi)  be- 
came connected  Avith  his  order.  The  leading  principle  of  the  order  was,  the 
sacrifice  of  the  dearest  objects  for  the  promotion  of  the  saving  faith,  and  the 
means  which  its  members  used  were  a  learned  education,  holy  eloquence, 
and  the  restoration  of  the  priesthood  to  its  original  all-subduing  poverty. 

6)  JM.  Paris  ad  ann.  122T.  p.  2U.        c)  In  Hülsten.  Brockie  vol.  III.  p-  34ss. 

d)  Hülsten.  Brockie  vol.  III.  p.  39s3. 

e)  LiL-bcskampfe  des  li.  Franc.  Dt-r  h.  Fr.  ills  Troubadour.  (Der  Katliolik  von  Livberuiann.  1S2G 
II.  4.  N.  Is.)  In  Uie  Appendi.v  in  Vogt. 

/)  The  fact  of  tlie  sacra  stigmata  was  joovcd  by  eye-witnesses ;  the  Legend  is  very  delicateli 
hinted  .it  by  Cdano  (II,  1.  §  24.)  Comp.  Iiii',n<iUt.  ad  aim.  1237.  N.  GO.  Wiuldini;  ed.  Eoir.  val- 
IL  p.  429. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.     §  265.  MENDICANT  ORDERS.  297 

No  sooner  hud  Dominicus,  in  the  General  Chapter  at  Bologna  (1220),  effected 
the  passage  of  an  act  by  which  his  order  vowed  to  maintain  perpetual  and 
perfect  poverty,  than  he  died  (Aug.  G,  1221),  uttering  anathemas  upon  any 
who  should  pollute  his  order  by  bestowing  upon  it  earthly  possessions. — The 
constitution  of  these  two  orders  was  developed,  so  far  as  related  to  essential 
matters,  in  a  similar  manner.  A  Guardian,  who  among  the  Dominicans  was 
called  a  Prior,  presided  over  a  convent,  a  Provincial  was  placed  over  all  the 
convents  in  a  country,  and  a  General  (minister  generalis)  residing  at  Romo 
was  over  the  Avhole  order.  Each  of  tliese  otficers  had  the  counsel  and 
inspection  of  certain  Defiuatores,  who  represented  the  several  congregations 
under  their  jurisdiction.  The  principal  superintendence  and  legislation  was 
vested  in  the  provincial  convents,  and  for  the  whole  order  in  the  General 
Chapter.  Although  these  mendicant  orders  were  freed  from  the  ordinary 
cares  of  secular  life,  tliey  were  thrown  into  frequent  contact  with  the  people. 
They,  in  contrast  with  the  cathedral  chapters,  presented  to  those  possessed 
of  eminent  talents  and  merit  a  path  by  which  the  highest  dignities  of  the 
Church  might  be  attained.  As  they  possessed  the  right  to  receive  confes- 
sions wherever  they  might  be,  they  soon  became  the  spiritual  advisers  of 
the  Avhole  Church,  for  they  were  often  intrusted  with  secrets  which  persons 
would  not  confide  to  their  own  pastors  at  home.  In  this  way  they  easily 
fouud  occasion  to  interfere  in  all  the  relations  of  families,  cities,  and  .states,  (y) 
As  their  table  was  every  where  spread,  they  could  admit  vast  multitudes  to 
their  order.  Many  convents  indeed  amassed  by  begging  much  wealth,  the 
possession  of  which  was  reconciled  with  their  vows  of  poverty  by  the  fact 
that  it  was  owned  not  by  individuals,  but  by  the  general  body.  With  the 
papal  court  they  were  united  by  the  bonds  of  a  reciprocal  interest,  and  hence 
the  mendicant  friars  were  regarded  by  the  pope  as  his  standing  army,  and  by 
various  kinds  of  charters  tliey  were  exalted  above  the  episcopal  clergy.  (/<)• 
But  this  exaltation  above  the  more  ancient  orders,  their  encroachments  upon 
the  spiritual  duties  of  pastors  and  the  jurisdiction  of  the  universities,  and 
the  complete  violation  of  all  privileges  previously  possessed,  provoked  a  per- 
manent and  often  stormy  opposition.  William  of  St.  Amour  became  the 
leader  of  their  opponents,  and  pointed  out  the  dangers  to  which  the  Church 
Avas  exposed  on  account  of  this  foolish  system  of  sanctified  beggary.  Al- 
though such  men  as  Thomas  and  Bonaventura  defended  the  higher  objects 
contemplated  by  their  orders  with  consummate  ability,  even  they  were 
obliged  to  concede  that  such  bodies  were  very  likely  to  become  worldly- 
minded,  and  to  be  perverted  from  their  true  design,  (i)  Hence,  although  the 
mendicant  orders  were  at  first  regarded  as  instruments  for  restoring  the 
Church  to  its  primitive  vigor,  and  were  hailed  as  a  new  establishment  of  the 


g)  Jfat.  Paris  ad  ann.  1239.  p.  850.  ad  ann.  1243.  p.  414.  ad  ann.  124C  p.  4G5.<s. 

fi)  Emm.  Jioderici  nova  Col.  privllegiorum  apost  Kcgulariiim  nicndicatuiimi  et  non  mend. 
Antn.  1623.  f. 

i)  Guilelm.  de  periculis  novisslmorum  temp.  1256.  (0pp.  Constant.  1632.  4.    Broten,  Append,  ad 

fasc.  rer.  expet  et  fugiend.  p.  IS.)    Thomas:  contra  retrahentes  a  religionis  inirressu.    Contra  im 

pngnantes  Dei  eultum,  (0pp.  Par.  vol.  XX.)    Bonaventura  :  L.  apol.  in  eos,  qui  Ordiiii  Min.  adver 

santiir.    De  paupcrtnte  Cliristi  c,  Gnilelmimi.    Expositlo  in  reguhun  I'ratruni  minor.  (0pp.  Lue± 

CIS.  vol.  VII.)    Biilaei  1.  c.  vol.  III.  p.  200ss. 


208  MI'.PIAKVAI,  ClICKCII   lIlSIiiKV.     TKU.  IV.     A.  I).  V21ß-1517. 

power  of  till!  I.jitoriin,  llicy  really  produced  a  great  dissension  among  all  tlie 
oloinontH  of  ccclosiasticnl  life.  The  two  orders  were  tliemselves  often  brouglit 
into  collision  witii  eaoli  other  in  consequence  of  the  identity  of  their  worldly 
objects.  Mutual  jealousies  were  exhibited  in  attempts  to  disparage  one 
nnotbor  and  in  doctrinal  disputations,  so  that  it  was  soon  evident  that  their 
iiifircst.s  were  in  dilferent  directions.  The  Dominicans,  in  consequence  of 
ihcir  control  t)Vor  the  inquisition,  and  their  possession  of  the  confidence  of 
tlie  higher  classes,  obtained  ascendency  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  their  power 
and  their  political  intlucnce  ;  but  the  Minorites  possessed  the  affections  of  the 
people,  and  in  consequence  of  their  Portiuncula-indulgences  and  their  legen- 
dary glorj',  their  order  was  supposed  to  possess  more  than  common  power  in 
conferring  absolution  for  sins.  (Z-)  At  an  early  period  of  their  existence  the 
Dominicans  perceived  that  they  could  never  attain  their  objects  without  a 
scientific  character,  and  hence,  in  1230,  they  secured  for  themselves  a  theo- 
logical chair  in  the  University  of  Paris.  The  Minorites  soon  followed  their 
example. — St.  Francis  himself  lived  to  see  the  origin  and  progress  of  a  party 
under  tlie  guidance  of  £Uas  of  Cortona,  combining  eminent  scientific  acquire- 
ments and  wealth  in  the  service  of  the  holy  cause.  On  the  other  hand,  An- 
thonij  of  Padua  (d.  1281),  in  the  true  spirit  of  his  master,  thought  salvation 
possible  only  to  those  who  were  simple-hearted  and  separated  from  the 
world,  and  when  he  could  obtain  no  audience  for  such  doctrines  among  his 
fellow-men,  he  sought  consolation  by  preaching  to  the  fishes.  For  many 
years  the  two  parties  contended  for  supremacy  in  the  order.  Elias  was  twice 
elected  General,  was  twice  deposed  from  that  office,  and  finally,  having  fallen 
out  with  the  pope  (1244),  he  connected  himself  Avith  the  party  of  Frederic 
II.  (I)  Victory  at  last  decided  in  favor  of  this  milder  party  (Fratres  de  com- 
muuitate),  since  its  principles  afforded  opportunity  to  combine  the  reputation 
of  a  mendicant  order  with  the  power  and  wealth  of  the  world.  On  the 
other  hand,  those  in  whom  the  bold  spirit  of  their  founder  continued  (Zela- 
tores,  Spirituales),  refused  even  to  possess  property  in  common.  The  pope's 
decision  was  given  in  favor  of  the  victorious  party  from  regard  to  a  distinc- 
tion between  a  possession  in  fee  simple' and  a  possession  of  usufruct,  and  also 
to  the  fact  that  the  ownership  of  the  entire  property  of  the  Minorites  was 
ostensibly  conferred  upen  the  Roman  Church,  {in)  "With  the  courage  of  men 
who  had  nothing  to  lose,  the  Spirituales  then  turned  their  reproaches  upon 
the  Roman  Church  itself,  and  as  their  demand  that  the  order  should  be  sub- 
jected to  the  rule  of  absolute  poverty  was  in  glaring  contrast  with  the 
wealth  of  the  clergy,  and  as  their  voluntary  rejection  of  all  earthly  posses- 
sions was  seen  in  the  midst  of  a  Church  filled  with  quarrels  for  this  very 
kind  of  spoil,  a  hope  was  indulged  that  St.  Francis  was  about  to  effect 
through  them  a  great  reformation  of  the  Church.  This  hope  was  in  some 
degree  sustained  by  a  prophecy  of  the  Abbot  Joacldm  of  Floris  in  Calabria 
(d.  1202),  who,  being  full  of  grief  for  the  corruptions  of  the  Church,  pre- 

k)  Acta  SS.  Oct  vol.  II.  p.  S97ss.— Cyprian  the  Younger  (of  Dantzic),  krit.  Gescli.  J.  Port.  Ab 
lisses.  1794. 

0   Wadding  vol.  I.  p.  860.  vol.  II.  p.  160.  vol.  III.  p.  34.  101.  312. 

in)  Greg.  IX.  a.  1-231.  {Koderici  1.  c.  p.  Tss.)    Jiinoc.  IV.  a.  1245.  {Ih.  p.  13.) 


OHAi».  IlL    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  265.  DIVISIONS  AMONG  THE  FRANCISCANS.      299 

dieted  that  it  would  be  subverted  and  then  be  gloriously  renewed,  according 
to  the  figures  of  the  Apocalypse,  at  the  commencement  of  the  third  age  of 
ihe  Avorld,  whicli  he  placed  in  the  year  1260.  (//)  An  Introduction  to  that 
Ercrlastirig  Goxpcl,  (o)  which  was  to  come  in  the  place  of  the  gospel  of 
Christ  which  tlien  prevailed  and  Avliich  was  originally  intended  only  as  a 
preparation  and  symbol  of  the  truth,  was  published,  and  announced  that  the 
period  then  passing  was  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  had  commenced 
with  the  labors  of  St.  Francis  and  his  genuine  disciples.  Those  who  put 
confidence  in  such  predictions  were  in  no  wise  perplexed  when  the  period 
assigned  for  these  wonderful  revelations  had  passed.  Tlie  Spirituales  were 
united  by  Celestlne  V.  into  a  congregation  of  poor  Celestine-Ercmites. 
Boniface  VIII.  dissolved  this  association  (1302).  Juha  XXII.  surrendered 
the  Spirituales,  and  especially  the  lay  brethren  among  them  (Fratricelli),  into 
the  hands  of  the  Inquisition  (after  1318).  Many  of  them  joyfully  gave  up 
their  lives  in  the  flames,  because  they  were  determined  to  possess  no  pro- 
perty on  earth,  {p)  But  even  the  other  Minorites,  having  satisfied  their  con- 
sciences by  an  apparent  surrender  of  their  possessions  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romish  Church,  were  zealous  in  maintaining  against  the  Dominicans,  that 
Christ  and  the  apostles  owned  no  property  in  common.  John  XXII.  rejected 
this  assertion  as  heretical,  and  formally  renounced  the  property  of  the  Fran- 
ciscans, which  as  a  mere  pretence  his  predecessors  had  held  (1322).  (^y)  By 
this  means  the  order  lost  a  portion  of  its  members,  who,  with  Alichael  of 
Cesciia,  their  general,  took  refuge  with  the  Emperor  Louis,  and  defended  his 
cause  against  the  popes.  On  the  death  of  Louis  the  Spirituales  wandered 
about  as  fugitives,  and  founded  a  few  settlements.  They  Avere  often  over- 
thrown, but  were  invincible  by  mere  force,  and  at  last  most  of  them  became 
reconciled  to  the  Church  in  consequence  of  some  concessions  made  to  them. 
At  Constance  especially,  they,  together  with  the  Conventuals,  who  regarded 
their  possessions  as  still  belonging  to  the  donors,  Avere  recognized  under  the 
name  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Rigid  Observance,  with  superiors  of  their 
own.  (r) — The  most  celebrated  doctors  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  cen- 
turies were  mendicant  friars.  But  when,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  the  hier- 
archy were  surpassed  in  attainments  by  the  classes  in  the  interests  of  science, 
the  mendicant  friars  became  the  principal  opponents  of  the  latter,  and  the 
champions  of  every  Romish  abuse,  and. made  use  of  every  artifice  to  keep 
the  people  in  the  immaturity  of  a  superstitions  dependence.    But  the  mastei 


ti)  De  Concordia  utriusque  Test  Expositio  Apocal.  Yen.  1519.  Psaltcrium  decern  cliordar.  Ten. 
ir>Z'  4.  Comp.  Acta  S9.  Moj.  vol.  VII.  p.  OSss.  Engelhardt,  Jtmeli.  u.  d.  ew.  Ev.  (KGeseh.  Ab- 
liandll.  Ell.  ls:i2.  N.  I.)  C.  U.  Ilahn,  die  npol<al.  Lehren  d.  Joacb.  v.  Flor.  (Stud.  u.  krit  1S40.  II 
Ü.)  Abel,  riiil.  d.  Ilolienst.  p.  .31253. 

o)  Introductorius  in  Ev.  aetcrnuin,  by  Gerhard,  tlie  confidant  of  John  of  raniia,  a  General  sub- 
sequently deposed,  about  1254.  Since  destroyed,  witli  tlio  exception  of  some  Extracts  in  Argentre, 
Col.  jiuiiciorum  de  novi.s  err.  Tar.  1T2SS.'*.  vol.  I.  p.  IRJss.  Eccard  vol.  II.  p.  849s9.  In  a  siinllai 
spirit  Olivae  (d.  1297.)  Postilla  super  Apoc.  Extracts  in  Baluzii  Misccll.  1.  I.  p.  213s9.  [(7.  Jlohn 
Gesch.  d.  Ketzer  im  MA.  Stutt^.  1852.  3  vols.] 

p)  Moskemii  Instltt.  II.  ecc.  Cent.  XIV.  Chap.  II.  §  2C.  note  ir. 

q)  Baluzii  Vitae  Pap.  Avcn.  vol.  I.  p.  59S.  L>trar.  Joun.  XXU.  Tit.  14.  c.  2ss.  Wadd-nf 
to!.  \  I.  p.  8;»4s. 

r)  Sess.  XIX.  {I/ardt  vol.  IV.  p.  515.) 


SOO  Mi;i>iAi;vAr,  ciiiMicii  histokv.    via:,  iv.    a.  i>.  I2ir>-i5i7. 

iniiuls  of  lliid  piTiod  coiiiliiiie«!  with  tlicir  old  adversaries  to  expose  to  geno" 
ral  Bcorn  their  intellectual  shallowncsg,  their  stupidity,  their  covetousness, 
and  their  aflbctcd  clamor  about  heresy. 

§  2GC.  ruhUc  Worship. 
Holiness,  during  this  period,  was  generally  looked  upon  as  a  mere  external 
thing.  Even  in  tlie  fourth  century  the  hermits  of  the  Thebais,  and  some  others, 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  reckoning  the  number  of  their  pater-nosters  by  some 
external  token.  («)  This  formality  in  prayer  received  a  definite  form  and 
predominant  reference  to  the  divine  Mother,  when  the  Dominicans  intro- 
duced the  rosary  (Rosarium)  into  general  use.  Public  worship  consisted 
almost  entirely  in  tlie  offering  of  the  J/«*"?,  which  professed  to  be  the  celebra- 
tion of  a  j)resent  incarnate  Deity,  but  in  fact  it  often  degenerated  into  a  work 
of  superstition,  perverted  by  unbelief  to  purposes  of  gain.  The  business  of 
instruction,  however,  was  not  altogether  neglected  by  the  Church,  especially 
on  the  part  of  the  itinerant  mendicant  friars,  whose  hearers  were  frequently 
60  numerous  that  no  temple  bnt  that  of  God  under  the  open  heavens  was 
sufficient  to  contain  them.  The  discourses  of  many  preachers  abounded  in 
scholastic  learning  or  fantastic  conceits,  but  there  were  also  some  who  pro- 
claimed the  word  of  God  in  a  popular  style.  Thus  the  Dominican  John  of 
Vicenza  (about  1230)  became  distinguished  for  his  eloquence,  and  before  he 
allowed  himself  to  become  an  object  of  ridicule  by  meddling  with  miracles 
and  political  affairs,  he  was  an  eminent  peacemaker  between  the  numerous 
factions  which  then  distracted  Italy.  (J)  Thus  also  Berthold  of  Ratisbon  (d. 
1272)  powerfully  aroused  the  rude  and  hardened  consciences  of  his  hearers, 
and  urged  upon  them  the  duty  of  worshipping  God  in  spirit,  (c)  Guiler, 
also,  of  Kahcrslerg  (d.  1510),  whose  own  heart  was  pervaded  by  a  smcere 
love  of  perfection,  assailed  the  follies  of  the  world  and  of  the  Church  with 
the  weapons  of  the  keenest  wit.  {d)  Gahriel  of  Barletta  (about  1470),  a 
Neapolitan  preaching  friar,  presented  a  specimen  of  this  humorous  style  of 
popular  preaching,  in  which  the  speaker  sometimes  gave  to  his  discourses 
even  the  ordinary  comic  flavor,  {e)  This  kind  of  address  was  thought  to  be 
especially  allowable  during  the  Easter  festival,  when,  according  to  a  preva- 
lent custom,  the  roughest  jests  were  tolerated  even  in  the  pulpit  to  excite 
what  was  called  the  Easter  laugh.  (/)  As  none  but  the  clergy  took  part  in 
the  public  services,  the  hymns  used  in  the  Church  remained  Avithout  alteration 
in  the  Latin  language.  In  addition  to  those  which  had  been  used,  some  of  a 
tender  character  composed  among  the  Franciscans  were  generally  adopted 


a)  ralladii  nist.  Laus.  c.  23.  Sosom.  H.  ecc.  VI,  29.  Jfahillon,  Ann.  0.  Bened.  vol.  IV.  p 
«C2i>.    Acta  SS.  0.  Bened.  Praef.  ad  Saec,  V.  N.  25ss. 

l>)  OriiTinal  authorities  in  Eaiimer,  Gesch.  d.  llohcnst.  vol.  III.  p.  50Sss. 

c)  Bortliold  do3  Franc  Predigten,  th.  vollständig,  th.  in  Auszügen,  edit,  by  Kling,  Eorl.  1S24 
Comp.  Wiener  Jahrb.  1S25.  vol.  32.  p.  194ss. 

d)  Weltspiogel  d.  i.  Predigten  ü.  Sebast  Brands  Xarrenseliiff.  Bas.  1574  and  often.— F.  ITT  Ph.  r. 
Amnion,  O.  v.  K.  Leben,  Lehren  u.  Pred.  Erl.  1S2G.  A.  Stroeber,  Essai  hist  sur  la  vie  et  les  ecriu 
de  O.  do  K.  Strasb.  ISS^t.  4. 

e)  Scmiin.  qnadrigesiniales.  Bresc.  1497.  and  numerous  collections  of  bis  discourses,  especiallj 
that  of  Ven.  1577.  2  so\s.—Biixtmgarten,  Nachr.  v.  Älerkw.  Büchern,  vol.  VIL  p.  124ss. 

/)  Fa^sli,  Beitr.  z.  K.  u.  Ref.  Gesch.  vol  V.  p.  447ss.     Hist  polit  Blätter.  1S39.  voi  IV.  H.  6. 


CHAP.  III.     ECCLES.  LIFE.     §  20ß.  FESTIVALS.    JUBILEE.  301 

by  the  Church.  Congregational  singing,  in  -which  tho  people  took  part,  had 
its  origin  in  tlie  extraordinary  festivals  and  among  the  Fraternities,  •where 
the  congregations  participated  more  tlian  usual  in  the  services.  In  Germany 
it  especially  grew  out  of  the  Kyrie  Eleison,  which  was  anciently  sung  hy  the 
people  in  full  chorus  as  a  Refrain.  {<j)  During  the  fourteenth  century  the 
festival  of  the  Immaculate  Conception  (§  225)  was  more  and  more  observed, 
and  the  doctrine  Avhich  it  commemorated  became,  through  tlie  influence  of 
St.  Thomas,  a  party  question  between  the  Dominicans  and  the  Franciscans. 
Great  agitations  were  produced  by  the  discussion  of  this  question  in  tho  Uni- 
versity of  Paris,  but  finally  that  body  (1387)  and  Clement  VII,  (1389),  Avho 
was  carried  away  by  its  influence,  declared  themselves  in  favor  of  the  doc- 
trine because  they  regarded  it  as  most  favorable  to  tho  interests  of  the  Church 
and  of  true  piety.  (/;)  In  Berne  the  Dominicans  supported  their  side  of  the 
controversy  by  causing  an  image  of  the  Virgin  to  shed  tears  of  blood,  by 
producing  letters  from  glorified  saints,  and  by  branding  a  deluded  man  with 
certain  marks  in  imitation  of  the  wounds  of  Christ.  ITie  tissue  of  deceit, 
stupidity  and  crime,  by  Avhich  these  things  Avere  rendered  plausible,  was 
finally  exposed  to  public  scorn,  a  legate  presided  over  the  spiritual  court  ap- 
pointed for  an  investigation  of  the  affair,  and  four  of  the  principal  agents  in 
it  were  burned  (1509).  (/)  The  doctrine  of  a  change  of  the  sacramental 
bread  into  tho  body  of  the  incarnate  Lord  was  celebrated  on  the  festival  of 
Corpus  Christi  (F.  corporis  Domini).  This  festival,  which  originated  in  con- 
nection with  numerous  dreams  and  visions  in  the  diocesan  church  of  Liege, 
over  which  he  had  formerly  presided.  Urban  IV.  proclaimed  (1204)  as  a  gen- 
eral festival  of  the  Church.  It  was,  however,  generally  neglected  by  his 
successors,  and  was  merely  re-establislied  by  Clement  V.  as  the  festival  of 
the  grand  miracle  in  which  Avas  displayed  the  highest  glory  of  the  Church,  (k) 
Near  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  a  report,  the  origin  of  which  was 
unknown,  generally  prevailed  in  the  city  of  Rome,  that  according  to  a  cus- 
tom remembered  by  some  very  aged  people,  a  centennial  indulgence  might 
be  obtained  in  the  church  of  St.  Peter  on  the  occurrence  of  the  Jubilee  Year, 
1300.  Boniface  VIII.  was  induced  by  the  vast  concourse  of  devout  persons 
who  on  this  account  thronged  the  city,  to  bestow  upon  all  who,  in  a  peniten- 
tial spirit,  sliould  on  this  year  of  Juhilee  visit  tlio  churches  of  tho  apostles,  a 
complete  pardon  for  tho  sins  of  the  whole  previous  life.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
sands flocked  to  Rome,  so  that  i)eople  were  compelled  to  acknowledge  that 
the  whole  human  race  was  Romish,  and  like  one  great  family  assembled 
around  its  common  father.  Hence,  in  consideration  of  the  brevity  of  human 
life,  and  the  benefit  of  the  Roman  people,  Clement  VI.  (1342)  decreed  that 

g)  IT.  Uoffmann,  Gesch  d.  dcut  KLIedcs  b.  Lolher.  BrcsL  1532.  F.  Wolff,  ü.  die  Lat«,  Se- 
quenzen u.  Leiche.  Ilcldelb.  1841.  C.  FranU,  GoBcb.  d.  gelstl.  Llcdcrtexto  vor.  d.  Kef.  Ilalbrst 
1S53. 

?l)  Thomas,  Siimma.  P.  IIL  Qii.  27.  Art  Iss.  Dun»  Scotus  in  Scntt  L.  IIL  Dist.  3.  Qu.  1.  §  9. 
Dist  18.  Qu.  1.  §  n.—Hnlaei  I  c.  vol.  IV.  p.  ClSfS.    Argfiitre  I.  c.  vol.  I.  P.  IL  p.  Clss. 

i)  Anishelm's  Berner  Chronik,  edit,  by  Slierhin,  vol.  III.  p.  8C9s9.  vol.  IV.  p.  Iss.  Jlotiinger,  H. 
ceo.  P.  V.  p.  834ss. 

*)  Jo.  IJocsemitis  (iibout  1849),  gest»  PontifT.  Leodion?.  c.  6.  {ChapeaiHlli  gestor.  Pontiff.  Leod 
tcrlptt.  vol.  II.  p.  293.)  lizovii  Ann.  sA  aim.  1280.  N.  la  Acta  SS.  .ipr.  vol.  I.  p.  443.  Both  buU»: 
7lem&nt.  III.  Tit  IG. 


302  Mr.i)iAr.VALcnri:ciMiisT<'i:Y.    i-kk.  iv.   a.  d.  ]2ic-imt. 

tlio  fostivjil  of  the  Your  of  Jiiljileo  sliould  be  cclcl)riitc(l  every  fiftieth  year 
Urban  VI.  (138'J)  reduced  ibe  interval  to  33,  and  Paul  II.  (1470)  to  23 
years.  (0  From  tiieso  pageantries  in  public  worship  were  finally  developed 
the  rci)rcscntntion  of  sacred  dramas  in  tiio  form  of  Mysteries  and  Moralities, 
enacted  by  ck-r^ymcn,  students,  or  fraternities,  frequently  with  an  admixture 
of  poj.ular  comie  parts,  but  always  as  a  mode  of  divine  worsliip.  (»i) 

§  2(57.  Flourishing  Period  of  the  Imitatite  Arts  in  the  Church. 
Vitmri,  le  vUc  do"  pittori,  arcliitctti  e  sciiltori  ital.  Fir.  8  P.  1550.  4.  and  often.  lb.  lS4Css.  G  vols. 
TTcIhts.  v.  Srhoni  n.  Forster,  Stiitt^'.  1832-49.  6  vols,  [and  transl.  into  Enpl.  X'nmrCs  Lives  of  the 
riilntors,  ic.  in  IJolin's  Stand.  Lib.  Lond.  5  vols.  8.]  Seroux  d'Agincoiirt,1V\st  de  I'Art  par  lee 
nii>niime'ns.  I'ar.  et  Str.isb.  1S23.  [transl.  fr.  the  Fr.  Hist  of  Art,  &c.  1  vol.  Lond.  ISIS,  f.]  11.  //use, 
lU'l)irslclit6taf  z.  Gesch.  d.  neu.  Kunst  b.  Itafael.  Dresd.  1827.  f.  F.  Kwjler,  Handb.  d.  Kunstgesoli. 
Studs.  1S42.  [h'ii(//er's  Hist  Manual  of  Sculp.  Puint  Arch.  anc.  and  mod.  in  Bolm's  St.  Lib. 
Lond.  2  vols.  8.  1852.]  //.  Otte,  Abriss  e.  kirclil.  Kunst-Arcbacol.  d.  MA.  d.  deutsclien  Lande. 
Ji'ordliaus.  (1842.)  1845.  C.  Schnaase,  Gesell,  d.  bild.  Künste  in  MA.  DQsseld.  1844.  2  vols.  G. 
Kinkel,  Gesch.  d.  bild.  Künste  b.  d.  chr.  Yolk.  Uonn.  18-15.— C  F.  r.  Jiumohr,  itiiL  Forseh- 
unsen.  Brl.  lS2"ss.  8  vols.  E.  Forster,  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Kunst  Lpz.  1851-53.  2  \<i[s.—Qn(iter- 
mere  de  Qiiincij,  Hist  de  la  vie  et  des  ouvrages  des  plus  celebres  architeetes  du  XL  S.  jusqn"i\ 
la  tin  du  XVIII.  ed.  2.  Par.  1832.  2  vols.  Uebers.  v.  Ueldmann,  Darmst  1831.  2  vols.  G.  Mül- 
ler, DenkiiKihler  d.  deutsch.  Bauk.  12  U.  D.armst  ISlGss.  new  series.  lS21ss.  £  [tran-^l.  into  Engl. 
Memorials  of  Aiic.  Ger.  Goth.  Arch.  &c.  Lond.  2  vols.]  Sidp.  BoUseree,  Denkmale  d.  Bauk.  am. 
Niederrhein.  Munich,  18-33.  f.  B.  Stark,  Eom  u.  Köln  o.  d.  Entwickl.  d.  chr.  German  Kunst  (Stud. 
w.  Krit  1851.  IL  2. — Cicognara,  Storia  della  scuhura  dal  suo  risorgimento  in  Ital.  sino  al  secolo  d. 
Napoleone.  Ven.  ISlSss.  3  vols.  t.—Lanzi,  Storia  pittorica  della  Ital.  ed.  .3.  Bassano.  1809.  G  vols.  Pisa. 
ISli.  6  vols.  16.  [Hist  of  Painting  in  LTpper  and  Lower  Italy,  from  the  Ital.  of  Lanzi  by  TP.  Rosvoe, 
Lond.  1847.  .3  vols]  Kugler,  Gesch.  d.  Malerei,  vol.  I.  p.  lilSss.  [IL  of  Painting,  transl.  from  the 
Germ,  of  Kugler  by  Ftistlake  and  Head.  Lond.  1842.  1846.]— j:  //.  Wesvejiberf/,  die  chr.  Bilder. 
Const.  1827.  2  vols.  (./  v.  liudoicitz)  Ikonogi-apbie  d.  Heiligen.  Brl.  1S34.  Didron,  Iconogr.  chre- 
tienne.  Par.  18-11.  vol.  I.  [Christ  Iconogiaphj',  from  the  Fr.  of  Didron  by  ilillington,  Lond.  1S5L 
2  vols.  Jj>rd  Lindsay,  H.  of  Chr.  Art  Lond.  1847.  8  vols.  8.  E.  Creseij  and  G.  L.  Taylor,  Arch, 
of  MA.  Lond.  4to.  J.  S.  Meines,  H.  of  Paint.  Sculp,  and  Arch.  Boston.  1831. 12.  A.  Cunningfiam, 
Lives  of  eminent  Painters,  Sculptors,  and  Architects.  Lond.  and  New  York.  1S80.  3frs.  Jameson, 
Eariy  Italian  Painters.  Lond.  1S43.  JT.  Shaic,  The  Decorative  Arts,  Eccles.  and  Civil,  of  the  Mid. 
Ages.  Lond.  1852.] 

Among  the  Germanic  nations,  the  antique  style  of  Architecture,  espe- 
cially in  its  Byzantine  character,  had  been  adopted  in  the  erection  of  tbeir 
churches.  Barrel-shaped  and  cruciform  arches,  much  depressed,  were  gene- 
rally adopted  in  their  construction,  as  the  knowledge  of  the  ancient  propor- 
tions and  ornaments  had  been  gradually  lost  (portal  of  the  Scottish  monas- 
tery at  Kalisbon,  crypt  at  Freysingen).  But  with  the  new  life  which  sj^rung 
up  in  the  eleventh  century,  a  peculiar  style  of  sacred  architecture  was 
developed  in  consequence  of  the  use  of  the  pointed  arch.  In  a  few  instances 
this  form  had  been  previously  adopted  as  a  temporary  expedient  in  some  Ital- 
ian structures  (St.  Lorenzo  of  Subiaco,  847,  Euiris  of  Tusculum),  but  its  appro- 
priate home  was  among  the  Northern  nations,  with  whose  pointed  gables  it 
admirably  corresponded,  and  yet  required  but  little  counterpoise.     But  that 

/)  Jacohi  Ciijetani  de  centesimo  s.  Jubilaeo  anno  Lib.  (Bibl.  PP.  Max.  vol.  XXY.  p.  936.  Ex- 
tracts in  Ilaynold.  ad  ann.  1300.  N.  Iss.)  Villani  YIII,  36.  Extrav.  comm.  Y.  Tit  9,  c.  1.  Ray- 
nahl.  nd  ann.  1470.  N.  hü.—Charl.  Chats,  Lett  hist  et  dogm.  sur  les  Jubilees  et  les  Indulgences. 
Haye.  1751.  8  vols. 

wi)  U'.  Hone,  Ancient  Mysteries.  Lond.  1823.  W.  Marriott,  Coll.  of  Engl,  miracle  pla\-s.  Ba^ 
1888.  Monmerqut  et  Michel,  Theatre  franfais  au  moyen-age.  Par.  1839.  Hist  pol.  Blätter.  1S4Ö. 
vol.  YI.  Til.  1-4.  C.  A.  Wittenhaur,  de  artis  scenicae  apud  Germ,  initiis.  Bon.  1852.  Gervinitt, 
Gesch.  d.  poet  Xat  Lit  vol.  II.  p.  355ss. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  2GT.  ARCIHTECTUKE.  303 

which  was  at  fii"st  a  work  of  necessity  soon  became  the  fre<.-st  expression  of 
the  heart,  tlie  vaults  of  the  domes  rose  up  on  every  hand  like  a  stone  forest, 
and  the  tall,  slender  pillars  struggling  upwards,  became  the  type  of  a  spirit 
aspiring  after  heaven.  The  ground-form  still  continued  to  be  the  Basilica, 
often  in  the  shape  of  the  cross  (in  the  Latin  style),  the  choir  terminating  in 
a  polygon,  as  a  church  of  priests  represented  the  highest  aspiration  of  archi- 
tecture in  the  interior,  and  the  towers  expres.sed  the  necessary  culminating 
and  final  points  of  the  general  effort.  In  the  fantastic  decorations  of  leaves 
and  flowers,  of  scrolls  and  grotesque  figures,  of  gentle  animals  and  the  old 
conquered  dragon,  wrought  in  stone,  the  abundance  of  nature  as  well  as  of 
the  world  of  fancy,  was  enlisted  in  the  service  of  devotion.  A  mysterious 
light  entered  the  lofty,  sombre,  halls  through  painted  windows,  which  were 
the  purest  transparent  representations  of  color,  (a)  Figures  derived  from 
sacred  history  grew  out  of  the  twisted  columns,  and  scenes  from  profane  and 
ecclesiastical  history  were  represented  by  shepherds  engraved  in  stone,  and 
resting  with  folded  hands  upon  the  tombs  of  saints,  bishops,  and  princes. 
The  Church  was  thus  like  a  new  temple  of  Solomon,  a  type  of  the  earth 
with  all  its  children,  and  the  vault  of  heaven  stretched  above  them.  The 
erection  of  these  sacred  buildings  was  then  a  great  popular  expedient  by 
which  men  could  conquer  a  holy  land  on  their  native  soil,  could  pour  the 
wealth  of  private  life  into  the  house  of  God,  and  transmit  the  vast  jilans  of 
one  generation  to  its  successors,  (h)  The  first  stonemasons  and  architects 
came  from  the  monasteries,  and  gradually  lodges  of  freemasons  Avere  organ- 
ized, in  which  the  results  of  mechanical  skill  were  communicated  from  one 
person  to  another,  and  the  credit  of  the  trade  was  secured,  (c)  In  the  se- 
crecy of  these  lodges  an  asylum  was  also  found  for  dispositions  which  rose 
superior  to  the  contemporary  Church,  and  hence  we  find  that  ecclesiastical 
corruptions  were  sometimes  freely  and  boldly  proclaimed  by  the  stones 
which  compose  the  most  splendid  monuments  of  the  Church  itself.  The 
most  flourishing  period  of  this  architecture  was  during  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  when  Conrad  of  Uocliatadeix  laid  (1248)  the  foundation 
stone  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne,  and  Ericiii  oi  Steinlach  formed  the  design 
( 1275)  of  the  tower  of  the  minster  at  Strasburg.  ((/)  During  the  fifteenth 
century  it  passed  in  some  measure  into  decay,  not  on  account  of  an  excessive 
refinement  in  building,  but  because  that  form  of  pious  feeling  which  creates 
such  works  for  a  distant  future  no  longer  existed  in  the  public  mind,  and  the 
spirit  of  the  middle  ages  was  gone.  This  Germanic  style  of  architecture, 
which  since  the  time  of  Vasari  has  received  the  name  of  Gothic,  has  subse- 
quently prevailed  extensively  in  France,  England,  Spain  and  Sicily.  In  Italy 
the  sight  of  the  old  Koman  architectural  structures  was  too  overpowering  to 


a)  J/:  A.  GfSKert,  Gcscli.  d.  GlassmaWreL  Stultg.  1S19.  [Art  of  Painting  on  Glass,  from  the 
Germ,  of  Ges-^crt.  Lond.  1925.  4.] 

li)  Cdhiiv  C.  Grwtlvisen  u.  E.  ^fauc■h,  Ulm's  Kunstlcben  im  MA.  Ulm.  \'>40. 

c)  Comp.  I/eld/nann,  dio  3  ältesten  Denkmale  der  teutschen  Freiinaurerbrüdrreclifjt.  Aariiu. 
5819.  (1819.) 

d)  S.  Jii'isMree,  G(*v\\.  u.  IJesclir.  d.  Doms  v.  Cr.lln.  Munich,  (1S2.").)  1S42.  4,  J.  v.  (.'iu-reft,  t\et 
Dnin.  V.  Kölln.  u.  da»  Münster  v.  Strasb.  llcgensb.  1842.  F.  A'tiyUr,  d.  Uoui.  v.  KCilln.  (Deutsche 
Viertelj.  Sehr.  Is4-.'.  N.  19.) 


304  MKDIAKVAI,  CiniU  'I  IIISTOUV.     I'KIl.  IV.     A.  1).  121C-1517. 

ftllow  of  its  adoption.  It«  utmost  limits  in  that  direction  are  witnessed  in  the 
wliito  mnrl)lü  mountain  of  tlio  catliedral  of  Milan,  with  its  liost  of  statues, 
wiicro  the  liomisii  clcmerit  already  begins  to  interfere  with  the  German. 
Kvery  reriiujiiit  of  this  Gorman  style  was  surrendered  wlien  antique  grandeur 
and  jiurity  was  introduced  witli  tlie  revival  of  classical  antiquity.  JJrunel- 
h\sro  formed  tlic  arch  of  the  cupola  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence  (since  1421), 
and  Julius  II.  laid  tlie  foundation  of  the  modern  St.  Peter's  Church  (1506), 
tlie  beautiful  structure  of  which  was  commenced  after  the  plan  of  Bra- 
mantcs,  and  has  been  so  fatal  to  the  interests  of  the  papacy,  but  has  finally 
proved  to  be  its  most  exalted  type,  and  its  proudest  monument,  (c) 

The  Plaiitic  Arts^  from  which  Christian  morality  withheld  the  privilege 
of  presenting  any  figures  without  costume  except  those  of  the  martyrs,  Avere 
developed  in  forming  the  ornaments  and  utensils  of  churches,  and  had  their 
principal  home  in  Florence.  (/)  Nicolas  Pisano  (1221-74),  whose  works 
were  wrought  after  the  models  of  antiquity,  deserves  the  credit  of  being  their 
modern  father.  Lorenzo  Ghiherti  (1378-1455)  cast  in  bronze  the  doors  of 
tlie  baptistery  in  a  style  which  made  them  worthy  of  adorning  the  entrance 
to  Paradise,  but  he  was  an  artistic  painter  in  metals,  and  hence  his  successors 
have  been  much  perplexed  when  they  attempted  to  imitate  him.  During 
the  same  period  every  delightful  variety  of  nature's  beauties  was  represented 
in  the  pure  and  animated  reliefs  of  Lucca  della  liollia  (1388-1450).  Dona- 
tello  (1383-1466)  made  up  for  Ms  deficiency  in  depth  of  character  by  his 
passionate  emotion.  Michael  Angela  (1474-156i)  in  his  youth  formed  a 
group  of  the  Madonna  with  the  dead  body  of  our  Lord,  in  which  much  feel- 
ing, delicacy,  and  beauty  were  exhibited,  but  at  a.  later  period  he  seems  to 
have  despised  all  attempts  to  delineate  subjects  of  Christian  beauty.  Ilis 
mausoleum  of  the  Medici  is  an  embodiment  of  profound  and  petrified 
thoughts,  and  his  Moses  is  a  terrible  representation  of  a  popular  ruler.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  Alps  the  imitative  arts  were  generally  made  subservient 
to  architecture.  From  the  shops  of  the  goldsmiths  and  bra.^iers  of  that 
period  proceeded  many  careful  imitations  of  ordinary  nature  adapted  to  pious 
uses.  In  this  limited  department  of  art,  Peter  Vischcr^x  Rehquary  of  St. 
Sebaldus  (1506-19)  possesses  an  artistic  excellence  of  the  very  highest  degree. 

Modem  Painting  originated  in  the  eflort  to  represent  the  views  which 
are  peculiar  to  Christianity,  and  received  its  highest  cultivation  from  the 
patronage  of  the  Church.  In  the  "Western  Church,  it  is  true,  there  were 
some  who  denounced  the  use  of  pictures  and  statues  as  an  unlawful  indul- 
gence of  the  eyes,  but  generally  it  was  thought  that  the  arts  might  properly 
be  used,  and  the  treasures  of  the  Church  might  be  worthily  expended  at 
least  in  commemorating  the  saints.  Ecclesiastical  laAvs  were  therefore 
directed  only  against  those  representations  which  were  thought  to  be  grossly 
sensual  and  of  a  corrupting  character.     The  pious  feelings  which  found  satis- 


«)  Descrizione  istor  del  principio  e  proseguimento  della  fabrica  del  dnomo  di  Firenze.  Flor.  1786» 
Fontana,  il  Tenipio  Vaticano  e  suo  online.  Eom.  1694  f.  Plainer,  d.  neue  Peterskirche.  (Beechr. 
d.  Stadt  Rom.  vol.  II.  pp.  134-229.) 

/)  Comp.  Aug.  I/agen,  die  Chronik  s.  Vaterstadt  v.  Florentiner  Lor.  Ghiberti.  (Kunst-Eoman)  Lpi 
1833.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  267.  PAINTING.  305 

faction  in  the  use  of  relics,  obtained  still  higher  enjoyment  from  an  image  in 
which  we  j)Osses3  such  a  beautiful  medium  of  connection  between  the  flesh 
and  the  spirit.  The  glorious  forms  in  which  the  martyrs  receive  the  palms 
of  victory  as  they  ascend  to  heaven,  reconcile  us  to  the  repulsive  scenes  in 
the  midst  of  which  their  tortures  are  depicted.  The  old  traditions  (§  139) 
which  had  been  so  prevalent  in  the  ancient  Church,  never  became  entirely 
obsolete  in  Italy.  In  the  mosaic  work  of  the  Roman  churches  are  to  be 
found  specimens  of  paintings  produced  in  almost  every  preceding  century. 
A  very  delicate  and  expressive  style  of  miniature  painting  appears  in  the 
manuscripts  written  in  the  convents  in  the  time  of  the  Saxon  emperors,  (g) 
As  soon  as  intellectual  life  began  to  be  awakened  by  intercourse  with  Con- 
stantinople, Christian  art  also-made  its  appearance  first  among  the  Italians. 
A  corporation  with  a  regular  constitution  was  formed  under  the  patronage 
of  St.  Luke  among  that  highly  refined  people,  when  it  advanced  to  its  great- 
est perfection.  The  design  of  the  paintings  obtained  from  Constantinople 
was  generally  grand,  but  the  figures  were  vacant,  mummy-like,  and  of  an 
extravagant  size,  but  painted  with  some  degree  of  skill,  and  generally  on  a 
ground  of  gold.  The  school  formed  on  this  model  was  commenced  by  Guido 
of  Siena  (about  1221)  and  Giunta  of  Pisa  (1210-36),  and  was  completed  by 
Cimabue  (about  1240-1300).  The  divine  Virgin  painted  by  the  latter  in 
Florence  is  noble  and  saintly,  but  unnatural.  Giotto  (1270-1336)  abandoned 
not  only  the  stiff  manner  but  the  lofty  spirit  of  antiquity,  and  under  the  im- 
pulse of  Dante's  suggestions,  founded  a  peculiar  style  of  Italian  art  by  imi- 
tating nature  in  her  most  animated  movements.  Not  only  the  commissions 
given  but  the  conduct  presented  by  the  monks,  afforded  the  artistic  skill  of 
this  Florentine  school  many  oppportunities  to  combine  the  pathetic  with  the 
burlesque  of  ordinary  life.  Even  in  representations  of  Scriptural  history, 
this  school,  which  attained  its  highest  perfection  in  Domenico  Ghirlandaio 
(1451-93),  presented  its  scenes  in  a  domestic,  common  style,  so  that  in  its 
hands  the  manger  of  Bethlehem  exhibited  simply  a  Florentine  accouchement. 
But  Angelica  of  Fiesole  (1387-1455)  had  already  introduced  into  his  art  the 
significance  and  endless  variety  of  human  expression,  and  infused  into  his 
sweet  pictures  the  riches  of  a  heart  at  home  not  only  in  the  convent  but  in 
lieaven.  He  was  peculiarly  the  painter  of  glorified  saints,  and  by  means  of 
his  employment  enjoyed  communion  with  his  Lord.  JIasacchio  (1402—48), 
to  whom  was  opened  the  secret  of  the  chiaro  scuro,  returned  again  with  joy 
to  beautiful  nature,  and  to  the  grand  thoughts  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  tradi- 
tions. When  Leonardo  (1452-1517)  had  profoundly  developed  the  laws  of 
the  art,  and  even  in  his  Lord's  Supper  (the  heads  of  the  apostles  in  Weimar) 
had  combined  the  charm  of  the  supernatural  with  exalted  individual  beauty, 
Fra  Bartolomco  (14G9-1517)  nobly  and  clearly  delineated  scenes  from  sacred 
history  with  devout  conscientiousness,  and  in  attractive  coloring.  Finally 
Michael  Angcio,  by  his  gigantic  power  and  thorough  knowledge  of  nature, 
became  the  painter  of  the  Old  Testament,  because  no  subjects  seemed  wor- 
thy of  his  master  pencil  but  the  prophets  of  olden  time  and  the  tremendous» 

g)   Hire,  Essni  sur  I'art  de  verifier  IVige  des  niinlntnros  pelntos  dans  les  manuscrits.  Par 
1T62.  C 

20 


;]0G  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUKCII  IIISTOUV.     I'Elt.  IV.     A.  I).  1210-1  r,l 7. 

ncone«  of  tlio  Lnst  Judgment.  Even  the  Lomlnrdic  nchool  had  its  origin  in  the 
Church.  ]}iit  nltlioiigh  Montcgna^  occasionally  with  sacred  eavncstncss,  and 
Jiilliin\  with  cheerful  loveliness,  have  given  us  pictures  of  heavenly  and 
saintly  forms,  the  most  jjcrfoct  specimens  of  this  school  arc  brilliant  rcpre- 
Bentations  of  atlrnctivo  sensuous  beauty  and  republican  glory.  In  Germany, 
a  national  school  of  Christian  ])ainting  was  formed  at  first  on  the  Lower 
IJhiiie,  and  afterwards  at  Nureinburg,  whoso  subjects  were  generally  taken 
from  the  common  traditions,  but  with  a  decided  preference  for  those  of  a 
typical  and  allegorical  nature.  The  very  first  effort  it  put  forth,  in  the  cathe- 
dral i)icture  of  the  patron  saint  of  Cologne  (1410),  seemed  like  a  new  crea- 
tion. The  masters  of  this  school  are  the  two  brothers  Van  Eyh  (about 
(1300-14:70)  and  Alhert  Durcr  (1471-1528),  each  devotedly  attached  to  sub- 
jects taken  from  sacred  history  and  from  nature.  They  all  excelled  in  the 
use  of  a  beautiful  indestructible  coloring,  and  labored  within  the  limits  of  a 
contracted  and  rather  beautiful  yet  appropriate  reality,  which  in  their  hands 
became  exalted  as  the  type  of  the  celestial.  The  two  first  were  poetical  and 
graceful,  the  last  was  more  judicious,  fond  of  common  scenes,  but  fanciful 
and  inexhaustible  not  only  in  his  power  of  invention,  but  in  his  diligence  in 
execution,  and  was  scientifically  acquainted  with  all  the  treasures  of  art  in 
the  Netherlands  and  in  Italy.  (Ji)  The  simplicity  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  art 
was  still  preserved  in  the  purest  form  in  Uinbria,  by  means  of  the  spirit  and 
the  patronage  which  proceeded  from  Assisi,  although  its  rigid  sublimity  had 
become  somewhat  softened  and  tender.  Thus  was  it  with  the  works  of  Fe- 
rugino  (1447-1524),  in  the  beautiful  sphere  to  which  he  confined  himself, 
until  lie  condescended  to  betray  his  art  for  money.  Thus  also  was  it  with 
respect  to  Francisco  Francia  (1450-1518),  Avho  in  spirit  belonged  to  this 
school,  and  correctly  delineated  the  ancient  forms,  while  he  gave  to  them  the 
most  delicate  blending  of  colors.  Thus  also  was  it  with  Eapliael  (1483-1520), 
who  in  Urabria  combined  the  rigidness  of  ancient  Christianity  "with  a  proper 
.lelicacy  of  feeling,  in  Florence  found  liberty  fully  to  gratify  his  ardent  love 
of  nature,  in  Ivoine  imparted  the  beauty  of  nature  to  Christian  ideals,  and  in 
his  own  bosom  found  a  correspondent  sublimity  of  conception  while  gazing 
upon  the  propliets  of  Angelo.  The  Madonnas  of  his  youth  are  full  of  sad- 
ness and  presentiment,  those  which  he  executed  in  Florence  of  simple  per- 
fect happiness,  and  those  of  the  Sistine  chapel  have  an  expression  appropriate 
to  the  virgin  queen  of  heaven.  The  Bible  in  the  hands  of  this  great  painter 
of  the  Church  became  a  series  of  pictures,  and  in  the  Stanzas  of  the  Vatican 
he  has  given  perpetuity  in  the  world  of  art  to  the  gorgeous  vision  even  then 
beginning  to  vanish,  according  to  which  the  papacy  was  the  central  point  of 
all  ecclesiastical  and  spiritual  life.  (/)  Even  liis  other  purely  secular  produc- 
tions were  adjusted  to  the  same  exalted  position,  and  the  adventures  of  the 
Olympic  deities  were  conformed  to  the  spirit  of  the  age  of  the  papal  Medici, 
and  exhibited  all  the  embellishments  of  the  most  exuberant  fancy.     But  in 

A)  G.  F.  Waagen,  Ilubert  u.  Job.  v.  Eyck.  Brsl.  1S22.  J.  Weisse,  A.  Dürer  u.  s.  Zeita.  Lpz. 
ISia.  J.  ITeUer,  <l  Leben  u.  d.  Werke  A.  Dürers.  Lps.  1531.  Only  2  vols,  in  8  Abth.  B.  Stark,  A. 
Dürer.  (Germania,  1S51.  p.  6'25s«.) 

i)  G.  Brill»  i  Dffcr.  delle  ini.<igine  dipintc  tla  Eafaello  nolle  camere  «lei  Tnticano.  Eom.  1895, 
[/?.  DupjKi,  Life  of  Kaplüicl.  (Hogue's  Kur.  Lib.)  Loiul.  If4;.  8  ] 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLES.  LIFE.     §  2G9.  SAINTS.     CANONIZATION.  307 

the  work  which  enlisted  liis  List  and  dying  energies,  he  appeals  to  hava 
caught  a  glimpse  of  Christ  in  his  future  glory,  (l) 

§  208.      Worship  of  the  Saints. 

The  confidence  reposed  in  the  goddess,  who,  either  as  a  bride  or  as  a 
mother,  was  supposed  to  have  all  power  in  heaven,  was  at  this  time  so  great 
that  the  dominion  of  the  world  seemed  to  have  been  regarded  as  a  vast  female 
lief  (Kunkellehn),  and  it  was  no  longer  a  captious  jest  when  it  was  said  that 
the  virgin  queen  was  every  day  annoyed  with  all  kinds  of  importunities,  (a) 
In  Poetry  and  in  the  Imitative  Arts  she  was  represented  as  the  Christian 
counterpart  of  the  Siren  of  Venus,  and  of  Mother  Earth,  although  nature 
was  frequently  unconsciously  adored  in  her.  The  interest  felt  in  particular 
localities  for  those  relics  which  had  for  the  most  part  been  brought  home  by 
the  crusaders,  gave  occasion  for  a  continual  multiplication  of  saintly  legends, 
embracing  many  newly  invented  adventures.  A  collection  of  these  was 
made  by  the  Dominican,  James  de  Voragine  (d.  1298),  and  not  so  much  on 
account  of  the  literary  contributions  of  the  author  as  of  the  popular  elements 
it  embraced,  and  the  summary  of  saints'  days  in  the  year  which  it  presented, 
it  was  used  in  all  parts  of  the  ^Yestern  Church  under  the  name  of  the  Golden 
Legend,  {h)  Some  enlightened  teachers  indeed  feared  tliat  the  continually 
increasing  worship  of  saints  would  produce  a  forgetfulness  of  God,  but  the 
Church  not  only  inculcated  a  confidence  in  the  prayers  of  saints,  but  an  imi- 
tation of  their  virtues.  The  personal  relations  of  particular  patron  saints  to 
individual  families  and  guilds  which  had  the  care  of  their  sacred  things,  gave 
occasion  to  various  rival  interests  in  their  behalf,  and  to  promote  their  re- 
spective glories  by  metms  of  the  arts.  The  etlect  of  this  was  sometimes 
highly  favorable  to  an  increase  of  this  saintly  piety.  The  creation  of  new 
saints  was  dependent  upon  a  very  difficult  and  expensive  process  at  Rome. 
In  some  cases  where  the  claims  for  a  canonization  were  not  made  out,  a  bea- 
tification was  provisionally  granted.  Tlie  right  which  the  popes  had  reserved 
exclusively  to  themselves  with  respect  to  these  matters,  was  sometimes  exer- 
cised by  the  great  councils.  The  halo  of  sanctity  was  a  mark  of  nobility, 
and  the  badge  of  an  order  whicli- encouraged  the  highest  services  by  a  reward 
in  the  humblest  form  for  the  present  life,  but  eternal  in  auother.  The  mere 
possession  of  a  high  ecclesiastical  position  was  not  ordinarily  enough  to  con- 
fer any  special  title  to  this  honor.  But  even  the  saints  of  this  period  present 
no  very  exalted  specimens  of  genuine  human  excellence,  since  their  merit 
consisted  rather  in  strange  and  diversified  exhibitions  of  the  power  of  faith  in 
extreme  self-denials,  and  in  sacrifices.  The  influence  of  the  monastic  orders 
was  sufficient  to  obtain  the  canonization  of  a  few  monks,  wliose  scientific  in- 
vestigations were  especially  characterized  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  It  was 
generally  held  that  no  one  should  be  canonized  unless,  either  during  life  or  by 
his  dead  body  ho  had  wrought  some  miracles,  as  divine  announcements  of  liid 

k)  J.  D.  PasRamnt,  Eaf.  v.  Urbtno.  Lps.  1S.39.  2  vols. 
CI)  Erasmus,  Peregrinatio  religionis  ergo.  Ainst  1C55.  p.  3553. 

h)  Lcjendaaureas.  Ili.-^t.  Lonibardica.  Argent  1479.  f.  Ac  otten  eJ.Tb.  Gvaesse,  DresJ.  etljis.  134Csa 
Translated  into  all  the  Western  lansiiagcs. 


308  MKDIAKVAI.  <  IIIIUII  lllSir.UV.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  I).  10I0-1.',17 

panctitv.  Nirolii»  r<>n  (hr  FU'if,  on  (lio  Alj)«,  appears  as  an  instance  of  a  i)eco- 
liar  class  of  saints,  similar  to  those  of  tlie  Thobais.  After  liavirif,'  performed 
tho  duties  of  a  Inishandman,  a  futlior,  a  warrior,  and  a  judge  in  liis  native 
land,  lie  became  possessed  wirli  an  intense  longing  to  spend  his  life  with  God 
in  the  solitude  of  the  forest.  A  light,  like  a  sharp  knife  pierced  his  spirit, 
and  henoeforth,  during  twenty  years  (14G7-87J,  he  lived  entirely  with  God, 
and  witli  no  sustenance  except  wliat  lie  obtained  from  his  communion  with 
God.  I  lis  liumble  silence,  however,  could  not  save  him  from  the  suspicions, 
nor  the  pious  veneration  of  his  fellow-men.  In  consequence  of  the  former 
the  miracle  of  the  spirit  seemed  confirmed,  and  in  consequence  of  the  latter 
he  became  the  counsellor  and  arbitrator  of  the  neighboring  shepherds.  When 
the  freedom  of  the  Swiss  confederacy  was  endangered  by  dissensions  among 
its  members  (1481),  harmony  was  restored  by  the  presence  and  authority  of 
Brother  Claus,  (r)  Under  the  guidance  of  their  confessors  Avomen  became 
saints.  In  Germany,  Elkaheth^  the  daughter  of  a  king,  and  full  of  grief  that 
she  could  not  die  a  virgin,  though  tho  "wife  of  a  prince,  sustained  herself  by 
the  profits  of  her  own  toil,  and  turned  the  Wartburg,  so  recently  the  abode 
of  worldly  pomp  and  music,  into  a  hospital.  In  her  Avidowhood  she  solemnly 
renounced  her  own  Avill  and  all  the  Avorld,  that  she  might  devote  herself  to 
the  care  of  leprous  persons,  and  died  (1231)  Avhile  young,  beautiful,  and  glow- 
ing Avith  a  saintly  love.  The  stern  priest,  under  Avhose  perverted  counsels  she 
thus  fell  a  sacrifice,  delighted  in  the  hope  that  all  remnants  of  earthly  feeling 
had  been  slain  Avithin  her  spirit,  and  announced  at  Kome,  with  many  sworn 
Avitnessos,  her  ardent  piety,  the  radiance  of  her  countenance  in  prayer,  and 
the  miraculous  cures  which  she  had  efi\jcted.  Her  apotheosis,  as  of  an  ideal 
of  charity,  was  celebrated  as  early  as  in  the  year  1250,  a  lofty  monument  of 
German  architecture  spans  her  grave  at  Marburg,  {d)  and  in  the  legend  the  saint 
has  obtained  so  much  grace,  that  even  her  timid  prevarication  miraculously 
became  a  truth.  In  Italy  Ave  find  Catharine  of  Siena,  the  daughter  of  a 
dyer,  who  grcAv  up  among  the  sacred  services  of  the  Dominicans.  "When  a 
child  she  was  accustomed  to  kiss  the  very  footsteps  of  these  pious  men.  She 
could  never  be  satisfied  with  self-denials  and  tortures,  and  at  a  later  period 
indulged  in  the  use  of  no  nutriment  but  that  Avhich  she  derived  from  the  ele- 
ments of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Jesus  Christ  himself  condescended  to  pay  the 
child  a  friendly  visit,  Avearing  his  triple  crown,  and  gradually  either  alone  or 
in  the  company  of  a  few  saints  his  visits  and  conversations  became  more  fre- 
ijuent,  until  they  became  daily  occurrences.  Finally  he  solemnly  betrothed 
the  virgin  to  himself,  by  conferring  upon  her  a  ring,  and  took  from  her  side 
her  heart,  and  substituted  his  own.     Such  at  least  Avas  the  statement  Avhich 


c)  WiJnifr,  das  Gottl.  in  Ird.  Entwickl.  nacligewiesen  iin  Leben  Nik.  v.  d.  Fl.  Luz.  1S19.  B'l 
tingfi;  Bruder  Klaus  u.  s.  Zeitalt.  Luzorn.  1S2T.  {G.  Gbrres)  Gott,  in  d.  Gescb.  Munich.  1S31.  II.  1 
A  bwk  imputed  to  liim  on  voluntary  seclusion  (Pliilos.  mystica.  Neost  161S.  4.)  is  not  genuine. 

<i)  I.  Conradi  Marpurg.  Elis.  vidua.  Ep.  E.xaminatorum  luiracc.  ad.  Dom.  Papam.  (Kuchenleche)', 
Annal.  Hass.  Marp.  1735  Collect  IX.)  Thcodoricun  Thuring.  (of  Apolda)  de  S.  Elisab.  {Canisii 
Lectt.  cd.  Ba-in.  Th.  IV.)  Greg.  IX.  Canonizatio  S.  Elis.  viduae.  (Bullar.  Kom.  Th.  I.  p.  104.— 
II.  K.  W.  Juiti :  Ells.  d.  Hell.  Zur.  179T.  Montalemhei-t,  Hist  do  S.  Elis.  de  uongrie.  Par.  (1S36.) 
1837.  i  Th.  inlt.  Anm.  v.  StädUr,  Aach.  1S36.  [C  KingsUy,  The  True  Story  of  Elizabeth  of  Hun- 
ary,  ir  the  Salnfs  Tragedy.  Lend.  1S52.  12.] 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE,    g  2CS.  CATJIAEINE  OF  SIEN.V.  309 

she  made  to  her  father  confessor.  It  is  possible  that  the  interest  of  the  order 
may  have  had  some  influence  in  tlie  result,  but  it  is  certain  that  this  lowly 
maid  was  finally  adored,  not  only  by  thi.s  powerful  order,  but  by  nearly  the 
whole  of  Itah'.  Compelled  to  .spend  much  of  her  time  in  the  midst  of  secu- 
lar employments  she  frequently  fell  into  a  trance.  She  was  finally  induced 
to  abandon  the  luxury  of  this  contemplative  kind  of  life,  and  of  her  attend- 
ance upon  couches  of  loathsome  disea.se,  that  she  might  devote  herself  to  the 
work  of  composing  the  strifes  which  then  existed  in  Italy  and  in  the  Church. 
She  exhorted  Gregory  XI.  to  enter  upon  another  crusade,  otfected  peace  be- 
tween him  and  the  Florentines,  urged  the  return  of  the  papacy  to  Rome,  was 
used  as  an  instrument  in  the  quarrels  of  the  mendicant  friars,  and  finally  died 
at  Kome  (1380)  the  saint  of  the  Koman  papacy  in  its  dissensions,  and  pas- 
sionately longing  to  meet  her  espoused  Lord.  In  consequence  of  the  un- 
friendly feelings  of  the  Franciscans  with  respect  to  her,  she  was  not  canonized 
until  a  long  period  after  her  death,  and  even  then  this  oflBce  had  to  be  per- 
formed (1461)  by  her  own  fellow-citizen,  Pius  II.  (e)  The  only  saint  France 
could  claim  during  this  period,  since  she  only  effected  the  deliverance  of  her 
country,  and  met  with  a  tragical  end,  was  never  recognized  by  her  age,  but 
was  burned  as  a  witch  (May  30,  1431).  (/) 

§  269.    Miracles  and  Magic. 

PelUecia,  de  superstit  medii  aevL  (0pp.  Basan.  vol.  IV.)  Meiner»,  Abcrgl  icr  scliol.  Jalirh. 
(Hist  Vergleich,  d.  Sitten  des  MA.  vol.  III.)  [  Walter  Sc-ott,  Demonology  &,  Witchcraft.  Lond.  1S3Ü. 
New  Tork.  1S31.  G.  C.  ZTorst,  Zauber  Bibliothek,  &e.  Mainz,  1S26.  6  vols.  8.  For.  Quart.  Rev.  {\n 
Litteirs  Museum.)  1830.  E.  Salterte,  Hist,  of  Marfc,  ic,  transl.  by  A.  T.  Thompson,  Lond.  IMI. 
New  York.  1347.  2  vols.  12.     W.  C.  Dendy,  Phil,  of  Mystery.  New  York.  18-15. 12.]  • 

The  intelligence  of  this  age  sometimes  imposed  limits  upon  the  enthu- 
siasm which  delighted  only  in  supernatural  revelations,  and  assumed  higher 
ground  than  the  popular  faith,  since  it  occasionally  tore  the  mask  from  de- 
ception, or  proposed  to  the  legend  some  questions  with  regard  to  its  veracity. 
Bloody  Hosts  were  not  generally  regarded  as  miracles,  though  none  could 
then  explain  them  on  scientific  principles.  And  yet  Birgitta's  revelations 
were  solemnly  confirmed  («)  at  Constance  and  at  Basle,  and  the  people  cried 
out  "  A  miracle  I"  when  the  mendicant  friar  saw  the  blood  of  Christ  flow 
down  the  crucifix  erected  for  absolution,  (i)  Numerous  pilgrims  and  beggai-s, 
as  well  as  immense  wealth  and  treasures  of  art  were  collected  at  Loretto,  on 
account  of  the  legend  of  the  fourteenth  century,  respecting  the  house  of  the 
divine  Virgin,  which,  having  been  consecrated  as  a  temple  by  the  apostles, 
had  been  removed  by  angels  from  Nazareth,  after  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land, 

<■)  Acta  gS.  April,  vol.  I  IL  p.  WSs^  Her  Lotters,  conversations,  and  revelations  are  «Itted  in 
Italian,  by  Gigll,  Sien.  ITO'.ss.  5  Th.  4.  comp.  FahrU.  Bib),  med.  et  Inf.  LaL  Tu.  L  p.  86.38.  Proccs- 
BUS  contestationum  super  .sanclitite  et  doctr.  B.  Catli.  {ifurteiw,  amp).  Col.  Tli.  VI.  p.  1237ss.) 

/)  ProcC'S  de  condamnation  ct  do  rihabllitatlon  do  Jeanne  d'Aro  dito  la  Pucelle,  sulvis  de  tons  lea 
documents  hist,  par  Jules  Quichenit,  Par.  1S41-9.  5  vols.— A'.  Hase,  d.  Jungf.  d.  Orl.  (Xeuo  Prophe- 
ten. Lpz.  1SÖ1.)  [J.  M.  Evans,  Story  of  Joan  of  Arc  Pliüad.  1S31.  Anon.  Memoirs  of  Jean  d"A.  & 
Hist,  of  her  times.  Lond.  1S24.  2  vols.  12  ] 

aj  werson,  Fr.  de  prohatlone  sj'j-ituum.  (0pp.  vol.  I.  P.  I.  p.  .37.)  Tr. :  do  distlr.ctlone  vcrar. 
rislonuin  a  falsis.  (/?;.  p.  4;3.)    ItinU,  Const  Cone.  vol.  IIL  P.  III.  p.  25-s.  vol.  IV.  P.  IL  p.  39s. 

V)  According  to  George  of  Anhalt,  Lüacfter,  Viet  Acta,  wl.  I.  p.  8S5. 


310  MKDIAÜVAL  <IMi:m  mSTOKY.    I-Ki:.  IV.     A.  I),  I'-MCISIT. 

nnd  nftcr  many  wftridcrinfjs  had  found  a  i)ermanent  abode  at  Loretto  ("1295;.  (r\ 
Mvstcrioiifl  arts  to  nsccrtnin  tlio  futnro  bad  never  been  entirely  discontinued. 
Astrolopy  liad  been  raised  by  the  influence  of  the  Saracens  to  tlic  dignity  of 
a  pcionce,  and  sometimes  had  an  oflicer  at  court  appointed  to  attend  to  it.^ 
intiTosts.  AVbite  magic  was  tolerated  by  the  Church.  But  the  unfriendly 
spirit  shown  by  the  advancing  intelligence  of  the  age  toward  sujjerstition, 
Ii;irmonized  with  the  suspicion  of  the  vulgar  that  the  ordinary  limits  of  hu- 
manity can  seldom  be  passed  without  Satanic  art.  The  same  spells  which 
the  Church  used  for  the  deliverance  and  exaltation  of  souls  were  supposed 
to  be  employed  by  the  infernal  powers  in  like  manner,  for  their  destruction. 
The  horror  felt  in  the  depths  of  our  own  nature  for  such  arts  has  been  gen- 
erally expressed  in  the  arbitrary  symbols  which  superstition  has  invented. 
Yet  in  the  Italian  legend  of  the  enchanter,  Virgil,  we  have  not  only  the 
unconscious  prophet  of  Christianity  who  was  lamented  by  Paul,  but  the  skil- 
ful employment  of  the  black  art  in  the  performance  of  wonderfal  feats,  and 
in  the  construction  of  buildings.  In  the  Norman  Merlin  also,  is  set  forth  a 
shadowy  counterpart  of  the  divine  Saviour,  when  the  wild  impulses  he  derived 
from  his  demoniac  origin  are  contrasted  Avitb  the  graceful  humanity  he  in- 
herited from  his  mother.  In  the  German  story  of  Faust,  the  representative 
and  compiler  of  all  the  magic  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  that  of  his  younger 
brother  of  a  more  southern  clime,  Don  Juan,  is  exhibited  the  ruin  of  the 
most  richly  endowed  genius,  when  it  is  determined  by  the  aid  of  infernal 
powers  to  exceed  the  limits  God  has  assigned  to  human  knowledge  and  enjoy- 
ment, {d)  The  truth  of  this  popular  faith  in  covenants  and  unlawful  inter- 
coilrse  with  the  devil  was  finally  conceded  by  the  Church,  and  those  wh» 
were  supposed  to  be  guilty  of  such  things  were  arraigned  before  the  eccle- 
siastical tribunals  as  traitors  against  divine  majesty,  {e)  Sometimes  those  who 
addicted  themselves  to  the  black  art  were  burned  by  the  direction  of  the 
Church,  but  frequently  the  imputation  of  sorcery  was  derided  as  a  mere  su- 
perstition. On  heai'ing  that  witches  and  wizards  practised  their  arts  in  Ger- 
many to  the  serious  injury  of  both  property  and  life  among  the  people, 
Innocent  VIII.  revived  (l-iSi)  the  laws  against  magic  in  the  widest  sense 
implied  in  the  popular  faith,  (/)  and  appointed  two  judges  of  witches  foi 
Upper  Germany,  who  compiled  a  manual  for  the  trial  of  witches,  as  remark- 
able for  its  learning  as  for  its  superstition  and  impurity,  {g)  Then  commenced 
a  process,  during  which  the  popular  faith,  avarice,  and  the  new  modes  of  evi- 
dence required  by  the  penal  law,  consigned  thousands  of  witches  to  the 
flames.  The  injuries  which  they  were  accused  of  inflicting  were  generally 
confined  to  the  most  trifling  matters  of  ordinary  life,  and  no  witch  appears 

c)  BaptUta  Jfaniuanvs,  Ecc.  Laurctanae  Hist  (0pp.  Anta.  1576.  vol.  IV.  p.  216ss.)  Martonelli 
Teatro  istor.  dolla  S.  Ca.sa  Kaz.  Rom.  1732.  2  vols.  Treated  polemically :  Vergerii  L.  de  Idole  Lanr. 
(0pp.  adv.  rapatiim.  Tub.  1563.  4.  Th.  I.)  Ingol.  1554.  Bernegger,  Hypobolimaea  Mariae  deiparae 
camera.  Argent.  1C19.  4.  Apologetically :  Titrriani  IJesp.  ad  capita  argum.  Vergerii  bacretici  Ingol. 
15S4.  4.     Turselini  Lauretana  Hist.  Mog.  1599.  Yen.  1T27. 

d)  J.  Gorrei.  die  dentsclien  Volksbüclier.  Heidelb.  1S07.  p.  2n7ss.  C.  I..  StieglUz,  Sage  v.  F.ausL 
(/?<z»m^r,  Hist.  Taschcnd.  Lpz.  1S34.)  Comp.  Jahrb.  f.  wi?8.  Kritik,  1*34.  N.  25.  [TT.  Godwin,  Lives 
uf  the  Necromancers,  New  York.  1S35. 12.]        e)  According  to  Gen.  6.  1-4.    Exod.  22,  13. 

/)  nauber,  Bibliothcca.  St  I.  p.  Iss. 
g)  {Jac.  Sprenger  et  lleinr.  Institor.)    Malleus  Maleficarum.  Col.  USO.  4.  &  of.en. 


C1IA.P.  in.    ECCLES.  LIFE.    §  209.  WITCnCRAFT.    §  2T0.  DISCIPLINE.  311 

ever  to  ]iave  become  -wealthy  by  her  arts.  Actual  crimes  were  never  legally 
proved.  Some  may  have  been  induced  by  the  popular  super.-^tition,  by  som- 
nambulistic states,  and  by  narcotic  salves,  to  form  criminal  desires,  and  to 
regard  themselves  as  witches.  But  in  general  the  violence  of  tortures,  and 
tlie  various  illegal  processes  of  investigation  were  suflBcient  to  account  for  the 
confession  of  unnatural  crimes,  witliout  8upi)0.«ing  tliem  real,  (h)  But  no 
persons  ventured  to  express  doubts  with  respect  to  the  propriety  of  such  pro- 
ceedings, except  on  very  rare  occasions,  and  in  the  most  guarded  manner.  {() 
The  picture  drawn  of  the  Witch's  Sabbath  is  only  a  copy  of  the  fantastic 
representations  often  given  of  the  assemblies  of  heret.vjs.  The  process  against 
M-itclies  now  supplied  the  place  of  that  which  had  formerly  been  employed 
against  heretics.  It  was  only  in  Germany,  England,  and  Scandinavia,  that 
the  nation  generally  became  enlisted  in  its  behalf.  The  bulls  of  Alexander 
and  Leo  against  magicians  and  poisoners  in  Lombardy,  appear  to  have  been 
directed  against  some  remnants  of  the  Manichaeans.  (k)  As  all  nature  was 
believed  to  be  subservient  to  the  kingdom  of  God,  and  to  have  a  share  in  the 
blessings  of  the  Church,  many  thought  proper  sometimes  to  defend  tliemselvcs 
even  against  noxious  beasts  by  exorcism  and  excommunication.  (/) 

§  270.     Cliurcli  Dmijjline  and  Indulgences.     Cont.from  §§  GO,  202. 

The  Ban  and  the  Interdict  had  now  lost  their  power,  in  consequence  of 
the  abuse  which  had  been  made  of  them.  The  popes  were  therefore  com- 
pelled in  their  political  contests  to  sharpen  their  spiritual  Aveapons,  by  abol- 
ishing every  right  previously  recognized  among  enlightened  and  Christian 
nations.  Clement  V.  and  Sixtus  IV.  declared  the  Venetians  infamous  and 
outlawed,  even  to  the  fourth  generation.  ('/)  In  the  thirteenth  century  the 
popes  introduced  the  annual  practice  on  the  day  before  Good  Friday  (incoena 
Domini),  when  absolution  was  especially  bestowed  before  the  altar,  of 
eolemnly  pronouncing  sentence  of  excommunication,  in  a  form  not  then  inva- 
riable, agaiiK^t  the  whole  host  of  heretics  and  wicked  persons  of  all  kinds, 
then  so  constantly  increasing.  (7>)  The  discipline  of  the  Church  had  become 
exceedingly  lax,  in  consequence  of  the  vast  number  of  the  mendicant  iViars, 
and  the  preachers  of  indulgences.  The  prerogative  by  which  the  popes  pro- 
fes.sed  to  remit  all  ecclesiastical  punishments  became  so  much  extended  that 
they  finally  possessed  the  complete  power  to  forgive  all  sins.  This  was  de- 
rived from  the  doctrine  which  taught  that  the  merits  of  Christ  and  the  saints 
(Thesaurus  supererogationis  perfoctorum)  were  so  abundant,  and  the  unity 

h)  JV;  Itemigii  Daoinonolatrla.  Lupd.  159.V  4.  Frkf.  \t/i^—fTnvher,  Bibliotlioca,  »eta  et  scripta 
ninfpcn.  Loinso.  ITSOss.  .10  St  W.  G.  SoUlan,  Oo.*h.  d.  lloxonprocc&^e.  Stuttu.  lS4a  ('.  G.  r.  Wiuh- 
ter  In  S.  Ik'ilr.  z.  deutsclien  Qcscli.  insb.  z.  Gc.sch.  (L  Strafr.  p.  SI.  277ss.  Comp.  Grimm,  doufsclic 
MytlK.I.  p.  f>:'.)»^. 

»■)  I'll-.  .Volitor,  de  J.AwXn  ot  pyllioiilols  iniillorll).  Col.  1459.  Stra.sl).  15T5.  4.  J.  Wier,  dc  praesti- 
piiH  dniMiionuin.  lias.  l.W?.  it  often. 

k)  /fiitiher,  St.  III.  p.  ISIsw.  St,  V.  2T7sH. 

[)  Ifemmerlin,  Tr.  do  cxorc.  ot  adjiirationlb.  c.  nnliimlia  briita  (.ibont  1-151).— .*<  /";■!>,  Itapport  ct 
rtclicrolios  sur  \i»  procC.s  et  jiifrem.  roliitlt's  mix  nniinnnx.  Par.  1S2P. 

a)  üdi/nalil,  ad  ann.  13ii9.  N.  C.  ail  ann.  US2.  X.  13.<.'<.  Comp.  Jfuratori  vol.  A'lll.  p.  ll.'d. 

b)  iMiiiherlini  do  I'osti?.  P.  I.  c  190.  li^ii/ndhi.  ad.  ann.  MU.  N.  1.  (/.«  llret)  Geseh.  d.  Bull« 
In  Co4!na  Domiu'.  (Stuttg.)  17C9ä.  4  vols.  4. 


512  Mi:i»iAi-.\  AI.  (  iiii;(ii  iii-ioKV.    I'Ki:.  iv.    a.  d.  ijioi.mt. 

of  tlio  mystical  IkmIv  of  tlie  C'liiiroli  wuri  so  j)erfcet,  tliat  slic  li.id  fiOwer  tc 
dispose  of  tiioso  nu'rits  acconiing  to  the  wants  of  rnen.  (f)  Even  tlio  indul- 
gences of  tlio  year  of  Jubilee  were  sent  bej'ond  the  Aljis,  and  when  divines 
were  debating  whether  the  pope  had  power  of  absolving  souls  in  i)urgatory, 
the  bulls  of  indulgence  issued  by  Alexander  and  Leo  soon  decided  the  ques- 
tion, (d)  Ever  since  the  papal  chair  had  sustained  some  severe  shojiks,  the 
popes  had  opened  such  a  shameless  trade  in  indulf/enccs,  that  those  who 
farmed  and  dispensed  them  paid  little  attention  to  the  repentance  and  reforma- 
tion which  had  ahvaj's  been  demanded  by  the  Churcli  as  conditions  of  for- 
giveness. The  indulgence  was  disposed  of  as  all  that  was  nee<lful  for  recon- 
ciliation with  God,  even  for  yet  future  and  intended  oflcnces.  Grave 
ecclesiastical  letters  on  the  nnlawful  use  of  butter  were  harmless.  Some 
indulgences  were  granted  to  obtain  funds  for  the  erection  of  inland  churches, 
hospitals,  and  even  secular  establishments  of  general  utility.  A  large  portion 
of  the  revenue  was  consumed  by^  the  preachers  themselves,  Init  the  final 
receptacle  was  tlie  treasury  of  the  pope.  Just  as  the  profits  of  all  money  for 
indulgences  had  been  formerly  devoted  to  the  crusades,  they  were  now  ap- 
propriated to  the  Turkish  war  or  to  the  erection  of  St.  Peter's  church.  A 
general  rumor,  however,  prevailed,  that  Leo  X.  had  promised  a  part  of  the 
money  so  hascly  obtained  from  Germany,  to  his  sister,  (e)  It  Avas  in  vain 
that  the  people  remonstrated  against  these  extortions  and  immoralities,  and 
some  of  the  princes  either  forbade  the  preachers  of  indulgences  to  enter  their 
dominions,  or  deprived  them  of  the  revenues  they  had  collected.  Literary 
men  directed  the  shafts  of  their  ridicule  against  these  hawkers,  and  even 
expressed  some  douhts  whether  the  tickets  they  bestowed  would  be  respected 
by  the  great  Judge  of  all.  The  more  earnest  class  of  preachers  were  also 
indignant  and  zealous  against  a  trade  which  involved  the  murder  of  the  souls 
of  men.  (/) 

§  271.     Flagellants  and  Dancer». 
{Jac  Biileau)  Hist  Fl.igellantiura.  P.ir.  1700. 12.    Sahoettffen,  de  secta  Flag.  Lps.  ITU.    F&rst- 
emann,  die  cbr.  Geisslergesellscbaften.  Hal.  1S28.     Möhnike,  ü.  Geisslergescllsch.  u.  verbrüd,  dieser 
Art  (Zcitschr.  f.  hist.  Th.  1933.  vol.  III.  St.  2.)—IIecker  die  Tanzwutb.  Brl.  1S3-J. 

A  system  of  penance  and  fleshly  mortification  by  scourging  (disciplina)  in 
the  closet,  Avas  especially  recommended  by  Damiani,  and  extensively  encour- 
aged by  the  mendicant  orders.  But  all  at  once  appeared  long  processions  of 
penitents,  who  went  about  day  and  night,  naked  down  to  the  waist,  Avith 
heads  covered,  singing  penitential  psalms,  and  whipping  themselves  until  the 
blood  flowed.  This  peculiar  mode  of  contrition  commenced  in  Perugia 
(1260),  and  soon  spread  over  nearly  all  Italy.     In  the  struggle  between  the 

c)  Alt!-.  ITitles,  Summa,  P.  IV.  Qii.  23.  Art  Is. 

d)  Ale.r.  Hales,  P.  IV.  Qii.  23.  Art.  2.  Thoma«,  Suppl.  ad  Summ.  P.  III.  Qu.  Tl.  Art  10.  Tri- 
thun.  Chron.  lUrsang.  vol.  11.  p.  535.— -Imor^  1.  c  vol.  I.  p.  96.  209.  vol.  II.  p.  2S3. 

t)  M.  Villain  VI,  14.     Giticciardini  1.  XIII.  p.  396. 

/)  AppcUatio  pro  parte  prince.  Noriuib.  a.  1460.  interposita.  {Senckenherg,  Sol.  jur.  et  hist  Frcf. 
ITSS,  vol.  IV.  p.  37S.)  Wexufli  adv.  indulgenti.is  Dsp.  {Walc7i,  Mon.  medii  aeri,  vol.  I.  p.  111.)  £fr- 
(hohl,  edit,  by  K.ing,  p.  3S4.  Zöscfier,  Ei-f.  A-l.a,  vol.  I.  p.  S.55ss.  Kapp,  Samml.  einiger  z.  Abi 
gehör.  Schrillen,  Lps.  1T21.  Veesenmei/er,z.  Geäoh.  d.  Ablasswes.  kurz.  vor.  d.  Bot  (KHist  Archiv 
1S25.V01.  III.  st  4.; 


CHAP.  IIL     ECCLES.  LIFK.     §  271.  FLAG ELLAKT3.     ])AXCERS.  313 

Guelplis  and  the  Ghibellines  this  country  had  boen  more  than  ordinarily  filled 
with  vices  and  crimes,  and  tlie  people  now  seemed  to  have  been  siezed  by  a 
penitential  paroxysm,  and  to  celebrate  a  general  season  of  reconciliation  with 
God.  (a)  A  few  of  these  processions  crossed  the  Alps,  and  were  there  rather 
objects  of  astonishment  than  of  imitation.  But  when  the  hlctck  death  came 
from  Asia  and  pa.ssed  through  Europe  (1348),  even  in  Germany  every  place 
was  startled  by  the  scourging  processions  of  the  brethren  of  the  cross,  whose 
doleful  songs  were  especially  directed  to  Christ,  entreating  him  by  the  recol- 
lection of  his  own  sufterings,  and  from  a  regard  to  their  repentance,  to  stay 
the  progress  of  the  plague,  (i)  These  scenes  were  repeated  as  often  as  the 
people  were  visited  by  national  calamities,  or  there  appeared  to  be  a  call  for 
an  unusual  degree  of  penitence.  A  number  of  these  scourging  processions 
passed  through  Southern  Europe,  near  tlio  commencement  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  under  the  direction  of  the  Dominican,  Vincentius  Ferreri,  a  Span- 
iard, whose  eloquence  was  so  powerful  among  different  nations,  in  exciting 
men  to  a  religious  earnestness,  that  the  gift  of  tongues  seemed  to  have  been 
restored  in  him.  (c)  At  first  the  popes  were  in  favor  of  this  movement,  because 
they  hoped  it  might  stimulate  the  energy  of  the  ecclesiastical  party  against 
the  Ghibellines.  But  when  the  scourge  began  to  be  looked  upon  as  more 
efiicacious  than  all  ecclesiastical  penances  and  means  of  grace,  the  hierarchy  : 
became  displeased  with  it.  Clement  YI.  declared  himself  opposed  to  an 
enthusiasm  (134:9)  which  threatened  the  subversion  of  all  ecclesiastical  and 
civil  order,  (d)  and  finally  Vincentius  himself  yielded  obedience  to  the  dissua-  i 
sive  admonition  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  (c)  This  unfriendly  disposition  of 
the  Church  induced  some  societies  of  Flagellants  to  assume  a  hostile  position 
toward  the  ecclesiastical  authorities.  In  Thuringia  a  company  of  them  which 
bad  been  condemned  to  the  flames  by  the  inquisition  (after  1414),  denounced 
the  clergy  as  Antichrist,  rejected  the  use  of  tlie  crucifix  and  of  images,  and 
the  invocation  of  saints  in  worship,  and  substituted  the  baptism  of  blood  by 
the  scourge  for  all  ecclesiastical  sacraments.  (/)  The  same  kind  of  sensuous 
devotion  by  means  of  convulsions  of  pain  or  pleasure,  was  practised  by  bands 
of  Dancers  in  a  few  towns  along  the  Rhino  (1374,  1418).  This  epidemic  was 
treated  in  Strasburg  as  a  demoniacal  possession,  against  Avhich,  invocations 
were  made  to  St.  Vitus,  (g) 

a)  Uonachi  Pattivinl  Cliron.  (Muratori  vol.  VIH.  p.  712s.) 

I)  After  Cli)snor"9  Clironik:  C.  Schmidt,  Lied  u.  Preilii;t  <L  Oeis.-!.  (Stud.  u.  Krlt.  1S.3L  H.  4.) 
L.  Sfhneegan»,  lo  prand  pelerlnnjro  des  flairell.ints.  Stra-ib.  \^<i^.  Freely  revl^^jd  by  Tischend  or/,  L[>s. 
1S40.— //-^fivr,  d.  .scliwarze  To  1.  lin  14.  Jnlirh.  Url.  IS«. 

c)  I.wUcig  llMer,  Vine.  F«rr.  niicli  s.  Letien  u.  WirktMn.  Drl.  HGO.  Come»  de  IMi«tithal-Sl<ied' 
tdn,  de  Vine.  F.rr.  Li>s.  ISTO.  4. 

(/)  TrlOif.nll  Chroii.  lllrs.  IL  p.  2n9.     H.iynald.  ad  ann.  1549.  N.  20. 

e)  Gerson,  Kp.  ad  Vine.  (dpp.  v<d.  IL  p.  C.'>3.)  Tr.  contra  secUim  flat'ell.  »o.  {lb.  p.  COO.) 
/)  Ilardt,  Con.st  Cone.  vol.  I.  p.  12r>.  Comp.  Jl.  Stumpf,  Hl.st.  n:«ell.  praeclpuo  In  Thuringia.  KSO. 
IFOrft^manns  Neiio  Mlttli.  n.  d.  Gebiete  hist  antlq.  Forsch,  vol.  IL  If.  1.) 

g)  Notices  of  lludulpluis  de  Ilivo,  In  tlio  Limpiir,'lau  and  Alsatian  (.hroniele  In  FOrsteinann,  pi 
K4«s.  &  lloikcr. 


314  MIDI  Ai.vAi- cinnrii  iiisTouY.   peu.  iv.   a.  d.  1210-1517 


§  272.     Morah  of  the  Clergy. 

Avij^non  and  Ilonio  had  now  received  the  names  of  Sodom  and  Babylori, 
and  it  was  reported  that  in  those  i)laces  Christianity  was  of  no  otlier  benetiü 
than  as  a  profitable  fable,  {n)  The  most  exalted  and  wealthy  stations  in  tho 
Church  were  regarded  merely  as  livings  belonging  to  certain  persons  by  birth, 
i>r  easily  to  bo  purchased,  and  those  who  occupied  tliem  fulhjwed  the  exam- 
j)le  of  the  Roman  court,  by  devoting  themselves  wholly  to  worldly  interest. 
Public  services  were  for  the  most  part  administered  by  an  ignorant  and  low 
minded  rabble,  from  which  no  one  could  ever  expect  to  raise  himself  by  the 
most  meritorious  exertions  for  the  good  of  the  Church.  (Z»)  The  clergy  Avere 
also  corrupted  by-  secret  lewdness,  for  the  practice  of  which  the  spiritual  office 
itself  was  made  subservient,  or  by  concubinage,  to  Avliich  they  were  often 
urged  by  their  congregations  for  the  safety  of  the  people,  and  for  which  they 
were  taxed  by  their  bishops,  (c)  During  the  various  reformations  projected 
in  the  fifteenth  century,  it  was  sometimes  proposed  that  the  honor  of  the 
priesthood  should  be  redeemed  by  restoring  to  them  the  rights  of  nature. 
But  even  liberal-minded  prelates  acknowledged  that  such  a  measure  would  be 
the  commencement  of  a  revolution  in  all  hierarchical  relations,  {d)  Hence, 
while  the  most  unscrupulous  portion  of  the  clergy  compensated  themselves 
by  indulgence  in  base  and  scanty  pleasures,  those  who  were  serious-minded 
and  anxious  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Church,  and  by  good 
works  attain  a  seat  in  heaven,  were  borne  down  by  their  burden,  and  made 
uneasy  on  account  of  doubts  respecting  their  salvation.  The  sentiments  of 
tlie  people  Avith  reference  to  the  clergy  wavered  between  habitual  reverence 
and  an  involuntary  feeling  of  contempt.  Sometimes,  however,  the  popular 
indignation  against  the  sins  and  privileges  of  the  clergy  broke  forth  into  open 
violence.  Tlie  literary  portion  of  the  laity  put  into  circulation  heavy  accusa- 
tions and  bitter  satires  against  the  clergy,  {e)  Even  in  some  books  cf  pictures 
were  represented  many  scenes  from  the  lives  of  the  prelates,  in  contrast  with 
others  taken  from  the  humble  lives  of  Christ  and  his  apostles.  But  in  this 
way  the  Christian  spirit  maintained  its  rights,  or  at  least  preserved,  in  the 
midst  of  the  Church  a  full  liberty  sternly  to  reprove  such  enormities;  and 
there  were  not  wanting  even  in  the  great  councils,  some  preachers  of  repent- 
ance, who  held  up  a  faithful  mirror  in  which  the  Church  could  recognize  its 
own  distorted  features.  (/)  There  were  always  many  among  the  clergy  wor- 
thy of  a  better  age,  who  felt  the  disgrace  of  their  times,  and  to  whom  it  was 


a)  Petrarca,  Epp.  sine  tit  Lib.  (Lngil.  1621.)  Ep.  10.  IS.    Kic.  de  Clemangix,  de  ruina  Ecc.  c  27 
h)  Oresmius  cor.am  Urbino  V.  (Flacil  Cut  test  ver.  N.  106.) 

c)  Cone,  raleiitin.  a.  1322.  c.  7.  {Jfa/isi  Tli.  XXV.  p.  70S.)  JN7c.  de  CUmangh  c.  ii.—  Vuiner 
envr.  Ehclosigk.  vol.  II.  p.  591ss. 

d)  Gerson,  Dial,  sophiae  et  naturae  super  caelib.  (0pp.  vol.  II.  p.  617.)  More  sliglitly :  Pius  II 
(Platina  p.  645.) 

e)  Many  of  those  by  the  Troubadours  in  Diets,  (Zwick.  1S29.)  in  the  Fabliaux  et  contes  pubL  pai 
MiVm  (Vi\T.  ISOS)  In  Flacii  Catal.  testiuin  veritatis,  Epp.  viror.  obscurorum.  Pasquilli  (Eleutheropol. 
1M4.)  &  others. 

/)  The  discourses  of  }>enntrdus  BaptiKatii-%  Theohaldus  k  others  in  ILinlt,  Co:ist  Cone.  Th.  1 
r.  XVIII.  p.  S79ss 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLE3.  LIFE.    §  2T2.  CLERGY.    §  273.  PEOPLE.  315 

evident  that  so  contemptible  a  hierarchy  could  no  longer  control  the  hearts 
of  men.  {g) 

%  273.     The  Religiom  Character  of  the  People.     Cont.  from  §  200. 

The  gradual  transformation  which  had  taken  place  in  the  character  of  the 
people  did  not  publicly  manifest  itself  until  near  the  close  of  this  period. 
Superstition  was  not  yet  eradicated,  but  the  enthusiasm  and  poetic  fervor  it 
had  displayed  in  former  times  had  gradually  disappeared,  and  the  exuberance 
of  fancy  which  had  been  enlisted  in  its  service  now  gave  way  before  the 
efforts  of  the  understanding.  Tiiese  liad  been  awakened  to  the  highest  inten- 
eit}-by  the  exigences  of  the  real  world,  and  in  order  to  obtain  the  comforts 
of  life.  Not  only  had  the  morals  of  the  people  been  endangered  with  re- 
spect to  individual  actions,  but  the  very  principles  on  which  they  were  founded 
had  been  changed  by  the  free  sale  of  indulgences.  Still  the  Christian  spirit 
and  the  common  sense  of  the  people  always  returned  again  to  the  great  ele- 
ments of  moral  truth.  Literature  and  science  then  reviving  in  great  vigor, 
were  generally  clothed  in  a  learned  dress,  and  confined  to  the  Latin  language. 
The  people  were  not  prepared  to  enjoy  the  benefit  of  the  new  art  of  print- 
ing until  they  had  learned  to  read.  "While  the  lower  clergy  remained  so 
ignorant,  it  was  needless  to  enifdoy  any  special  art  to  retain  tlie  people  in  that 
state  of  pupilage  without  which  no  hierarchy  will  be  tolerated,  and  yet  we 
find  some  institutions  like  the  censorship  of  tlie  press,  the  inquisition,  and  the 
limitations  imposed  upon  the  use  of  translations  of  the  Bible,  which  clearly 
evince  an  intention  of  keeping  the  people  in  a  degraded  condition.  The 
proofs,  however,  which  we  possess,  that  the  people  were  generally  ignorant 
and  corrupt,  (a)  refer  principally  to  Northern  Germany,  and  to  the  lowest 
classes.  The  best  domestic  chaplains  were  the  mothers,  (V)  and  knowledge,  not 
sincerity  or  strong  religious  feeling,  was  wanting.  It  was  night,  but  in  many 
respects  a  sacred  night.  Kniglitliood,  and  consequently  the  true  basis  of  an 
aristocracy,  had  been  undermined  by  tlie  use  of  gunpowder,  the  legal  consti- 
tutions of  the  several  states,  and  the  new  power  of  the  commercial  classes. 
Even  the  poetry  of  chivalry  had  been  exchanged  in  the  schools  which  the 
Master-singers  who  lived  near  the  close  of  the  thirteenth  century  held  in 
the  ditforent  cities,  for  lays  which  related  more  to  the  ordinary  lives  of  the 
middle  and  laboring  classes.  The  poi)ular  elements  contained  in  the  ancient 
[)()etry  were  made  more  prominent,  and  modern  imj>rovements  were  added  to 
them  as  in  the  Low-Geriuan  fable  of  Ileynard  the  Fox.  During  the  strug- 
gle then  in  progress  between  the  Church  and  the  State,  a  third  estate  had 
been  gradually  formed  by  the  side  of  the  nobility  and  the  clergy,  whicli  had 


g)  After  Gerson,  Thcod.  a.  Niem,  ami  especially  Xic.  de  demaugh,  de  ruina  Eccl.  {Ilardt, 
Const  Cone,  vol  \.  P.  III.) 

a)  CollectoJ  in  the  first  clmiiters  of  the  Histories  of  the  Koforinatlon.  e.  g.  El.  Vejelii  Hist  et 
nooessitas  reform,  ev.  Ulm.  ICsS.  Lüscher,  Wvt  Acta,  vol.  I.  p.  Iü9ss.  SpieJcei;  Luther,  vol.  I.  p.  8Ts8. 
61ss.  Bretschiiddi'r,  Luthers  SehiMer.  «1.  sitll.  Verd.  Deiitschl.  (Kef.  Alman.  1S17.  p.  212ss.)  [His- 
tories \<y  Hanke  (transl.  hy  Mrs.  Austin),  n  adJinyton,  Stelling,  Soatnes,  Scott,  D'Aiiligrid  and 
others.]  On  the  other  side  l?etr.  ü.  d.  Zust  d.  K.  im  15.  u.  Anf.  16.  Jahrh  in  Bezug,  a.  d.  Nolhw 
♦iner  d.  Gnindl.  d.  K.  verletzenden  ReC  (Tub.  Quartnlschr.  IS-Sl.  P.  4.) 

t)  Predigten  d.  Fürsten  Georg  v.  Anhalt  Witt.  1555.  p.  2s9. 


810  MKIiIAKVAI.  CIIUKCH  mSTOKY.     I'KK.  IV.     A.  I).  121C-1517. 

become  ac(iiiniiiti'il  with  tlio  plonauros  of  mental  freedom  and  of  civilization 
In  Italy,  especially,  wlierc  the  doctrines  of  the  (Jliibellinc  party  were  com- 
mon, -where  cliussical  studies  were  cultivated,  and  the  pai)acy  was  seen  in  its 
corruptions  at  home,  this  class  became  indiöerent  to  the  Church,  and  some- 
times to  Christianity  itself,  though  it  condescended  to  allow  the  popular  re- 
li;,'i()r  to  reJnain  unmolested,  (c)  In  Germany,  especially,  a  healthy  energy 
«till  remained,  and  many  had  tasted  of  intellectual  freedom  in  consequence  of 
the  nHinic'ii)al  liberties  they  had  acquired.  Such  were  therefore  prepared  to 
rei)el  every  unlawful  aggression  which  might  be  made  upon  them  in  civil  or 
ecclesiastical  aöairs. 

§  274,     Survey  of  the  Monastic  Life.     Hont,  from  §  2G5. 

The  more  ancient  orders  lived  in  retirement,  some  of  them  strictly  observ- 
ing their  original  severity  of  discipline,  but  most  of  them  in  the  enjoyment 
of  great  wealth.  Frequently  scarcely  a  semblance  of  their  original  rule  re- 
mained, and  sometimes  vows  were  made  by  the  members  that  they  would  not 
regard  it.  The  convents,  in  some  instances,  became  jdaces  of  the  most  shame- 
less lewdness,  and  the  most  unnatural  crimes  were  concealed  within  their 
walls.  Various  attempts  at  reform  were  therefore  made  during  the  fifteenth 
century,  especially  at  Constance  and  Basle,  and  were  partially  carried  to  a 
successful  issue  by  the  right  or  wrong  means  used  by  the  ecclesiastical  depu- 
ties, the  bishops  and  the  local  princes ;  but  they  were  generally  repelled  by 
those  who  resided  in  the  convents,  sometimes  with  subtilty  and  insolence,  and 
sometimes  with  powerless  desperation,  {a)  A  careful  system  of  legislation 
respecting  the  rights  and  duties  of  the  private  members  of  the  orders  was 
gradually  perfected  in  the  decretals,  (h)  The  prohibition  issued  at  the  fourth 
Council  of  Lateran  (§  204)  Avas  not  sufficient  to  prevent  a  monastic  commu- 
nity from  sometimes  gathering  around  some  extraordinary  master  spirit,  or 
from  being  gradually  and  imperceptibly  formed  where  persons  of  like  dispo- 
sitions were  brought  into  contact.  These  peculiar  associations  generally  found 
some  poi)e  who  could  be  induced  to  recognize  them  as  incorporate  commu- 
nities. The  peculiar  circumstances  of  the  age  which  had  called  into  exist- 
ence and  given  such  success  to  the  mendicant  friars,  induced  many  to  follow 
their  example ;  but  for  want  of  some  effective  and  prominent  character  in  the 
commencement,  they  could  never  attain  important  form  or  influence.  Inno- 
cent IV,  (1245),  to  console  the  Carmelites  for  the  loss  of  the  Holy  Land,  con- 
ceded to  them  the  privileges  of  mendicant  friars,  (c)  Alexander  IV.  (125G) 
conferred  the  same  privileges  upon  the  Augustinian  Hermits,  whom  ha 
gathered  together  from  various  scattered  associations  of  monks,  and  united 
under  the  rule  of  Augustine.  ((/)     Martin  F.,  after  exhibiting  many  tokens 


c)  Kappe,  Eef.  Urk.  vol.  II.  p.  39T.  499.  Henke,  Freigeisterei  n.  Atheismus  in  Italien.  Anb.  z 
Uebers.  v.  ViUers,  ü.  d.  Ecf.  p.  409ss. 

a)  Instar  omnium :  Jo.  Biucfi  (d.  1479)  de  reform,  monasteriorum  quorundara  Sason.  {leibn. 
iciT.  Brunsu,  vol.  II.  p.  4T6.  SOOss.) 

I)  Greg.  III.  81.  Soxt.  III.  14.     CUm.  Ill,  9.     Extr.  comtii.  Ill,  S.  &  others. 

c)  Bullarliim  CariiullUinum.  Rom.  1715ss.  P.  I.  p.  4ss. 

<0  BuUarium  Roia  vol.  I.  p.  lia  Acta  S3.  Febr.  vol.  II.  p.  447. 


CHAP.  IIL    ECCLEJj.  LIFE.    §  2T1.  CONVENTS.    §  275.  BEGHINES.  317 

ef  his  dislike  toward  tliein,  granted  similar  privileges  to  the  Servites  (Servi  b. 
Mariae  Virg.),  an  order  -which  originated  (1233)  in  a  religious  excitement 
among  some  gentlemen  belonging  to  the  principal  families  of  Florence,  and 
which  was  intended  to  celebrate  the  honors  of  the  divine  Virgin  and  her  sor- 
rows, (e)  Colomhino,  while  perusing  the  lives  of  the  saints  was  excited  to 
renounce  the  highest  power  in  the  government  of  Siena  for  the  mo.?t  menial 
occupations,  and  founded,  in  accordance  with  the  rule  of  Augustine,  the  order 
of  the  Jesiiites,  (/)  which  was  confirmed  by  Urban  V.  (1307)  ns  an  order  of 
mendicant  lay  brethren,  but  was  abolished  by  Clement  IX.  (16G8)  as  wealthy 
padri  del'  acquavite.  Finally  Francisco  de  Paolo  (d.  1507),  whose  life  is 
represented  to  have  been  a  monstrous  caricature  of  tlie  life  of  Jesus,  founded 
an  exaggerated  resemblance  of  the  order  of  the  Minorite.«,  in  that  of  the 
Minimi^  incorporated  by  Sixtus  IV.  (1474)  and  confirmed  with  a  gradual 
enlargement  of  their  rule  by  Alexander  VI.  (1402,  1501),  and  Julius  11. 
(1506).  (g)  In  Spain  and  in  Italy  there  were  certain  hermits,  who  were  united 
in  congregations,  and  assumed  the  name  of  St.  Hieronymiia  (after  1370). 
Some  of  these  lived  according  to  the  rule  of  Augustine,  but  under  the  patron- 
age of  Ilieronymus,  and  others  were  governed  by  a  rule  derived  from  the 
writings  of  him  whose  name  they  bore.  (/;)  The  OUvetans  (Congr.  S.  Mariae 
montis  Oliveti)  were  founded  as  a  congregation  of  Benedictines  in  a  wilder- 
ness near  Siena  by  John  Tolomei,  in  commemoration  of  the  recovery  of  his 
sight,  and  were  recognized  by  John  XXII.  (1319).  (i)  With  the  approbation 
of  Urban  V.  (1379)  Birgitte  (d.  1373),  a  pious  seeress,  belonging  to  the  royal 
house  of  Sweden,  who  had  fulfilled  the  duties  of  a  wife  and  a  mother, 
founded  the  order  of  the  Iledeemer  (commonly  called  Ordo  S.  Birgittae). 
The  rule  of  this  order  required  that  there  should  be  in  each  convent  sixty 
nuns,  and  for  the  performance  of  its  spiritual  duties  thirteen  priests,  four  dea- 
cons, and  eight  lay  brethren.  All  these,  with  the  numerous  convents  of  the 
order  in  the  northern  countries,  were  to  be  under  the  control  of  the  abbe.'s 
of  Wadstena,  who  was  regarded  as  the  representative  of  the  holy  Virgin.  (Jc) 

§  275.  More  Independent  Associations. 
As  early  as  in  the  eleventh  century  some  women  in  the  Netherlands  a.?so- 
ciated  together,  without  entering  into  any  absolute  vows,  for  tlie  perform- 
ance of  works  of  mercy,  and  were  popularly  named  Bcghine»^  or  praying 
sisters.  Their  number  increased  during  the  thirteenth  century,  when  many 
could  not  bo  satisfied  without  something  more  than  a  connection  Avith  either 
the  general  Church  or  witli  tlie  convents,  or  were  too  poor  to  assume  the 
veil.  A  more  honorable  kind  of  nunneries  (the  Canonissae  saeculares)  was 
also  established  for  the  noble  widows  and  the  orphan  children  of  tiie  cru- 
saders.   The  example  of  the  Beghines  was  soon  followed  by  certain  men  who 

t)  Pauli  Florent.  Dial  de  orlg.  0.  Sorv.  (Lamii  Dellc.  Erud.  Th.  I.  p.  Iss.) 

/)  Acta  SS.  Jul.  Th.  VII.  p.  833ss. 

g)  Acta  SS.  Apr.  Th.  I.  p.  103s3.    Ifelyot,  Th.  VII.  p.  «d'»». 

K)  IloUten.  lirockU  Th.  III.  p.  43.  Th.  IV.  p.  Iss.        t)  RdynalJ.  ail  ann.  1320.  N.  50. 

Jt)  Birgittae  revelationes,  eil.  Turrecrfinntti,  Lub.  1492.  Mon.  16S0.  f.  &,  often.  Lifo  in:  Vaitto- 
*»■»  Vitls  Aquilonia  s.  Vilae  SS.  in  Scandinavia.  Col.  1623.  f.  c.  notls  Erici  Bentnl,  \J[>^  170S.  4.  llule 
In  IMsten.  Biockie  Th.  III.  p.  lOOss. 


J18  MKIHAKVAL  CIlI-KCn  IIISTOUV.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  1>.  121&-15IT. 

wore  cnlled  IJcfrlmnls,  (")  A  pcctiliar  cIuhs  of  tlicse  iJCoplc,  whose  officu  it 
was  to  attt'iul  ui)Oii  tlio  sick  and  to  bury  tlio  dead,  iiroceedcd  also  (about 
1300)  from  the  Netherlands,  and  were  called  from  tbeir  patron  saint 
Ahxiaiii,  from  the  huts  in  which  they  resided,  Celliiae,  and  from  their  low 
funeral  chants,  Lolhirdu  (Nollbriidor).  There  was  naturally  an  intercourse 
between  tlieso  fraternities  and  the  Tertiaries  connected  with  the  mendicant 
orders,  and  there  were  many  unobserved  transitions  from  the  one  to  the 
other.  Accordingly  after  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century,  when  they 
were  thrown  into  a  hostile  position  with  respect  to  the  hierarchy,  and  the 
suspicions  of  the  inquisition  had  been  awakened,  many  Beghines  betook 
themselves  to  the  communities  of  the  Tertiaries,  and  again,  when  the  Minor- 
ites became  involved  in  party  conflicts,  many  of  them  became  connected 
witli  the  Begliards  and  Lollards,  since  these  were  regarded  as  their  com])an- 
ions  in  suflerings  and  hopes,  and  were  likewise  then  persecuted  as  heretics. 
But  after  the  time  of  John  XXII.  the  popes  protected  against  the  inquisition 
those  engaged  only  in  works  of  charity.  {l>)  In  the  same  country,  distin- 
guished as  the  home  of  practical  views,  was  formed  under  the  influence  of 
Gerhard  Groot  of  Deventer  (d.  1384),  a  powerful  preacher  of  repentance,  a 
society  called  the  Brothers  of  the  Common  Lij\\  which  was  composed  princi- 
pally of  clergymen  engaged  in  copying  books.  The  convent  of  regular 
canons  at  Windesheim  (1386),  with  which  all  similar  institutions  were  con- 
nected, became  the  spiritual  centre  of  this  community.  Some  of  its  mem- 
bers remained  in  connection  with  the  parishes  where  they  resided,  and  others 
lived  in  the  houses  of  the  brethren,  supported  by  the  profits  derived  from 
their  common  occupations.  The  latter  were  bound  by  a  special  vow  to  re- 
fuse all  secular,  literary,  and  ecclesiastical  honors,  and  the  lives  of  all  Avere  to 
be  devoted  to  pious  exercises  and  studies,  in  which  nothing  was  to  be  allowed 
unless  it  tended  to  their  improvement.  Laymen  were  admitted  as  members, 
houses  were  also  established  for  sisters,  the  literary  education  of  the  youth 
was  conducted  on  Christian  principles,  and  the  perusal  of  the  Scriptures  in 
the  vernacular  language  was  encouraged,  but  the  grand  object  of  the  society 
was  the  cultivation  of  their  own  spiritual  happiness,  (f) 

§  276.     The  Templars  and  the  Knights  of  St.  John.     Cord,  from  §  211. 

Jlaynuld.  ad  ann.  1Ö07-13.  F.  du  Puy,  Hist  de  la  condamnation  des  Templiers.  Par.  1G50.  4. 
Krkf.  1ÜCÖ.  4  Mohleiihaicer,  Process  gegen  d.  O.  d.  Teini)l.  a.  d.  Acten  d.  {läiistl.  Cummiss.  Uauib. 
lTa-2.  Jiaynouiird,  Monumens.  hist,  relalifs.  a  la  condamnaiiun  des  Chevaliers  du  Temple.  Par. 
1S13.  in  MicheUt,  Proces  des  Teuipliers,  Par.  1S41.  4.  MaiUard  de  Chambure,  Eegle  et  statutes 
secrets  des  Temp.,  prccodCes  de  I'hist.  de  Tetablisscment,  de  la  destruction  et  de  la  continuaiiuu 
moderne.  Par.  1S41. 

Dark  rumors  began  to  prevail  respecting  the  secret  crimes  committed  by 

a)  Jfosheim,  de  Begliardis  et  Beguinabus,  ed.  JTartini,  Lps.  1T90.  K  FTallmann.  Gesch.  d.  Urspr. 
d.  belgischen  Bogliinen.  Bcrl.  1S4-3.     [Mosheim.  Eccles.  Hist.  Cent  XIII.  Chap.  II.  §  40.  note  r.) 

h)  Bulls  of  John  XXII.  and  Greg.  XI.  1318.  1374.  and  1377.  in  Jfo-sheim.  1.  c.  p.  396.  401.  627. 

c)  I.  Lives  of  Gerhard  and  Florentius  by  Thomas  a  Kempis.  (0pp.  ed.  Somnuilius,  AntiL  ]Gi"i7. 
4.  p.  76Ö.)  J.  Suicfi,  Chronicon  Windesemense,  ed.  Ilosxceide,  Antu.  1621. — II.  CUtrzsse  (Son  and 
Father)  over  den  Geesl  en  de  Denkwijze  van  Geert  Groot  (Archief  voor  kerkelije  Geschiedenis. 
.S29.  vol.  I.  p.  3ix>.  1S30.  vol.  II.  p.  347.)  DeJprat,  over  de  Broedersclmp  van  G.  Oroote.  Utrecht 
1530.  with  an  App.  by  Afvhnil-e,  Lpz.  1S40.     Ullmann,  Keformatoren  v.  d.  KeC  vol.  II.  p.  62ss. 


CHAP.  III.    ECCLES.  LIFE.     §  17G.  TEMPLARS.     KXIGUTS  OF  ST.  JOHN.        319 

the  Templars.  Philijy  the  Fair  commenced  an  actual  investi<^ation  of  these, 
by  the  imprisonment  of  all  the  Templars  then  in  France,  for  which  he  had 
made  secret  i)reparation,  and  by  the  confiscation  of  their  property  (Oct.  13, 
1307).  Tlic  charges  especially  xirped  against  them  were  a  denial  of  Christ, 
adoration  of  the  idol  called  Baphomet,  and  unnatural  lewdness.  The  pro- 
ceedings before  the  royal  connnission  at  Paris,  which  i.«sucd  in  the  condem- 
nation of  the  order,  were  characterized  hy  the  grossest  injustice  and  illegali- 
ties. It  is  indeed  true  that  more  than  once  the  interests  of  Christendom  had 
been  sacrificed  to  the  selfish  policy  of  the  order,  and  it  is  probable  that  some 
knights  had  been  guilty  of  unnatural  vices,  that  the  order  had  become  per- 
vaded by  a  spirit  hostile  to  the  Church,  and  that  a  few  Grand  Commanderies 
had  been  indificrent  to  the  religious  controversies  of  the  day.  Nothing, 
hoAvever,  was  legally  proved  against  the  order.  It  was  evident  that  Philip 
was  eager  to  get  possession  of  the  wealth  belonging  to  the  Templars,  and  to 
break  up  the  government  which  they  had  formed  Avithin  and  independent  of 
his  own.  Clement  V.  sacrificed  them  to  obtain  the  favor  of  the  king,  and 
this  proud  order  of  knights  could  expect  no  aid,  for  it  liad  lost  the  friendship 
of  the  clergy  {n)  Even  before  the  proceedings  were  concluded,  fifty-four 
knights  were  burned  by  order  of  Philip  (May  12,  1310),  because  no  confes- 
sion could  be  extorted  from  them  by  all  the  power  of  the  rack.  As  a  matter 
of  expediency  and  not  from  regard  to  a  judicial  sentence,  the  order  was 
abolished  by  Clement  (May  3,  1312).  (h)  Its  property  was  to  have  been 
given  to  the  other  orders  of  knighthood,  hut  in  France  the  king  firmly 
grasped  the  reward  of  his  guilt.  Jtoncs  of  Jlulmj^  the  Grand  Master  of  the 
order,  who  with  other  high  functionaries  had  been  condemned  to  perjietnal 
imprisonment,  was  burued  (March  19,  131-i)  because  he  publicly  denied  cer- 
tain confessions  alleged  to  have  been  made  by  liim.  (c)  The  people  looked 
upon  his  death  as  that  of  a  martyr,  and  upon  that  of  the  king  and  of  the 
pope,  which  speedily  followed  it,  as  special  citations  to  the  bar  of  God.  The 
fate  of  the  expiring  order  in  the  several  countries  where  it  prevailed  Avas 
ditlerent,  according  to  tlio  justice  or  favor  shoAvn  toAvard  it  by  tlie  princes 
and  bishops,  and  the  courage  and  unanimity  exhibited  by  the  knights  them- 
selves. Except  in  France,  they  generally  Avero  permitted  to  enjoy  hfe,  lib- 
erty, and  a  competent  support  during  life.  The  memory  of  the  sainted 
Molay,  and  a  hope  that  the  ruined  Temf)le  Avould  in  some  future  day  bo  re- 
stored, Avas  secretly  spread  abroad  among  the  people. — The  Knights  of  St. 
John,  deprived  of  Ptolemais  by  the  Saracens,  settled  in  Cypru.><,  but  having 
con(iuercd  Rhodes  (1310),  they  afterAvnrds  made  it  the  principal  seat  of  their 
order.  Tbe  tragical  fate  of  the  Templar.«,  in  Avhoso  guilt  they  had  partici- 
pated and  Avhose  rivals  they  had  been,  Avas  not  beheld  by  them  in  vain.  As 
they  Avero  generally  connected  Avith  the  nobility  of  Europe,  and  possessed 

a)  Kicoliti  ü.  d.  Beschuldigungen,  welche  dem  T.  O.  gera.icht  worden.  BrI.  1TS2.  On  tlio  other 
side:  nerdfi>\\nX\\f  Mcrcur.  March,  IT*«-?,  ^fünter\n  Henke'-s  N.  Mng.  vol.  A',  p. SSlss.  ITiimmer, 
Myr^toriiiui  Baplioindis  rcvoliilurn.  (Kuncl;.Tub.  d.  Orl.  ISIS.  vol.  A'l.  pt  1.)  Hiii/iiouard  In  the 
Journ.  des  Snviins,  Mars,  Avr.  1S19.  Bibliuth.  uiiiv.  vol.  X.  ]>.  827.  XI.  p.  3. 

b)  M(imi  vol.  .\XV.  p.  8t!9. 

c)  Villain  AMI  I,  92.  Contln.  Cliron.  Guu.  ae  Xangls  In  D'Achenj  Splcll.  vol.  III.  ji.  61.  Hay- 
nouitrd  1.  c.  p.  2ii5ss. 


320  MKDIAKVAL  CIIKKCII  mSTOKV.     TKR.  IV.     A.  D.  121f>-l.M7. 

greftt  power  on  tlio  son,  tlicir  order  became  n.  Ibrniiduldo  Imlwurk  ol'  Chris- 
tendom  against  tlio  Turks. 


CHAP.   IV.— ECCLESIASTICAL  LITERATURE. 
^  277.     Scholasticism.     Second  Period.     \Zth  Century.     Cont.  from  §  218. 

Paris  now  gave  unequivocal  evidence  that  it  had  become  the  princijjal 
seat  of  a  scliolasticism  which  developed  its  maturity  in  intimate  connection 
with  academic  life.  The  Physics,  the  Metaphysics,  and  the  Ethics  of  Aris  , 
totle  were  introduced  by  the  Arabians,  and  even  Thomas  made  use  of  a 
translation  from  the  original  Greek,  {a)  The  hierarchy  were  indeed  jealous 
of  the  ascendency  of  a  heathen  philosopher,  and  attempted  (after  1210)  to 
jirohibit  the  use  of  tlie  whole,  or  at  least  of  a  part  of  his  writings,  but  even 
the  power  of  the  Church  was  ineffectual  against  a  prevalent  intellectual  ten- 
dency of  the  age.  Through  the  influence  of  the  mendicant  friars  especially, 
this  jyMloioplier  was  regarded  as  the  harbinger  of  Christ,  and  the  representa- 
tive of  all  natural  science,  in  accordance  Tvith  whose  principles  the  eternal 
truth  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  may  be  proved,  and  a  systematic  con- 
nection between  them  may  be  established,  (h)  But  the  spirit  of  the  Church 
was  as  powerful  as  a  philosophy  vrhich  was  obliged  to  direct  its  energies 
wherever  the  highest  intellectual  interest  existed.  The  Franciscan  Alexan- 
der of  Hales.,  a  master  of  theology  in  Paris  (Doctor  irrefragibilis,  d.  1245),  by 
his  acute  analysis  of  all  possible  questions,  already  indicated  what  was  to  be 
the  next  form  philosophy  would  assume,  and  at  the  same  time  showed  by  his 
practical  ecclesiastical  tendencies  the  peculiar  character  Avhich  it  then  pos- 
sessed. (<■)  The  little  Dominican  Albertus  of  Bollstädt  (d.  1280),  in  the  midst 
of  his  various  academic  and  ecclesiastical  engagements,  made  a  collection  of 
all  the  knowledge  of  his  age.  From  the  Arabians  he  derived  a  knowledge 
of  nature  and  of  its  mysteries,  {d)  By  his  history  of  the  Winter  Garden  and 
of  the  Speaking  Head,  he  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  a  Avizard  and  a 
man  of  the  people,  (< )  and  from  his  relation  to  his  still  greater  pupil,  the 
saint,  he  received  the  appellation  of  the  Great.  The  Dominican  Thomas 
(Count)  of  Aquino  (d.  1274),  who  taught  in  Cologne,  Paris,  Rome,  and  other 
cities  of  Italy  (Doctor  angelicus),  and  who  refused  the  office  of  archbishop  of 
Naples,  his  native  country,  may  be  regarded  as  the  highest  point  of  Scholas- 
ticism. Subtle  and  profound,  full  of  enthusiasm  in  behalf  of  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  as  well  as  of  philosophy,  he  made  a  powerful  effort  to  effeot  a 
reconciliation  between  Aristotle,  Plato,  and  Augustine.     The  order  to  which 

a)  Jourdain,  (p.  237.)  p.  40ss.  ISOss. 

I)  Jourdain,,  p.  19Sss.  Bulaetts  vol.  III.  p.  SI.  140ss.  Laiinoiiis,  de  varia  Aristot  in  Acnd. 
Tar.  rortuna.  Par.  1669.  4.  ed.  J.  IT.  ab  SUicich,  Vit  1720.  Acta  Philosophor.  Ual.  1720.  St  XI.  p. 
716.  St.  XV.  p.  869. 

c)  Summa  univ.  Thcol.  in  1.  IV.  Sentt  Yen.  1475.  Col.  1622.  4  vols.  f. 

d)  After  the  Conmientarios  upon  Aristotle  and  Lombardus,  consult  Summa  Theol.,  physic,  and 
astroL  -writings,  0pp.  cd.  P.  Januny,  Lugd.  1G51.  21  vols,  f.—ßudol.  Xoviomagenais  de  vita  Alb. 
Magni.  Col.  1490.  f. 

<f)  Gorres:  toiit  Vo.ksbüch.  p.  27ss.    Volks-  u.  Meisterlieder.  Ueidelb.  1S17.  p.  205;«. 


CHAP.  IV     ECCLES.  LIT.    §  27S.  SCHOLASTICISM.    SCOTUS.  321 

he  belonged  has  been  accustomed  to  re^iird  bis  Snmnia  as  the  most  perfect 
development  of  Christian  science,  and  even  the  Church,  after  some  hesitation, 
finally  received  it  as  a  work  in  which  Christ  himself  might  find  pleasure.  (/) 

§  278.  Scholasticism.  Third  Period.  1-i^A  and  15th  Centuries. 
When  the  highest  intellectual  energies  had  been  exerted  to  harmonize  the 
two  great  authorities  of  the  age,  the  only  alternative  for  science  in  its  pro- 
gress, was  to  dh-ect  its  attention  to  tlie  differences  which  existed  between 
tliem.  But  this  struggle  with  the  internal  and  external  power  of  the  Church 
was  manifested  in  a  j)lay  of  bold  questions  which  exceeded  the  proper 
province  of  theology,  and  although  they  were  all  so  decided  as  not  to  con- 
flict with  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  in  the  mere  proposal  of  them  intellec- 
tual freedom  was  preserved,  and  an  obscure  dissatisfiiction  was  shown  toward 
the  limitations  imposed  upon  it.  The  remark  that  a  principle  might  be  true 
in  philosophy  and  yet  be  false  in  theology,  betrays  the  doubt  which  Scholas- 
ticism felt  with  respect  to  its  own  ultimate  tendencies.  The  leaders  of  this 
school  generally  came  from  those  orders  which  were  most  prone  to  disagree 
with  the  Church.  Duns  Scotns^  a  teacher  in  Oxford,  Paris,  and  Cologne 
(Doctor  subtilis,  d.  1308),  recognized  man  as  an  individual  created  by  the 
Holy  Ghost,  and  consequently  in  his  original  condition  pure  and  free,  but 
limited  by  his  connection  with  the  world,  and  capable  of  redemjition,  so  as 
to  possess  a  true  divine  intuition  only  by  the  power  of  the  Church.  ('/) 
William  of  Occam,  a  teacher  in  Paris  (vcncrabilis  inceptor),  after  1322  the 
provincial  of  the  Franciscan  order  in  England,  and  after  1328  a  resident  at 
the  court  of  Louis  (p.  299,  d.  13-47),  wielded  the  sword  of  a  free  spirit  not 
only  in  his  doctrine  but  in  his  life.  He  however  knew  no  other  way  to  res- 
cue the  absolute  doctrines  of  the  Church  but  by  asserting,  in  accordance  Avith 
a  new  form  of  Nominalism,  the  subjective  conditions  under  which  all  human 
knowledge  must  be  placed.  (//)  The  old  controversy  respecting  Nominalism 
was  consequently  revived,  and  although  Louis  XL  had  proscribed  (1473)  it  as 
dangerous,  and  with  a  similar  stretch  of  arbitrary  power  had  subsequently 
(1481)  (c)  invited  a  free  discussion  of  it,  victory  now  preponderated  in  its 
favor.  The  Franciscans,  delighted  with  the  prospect  of  opposing  the  mys- 
terious subtlety  of  their  Scotus  to  the  saintly  authority  of  Thomas,  now 
resolved  to  follow  none  but  him.  Tlio  controversies  respecting  the  proper 
limits  of  human  freedom,  the  satisfiiction  of  Christ,  and  the  sinlessness  of 
Mary,  were  only  subordinate  elements  in  the  intricate  conflict  in  which  the 
Thomists  and  the  Scoiists,  the  Realivts  and  the  Nominalists,  proved  the  full 


/)  Cotnm.  in  1.  IV.  Sentcntlarum.  Summa  TIicoI.  In  3  P.  (8  vols,  incomplete,  supplied  by  Suppl. 
e  Comm.  in  4.  1.  Scntt.)  Comment.  Q.  Büclier  <1.  Arist,  u.  d.  li.  SolirlH,  apoloj:.  u.  askct  Schrr.  0pp. 
Rom.  1570.  17  vols.  f.  and  often.  Yen.  1745ss.  2S  vols.  A.—At:ta  SK  Mart  vol.  I.  p.  CM.  Touro», 
Vie  do  S.  Thomas.  Par.  1737.  -i  Bern,  de  Huhei»  do  postis  et  Srrr.  P.  Tli(ni\(ie.  Von.  \'Tyn.  t.  Kling 
D.  d.  Theol.  d.  Thorn.  (S^rigler'a  rel.  ZclLschr.  1S33.  vol.  IlL  II.  1.)  //.  Ifoertil^  Tliom.  u.  s.  Zeit. 
Augsb.  184G.     [Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bib.  LiL  vol.  I.  p.  1.] 

a)  Quaostiones  In  1.  IV.  Sentt  Qncstf.  quodlibcfales  XL  0pp.  od.  Waddlnff,  Lugd.  ICSOa,«.  12  Th. 
t—F.  E.  Alhergoni  Kcsolutio  doctr.  Scottcae.  LugiL  1G43.  JliititngurUn-Cnisiin»,  do  Theol.  Scoti 
Jon.  1S26.  4. 

b)  Quaostiones  super  1.  IV.  Sentt  Cenflloqulom  theol.  Lugcl.  1495.  f. 

c)  Bulaeus  Tli.  V.  p.  TOCss.     Comp.  UUmann,  Wossel.  p.  327sa, 

21 


322  .MKiii,\i;v.\i,  (  ini:<  i[  nisTOKY,   rnn.  iv.   a.  d.  i2trt-iM'.. 

power  of  tiiiir  iiitclloctii.il  ."iml  spiritual  Aveapons.  ((Z)  The  systematic  chnr- 
lU'lor  of  Sclioliistitisiii  In'oaiiie  inucli  relaxed  in  sucli  polemic  engiigements, 
and  in  tlio  confiict«  of  the  scliools  it  lost  its  religious  earnestness.  Its  decline 
Iiad  already  conimenced  Avlien  it  refused  its  coiintoiiance  to  tlie  new  form  in 
which  science  now  made  its  appearance.  It  liad,  however,  aroused  men  to 
freedom  of  thouglit,  given  a  rigidly  scientific  form  to  the  doctrines  of  faitli, 
and  presented  the  true  questions  on  which  philosophy  should  bo  employed. 
It  had  tlierefore  fulfilled  its  destiny  by  giving  a  definite  form  to  the  existing 
materials.  Gohrici  Bid  (d.  1495)  is  usually  mentioned  as  the  last  of  the 
Scholastics,  llo  was  the  faithful  counsellor  of  Count  Eberhard  in  the  estab- 
lisliraeiit  of  the  high  school  of  Tubingen  (1477),  and  was  intimately  con- 
nected with  Occam  in  a  liberal  opposition  to  the  papacy.  He  was  also  much 
engaged  in  making  known  the  Ethics  of  Aristotle,  but  he  was  of  a  modest 
spirit,  and  inclined  to  favor  a  scriptural  and  practical  Christianity,  (e) 

§  279.     Mysticism.     Second  Period.     Cont.  from  §  219, 

Arnold,  Leben  d.  Gläubigen.  Ilal.  1701.  Arnoldi  Hist,  et  descr.  Tlieol.  mysticae.  Frcf.  1702.  p. 
292ss.  De  Wette,  dir.  Sittenl.  Brl.  IS'21.  vol.  II.  II.  2.  p.  220ss.  Cli.  SchmhU,  Essai  sur  les  Mystiques 
(in  quatorziemo  siöcle.  Strasb.  1S86.  4.  P/i»m?i«,  Reformatoren  vor  d.  Itef.  vol.  II.  p.  125ss.  F. 
Galle,  Gcistl.  Stimmen  a.  d.  M^V.  Hal.  1S41.— /*.  Pfeiffer,  deutsche  Mystiker  d.  U.  Jahrh.  Lpz.  1S45. 
vol.  I.  (the  less  important.) 

The  course  of  Scholasticism  was  always  completed  by  the  prevalence  of 
Mysticism.  It  was  not,  however,  until  it  had  become  much  degenerated  in 
the  wranglings  of  the  schools,  that  new  advocates  began  to  arise,  who  es- 
caped from  the  tumult  of  the  buyers  and  sellers  to  find  a  refuge  in  the  inner 
sanctuary,  and  now  defended  the  cause  of  Christian  feeling  principally  in  the 
German  language,  and  with  a  German  spirit.  There  were  two  tendencies 
distinguishable  among  them,  although  they  are  often  blended  together.  The 
first  was  a  class  of  persons  addicted  to  speculative  reveries,  and  may  be 
traced  back  to  Erigena,  Dionysius,  and  the  New  Platonists.  They  described 
the  extinction  of  all  selfishness  and  the  perfection  of  holy  love  as  an  absoi-p- 
tion  of  the  soul  in  God,  and  more  or  less  consciously  interpreted  ecclesiastical 
dogmas  simjdy  as  allegories.  And  yet  so  strong  were  their  moral  and  eccle- 
siastical tendencies,  that  this  was  always  connected  with  a  recognition  of  a 
creation,  and  of  the  historical  son  of  God.  Master  FcJcard  alone,  the  pro- 
vincial of  the  Dominicans  at  Cologne,  by  his  feeling  of  nearness  and  ardent 
love  to  God,  attained  such  a  giddy  height  that  he  lost  all  consciousness  of 
the  distinction  between  God  and  man,  Christ  and  the  Christian,  good  and 
evil,  and  his  memory  was  attainted  by  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals  (1329).  (a) 
John  lauler,  a  Dominican  residing  at  Cologne  and  Strasbourg  (Doctor  sub- 

d)  Ai-ada,  Controversiae  inter  9.  Tliomam  ct  Scotiim  super  IV.  1.  Sontt.  Ci'l.  102il.  i.  Jßiilaeu.J, 
rii.  IV.  p.  29Ss&    Argentre  Th.  I.  p.  342ss. 

e)  Collcctori\un  ex  Occamo  in  1.  IV.  Sentt  (Tub.  1502.  2  vols.)  Brix.  1574.  4  vols.  4.  Scrmm.  de 
Temp.  Tub.  1500.  i.—Trithem.  do  Scrr.  ecc,  c.  903.  Moseri  Vitao  Trofoss.  Tubing.  Tub.  171S.  4w 
Decas  I.    IT.  W.  Biel.  (pr.  Wernsdorf)  do  Gab.  Biol,  coloberrimo  Paplsta  Antipapista.  Vit.  1719.  4. 

n)  Hai/iitilil.  a,l  ann.  1329.  N.  70.  IMc^ii.  Misoell.  z.  Goscb.  d.  dout  Literat,  vol.  I.  p.  igSss.  G 
S\-hmi,lt.  Moistor  Kckiu-d.  (Stud.  u.  Krlt.  Isi9.  II.  3.)  //.  Jfarienseii,  Meister  Eck.  Tlieol.  Studl«. 
Ilaiiib.  lS-12. 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  279.  TAULER.    KUTSBEOEK.    SÜSO.  323 

5mis  et  illuminatus,  d.  13G1),  after  preaching  for  some  time  in  a  spiritual  and 
acceptable  manner,  became  convinced  by  a  layman  (Nicolas  of  Basic)  that  bis 
spirit  had  never  been  truly  consecrated  to  God  by  a  complete  death  to  the 
vrorld  and  to  himself.  He  immediately  became,  in  consequence  of  his  utter 
despair  of  himself,  a  most  awakening  preacher  to  others.  In  strange  lan- 
guage he  allured  them  to  seek  for  intellectual  poverty  as  the  true  way  to 
become  like  God,  and  invited  them  to  taste  the  delicious  pleasure  of  com- 
pletely dying  in  God.  (l)  Standing  in  no  need  of  sensible  imagery,  and  set 
at  liberty  by  God  himself,  he  preached  that  the  spiritual  and  the  temporal 
sword  should  never  be  used  in  the  place  of  one  another ;  that  in  the  con- 
flicts between  civil  princes  the  poor  innocent  people  should  not  be  placed 
under  the  curse,  and  that  if  they  were,  the  curse  would  become  a  blessing. 
It  was  not  long  before  he  himself  experienced  the  power  of  such  a  curse,  (c) 
JoJui  Ruysbroch  (Doctor  ecstaticus,  d.  1381),  having  been  long  emi)loyed  in 
the  service  of  the  Church,  sought  to  find  a  quiet  retirement  in  the  Augus- 
tiiiian  convent  of  Gruentlial,  near  Brussels,  in  which  he  recorded  his  thoughts 
in  a  simple  and  monotonous  but  lofty  manner,  under  the  impression  that 
they  were  insj)ired  by  God.  lie  described  the  sacred  frenzy  of  love  as 
merely  a  state  of  transition,  and  the  higher  life  as  a  perpetual  birth  of  the 
Son  and  an  everlasting  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit  within  us.  lie  warned 
men  against  spiritual  indolence,  recognized  the  moral  power  of  the  will,  but 
commended  mental  ecstasy  as  the  highest  state  of  existence,  because  in  ?t 
man  is  released  from  the  images  and  veils  of  his  own  being,  and  sunk  in  the 
abyss  of  divine  love.  (</)  Even  the  German  Theology  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury expended  its  principal  strength  in  discussing  subjects  relating  to  perfec- 
tion and  its  several  degrees,  the  extinction  of  Adam  and  the  formation  of 
Christ  in  us,  and  the  necessai-y  processes  of  becoming  human  and  divine. 
These  expressions,  however,  could  readily  have  been  adopted  by  a  simj)lo 
pious  spirit,  as  mere  descriptions  of  that  revelation  of  an  exalted  love  of 
God  out  of  which  they  sprung,  (c)  A  transition  from  this  position  may  be 
noticed  in  the  Dominican  Uenry  Stiso  (d.  in  Ulm,  13C5),  who  was  said  to 
have  been  named  Amandus  by  God  himself.  Even  in  his  youth  ho  had  been 
remarkable  for  an  affectionate  spirit,  and  troubled  with  the  sorrows  of  every 
tiling  around  him.     He  appears  in  the  character  of  a  Suabian  Minnesinger, 

?/)  Xaclifolgiins  (Ics  nrnien  Lebens  Christi.  Mark  d.  Sccio,  &  others.  Lpz.  149^.  Atigsb.  150S.  &,  often. 
Works  conformed  to  tlio  present  forms  of  Inn^iiiiL'e,  nml  cd.  by  CanseJer,  Luz.  IS'23.  Unchanged 
edilüm  of  tlio  armen  Lebens  Cliristi.  with  Lexicon  Taulerlannin  by  Si'^iloiier,  Frkf.  1S.33.  von  d. 
Leiden  uns.  Herrn.  Sulz.  ISUT.  0pp.  lat.  redd.  /iiiriiiK,  Col.  IMS.  f.  rredlRten.  Krkf.  Is2rt.  8  vol.s. 
Prefixed  to  these,  the  history  of  his  conversion  by  hlm.self:  Historie  des  Khrw.  d.  Job.  Taulcr— 
IfeupeliuH,  Memoria  Taul.  liistaur.  Vit  ICSS.  4.  (>bertiii.  de  Taul.  dietiono  vern.  et  myst.  Arg 
17SG.  4.  C.  Schmidt,  J.  Tnul.  Hamb.  1811.  Hmhlbach,  ehr.  Blogr.  p.  ISTss.  [Z?.  Jiiuhring,  J.  X 
n.  d.  Freunde  Oottes.  Lps.  18.54.  12.] 

c)  Spec<iliu'n  Collectanecn  ad  ann.  1350.    ä7ihm'(//,  p.  638S. 

(/)  l)e  ornatu  spirltualluiii  nuptiaruin.  Speculum  aeL  salutl.s,  etc,  Opp.  o.  r>ral>anllao  germonico 
Idiom  redil.  lat  par  L.  iSiiriiim,  Col.  ir)55.  f.  and  often.  Hi»  Vita  by  a  brother  Domlidcan  <if  tlio 
next  generation,  revised  by  Surius.  Four  treatises  of  Ilusb.  In  Low  Germ.  (ed.  hy  Ariimcaldt.) 
Praef  by  Ullmonn,  Han.  1S48.— ä"h{/''/A<i;v/<  (p.  240.  n.  b.)  p.  IGSss. 

e)  Teutscho  Theologia,  ed.  by  I.utlifr,  Witt  l.MC.  4.  by  Grell.  Brl.  1«;1T.  by  F.  L.  Krüger, 
Lemso.  1S22.  by  D>tzer,  Erl.  1S27.  by  Trorler,  9.  Oallen,  1S37.  by  VUsenUnil,  Berl.  1^42.  by  P/tif- 
fer  Stuttg.  1S51.  comp.  Ulimann  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S52.  H.  4. 


324  Mi;i)i.\i;vAL  cHuncii  niSTOKY.   i'ku.  iv.   a.  r>.  isio-isn. 

bnt  llio  mistress  of  liis  nflections,  to  -wlioin  lie  devoted  himself  in  raystcrions 
lonfxiiig:?,  niid  witli  all  the  passion  of  youth,  was  eternal  Wisdom.  In  pursuit 
of  this  he  tortured  himself  for  many  years,  until  his  nature  hccame  utterly 
wasted.  lie  was  then  favored  by  God  with  still  severer  trials,  in  the  endur- 
ance of  which  lio  succeeded  in  attaining  the  tranquillity  of  divine  love,  and 
became  lost  in  that  divine  nature  which  is  the  real  essence  of  all  creatures. 
Ilis  fundamental  doctrine  was,  that  a  passive  human  being  must  be  divested 
of  the  creature,  formed  anew  in  the  likeness  of  Christ,  and  perfected  in  the 
Deity.  There  was  a  vigorous  moral  spirit  in  his  ardent  love  which  souglit  to 
save  every  thing  ruined  by  sin  around  him.  (/)  The  other  tendency  of  Mys- 
ticism was  directed  to  the  simple  wants  of  the  heart  and  of  the  people. 
Thomas  (Ilamerken)  of  Kempen^  a  canon  of  the  convent  of  Mount  St.  Agnes, 
near  Zwoll  (d,  1471),  in  spite  of  his  zeal  for  monüsticism  and  the  worship  of 
the  Blessed  Virgin,  by  his  writings  as  well  as  by  his  private  counsels  uncon- 
sciously led  many  from  the  Roman  Church  to  the  true  Church  of  the  heart, 
by  a  quiet  communion  of  the  soul  with  God  and  Jesus  Christ,  (y)  The  book 
on  the  Imitation  of  Christy  respecting  the  author  of  which  whole  orders  of 
monks  and  nations  have  contended,  became  a  kind  of  Bible  for  the  people, 
and  in  quiet  contrast  with  the  worship  of  the  saints,  the  formal  life  pursued 
in  the  convents,  and  the  fables  of  the  Minorites,  set  forth  the  true  spiritual 
following  of  Jesus  in  the  destruction  of  all  selfishness,  and  in  the  exercise  of 
a  love  which  unconditionally  surrendered  itself  to  God.  (//)  This  branch  of 
Mysticism  had  a  seminary  which  was  maintained  among  the  Brethren  of  tho 
common  life. 

§  280.  Excesses  and  Compromises. 
From  what  is  related  of  Tournay.i  it  is  evident  that  Scholasticism  had 
the  presumption  to  imagine  that  the  very  existence  of  Christianity  depended 
upon  its  power  and  its  logic,  {a)  Scholasticism  was  accused  of  forgetting  the 
word  of  God  while  contending  about  mere  words,  of  frittering  away  the 
earnestness  of  the  Christian  life  by  its  sophistries,  of  driving  away  animation 
by  its  frigid  learning,  and  of  making  theologians  seem  like  fantastic  vision- 

/)  Life  of  If.  Suso  by  himself.  Bücblein  v.  d.  ew.  Weisheit,  and  other  writings. — Leben  tu 
Schriften  according  to  the  old  style  of  wriling  and  printing  by  Diepenbrock,  with  Einl.  v.  Gorres, 
r>atlsb.  1S29.  0pp.  latt.  red.  Surim,  Col.  1555.  Geistl.  Blüthen.  v.  Suso.  Bonn.  1834.  C.  Schmidt, 
'il.  Snso.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1843.  H.  4.) 

g)  Soliloquia  aninjae.  Exercitia  spiritualia.  Ilortulus  rosar.  Vallis  liliorutn.  Hospitale  paupernm. 
Vitae  Beatorum.  Dial.  Novitiorum.  0pp.  ed.  Sommalius,  Col.  1560.  4.  and  often.  Ansserl.  Sclirr. 
Weim.  1S24.  4  vols.  Sämnitl.  Werke  iicbers.  v.  Siliert,  Vienna.  ISSSss.  4  vols.  [Transl.  into  Engl. 
Lend.  2  vols.  12.]— Scholia,  Th.  a  K.  sent  de  re.  chr.  e.xponitur.  Gron.  1S39.  £.  Baliring,  Th.  v. 
K.  Brl.  1&49. 

h)  De  imitatione  Ch.  Argent.  1472.  often  and  in  various  languages  since  Fabric.  Cibl.  mod.  et  inC 
Lat.  vol.  IV.  p.  214S5.  [Imitation  of  C.  new  ed.  Lond.  1S49.  8.]—G.  de  Gregonj,  Memoire  sur  le 
veritable  auteur  do  Timitatiün  de  J.  C.  revn  p.  le  Comte  Lavjuinain,  Par.  1S2T.  With  app.  by 
TlVi(77,  Sulzb.  1S82.  Silbert,  Gersen,  Gerson  u.  Kempis,  welcher  ist  Vr£  &c.  Vicn.  1S2S.  G.  d» 
Grt-gory,  do  imit  Ch.  Aquae  Sest.  1S33.  UUittann,  Beformatoren.  vol  II.  Snp[plement  J.  £. 
^alou,  Kecherches  sur  le  veritable  auteur.  (acad.  royale  de  Belgiqne.  Bms.  1S4S.  4  vols.  XIV.1 — Se- 
cundus  tract  de  imit.  Chr.  ed.  Liebner,  Goet  1S42.  Comp.  UUmann  In  Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S43.  H.  L 
[and  S.iehring,  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S50.  H.  8.] 

a)  Mat.  Paria  ad  ann.  1201.  p.  14L  Bnt  comp.  ITenr.  Gandavensii  L.  dc  scrr.  ecc  c  21 
'^Fabric.  Bibl.  ecc  vol.  II.  p.  121.) 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLE9.  LIT.    §  2S0.  ßONAVENTUEA.    GEESOX.  325 

aries  in  the  eyes  of  other  learned  men.  "With  such  views,  Gerson  and  Nicola» 
of  Glamcnyis  demanded  that  the  course  of  theological  studies  should  be  re- 
formed. (Jj)  There  was,  however,  so  much  of  truth  on  the  side  of  both 
Scholasticism  and  Mysticism,  that  the  compromise  which  had  been  effected 
between  them  could  not  be  abandoned.  This  compromise  was  attempted 
during  the  most  flourishing  period  of  Scholasticism  by  Bonaventin-a  (John  of 
Fidanza,  Doctor  seraphicus,  d.  1274:),  and  during  its  decline  by  Gerson  (Jolm 
Cliarlier,  Doctor  Christianissimus,  d.  14:29),  but  it  was  attained  rather  in  their 
personal  lives  than  in  a  scientific  form.  Bonaventura  strictly  conformed  to 
the  rules  of  Scholasticism,  but  he  has  enlivened  its  most  subtle  definitions 
with  the  ardor  of  his  own  feelings.  His  afiectionate  spirit  contemplated 
both  the  internal  and  the  external  life  as  a  mirror  of  the  eternal  reality, 
thougli  he  Avas  not  unfrequently  invited  to  the  most  extensive  spheres  of  ac- 
tivity in  the  Church.  He  is  one  of  those  exalted  forms  in  which  the  eccle- 
siastical spirit  most  complacently  exhibits  its  glories.  "We  need  not  wonder, 
therefore,  that  the  representatives  both  of  the  Eastern  and  of  the  "Western 
Church  mingled  their  tears  at  his  tomb,  (c)  From  the  position  of  Mysticism, 
which  he  established  by  psychological  arguments,  and  fortified  by  sound 
logic,  Gerson  carried  on  a  powerful  conflict  in  behalf  of  tlie  true  peace  of 
the  Church  against  the  extravagances  of  tlio  hierarchy  and  the  errors  of  su- 
perstition. ((/)  Eaymond  de  Sabiinde,  a  Spaniard,  endeavored  to  eflect  (about 
1430)  a  more  perfect  union  of  these  opposite  parties  by  laying  aside  the 
formulas  then  generally  in  use.  "God  has  bestowed  upon  man  the  book 
of  nature,  in  which  every  creature  is  a  letter  written  by  God.  This 
divine  book  and  the  Iloly  Scriptures  can  never  contradict  one  another.  The 
former,  which  is  common  and  open  to  all,  is  the  primary  source  of  knowl- 
edge, is  intelligible  to  the  laity,  and  cannot  be  perverted  by  heretics.  But 
the  highest  knowledge  is  the  love  of  God,  which  is  the  only  thing  man  can 
truly  call  his  own,  to  be  offered  to  his  Creator.'"  According  to  this  signifi- 
cant train  of  thought,  it  is  not  very  difficult  to  construct  the  doctrine  of  the 
Cliurch  from  materials  supplied  by  the  book  of  nature,  /.  e.  from  the  internal 
and  external  experience  of  man,  wlio  needs  not  an  artificial  science,  but  only 
a  higher  illumination,  (e) 

I)  Gersonii  Epp.  dune  do  reform.  Thcol.  (0pp.  vol.  I.  p.  121. 43.)  jVic.  de  CUmangii  L.  de  studio 
Theol.  {O'Acheri/,  gpifil.  veil.  I.  p.  473.) 

c)  Comnientar.  in  IV.  1.  Scntt  BreviKH^uium  (cd  IT-'/ele,  Tub.  1S45.)  Ci-ntiloquiuni.— Itiiiernriuin 
urontis  in  Deum.  Stimulus.  Inccndium  auioris.  Opi).  jussu  Sixtl  V.  emend.  Horn.  15SS.  S.  Tli.  f.  Veil. 
1T51SS.  13  Til.  4. 

d)  After  tho  ecclesiastical  pnblislicd  writings,  rspecinUy :  Consideratlone.s  do  Tli.  mystica.  0pp. 
ed.  L.  E.  du  Pin,  Antu.  ITOG.  6  Tli.  t—Lecui/,  Essjii  sur  la  vio  de  J.  Gers.  Par.  1S32.  2  Th.— Engel' 
hardt,  do  Gers.  niysiico  V.  II.  Erl.  lS22s.  4.  Ilundenharjfu  ü,  d.  myst  Tlie<il.  d.  .T.  Gers.  Lpt  1S34. 
(Zeitichr.  f.  liisL  Tli.  vol.  IV.  St  1.)  Liehiier,  ü.  Gers.  iiiyst.  Theol.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1SS5.  11.  2.) 
Jowddin,  doctr.  J.  Gers.  d.  Tli.  inyst  Tar.  IS-??.     C/i.  Schtnidt,  Essai  sur  Jean  Gers.  Strasb.  1S3!». 

e)  Lib.  ereaturarum  s.  Theol.  naturalis.  Argent  1496.  Lallnloro  stylo  In  comp.  rod.  a.  J.  Como 
nif>,  Amst  Iß.'iO.  12.  Solisbac.  ISüi.—Jfuntaiffnf,  Essais  II,  12.  D.  JfnUl-e,  d.  nat  Thool.  J.  K.  v 
Sab.  Bresl.  1S4C.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1847.  U.  4 


326  MKDIAKVAL  CIIUKCH  IHSKOKY.    TLU.  IV.     A.  D.  1216-1517. 

§  281.     The  80-callcd  Jicvival  of  Literature. 

Meiner»,  Lfb'.nsbcsclirr.  berühmte  Männer  a.  d.  z.  <].  Wlederh.  d.  "W.  Zur.  ITfiss.  8  vol» 
Ilffren,  Goscli.  d.  clii^s.  Lit  s.  d.  •\Vicdcraufl.  d.  W.  Oütt.  1707.  1801.  2  vols.  //.  A.  KrharJ,  Gesclw 
d.  ■\Vlodfraiif binii.  wiss.  Blldiinjr  vorn,  in  Deutsclil.  Magdb.  1827-32.  8  vols.  /'.  Krantri  Kar.  d« 
ImiiianlUlls  studlor.  X\'.  ot  XVI.  8.  in  Germ,  orijjine  et  indole.  Miscn.  184.3.  4.  Kditlons  of  th« 
iiiodorn  Cla.'<sic3  and  their  Commentaries  in  Ehert.  {II.  I/ullam,  Int.  to  the  Lit.  df  Kur.  in  tlie  1.5. 
IC.  ajid  17.  Centt.  Chap.  I.  &  II.  Lond.  1S12.  New  York.  1847.  J.  Berington,  Lit  Illst  of  the  Mid. 
Apes.  LoncL  1846.  S.  de  Sismondi,  II.  of  Lit.  in  tlic  South  of  Eur.  transl.  by  lioscoe,  New  York. 
1S27.  2  vols.  8.] 

A  scientific  education  bad  been  extensively  secured  and  diffused  by  means 
of  tlio  Universities.  Tbese  were  sometimes  devoted  only  to  a  single  depart- 
ment of  science,  and  at  otber  times  embraced  faculties  fur  all  tlic  sciences. 
Tbey  bad  generally  been  founded  by  tbe  princes,  or  tbe  cities  in  wbose  neigh- 
borbood  they  were,  and  especially  in  Germany  tbey  were  all  conformed  to 
tbe  model  of  tbat  of  Paris.  Tbe  first  of  tbese  was  establisbed  at  Prague 
(13-48),  and  tbe  last  at  Wittenberg  (1502).  But  tbey  -were  dependent  for  all 
tlieir  privileges  upon  tbe  papal  see,  and  very  readily  settled  down  in  tbe 
comfortable  routine  of  traditionary  learning.  Tbe  scientific  spirit  tben 
awakened  received  only  indirect  encouragement  from  tbese  institutions. 
Tbe  Franciscan  Roger  Bacon  (Doctor  mirabibs,  d,  129-i)  pointed  ont  tbe 
defects  of  a  barren  knowledge  of  Scbolasticism,  and  in  tbe  character  of  a 
propbet  of  worldly  science,  witb  genial  energy  and  multiplied  experiments 
penetrated  thoroughly  into  tbe  mysteries  of  nature,  whose  arrangements  be 
recognized  in  every  thing,  (rt)  Dante  Alighieri  (d.  1321  in  exile  at  Eavenna), 
in  his  Divine  Comedy,  eflected  a  reconciliation  of  the  claims  of  love  and  reli- 
gion, and  as  in  a  General  Judgment  of  sacred  poesy  gave  an  allegorical  repre- 
sentation not  only  of  the  state  of  the  human  mind  and  of  Ms  age,  but  of  tbe 
history  of  tbe  world,  TVitb  tbe  boldness  of  a  Gbibelline,  in  whose  eyes  tbe 
universal  authority  of  tbe  empire  was  as  truly  instituted  by  God,  and  was  as 
essential  to  tbe  welfare  of  the  world  as  tbe  papacy  itself,  he  denounced  tbe 
abuses  of  the  hierarchy,  and  on  bis  own  authority  canonized  or  consigned  to 
perdition  whom  be  pleased.  A  friend  of  Yirgü,  be  was  no  less  an  admirer 
of  St.  Thomas,  an  enthusiast  for  ecclesiastical  doctrines,  and  the  first-born 
son  of  the  Church  among  tbe  poets,  (h)  This  great  work  of  modern  genius, 
which  he  composed  in  tbe  language  of  tbe  people,  but  witb  a  perfection 
wortliy  of  tbe  best  of  the  ancient  writers,  awakened  a  spirit  which  could 
appreciate  and  confide  in  those  Avriters  also.  Tbe  age  was  in  fact  now  fully 
prepared  for  a  revival  of  the  great  Avorks  of  antiquity.  Although  the 
classics,  especially  tbe  Roman,  bad  never  been  entirely  forgotten,  tbe  true 
spirit  which  pervaded  them  bad  not  been  perceived,  and  tbe  language  in 

a)  Opus  niiyus  (1266.)  ed.  &J?n.  Jehl,  Lond.  1738.  f.  comp.  SainmL  merkw.  Lebensbescbrr.  llaL 
1T57.  vol.  IV.  p.  616SS. 

h)  Conip.  Dantla  Epp.  c.  notis  ed.  C.  Witte,  Patav.  1827.  BaumgarUn-Ci-u^iun  de  Dantis  doc- 
•rina  theol.  (0pp.  p.  327ss.)  Ozanam,  Dante  et  la  phil.  cath.  au  13  siccle.  Par.  1839.  Münst  1S44. 
L.  n.  Arndt,  de  Dante  scritpore  Ghibellina  Bon.  1846.  SchrV.  of  Schlosser,  1824  u.  1830.  Witte, 
1*51.  £l<inc  in  d.  Encjkl.  vol  XXIIL  Philalethes  (John,  Duke  of  Saxony),  1839ss.  Goschtl, 
Artaud,  1842.  F.  X  Wtyele,  Dantes  Leben  n.  Werke,  kulturgesch.  Jena.  1S52.  [Schl-eget,  Hist,  of 
Lit,  New  York.  1844.  IT.  Stelhing.%  Lives  of  the  Ital.  Poets.  Lond,  1832.  3  vols.  8.  C.  Bulho,  Uf« 
and  Times  of  D.inte,  from  tbe  Ital.  by  Binihwy,  Lond.  1S51.  2  vols.  S.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  2S1.  HUMANISTS.  327 

which  they  were  written  had  become  quite  destroyed.  Petrarch  (d.  1374) 
was  the  first  who  turned  with  a  congenial  spirit  to  the  ancient  authors,  and 
even  if  his  imitations  be  regarded  as  unsuccessful,  he  was  certainly  trained 
by  them  until  he  became  a  general  spokesman  in  the  alTairs  of  Italy,  and  of 
the  human  heart,  (c)  Boccaccio  (d.  1375)  labored  in  the  same  field,  and 
brought  back  to  Western  Europe  the  gods  of  ancient  Greece.  He  was  pub- 
licly appointed  to  expound  the  writings  of  Dante,  wrote  the  first  polished 
prose  in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  wts  allowed  to  exercise  his  wit  at 
the  expense  of  the  monks,  of  good  morals,  and  probably  also  of  Christianity 
itself,  {d)  A  knowledge  of  Grecian  antiquity  had  been  introduced,  especially 
after  the  Synod  of  Florence  (l-i39),  by  large  numbers  of  Greeks,  who  as 
deputies  or  fugitives  became  scattered  in  all  parts  of  Italy.  These  were  gen- 
erally persons  of  only  moderate  talents,  but  they  brought  with  them  the 
inheritance  which  a  refined  antiquity  had  bequeathed  to  them  in  living  tra- 
ditions, and  they  were  therefore  received  in  the  halls  of  the  Medici  and  of 
the  Vatican  as  if  they  had  been  apostles.  The  wealth  which  had  been  pre- 
served at  home  was  now  also  brought  to  light,  the  convents  opened  their 
graves,  and  the  resurrection  of  classical  antiquity  was  now  regarded  as  a 
national  aftair  by  the  whole  of  Italy,  and  as  a  solemn  festival  in  honor  of  the 
great  ancestral  world,  whose  fragments  were  recognized  not  only  under  the 
rubbish  of  centuries  and  the  ashes  of  Vesuvius,  but  even  in  the  customs  and 
dispositions  of  the  people.  To  studj'  these  sacred  relics  of  heathenism,  the 
youth  of  the  Western  world,  with  the  Germans  and  Hungarians  in  the  van, 
now  went  on  pilgrimages  across  the  Alps  (after  1400).  The  influence  of  this 
upon  theological  studies  may  be  observed  in  the  life  of  the  Roman  Laurentiiis 
Valla  (d.  1457),  who  first  developed  the  laws  of  a  true  Latinity,  and  was 
induced  by  the  artistic  refinement  which  it  produced,  decidedly  to  pronounce 
the  scholastic  style  absurd,  by  the  philological  knowledge  it  afforded  to  ex- 
plain and  illustrate  the  original  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  by  the  his- 
torical criticism  it  fostered  to  give  judgment  against  the  fables  of  the  hier- 
archy. {(•)  The  monks  whom  he  derided  invoked  against  him  the  power  of 
the  inquisition,  but  his  fame  was  too  great  and  he  was  too  highly  esteemed 
by  the  nobility  of  Italy  to  be  reached  by  that  court,  and  he  was  silenced  only 
by  papal  confidence  and  favors.  In  fact  the  papal  court  was  by  no  means 
displeased  with  these  elTorts,  the  serious  consequences  of  which  it  did  not 
anticipate.  The  bishops  beyond  the  Alps  knew  but  little  about  them,  and 
Scholasticism  could  no  longer  present  to  them  any  considerable  resistance. 
The  mendicant  friars,  who  wore  attacked  with  the  greatest  severity,  and 
whoso  ignorance  rendered  them  the  most  suspicious,  were  the  only  class 
which,  especially  in  Germany,  wore  boM  enough  to  accuse  the  new  literary 

c)  AfrloA  Epistolao  (0pp.  Biis.  15M.  1581.  Lnpd.  1601.  2  vols.  f. )  Sonnettl,  CanzonI,  Trionfl.— r. 
F.  Fernoir,  Frnnc.  Tetr.  Lpz.  181S.  [T.  Camphell,  Life  of  V.  Lon.I.  2  vols.  WoUimton,  Llfu  of  T 
transl.  from  the  lliil.  L'md.  Svo.     Mid.  Doh»mi,  Lifo  of  V.  from  tlio  Frcneli.  PIiiI.nl.  1S17.  $.] 

d)  Dc  pencalogia  Deor.  1.  XV.  J!as.  11)32.  f.  Dccumerono.  [Decam.  transl.  lii  Engl.  4.  vols.  12 
Lend.  1S22.] 

e)  EK'gaiitiariim  latlnne  Hnsuao  I.  VI.  DiaU-ctico  1.  III.  Annott  In  K.  T.  (od.  Erasmus,  Par. 
IÖ05.  f.  rep.  /i'eviHH,  Aiiist  1G31.)  Bo  cmentlla  Conslaritini  donatione.  (0pp.  l?as.  1540.  1543  f.)  — 
D.  Ii.  Gcriclit  u.  L.  Valla.  (Paitlii»,  Koltr.  z.  K.  u.  lief.  Gesell.  Urem.  1S37.  p.  315ss.) 


328  MKDiAKVAi,  ciirrcii  iiisToi:v.    im:i:.  iv.   a.  u.  V21o-151T. 

irnprovcineiits  of  heresy  on  nccount  of  tlicir  heathenish  and  schismatical  ori- 
gin. The  Ghibellino  party  In  Italy  was  distinguislied  for  the  interest  Avhich 
in  varions  ways  it  showed  in  pagan  antiquity.  The  now  school  of  Perijxi 
(ctir.s,  in  ojiposition  to  tho  scholastic  Aristotle,  declared  that  the  theory  of 
the  universe  nuiintained  by  the  ancient  Greeks  was,  to  say  the  least,  a  philo- 
soi)hical  trutli,  and  Pomponazzo  (d.  1520),  like  a  modern  Prometheus,  ven- 
tured openly  to  declare  his  conviction  that  tho  immortality  of  the  soul  was 
according  to  philosophical  principles  more  than  doubtful,  although  it  might 
be  conceded  as  a  theological  truth  to  a  Church  which  could  not  dispense 
with  it.  (/)  The  Platonic  Academy^  in  the  gardens  of  the  Medici,  defended 
only  a  few  of  the  religious  ideas  pccaliar  to  Christianity.  (,'7)  There  was  a 
kind  of  superstition  which  in  some  places  made  a  boast  of  its  attachment  to 
heathenism,  and  the  language  of  the  Holy  Si)irit  which  liad  been  used  in  the 
ancient  Church,  was  now  exchanged  for  some  delicate  flourishes  of  a  pagan 
Latinity.  (/<)  Infidelity  and  superstition  were  arrayed  boldly  and  distinctly 
in  opposition  to  each  other.  In  Germany,  it  is  true,  the  disposition  to  en- 
gage in  classical  studies  originated  in  the  school  of  Thomas  a  Kempis,  and  in 
general  it  preserved  the  Christian  seriousness  of  this  source,  (i)  But  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  new  studies,  those  qualities  of  the  mind  which  have 
most  to  do  with  the  world  obtained  the  ascendency  in  the  hearts  of  such  as 
Avere  devoted  to  them,  and  the  common  people  seized  upon  them  as  though 
they  constituted  a  general  education  of  tho  whole  individual  man  (Humanis- 
mus). The  consequence  was  that  a  mental  revolution  was  commenced, 
which  in  its  essential  character  was  properly  named  a  restoration  of  tho 
Sciences.  At  the  same  time  the  great  ocean  which  surrounded  tho  world 
was  crossed,  and  a  heaven  began  to  rise  before  them,  in  which  the  earth, 
hitherto  regarded  as  an  immovable  empire  in  the  centre,  modestly  assumed 
its  proper  position.  (Ä)  Now  also  Maclnavclli  (d.  1530)  revived  the  ancient 
doctrine,  that  Avbile  religion  was  of  vast  importance  for  its  salutary  influence 
upon  the  state,  the  highest  political  objects  might  nevertheless  be  attained 
without  the  aid  of  the  Church  or  of  Christianity.  (Z)  Thus  was  formed  inde- 
pendently of  the  hierarchy  an  intellectual  power  which  had  detected  the  cor- 
ruptions of  the  Church,  and  had  lost  a  sincere  faith  in  its  assumption  that  no 
one  could  be  saved  except  by  its  offices.  Through  the  discovery  and  preva- 
lence of  the  art  of  printing  (about  1440),  which  was  almost  equivalent  to  a 
new  gift  of  tongues,  this  power  became  absolutely  indestructible  and  ii-re- 
isistible. 

/)  Petri  Pomponatii  L.  de  immortalitate  snimae.  Eon.  1516.— Cone.  Later,  a.  1513.  {Uarduin 
\ol.  IX.  p.  1T19S.) 

(7)  Poscoe,  Lorenzo  de  Medici.  [Lond.  1S46.  1  t.  in  Bohnä  Stand.  Lib.  and  PliiLid.  2  v.  S.] 
Sifiteking,  Gesell,  do  Plat.  Acad,  zu  Flor.  Giitt  1S12. 

/()  In  Pauli  II.  YiUi  Plntina,  p.  GCSs.  Cannesius  p.  7S3.  Qtiirinus  p.  J>ss.  Era^mi  I.  XXVI. 
P.p.  84.— ir«;c7(ü  IlisL  crit.  Lat.  linguae  c  12.  n.  3.  Bcii/le  under  Bembo.  Ilenke  on  Villers.  p. 
460S8.    Pi;,ei;  Mytliol.  d.  cl.r.  Kunst  vol.  I.  p.  2T9ss.     [Ratike,  Hist  of  the  Popes,  vol.  L  p.  Täs.] 

i)  Mtiners  vol.  II.  SdSss.  after  Peril  Paventria  ilhistrata.  Lugd.  1C51.  4. 

k)  G.  L.  Schulze,  Astrouomia  per  Copernicum  instaurata  rcliglonis  et  pietitis  chr.  per.  Lutli.  re- 
purgatac  egrcgia  adjutrix.  Budiss.  13-30. 

I)  Discor?i  sopra  la  prima  Dec  di  T.  Livio.  II.  Principe.  Storia  Fiorentina.— iS:ÄZo»««r  in  lit* 
Zeitschr.  f.  Gosh.  u.  Lit  vol.  Y.  p.  4.%ss.  [M<ic/ri.ir'^lirs  ^i^t  of  Flor,  the  Prince  and  other  work« 
transL  into  Engl,  in  Buhn's  SUnd.  Lib.  Lond.  1<47.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  2?2.  REÜCIILIX.  329 

§  282.     John  licuchUn.     1455-1522. 

J.  n.  Mahnt,  Tita  l:euchl.  Durlacl  16'j7.    Meiners  vol.  I.  p.  44ss.    E.  Th.  Mayerhoff,  Reucli.  u. 
I.  Zelt  Brl.  1S80.    Erhard  vol.  II.  p.  14Tss.    {Barham,  Eeuchlin's  Lifo  and  Times.  Lond.  12mo.] 

Rciiclilin  (Capnio),  who  had  been  educated  in  the  study  of  the  Classic«, 
and  was  a  leader  of  the  Humanists,  came  originally  from  Pforzheim.  At 
first  he  devoted  him.-clf  to  the  study  of  Jewi.sh  literature,  expecting  to  find 
the  mysterious  Avisdom  which  had  been  promised  there.  Though  disap- 
pointed in  this,  he  obtained  a  knowledge  of  Hebrew,  Avhich  he  succeeded  in 
diffusing  through  the  Church,  and  applied  to  the  exposition  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. ('/)  From  a  scientific  spirit  as  well  as  from  private  inclination  he 
disapproved  of  the  proposition  urged  by  r/cfferkorn^  a  converted  Jcav,  to 
commit  all  the  Rabbinical  books  to  the  flames,  at  least  so  far  as  they  did  not 
blaspheme  Christ.  This  was  construed  by  the  inquisitor  llogstraten^  who 
then  presided  over  the  Dominicans  at  Cologne,  as  evidence  that  he  was 
secretly  a  convert  to  -Judaism.  In  the  eyes  of  such  a  man  the  Greek  language 
was  the  mother  of  all  heresies,  and  tlie  study  of  Hebrew  was  an  unquestionable 
apostasy  to  Judaism.  Standing  in  the  independent  positi(m  of  an  advocate  of 
princes  and  cities,  Reuchlln  assailed  the  theological  barbarism  of  the  Domini- 
cans with  every  kind  of  intellectual  weapons,  to  which  the  inquisitorial 
judges  had  nothing  to  oppose  but  cries  for  his  condemnation,  {h)  The  whole 
German  people  Avere  witnesses  of  this  ecclesiastical  feud,  and  a  learned  class 
of  spirited  youth  under  the  banner  of  Ulrich  of  Halten,  ojfenly  declared 
themselves  on  the  side  of  Reuchlin.  From  the  circle  thus  formed  proceeded 
the  Letters  of  Olsrure  Men,  (c)  in  whicli  the  extreme  stui)idity  of  the  mendi- 
cant friars,  their  general  immorality,  and  their  loud  outcries  respecting  the 
heresies  of  the  Humanists,  together  with  their  own  dog-Latin,  is  described  so 
naturally  and  truthfully  that  the  Dominicans  themselves  joined  in  circulat- 
ing the  book,  though  they  afterwards  hurled  their  anathemas  against  it  in 
vain.  The  controversy  was  at  last  brought  before  tlie  poi)o  himself,  and  de- 
cided in  favor  of  Reuchlin.  The  Dominicans  made  every  effort  to  obtain  a 
reversal  of  this  decision,  and  the  papal  court  was  not  altogether  inditferent 
to  the  threatenings  and  briberies  they  made  use  of,  but  on  the  other  hand, 
Reuchlin  was  sustained  by  the  whole  influence  of  the  emperor  and  the  em- 
pire. The  party  at  Cologne  were  finally  compelled  by  the  sword  of  Francis 
of  Siclcingen  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  suit  (1520).  Tbe  amount  of 
these  was  only  a  hundred  and  eleven  gold-florins,  but  the  mendicant  friars 
were  tliemsclves  ovorwladmed  witli  ridicule,  their  cause  was  utterly  ruined 
in  the  csliination  of  intelligent  persons,  and  Germany  had  now  proclaimed 
.0  the  world  where  she  would  stand  in  the  decisive  struggle  which  was  ap- 
proaching. 


a)  De  verba  tnirinco  1.  III.  Tub.  1514.  f.  Do  nrtc  cabballatica  I.  III.  Hng.  1517.  f.— De  rudlmen 
tis  hcbr.  riiorcne.  15<l0.  f.  Hiis.  1573.  f.  Do  accentlbiis  ct  ortliogr.  linguae  lifbr.  Hog.  1518.  f.— Epp 
Hag.  1514  1519.  4. 

I)  12.  Ilntlisrlk.  ob  miin  don  -luden  alio  Ihre  Rüchor  neTimen  nnd  verbrennen  soll.  1510.  Pfffferl: 
Handspiegel.  1511.  It.  Augen.«piogel.  1511.  Defenslo  saluinntatores  c  Colunleuses.  1513.  besides  otliei 
orlg.  docc.  ir.  If>irdt,  Hist.  Liter.  Kef.  V.  II. 

f)  Epp.  obsouronnn  vlroniin.  1.  I.  Hngon.  1510.  1.  II.  Ros.  1517.  and  often,  don.  ed.  j:<,tern:uiid, 
Ilann.  1827.  2  Tli.  edit,  and  c.\pl.  by  Munch.  Lpz.  1S27.— t'.  ah  //m«<;;i,  Triiuupbus  Oipnlon.  ItlS. 


330  MKDIAKVAI,  (  llCliCII  lIISTor.V.     I'KIt.  IV.     A.  I).  12IC-101T 

§  283.     Dcs'ulcrius  Eranmiis.    14G5-1530, 

Opp.  c<l.  Clfiirii»,  Liigd.  UOSss.  11  vol»,  f.  Comp.  "Vltao  Erasml  by  lilinsolf  in  Cleric,  ynl.  1 
J.  I«  Clrrc,  IJll.l.  cliolsle,  voi.  V.  p.  13.Jss.  vol.  VI.  p.  7.<s.  Jortin,  Life  of  E.  Lond.  17ÖS.  Jiarlgmj, 
Vic  tl'R  Tor.  ^'TH.  Uebors.  v.  Ilcich  in.  Zus.  v.  IlenK-e  \\i\\.  n.  Ulm.  17S2.  2  vols.  (IIos.s)  E.  r.  JlotU-rd. 
Zur.  179(1.  2  voK  A'l.  Midler,  Leb.  d.  E.  v.  R.  Ilinb.  1S28.  comp.  Ulimann  in  d.  Stud.  u.  KrIL  1S29. 
11.  1.    [Butler,  Lifo  of  E.  Lond  Svo.     VAuhigne,  Illst.  of  Kef.  vol.  I.  p.  llSss.] 

Anionp:  tlio.sc  engaged  in  promoting  tlio  literary  improvement  of  this 
period  no  one  was  more  prominent  than  Erasmus  of  Eotterdara.  He  was 
the  offspring  of  a  faithful  connection,  but  one  which  never  received  the  sanc- 
tion of  a  Clnireh  fettered  by  monastic  prejudice.'!.  He  wa.s  for  some  time  a 
pupil  of  the  Brethren  of  the  Common  Life  at  Deventcr,  and  afterwards  a 
monk  at  Stein  (1486).  When  he  lacked  courage  to  refuse  the  monastic  vows 
he  was  released  frona  them  (about  1490)  by  the  Bishop  of  Cambray,  Avho  was 
anxious  to  turn  his  classical  education  to  a  better  account.  Several  years 
were  then  spent  in  journeys  for  literary  purposes  in  France,  England,  and 
Italy,  until  he  became  settled  with  his  publisher  at  Basle  (1521).  "When  a 
young  man,  and  devoted  to  literary  pursuits,  he  lived  in  a  state  of  depend- 
ence upon  the  capricious  favor  of  his  English  patron.s,  and  at  a  later  period 
when  reigning  supreme  in  the  learned  world  he  refu.sed  with  a  lofty  conscious- 
ness of  his  power,  ever}--  office  of  dignity  both  in  the  Church  and  in  the  courts 
of  princes.  But  as  he  was  of  a  feeble  constitution,  fond  of  ease,  and  as  he 
enjoyed  with  a  high  relish  the  elegancies  of  life,  he  was  always  delighted  with 
costly  presents  and  pensions.  He  displayed  an  astonishing  activity  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  various  subjects  then  brought  forward  in  ecclesiastical  and 
social  life,  sometimes  for  his  own  pleasure  and  sometimes  in  compliance  with 
the  wishes  of  his  patrons.  Many  classical  authors  and  ecclesiastical  fathers 
were  edited  by  him,  but  above  all,  the  original  text  of  the  New  Testament 
was  made  accessible  to  the  public,  and  the  immense  benefits  of  the  press  were 
then  realized  principally  by  his  agency,  (a)  His  character  was  not  of  the 
highest  order,  fur  he  was  easily  excited  and  suspicious,  and  he  was  destitute  of 
inventive  power  or  depth  of  thought;  but  his  common  sense  was  of  the  most 
solid  nature,  his  stores  of  knowledge  were  abundant,  he  was  never  at  a  loss 
for  the  happiest  turn  of  expression,  and  his  wit  was  inexhaustible.  The  in- 
Bipid  practices  of  the  monks,  the  subtle  refinements  of  the  scholastics,  the 
weak  points  of  the  worship  of  the  saints,  the  extravagances  of  those  who 
preached  indulgences,  and  the  follies  of  every  class,  even  of  the  popes  them- 
selves, were  all  unmercifully  ridiculed  in  his  writings.  Nor  did  he  hesitate 
to  throw  suspicion  upon  the  foundation  on  which  the  whole  fobric  of  the 
hierarchy  rested,  and  to  refer  to  Socrates  as  a  saint,  although  he  reproved  the 
heathenish  tendencies  of  the  modern  Ciceronians,  and  always  appeared  ar- 
dently attached  to  the  Christianity  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  (o)  Ho  was  not 
backward  to  attack  the  interests  of  many  classes,  and  when  excited  or  exer- 
cising his  wit  he  was  frequently  bolder  than  circumstances  required.     It  was 

o)  CoUoqui.i  Ciceroniauus.  Adagia.  Moriiie  encomium.  Enchir.  niilitis  clir.  Katio  verae  Theol. 
Matrimonii  clir.  institutio.  Ecclesiastos.  Epp.  etc  [Ilis  Panegyric  upon  Folly  bas  been  transl.  and 
publ.  In  Oxf.  1GS;1.  12.  and  his  Familiar  Colloquies  transl.  by  B.iiley,  and  publ.  in  Lond.  1725.  S.1 

h)  J.  A.  FiihrUii  Exerc.  de  rcl.  Er.  (Opusc  hist,  crit.  lit  p.  379ss.) 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLES.  LIT.    §  233.  ERASMUS.    §  234.  SCKIPTCEE3.  331 

therefore  not  surprising  that  nearly  every  kind  of  heresy  vras  imputed  to  him. 
The  common  people,  however,  were  not  the  object  of  his  etlbrts,  neither  did 
he  aim  to  eflect  any  very  violent  changes  in  society.  Even  to  those  who  were 
enlightened  he  only  ventured  to  hint  at  truth,  he  never  ohjected  to  an  in- 
trenchment  of  himself  behind  ambiguous  expressions,  and  on  all  subjects  pro- 
fessed his  readiness  to  submit  to  the  judgment  of  the  Church  should  it  eveii 
teach  the  doctrines  of  Arianism  and  Pelagianism.  It  was,  therefore,  no  very 
difficult  matter  for  such  a  man,  eminently  intellectual  and  distinguished 
among  his  contemporaries,  to  keep  up  a  tolerably  good  understanding  with 
tlie  principal  men  of  the  hierarchy,  whose  education  was  accomplished  and 
secular.  By  all  those  who  filled  the  papal  chair  during  his  lite  ho  was  es- 
pecially esteemed. 

§  284.     The  Holy  Scriptures. 

In  matters  of  faith  an  indefinite  kind  of  authority  was  every  where  con- 
ceded to  distinguished  writers  among  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  the  Scholas- 
tics and  the  Mystics.  In  the  controversy  with  the  Hussites  the  principal 
object  was  to  prove  that  the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  was  dependent  upon 
that  of  the  Church,  but  all  those  who  contended  for  reform  in  the  Church 
itself,  directed  their  attention  to  the  Avord  of  God.  During  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries,  considerable  interest  was  taken  in  a  tedious  kind  of 
Scriptural  exposition,  much  like  the  allegorical  and  devotional  method  of  an 
earlier  period,  according  to  which  each  passage  had  various  senses.  Few, 
however,  ventured  to  go  beyond  the  authority  of  the  Vulgate,  of  Ilieronv- 
mus,  and  of  Augustine.  Individuals  indeed,  like  Tlioma»^  though  ignorant 
of  the  original  languages,  and  full  of  preconceived  opinions,  nevertheless 
under  the  guidance  of  a  congenial  spirit,  sometimes  penetrated  deei)ly  into 
the  meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  (a)  Some  assistance  in  an  intelligent  expo- 
sition and  criticism  Avas  also  derived  from  the  works  of  Jews  and  heathen 
writers.  Nicolas  oi.  Lyra  ((\.  1351),  a  Minorite,  investigated  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  Old  Testament  with  no  small  amount  of  Iiabbinical  learning.  (V) 
The  first  printed  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  was  published  under  the  care 
of  the  Eabbins,  and  was  conformed  to  their  critical  traditions  (J/asora).  (c) 
Xim'encs  (after  1505)  in  the  po.ssession  of  unbounded  means  and  opportunities, 
got  up  an  edition  of  the  Bible  in  all  the  sacred  languages,  but  the  original 
text  was  based  ui)OD  recent  manuscripts,  and  was  corrected  by  the  Vulgate,  {d) 
The  I^Tew  Testament  had  already  been  placed  in  the  hands  of  thousands  by 
the  labors  of  Erasnnis.  (e)  Valla  was  desirous  of  teaching  the  Latin  Vul- 
gate, but  Erasmus  pointed  out  its  errors,  and  endeavored  to  make  the  simple 
meaning  of  the  words  of  the  New  Testament  intelligible  to  his  readers,  and 

a)  A.  TJiciuck,  do  Thoma  Aqnlnstc  stquo  Abaci.  Interprctlbus  N.  T.  Ilnl.  1S42.  4. 
I)  Postillao  pcrpotiiao  in  uiiiv  IJiblin.  Uom.  1471.  Ö  vols.  &  often. 
t)  Soncinl.  14SS.  f.  JJrlx.  1494.  &;  oAin. 

d)  Kiblia  hcbr.  cliald.  pr.  ot  Lat,  do  iiianilato  Fr.  Ximeneg  de  CUnfroi>.  In  Complutensi  Univ. 
I.'514-17.  Th.  C.  f.  K->t  publicly  until  l.'>20,  ami  beyond  the  Pyrenees  In  1522.  Comp.  Il^d«  (p.  294.) 
p.  120SS.     [Hurrett,  Lifo  of  Xlincncs.  Lond.  8.] 

e)  Xov.  Inslruin.  lias.  1510.  f.  With  continual  Iniprovonicnts  1519.  1522.  1527.  150.>.  ffeiiK-e  y.  d. 
Er.  Arbeiten  ü.  d.  X.  T.  Anh.  zu.  Burigny  vol.  II.  p.  53-')aä. 


332  MKDIAKVAL  CIIL'KCH  IIISTOUV.     VV.K.  IV.     A.  1).  llilO-l.MT. 

although  ho  was  in  possession  of  only  a  few  manuscripts,  ho  availed  liirnseli 
of  tho  lahors  of  the  C!reek  oxcgetical  writers.  With  a  bolder  criticism  Faler 
(Lefevro  d'Etaplos,  d.  1537)  broke  through  the  custom  of  relying  upon  tho 
Vulgato,  and  although  he  fled  before  his  enemies  when  threatened  with  mar- 
tyrdom, ho  iirci)arcd  the  way  for  the  triumjjh  of  the  gospel  in  France.  (/) 
lionavontiira's  L'illc  for  the  jtoor  proposed  that  the  fiivorito  object  of  all 
proacliing  should  be  the  contents  of  the  Scriptures,  (g)  The  opposition  of  tho 
Cliuroh  to  primitive  Christianity  was  evinced  in  tho  fact  that  when  it  per- 
ceived the  almost  universal  use  of  the  sacred  Avritings  by  parties  liostile  to  it, 
the  hierarchy  ventured  more  and  more  decidedly  to  prevent  tho  perusal  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  to  subject  every  translation 
to  an  ecclesiastical  censorship.  (Ji)  In  spite  of  all  their  efforts,  however,  after 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  wishes  of  the  people  and  the  power 
of  the  press  prevailed,  and  fourteen  editions  of  a  translation  in  the  High  Ger- 
man, all  founded  upon  the  Vulgate,  though  none  were  in  the  genuine  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  are  evidence  of  tho  extent  to  which  it  was  used,  (i) 

§  285.     T7ic  Doctrine  of  the  Church. 

The  introduction  of  genuine  Christianity  had  all  the  eflrect  of  bringing  for- 
ward a  new  law.  The  doctrine  of  the  Church  made  no  further  progress  than 
that  which  sprung  from  an  attempt  to  justify,  in  the  view  of  literary  men, 
the  corruption  of  ecclesiastical  morals  by  indulgences,  and  an  outward  for- 
mality (§  270).  From  this  proceeded  the  doctrine  that,  without  regard  to  the 
spirit  with  which  an  ecclesiastical  observance  was  performed,  it  possessed  a 
certain  degree  of  moral  value,  and  that  man  might  be  forgiven  by  his  God  on 
account  of  his  own  works  or  of  indulgences.  It  was,  however,  argued  that  this 
reconciliation  with  God  was  primarily  founded  upon  the  original  atonement  by 
Christ,  (rt)  The  Scholastics  made  justification  before  God  a  consequence  of 
love  or  of  the  faith  which  is  quickened  by  love  (fides  formata).  A  few  ilys- 
tics  made  it  the  consequence  of  faith  alone.  In  a  limited  sense  only  can  it  be 
said  that  the  Thomists  stood  on  the  same  ground  as  Augustine,  for  while  they 
regarded  original  sin  as  a  culpable  offence,  and  divine  grace  as  predestination, 
they  nevertheless  looked  iipon  the  former  as  consistent  with  the  possession  ol 
some  remnants  of  power,  by  which  a  man  can  render  himself  worthy  of  the 
divine  favor  (meritum  e  congruo),  and  tho  latter  as  dependent  upon  the 
divine  foreknowledge.  The  Scottists,  on  tho  other  hand,  described  both  origi 
nal  sin  and  grace  rather  as  tho  invariable  condition  of  all  men,  and  as  de- 


/)  rsaltorinm  Quincuplex.  Par.  1509.  In  Epp.  Pauli.  Var.  1512.  In  IV.  Evv.  MeM.  15-2-2.  French 
Bible  after  1528,  complete  at  Antw.  1530.  i.—Ch.  IT.  Graf,  Essai  sur  la  vie  et  los  t-crits  de  J.  Lofövre 
d'Et.  Strasb.  1842.     A'.  /7.  Graf,  J.  F.  Stapulens.  [Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S53.  H.  Is.] 

g)  Biblia  panperuin,  rraedicatoribus  perutilis.  1590.  4.  &  often. 

Ä)  Innoc.  III.  1.  It.  Ep.  141.  Cone.  Tolos.  a.  1229.  c.  14.  (Mami  Th.  XXIII.  p.  197.)  [Laiidon'-i 
Manu.al,  Toulouse  a.  1229.  c  14.]— Css^m  Hist  controv.  de  Sc.  et  Sacris  vernaculis.  Lond  1C9Ö  4 
IIegflmaier,GQS<:\\.  d.  Bibelverbots.  Ulm.  1TS.3. 

0  First  edit  was  tli.it  of  Meiitz,  UGi.— Panzer,  lit.  Nachr.  v.  d.  allerfdt.  gedr.  dent  Bibcla. 
Xiirnb.  1774.  u.  Oesch.  d.  r.iiti.  kath.  deut  Bibel.  Nnrnb.  17S1.  J.  Kehrein,  z.  Gcsch.  d.  deutscheu 
Bib<:lucbers.  vor.  Luth.  Stuttg.  1S51. 

a)  DallaetM,  de  poenis  et  satl^fr.ctt  hum.  Arast  1G49.    [nagenlach  Hist  of  Doctrines,  §  1S6.] 


CHAP.  IV.    ECCLE9.  LIT.    §  2S5.  DOCTEINE.    §  2SC.  CASUISTEY.  333 

relopmcnts  of  the  si)iritr.al  world  in  the  course  of  Providence.  The  Pelagian 
tendency  was  essential  to  a  Cluirch  which  placed  works  by  the  side  of  grace, 
and  taught  that  our  own  merits  may  exceed  the  demands  of  duty.  The  pro- 
found Thomist  Thomas  de  Bradicardina,  a  Professor  at  Oxford,  and  finally 
an  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  (d.  1349),  summoned  the  whole  generation  in 
which  he  lived  before  the  bar  of  God,  to  answer  for  its  adoption  of  Pelagian 
sentiments.  Ilis  pliilosophical  system  was  founded  upon  the  principle  that 
God  is  the  necessary  cause  of  every  event,  and  man  only  his  shadow,  (h)  This 
manner  of  speaking  was  so  foreign  to  the  prevalent  mode  of  thought,  and 
the  delusion  with  regard  to  the  opinions  of  Augustine  was  so  general  and 
indispensable  to  the  times,  that  it  awakened  as  little  favor  as  it  did  oppo- 
sition, (c)  It  is,  indeed,  not  improbable  that  when  men  happened  to  be  ar- 
raigned under  some  peculiarly  unfavorable  circumstances,  even  trifling  depar- 
tures from  the  ordinary  opinions  of  the  Church,  were  condemned  by  the 
tribunals,  but  certainly  a  great  variety  of  opinions  were  freely  tolerated, 
particularly  with  respect  to  anthropological  doctrines  and  in  literary  discus- 
sions. The  popes  Avere  far  from  possessing  either  the  ability  or  inchnation  to 
pronounce  any  decision  with  respect  to  those  controversies  of  the  schools  in 
which  great  parties  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  The  Church  seemed  to 
be  so  indifferent  respecting  all  subjects  not  connected  with  its  own  usages 
and  privileges,  that  it  was  commonly  said  that  it  would  bo  safer  to  impeach 
tlie  absolute  authority  of  God  than  that  of  the  pope. 

§  28G.    Ethics  and  Casuistry. 

X>e  Wette,  chr.  Sittenl.  Brl.  1S21.  vol.  II.  II.  2.  p.  116ss.  and  Lobrb.  d.  chr.  Sitteiil.  BerL  1S33.  p. 
USat.  Stäudlin,  Gesch.  (L  moralph.  Han.  1S22.  p.  4GGss.  &  Gesch.  d.  Sittenl.  Jesu.  Gütt  1S2.3.  vol.  IV. 
p.  29Ss8. 

Ethics  now  became  properly  a  science.  Ahelard  had  already  presented 
the  principal  points  of  a  regular  moral  system  (§  220),  in  which  his  dislike  to 
a  merely  external  ecclesiastical  sanctity  and  penances,  is  made  especially  promi- 
nent. According  to  him  sin  is  not  an  outward  act,  nor  a  thought,  nor  a 
natural  desire,  but  a  consent  to  that  which  we  think  wo  are  bound  to  refuse 
from  a  regard  to  the  divine  will.  We  truly  repent  only  when  the  pain  wo 
endure  springs  from  love  to  God.  Other  methods  by  which  wo  attempt  to 
make  satisfaction  for  sin  are  merely  means  of  discipline.  Tho.so  scholastics 
who  came  after  him  generally  connected  their  ethical  system  Avith  their  the- 
ology, without  however,  on  that  account,  assigning  to  it  an  inferior  position. 
Thomas  was  most  successful  in  rendering  the  usages  of  the  Church  consistent 
with  the  purity  of  Christian  morals,  (a)  According  to  him  the  ultimate  ob- 
ject of  ethics  is  to  attain  a  likeness  to  God  by  means  of  the  Cliurch,  the  con- 
templative life  is  more  exalted  than  the  active,  and  monks  and  prelates  are 
ndispensable  to  a  perfect  state  of  society.  Like  Aristotle  before  him  he 
describes  Prudence,  Justice,  Courage  and  Temperance  as  the  cardinal  virtues. 

h)  De  causii  Del  adv.  Pel.  1.  III.  cd.  Satiliii/i.  Lond.  ICIS.  f. 

c)  Argeiitre  vol.  I.  p.  323ss.  With  great  probability  Gicseler  cites  on  this  subject  also  Jiaynald 
»d.  ann.  13T2.  N.  33. 

«)  Summa,  secundnc  Partis  prima  ct  seciinda. 


331  MKDIAKVAL  CIIfKClI  lIIrtTOKV.     I'KI;.  IV.    A.  I>.  lülG-l.'/.T. 

nnd  following  Aiigiistino  ho  represents  tlic  virtues  peoiili  ir  to  Cliristianity  as 
coiisirttiiig  in  Initli,  Jiopo,  niid  love.  In  contraf^t  witli  tliose  stand  tlie  seven 
deadly  sins,  with  i)ridü  tiie  motlicr  of  them  all.  The  etiiical  .«ysteui  of  the 
Mystics  was  confined  to  the  dtlincation  of  the  means  and  degrees  by  which 
the  creature  can  die  to  self  and  awake  to  the  life  of  God.  Through  the 
influence  of  the  Humanists,  sprung  np  in  contrast  with  the  conventional 
morality  of  the  Church  and  of  the  knights,  the  idea  of  a  purely  human  ethics 
which  differed  from  the  law  tf  Christ  only  in  name,  and  had  been  already 
halted  at  in  Thoraasin  Tirklefs  Italian  Guest  (121  Gs.).  According  to  this, 
constancy  of  mind  is  the  basis  of  all  virtues,  and  inconstancy  the  basis  of  all 
vices,  God  is  not  a  Judge  who  can  be  induced  by  money  to  make  wrong 
exchange  places  with  right,  good  men  will  be  happy  Avhether  in  ontward 
prosperity  or  adversity,  wickedness  renders  those  who  commit  it  miserable, 
the  will  alone  gives  character  to  every  action,  and  God  always  loves  the  vir- 
tuous, (b)  "When  this  scholastic  method  of  treating  the  subjects  of  faith  and 
law  wa.s  applied  to  ethics,  a  science  of  Casuistry  was  formed,  for  those  espe- 
cially who  had  the  care  of  souls,  and  to  take  the  place  of  the  old  penitential 
books,  {c)  In  this  theory  of  cases  of  conscience,  the  conflict  between  duties 
and  the  ambiguities  of  particular  circumstances  were  either  invented  with  the 
most  artful  ingenuity,  or  taken  from  actual  life.  When  it  was  received  as  a 
real  counsellor  in  the  path  of  life,  the  rock  of  conscience  was  still  shaken  by 
it.  The  moral  judgment  of  the  Church  itself  appeared  to  waver.  "When  in 
thie  Council  of  Constance  the  Franciscan,  Jean  Petit,  was  solemnly  accused 
by  France  of  having  defended  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  for  his  assassination  of 
the  Duke  of  Orleans,  on  the  ground  that  the  latter  was  a  tyrant  and  a 
traitor,  and  the  Dominican,  John  von  Falcl-enburg,  was  charged  by  Poland 
with  having  preached  in  behalf  of  the  German  orders,  that  the  Polish  king 
and  nation  should  be  expelled  and  massacred,  the  only  result  which  could  be 
obtained  by  all  the  eloquence  of  Gerson  was  a  general  disapprobation  of  the 
assassination  of  tyrants,  while  the  particular  crime  complained  of  and  its 
defenders  remained  unrebuked,  and  3i[artin  V.  refused  his  assent  to  the  con- 
demnation of  Falckenbm'g.  Political  considerations  and  bribery  were  doubt- 
less concerned  in  this  result,  but  the  hesitancy  of  the  Church  allowed  the 
mendicant  friars  to  place  the  sentiment  under  the  protection  of  their  doc- 
trine of  probabilities,  that  any  one  was  justifiable  in  punishing  by  his  sword 
all  those  who  were  beyond  the  ordinary  reach  of  justice.  ((/) 

I)  Dor  Walscbe  G.^st  d.  Thomasin  v.  Zlrklaria,  ed.  with  phiL  &  hist.  obss.  by  II.  Rückert,  Qued- 
liiib.  1852. 

c)  In  tlie  thirteenth  centnry,  Summa  Eaymunaiana,  by  Eaym.  de  Pennaforte;  in  tlie  fourteenth, 
Astesana,  by  Astesanus,  Bartholina  s.  Pisanella,  by  Barthol.  de  S.  Concordia,  in  Pisa :  iu  the  fifteenth, 
Angehca,  by  Angelus  de  Clavasio,  nnd  otliers. 

«0  Genton  Oi.p.  vol.  V.  II.  P.  11.  p.  3SÖSS.  Hardt,  Const.  Cone.  vol.  IV.  p.  439ss.  1555.  Dlugossi 
Ulst.  Pol.  Fret  ITll.  f.  1.  XI.  p.  87& 


CHAP.  V.    EXTEisS.  OF  THE  CHCECIL     §  2S7.  ArOLOGIsTS.  335 

CHAP,  v.— EXTENSION  OF  THE  ROM  AX  CATHOLIC  CllUIiCII. 

§  2 87.     Apologetics.     Islam.     Judaixm. 

The  literary  defences  of  Christianity  were  principally  directed  against 
some  objections  urged  by  Miissulmen  and  Jews,  but  they  merely  justified  the 
views  of  Christians  at  the  bar  of  their  own  judgments.  Thomas  of  Aquino 
gave  utterance  to  the  rigid  views  of  the  Church  when  be  maintained  that 
she  is  the  only  judge  of  reason  and  the  only  gate  of  salvation,  {a)  The  Pla- 
tonist,  Marsilius  Ficinus  (d.  1499),  maintained  the  view  adopted  by  the  Hu- 
manists, according  to  which  God  had  revealed  himself  also  to  the  heathen, 
but  had  never  become  a  perfect  man  except  in  Christ,  (h)  Mussulmen  were 
prohibited,  under  the  penalty  of  death,  from  even  listening  to  Chrbtians. 
Raymond  Lullus,  of  Majorca  (1230-131 6),  who  had  been  startled  from  the 
poetic  dreams  of  a  gay  youth  by  the  image  of  a  sufiering  Christ,  attempted 
to  overcome  the  power  of  Islam  on  the  one  hand  by  establishing  institutions 
for  philological  missions,  and  on  the  other  by  his  new  art  of  reasoning,  which 
he  supposed  was  able  to  conquer  any  mind.  "Witli  restless  activity  he  pro- 
claimed his  fanciful  doctrine  of  combination  to  Christians,  and  a  Triune  God 
to  the  Saracens,  and  liiially  suöered  the  martyrdom  which  he  had  long  sought 
but  feared.  The  Church  long  hesitated  whether  he  should  be  regarded  as  a 
saint  or  as  a  heretic,  (c)  It  was  not  until  tlie  Cross  had  become  victorious 
in  Spain  that  many  Moors  and  Jews  were  induced  by  the  alternative  of  death, 
or  banishment  from  their  native  soil,  to  receive  baptism  from  their  conquer- 
ors. In  that  country,  especially,  Judaism  became  pervaded  by  the  literature 
of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  exceeded  even  the  learning  of  the  times.  Maimo- 
nides  (d.  1208),  by  combining  the  doctrines  of  Moses  with  those  of  Aristotle, 
gave  new  life  to  Hebraism,  and  yet  with  warm  affection  preserved  collected 
traditions.  (<?)  So  decided  was  the  ecclesiastical  prejudice  against  loans  of 
money  on  interest  on  tlie  ground  that  it  was  usury,  that  nearly  all  the  pecu- 
niary wealth  of  Christendom  in  each  generation  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  at  that  time  scattered  in  every  country  of  Europe.  It  was,  however, 
as  speedily  lost  by  them  in  consequence  of  the  extreme  oppressions  and  vio- 
lence to  which  they  were  universally  subjected.  Wherever  a  protracted 
profit  from  them  was  regarded  as  more  advantageous  than  a  sudden  robbery-, 
they  were  protected  by  the  princes  like  any  other  lucrative  possessions. 
Many  laws  were  passed  and  frequently  renewed  by  the  Church,  to  prevent 
all  dependence  of  Ciiristians  uj)on  Jews,  to  destroy  all  bonds  of  afil-ction  be- 
tween Jews  and  Christians,  to  forbid  the  employment  of  Jewish  physicians, 
and  to  nullify  all  mortgages  held  by  Jews  upon  sacred  utensils,  and  the  pro- 
perty of  the  (.'Inirch.     Even  (Jregory  I.  regarded  it  as  unquestionably  proper 


a)  Summn  catliol.  fldel  contra  Oontilcs,  1.  IV. 

h)  De  ril.  clir.  ct  llclel  |.let!ite  nd  Laurent.  Mi-cI.  (Opp.  Par.  ICH.  t  vol.  I.) 

c)  Ji.  F.nUi  0\-\\  qiino  ad  iiiveiitnin  nb  i|>so  iirUMii  uiiUi'r.<a:cui  portlneiit,  C.  Junl.  Uruni  ct  C. 
Agrippae  coniiiitr.  Argent.  1J19S.  Acta  SS.  Jiin.  vol.  V.  p.  frJU^s. 

d)  Especially  More  NtliKolilin,  Has.  lCi!>.  4.  15er.  1T9I.  uebors.  v.  Schtijer,  Frkf.  1S30.  [.T.  Toicii- 
leij.  Reasons  of  the  Laws  of  Mo.<cs  from  tlio  More  Neb.  of  Nfuim.  with  notes,  vtc.  Lond.  1S23.  Lit- 
teU's  Matr.  vol.  I.  p.  '.';!:5.ss.  5lös>'.]     n.-er.  Leben  u.  Wirken  d.  Moses  bii\  Mniuion.  Prag.  1S35. 


33G  MEOIAKVAL  CIIUIU'II  IIISTOIIV.     rKK,  IV.     A.  I).  121&-1.M7. 

to  entice  Jews  into  tlic  profession  of  Christianity,  were  it  only  for  the  sake 
of  their  cliihheti,  and  frequently  arrangements  were  made  for  compelling 
Jews  to  listen  to  discourses  for  their  conversion.  All,  however,  conceded 
that  they  should  never  bo  comi)elled  to  profess  the  Christian  faitli,  and  tho 
popes  excommunicated  those  who  attempted  to  injure  these  living  witnesses 
for  the  truth  of  tho  Christian  faith,  in  tho  enjoyment  of  their  usual  privi- 
leges and  disciidine,  on  tho  ground  that  at  some  period  before  the  second 
coming  of  our  Lord  they  wero  to  be  converted  to  Christianity,  (f)  But  tho 
exclusive  iniluenco  of  ecclesiastical  prejudices,  the  wealth  of  the  Jews,  and 
the  necessities  of  thoso  indebted  to  them,  continually  nourished  the  popular 
hatred.  The  commencement  of  the  crusades  was  remarkable  for  scenes  of 
Jewish  slaughter,  and  not  unfrequently  afterwards  the  feelings  of  the  popu- 
lace were  so  aroused  against  this  people  by  vague  rumors  of  the  crucifixion 
of  Christian  children,  of  poisoned  wells,  and  of  the  piercing  of  the  Host, 
that  in  some  cities  the  whole  Jewish  population  were  suddenly  massacred  or 
burned  at  the  stake.  Excluded  as  they  were  from  public  stations  of  honor 
and  enjoyment,  they  applied  all  their  energies  and  keen  intellects  with  almost 
convulsive  eagerness  to  the  accumulation  of  money,  by  which  alone  they 
could  possess  influence.  In  silent  bitterness  toward  the  whole  human  race, 
but  faithful  to  their  principles  even  to  death,  this  reprobate  people  of  God 
by  hundreds  gave  themselves  and  their  children  to  the  slaughter  rather  than 
to  baptism.  (/) 

§  288.    Prussia.    Lithuania.     Lapland. 

Liter,  see  §  211.  3fone,  Symb.  n.  Mythol.  toI.  I.  p.  ~9si.—Dlugo8si  Hist  Pol.  1.  X.  p.  96s.  J. 
Liruleiihhitt,  Jahrbb.  edit,  by  Voigt,  Künigsb.  1S23.  p.  60ss.  SZias.—Scheß'eri  Lapponia.  Frcf.  1673. 
4.    Jlone,  vol.  I.  p.  21ss. 

The  bishops  who,  since  the  tenth  century,  had  been  consecrated  to  carry 
the  gospel  to  Prussia,  found  nothing  but  death  there.  The  Polish  Cistercians, 
after  1207,  appear  to  have  been  more  successful.  But  when  the  converts 
were  used  by  Polish  princes  in  the  subjugation  of  the  Prussians,  they  were 
all  murdered,  and  the  Polish  provinces  on  the  border  were  reduced  to  deso- 
lation. In  this  extremity  the  order  of  the  German  knights  was  invited  to 
assist  the  distressed  Poles  (1226),  and  by  a  league  between  it  and  Poland,  the 
empire,  and  the  Koman  court,  Prussia  became  its  perpetual  possession. 
These  knights  then  proclaimed  a  crusade  against  their  enemies,  and  after 
long  and  bloody  wars  they  effected  the  conquest  of  the  inhabitants  (1230-83). 
Innocent  IV.  divided  Prussia  into  the  dioceses  of  Culm,  Pomesania,  Erm- 
land,  and  Samland.  The  bishops  were  to  have  possession  of  a  third  part  of 
all  the  land  as  an  independent  property,  but  they  soon  became  dependent 
upon  the  knightly  order,  by  which  a  refractory  bishop  of  Samland  was 
allowed  to  starve  in  prison,  (a)    Every  foot  of  territory  conquered  by  the 


e)  Alexand.  III.  in  Cone  Later,  a.  1179.  c.  26.  Innoc.  IIL  1.  IL  Ep.  302.  Comp.  Bemardi  Ep. 
822.     Thomas,  Sumnia.  P.  H,  2.  Qu.  10. 

/)  Jö«f,  Gesch.  d.  Isr.  vol.  TL  VII.  &  Allg.  Geseh.  d.  Isr.  Yolks,  vol.  IL  p.  Sii7ss.  [JoiVs  Hist  of 
the  Jews,  &c  transl.  from  Germ,  by  J.  11.  Ilopkins,  New  York.  1S4S.  Jfil*nan't  Uist.  of  Jews.  New 
York.  1S;30.]  Depping.  los  Julft  dans  le  moyen  age.  Par.  15:54.  Locherer,  Geist  dor  v.  d.  Kirche  fur  n. 
R-lder  die  Juden  hcrvorgesangenen  Vorordnn.  (Jahrb.  f.  Tbeol.  n.  ehr.  Phil.  1535.  vol.  lY.  H.  2.) 

a)  Gthser.  Geacb.  d.  Domk.  za  Königsb.  Konigsb.  1S35.  p.  204s8. 


CHAP.  V.    EXTEX3.  OF  THE  CHURCH.    J  2S9.  PRUSSIA.    LITHUANIA.         337 

order  was  secured  by  permanent  cities  colonized  by  German.'',  so  that  ulti- 
mately  the  Prussians  were  more  jjroperl}'  exterminated  tlian  converted.  In 
the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century  the  Gnmd  Master  made  the  city  of 
MaricnMirg  his  permanent  capital,  and  there  were  put  forth  the  most  splen- 
did exhibitions  of  knighthood.  Q>)  Soon,  liowcver,  dissensions  arose  be- 
tween the  order  and  the  bierarchy,  the  people  whom  they  governed  were 
driven  to  dosjjair,  one  portion  of  the  country  was  wrested  from  them  by  the 
King  of  Poland,  and  tlie  remainder  was  received  from  him  as  a  royal  fief 
(14G6). — JaijtUo,  the  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  jiurcliascd  the  hand  of  the 
heires.s-apparcnt  to  the  throne  of  Poland  by  submitting  to  baptism  (1386). 
His  countrymen  received  each  a  white  woollen  coat  as  a  sponsor's  gift,  and 
allowed  themselves  to  be  baptized  in  troop.s,  all  in  each  company  receiving 
the  same  name.  But  even  in  the  sixteenth  century  heathenish  customs  main- 
tained their  i)lace  side  by  side  with  Christian  usages. — The  sovereignty  of 
Sweden  was  acknowledged  by  the  Laplanders  (about  1270),  and  a  church 
was  consecrated  for  them  at  Tornea  (1835)  by  Ilcimning^  the  Archbishop  of 
Upsala.  After  this,  children  were  generally  baptized,  and  marriape  was  cele- 
brated by  the  priests,  but  the  natural  poverty  of  the  country  ai.  J  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  families  was  so  great,  that  a  pastoral  charge  seemed  almost 
impossible,  and  the  minds  of  the  people  were  subject  to  the  m.igical  rites  of 
their  former  heathenism,  (c) 

§  289.     rrester  John  and  the  Mongols. 

Assemani  Bibl.  or.  vol.  III.  P.  I.  II.  Mosheim,  Hi.st  Tartaroruiii  ccc.  Illmst,  1741.  4.  Ahel- 
Remusat,  Mumoires  sur  los  relations  polltifjuos  des  princes  clirutlens  avcc  les  einpereurs  Mongols. 
(Mem.  <le  I'lnst.  de  France,  Acad,  des  Inscript.  1S22.  Tli.  VI.  Yll.)  Sc?imidt,  Hist  des  Mongols 
depnis  Tschingulz-klian  jiisqu'ä  Tiinur-lenk.  Par.  Is24.  [Hist,  of  the  Mongols  from  Glicnghis-Ktian 
to  Tamerlane.  Auist.  1SÖ3.  4  vols.] 

Near  the  commencement  of  the  eleventh  century  the  Nestorians  induced 
a  Tartarian  prince  to  profess  Christianity,  who  transmitted  to  his  successors 
the  name  (Ung-Klian)  which  has  been  rather  doubtfully  translated  into  Euro- 
l)ean  languages  in  the  form  of  Prcatcr  John.  In  the  popular  traditions  of 
his  own  age  ho  was  a  mythical  personage,  in  which  Europe  admired  an  ideal 
surpassing  the  papacy  itself  in  its  union  of  the  royal  and  sacerdotal  power. 
A  royal  priest  of  such  an  illustrious  character,  Alexander  III.  was  very 
anxious  to  connect  with  the  Roman  Church.^  His  glory,  however,  was  soon 
lost  in  the  confusion  created  by  the  conquests  of  GIu-nghisKhdn.  Europe 
itself  was  delivered  about  the  same  time  (1241)  from  the  perils  of  the  great 
national  migration  of  the  Mongols,  not  so  much  by  the  hand  of  man  as  by 
the  power  of  God,  Mendicant  fiiars  were  sent  to  these  coiKpicrors  of  Asia 
by  the  lionmn  Churcli  and  St.  Louis  of  France.  Brilliant  hopes  had  been 
awakened  by  the  personal  favors  shown  to  individuals,  the  regard  which  a 
conquering  people  usually  entertain  for  the  deities  of  the  nation  they  wish 
to  subdue,  and  the  actual  hesitation  which  Mongolian  Deism  exhibited  in 
choosing  between  the  gospel  and  the  koran.     The  exaggerated  accounts  sent 

I)  J.  Voigt,  Gesell.  Marlenb.  K.inlgsb.  1S24. 

c)  Comp.  liheimpaUra  Rep.  1841.  vol.  XXXIII.  p.  S2s8. 

*   Barotiitw,  ad  ann.  1177.  N.  AJs". 


338  MKDIAKVAL  CiniK  II  IIISTOIIY.     I'KU.  IV.     A.  I).  lilf,-1617. 

l>iirk  by  tlic  iiiiMsioiinrit's  tlicro,  filled  all  Europe  with  the  most  exalted  ex 
poet jit ions.  Kvcn  in  tlio  tliirtcenth  century,  however,  tlie  liapjicy  of  the 
Diilfti-liiinn.  hopnn  to  be  dcvc]t>i>e(l,  and  other  Mongolian  trihes  embraced  the 
ivlij,'ii>n  of  Islam.  One  small  congregation  in  the  city  oi  Peking^  over  which 
un  ardibishop  had  been  consecrated  by  Clement  V.  (1307),  was  entirely  de- 
stroyed during  an  insurrection  in  China  against  the  Mongols  (13C9).  The 
Nestorians  .'done  succeeded  in  preserving  a  few  settlements  there. 

§  290.     The  Xew  World. 

BarVi.  de  Ici  Cd-tas,  EoKicion  de  la  destruiclon  do  las  Indlaa.  1552.  4.  (lat  1614  germ.  1CC5.  4.>— 
Jiohertson,  Illst  of  America.  Lond.  1772.  and  often.  [New  York.  1S40.]  IIVjV,  ü.  Las  Ca.s.  (Zcit- 
»ehr.  f.  liist.  Tli.  vol.  IV.  Pt  1.)  Wolten'ti  Weltk.  1S35.  vol.  I.  p.  87s.'.  [  ir.  IrriJig,  Life  and  Voyages 
of  Columbus  and  bis  Companions,  new  ctL  New  York.  1S49.  8  vols.] 

In  Spite  of  the  ecclesiastical  prejudices  he  was  obliged  to  overcome,  Co- 
lumbus believed  himself  called  by  the  Holy  Spirit  to  fulfil  the  word  of  the 
Lord,  predicting  that  the  gospel  should  bo  carried  to  nations  at  the  utmost 
borders  of  the  earth.  The  discovery  of  America  (1492)  and  the  circumnavi- 
gation of  Africa  (1498)  were  regarded  as  mighty  conquests  in  behalf  of 
Christianity.  The  Indians,  however,  had  no  desire  for  a  heaven  where  they 
were  again  to  meet  their  Spanish  tyrants.  In  every  way  that  European  vio- 
lence could  devise,  they  were  forcibly  compelled  to  receive  baptism.  And 
yet  the  blessings  the  gospel  ever  carries  in  its  train  could  not  be  altogether 
withheld  from  them.  The  Dominicans  exerted  all  the  power  of  the  Church 
to  secure  for  their  converts  the  rights  of  human  beings.  Finally  the  heroic 
sufferer  Las  Casas  (1517)  obtained  a  law  from  Charles  I.  (Y.)  securing  to  the 
natives  the  enjoyment  of  their  personal  freedom,  but  it  was  purchased  by 
the  introduction  of  the  African  slave-trade. 


CHAP.   YL— OPPOSITION  AND  REFORM. 

Liter,  before  §  228.  Fl<Jciuf>,  Catal.  testium  veritatis.  (Bas.  1556.  Arg.  1562.  f)  Frcf.  1666.  Fascia 
rerum  expetendarum  ac  fiigiend.  ed.  Orthuinus  Gratiim,  Col.  15.35.  f.  aux.  E.  Broten,  Lond.  2  Tols.  £ 
■Jo.  Wolf,  Ltctiones  memorab.  et  recond.  (Laving.  1600.)  Lps.  1671.  Haidt:  Const.  Cone  vol.  I.  P. 
IX.  Hist.  lit.  Kef.  V.  III.  C.  Ullmann,  Keforniatoren  vor  d.  Keformation.  Ilnmb.  1S413.  2  vols. 
F.  A.  Ilokhausen,  d.  Protest  nach  seiner  Entsteh.  Lpz.  1846.  vol.  I. 

§  291.     General  Vieic. 

The  highest  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  system  then  prevalent  had  their 
origin  in  enthusiastic  notions  and  feelings,  inconsistent  with  nature,  (a)  But 
as  all  enthusiasm  must  in  the  course  of  time  expend  its  force,  and  nature 
will  ultimately  assert  its  rights,  the  extreme  self-denials  which  that  system 
had  undertaken  and  required,  soon  became  a  false  display,  for  which  Bomo 
indemnified  themselves  by  unlawful  and  unnatural  means,  and  others  became 
a  prey  to  idiocy  or  despair  through  their  compulsory  fidelity.  Hence,  so 
long  as  Catholicism  was  looked  upon  as  the  only  possible  form  of  the  Church, 
there  were  either  perpetual  corruptions  of  all  ecclesiastical  institutions,  or 

a)  Comp.  ITegel,  Phil.  d.  Eel.  Brl.  1S32.  vol.  I.  p.  I'lss, 


CHAP.  VI.   orros.  &  eefoem.   §  292.  stedin'gees  339 

continual  renovations  of  thö  spirit,  which  eitlier  gave  new  life  to  the  old 
forms,  or  created  new.  But  the  true  mission  of  Catholicism  in  Europe  was 
now  nearly  complete,  the  people  began  to  think  that  they  had  passed  the 
period  of  pupilage,  and  those  who  were  employed  in  political  and  scientific 
pursuits  were  evidently  superior  to  the  hierarchy.  The  internal  spirit  which 
called  for  such  a  system  no  longer  existed,  its  ahases  had  attained  a  high 
degree  of  extravagance,  and  finally  a  painful  schism  had  become  perceptible 
in  every  part  of  the  Church.  The  necessity  of  a  reformation  was  therefore 
generally  acknowledged.  Many  felt  that  it  waa  near,  and  expressed  their 
convictions  by  predicting  sometimes  the  destruction  and  sometimes  the  glo- 
rious renovation  of  the  Church.  Not  unfrequently  their  feelings  were  ex- 
hibited in  prophecies  that  God  was  about  to  raise  up  pious  doctors,  Christian 
heroes,  and  even  monks  or  hermits  for  this  work.  (/>)  Two  classes  of  per- 
sons became  prominent  in  the  course  of  these  struggles  for  reform  :  1)  The 
hostile  parties  continued  from  the  preceding  period,  whose  revolutionary  ele- 
ments were  soon  almost  completely  destroyed  by  the  Charch,  while  all  that 
was  true  in  them  passed  over  into  the  other  class.  2)  A  party  composed 
partly  of  a  series  of  ecclesiastical  teachers  still  deeply  imbued  with  the  spirit 
of  Catholicism,  and  anxious  to  bring  it  back  to  its  original  intention,  and  to 
render  it  consistent  with  its  own  principles  and  laws,  and  partly  of  those 
who  despaired  of  any  general  reform  according  to  the  customary  forms  of 
law,  and  who  therefore  ccmmenced  the  work  in  their  own  way.  These, 
longing  for  a  primitive  Christianity  unknown  in  later  times,  had  no  scruples 
in  renouncing  all  terms  with  the  Church  of  that  day.  All  these  tendencies 
v,-ere  in  various  ways  intermingled  with  one  another,  inasmuch  as  tlie  Catho- 
lic and  the  Protestant  elements  were  as  yet  comprehended  in  each  other. 

I.   Hostile  Pai;ties. 

§  292.     The  Stedingers  and  the  Jfoctical  GhihelUnc^. 

A  tribe  of  Frieslanders  in  the  district  of  Stcding,  among  the  settlements 
on  the  Weser,  succeeded  in  maintaining  the  popular  freedom  which  origi- 
nally prevailed  in  Germany.  The  castles  from  which  tlie  Count  of  Olden- 
burg threatened  their  country  were  demolished,  the  tithes  which  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Bremen  demanded  of  them  were  withheld,  and  the  curse  of 
excommunication  which  the  latter  denounced  upon  them  was  disregarded. 
For  forty  years  the  count  and  the  bishops  contended  against  this  little  tribe, 
protected  only  by  the  courage  wliich  freedom  supplies,  and  their  country's 
mora-sses.  Their  here.>;y  consisted  not  in  the  adoration  of  a  toad,  as  wa.s 
asserted  in  the  stupid  and  lying  accounts  sent  to  Rome,  but  in  something  Ar 
more  dangerous  to  the  peace  of  the  Church,  {n)  It  was  the  finst  triumphant 
struggle  of  the  people  against  the  nobility  and  the  priesthood,  and  therefore 
exceedingly  interesting  to  the  peasants,  who  every  where  gloried  in  it.    Gre- 

h)  Wiclife,  Trial  IV,  30.  Apol.  Conf.  August  p.  27C«.  Loncher,  Ref.  Acta.  vol.  I.  p.  145» 
Jlotlinyer,  II.  ecc.  1.  XV,  p.  41-3.  IliipfnlKuh,  Ooscli.  d.  Rcf.  vul.  I.  p.  112.  Augmti,  die  Eef.  Pro 
phctcn.  (Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statist,  A.  ev.  K.  1S83.  vol.  IM.  p.  llSssy 

<i)  MoiiM  vol.  XXIII.  p.  823.     Hai/mM.  a<l  ann.  123:3.  N.  428s. 


340  MKDIAKVAL  CHURCH  HISTORY.     I'Klt.  IV.     A.  I).  121»-15i:. 

gory  IX.  caused  a  cnisndo  to  l)c  i)rorluimefl  ngtiinst  the  Stedingers  as  fioro- 
tics  of  tho  most  deadly  and  absurd  character.  Tlieir  great  and  gloriou.« 
Btrugglo  was  finally  terminated  hy  a  dreadful  battle  (1234),  -wiiich  only  a 
Binall  remnant  survived  to  submit  to  the  yoke  of  the  Chnreh.  Qi) — During 
tlie  contest  between  tho  popes  and  the  house  of  Ilohonstaufen,  some  sectaries 
residing  in  tlio  8uabian  city  of  Hall  (about  1218)  declared  tlie  pope  a  heretic, 
and  tlirtt  the  clergy  had  forfeited  their  power  on  account  of  their  corruption«. 
Tlicy  therefore  offered  prayer  for  tho  members  of  the  liouso  of  Ilohenstaufen 
as  tlio  only  just  and  perfect  rulers.  AVhen  the  power  of  these  princes  was 
broken  they  also  disappeared,  (c)  But  for  a  long  time  after  a  story  was  cur- 
rent in  various  forms  among  the  people,  according  to  which  Frederic  II. 
■would  at  some  future  period  return,  or  from  his  blood  .should  arise  a  mighty 
caglo  which  Avould  destroy  the  Koman  Church.  ('7) 

§  293.  Fraternity  of  the  Free  Spirit. 
The  bold  aspiration  of  the  spirit  toward  God,  which  was  not  seriously 
opposed  when  it  appeared  in  all  its  indistinctness  and  benignity  in  the  sys- 
tem of  Mysticism,  necessarily  fell  under  tlio  judgment  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  when  it  came  out  with  scholastic  definitions,  exalted  itself  above  the 
Church  itself,  and  was  even  perverted  to  the  gratification  of  wicked  pas- 
sions. A  synod  at  Faris  (1209)  pronounced  judgment  upon  the  school  of 
Ämalric,  which  combined  the  Pantheistic  doctrines  of  Erigena  with  their 
own  principles  of  reform,  which  they  announced  in  the  style  of  the  abbot 
Joachim.  They  maintained  not  so  much  that  every  thing  was  one  and  God, 
as  that  God  is  the  essence,  the  end,  and  the  object  of  every  thing  created. 
Every  pious  person  is  a  Christ  in  whom  God  becomes  man,  the  resurrection 
is  regeneration,  heaven  and  hell  are  internal  and  moral  states,  the  body  of 
Christ  is  in  the  bread  even  before  its  consecration,  just  as  God  is  in  all  na- 
ture, and  the  Trinity  is  merely  the  incarnation  of  the  Deity  in  three  difierent 
periods  of  the  world.  After  them  and  among  them  the  age  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  to  commence,  when  there  would  be  no  more  need  of  an  external 
Church.  They  also  maintained  tliat  the  pope  was  Antichrist,  that  every 
thing  done  from  love  was  pure,  since  the  Spirit  who  reigns  in  the  hearts  of 
all  who  know  themselves  to  be  one  with  him  cannot  sin.  Amalrich  of  Bena 
was  himself  compelled  only  to  recant  his  assertion,  that  no  one  can  be  saved 
who  does  not  consider  himself  a  member  of  Christ's  body  (1204).  The  con- 
demnation of  persons  then  in  their  graves,  by  the  Synod  of  Paris,  and  the 
connection  of  the  proceedings  with  the  name  of  Erigena,  indicate  what  must 
have  been  the  pantheistic  object  of  that  assertion.  A  treatise  of  David  of 
Binanto  Avas  at  the  same  time  destroyed,  which  would  seem  from  arguments 
urged  against  it  at  a  later  period,  to  have  founded  upon  certain  Aristotelian 

6)  Jo,  Otton,  Catal.  Episcc  Brem.  {Menken  vol.  III.  p.  793.)  Gregor.  JX.  ad  Arcbicp  Brem. 
{IJndenbrog.  p.  172.)—^  Z>.  Hitter,  de  pago  Stcding  et  de  Stedingis.  Vit.  1751.  4.  {ßrrg.  Museum 
Duisb.  vol.  I.  P.  II.  p.  629.)  Scharling,  de  Stedingis.  Hafn.  1823.  Schicsser,  Weltgescli.  wl  IIL 
Th.  2.  Abtb.  2.  p.  127s8. 

c)  AibertM  Sladeii^,  ad  ann.  124S. 

(/)  Mosheini,  Vers.  e.  unpartb.  Kctzergesch.  Hinist.  1748.  p.  a42ss.  iflcheUen,  d.  Eiifhäaser  Ks}> 
MTsage.  ^ZcitscU.  f.  thuring.  Goscb.  1SÖ3.  H.  2.) 


CH.vr.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  REFORM.    §  293.  FEATEKNITY  OF  THE  FREE  SPIßlT.    341 

conclusions  the  idea  that  the  Deity  could  have  no  distinctions  in  his  nature, 
and  that  from  him  proceeded  spirit  and  matter,  (a)  Soon  after  this  holocaust 
at  Paris,  a  popular  party  with  similar  principles  made  its  appearance  on  the 
Upper  Pihine.  and,  until  .«ome  considerable  time  in  the  fourteenth  century,  in 
some  parts  of  France,  Germany,  and  Italy.  They  were  known  under  vari- 
ous local  appellations,  frequently  as  Beghards  and  "Waldenses,  but  among 
themselves  they  were  generally  called  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit.  The  nature  of  their  principles  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  they  had 
their  origin  in  the  scattered  fragments  of  Amalric's  schuul,  in  which  their 
doctrines  had  been  advocated  in  a  systematic  form.  Thvir  principal  doc- 
trine, however,  docs  not  seem  to  have  been  the  Pantheism  which  contains 
no  popular  elements,  but  an  opinion  which  they  made  prominent  in  all  their 
teachings,  according  to  which  it  is  the  Spirit  alone  that  makes  us  free  and 
happy,  (h)  From  this  they  inferred  that  all  outward  things  were  unprofita- 
ble, and  thus  adopted  a  sentiment  which  in  every  age  has  been  very  ambigu- 
ous in  its  application.  Some  found  access  to  God  by  breaking  loose  from 
all  earthly  objects,  but  others  gave  themselves  up  to  worldly  lusts,  on  the 
ground  that  these  could  have  no  influence  upon  the  mind,  but  might,  on  the 
other  hand,  serve  to  extricate  the  feeling  of  original  unity  from  the  artiticial 
distinctions  of  society,  by  abolishing  marriage  and  the  possession  of  private 
property,  (c)  The  Picards  or  Adamite.^,  who  in  the  fifteenth  century  en- 
deavored to  introduce  among  the  Hussites  a  paradi?iac  state  of  nature,  were 
children  of  the  same  spirit,  and  perhaps  were  externally  in  connection  witli 
them.  Some  of  these  escaped  the  swords  of  the  Hussites,  and  preserved  a 
secret  remnant  of  their  sect  in  Bohemia.  ('/) 

§  294.     Order  of  the  Apostlex. 

I.  Hist  Dulcini  &  Additamentuin  ad  IHst.  Dulc.  (Muratori  vol.  IX.  p.  423.) 

II.  Jfosheim,  Goscli.  d.  Ai>.  O.  (Kctzcrgo.-cli.  p.  193.)  &.  de  Ik-glianL  ji.  221s8.  &Mosse>;  Abiil.  u. 
Dulcin.  Gotha.  1S07.  [L.  Marioni,VTä  Dolciiio,  An  Hist.  Mcnicpirof,  trans!,  from  tlic  Ital.  by -4. 
Galenga,  Lond.  1852.  8.] 

Ghcrardo  ScgarcU't^  of  Parma,  a  youth  of  a  fanatical  disposition  who  had 
been  rejected  by  the  Franciscans,  felt  called  upon  to  invite  men  back  to  the 
true  poverty  of  the  apostolic  life.  The  Order  of  the  Apostles,  which  lie 
collected  (after  12G0)  around  his  person,  went  about  with  their  spiritual  sis- 
ters begging,  and  proclaiming  that  the  kingdom  of  God  was  near.  The  popes 
prohibited  (after  128C)  this  new  mendicant  order,  but  they  continued  to 
assemble  Avith  the  Catliarists  and  Fratricelli,  and  awaited  the  api)roaching 
downfall  of  tlio  jiajiacy  according  to  the  imagery  of  the  Apocalypse.  Ghc- 
rardo Avas  buried  in  Parma  (13U0j.     The  apostolical  brethren  wore  then 

a)  C'lnc.  Par.  Act.n  In  3f<irten^  The?.  Anccd.  vol.  IV.  p.  163s-'<.  Accounts  by  Rigordu«  ad  nnn. 
1209.  and  öteiarius  lleiiiterhitc.  V.  22.  In  Mitnsi  vol.  XXIl.  p.  SOl.ss.  Gernon.  do  concordIa  nicta- 
phy?.  c.  logica.  (vol.  IV.  p.  S-2G.)—Eii(/Mtir<lt,  A.  v.  Bern».  (KHKsf.  Abh.  N.  8.)  C.  U.  Jluhu,  Am.  v. 
15.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S4G.  H.  1.)    J.  If.  Kröulein,  Am.  v.  B.  u.  Davi.l  v.  D.  (Stud.  w.  Krit.  1S47.  H.  2.) 

I)  Jolin  4,  23s.  Rom.  S. 

t)  JfoKheim:  do  IJosliardis  et  P.fgtiin.  p.  210.  2T)r>.  H.  ccc.  vol.  II.  p.  W2s. 

rf)  Contemporary  account*  In  LfiiiUnt,  IIi<f.  de  la  guerre  des  lln.<s.  vol.  I.  p.  79ss.  (Comp.  Beiuu 
«o'/;r,  Diss,  siir  !os  Adamites  de  Boliiiiie.  /?'.  vol.  II.  p.  SOIs-i.)  J/cWifi«),  H.  ccc.  p.  C37s.  Brl.  K 
Z.  N.  12. 


342  NfKDiAKViL  ciiri:rii  iiisTour.   rF.it.  iv.   a.  tk  i2\r^\r,u. 

induced  to  follow  Dolrhio,  a  native  of  Milan,  and  Iji«  spiritual  friend  Marina« 
rettft.  His  proplictic  circular  Letters  recognize  indeed  the  liistorical  neces- 
sity that  the  Church  should  pass  into  the  hands  of  the  wealthy  and  power- 
ful, hut  maintain  that  since  the  hierarchy  had  left  tlieir  first  lore,  and 
surrendered  themselves  to  earthly  thinfrs,  it  was  now  needful  to  return  to 
tlic  poverty  of  the  apostles.  His  assertions,  which  prohably  attained  this 
distinct  form  only  hy  degrees,*  were  merely  a  comjiilation  of  the  heresies 
which  had  prevailed  at  an  older  period  :  "  The  Koman  Church  is  the  great 
harlot  of  the  Apocalypse ;  all  the  popes  since  the  time  of  Sylvester,  with 
the  exception  of  Peter  de  Murrhone,  have  been  false  leaders  ;  it  is  better  to 
live  without  vows  than  with  thera ;  men  and  women  may  cohabit  without 
distinction  ;  perjury  is  lawful  in  opposition  to  the  inquisition  ;  and  the 
power  of  the  Church  is  transferred  to  the  Order  of  tlie  Apostles,  in  which 
alone  salvation  can  be  found."  Believing  that  the  revolution  lie  expected 
was  at  hand,  and  that  the  Staufian  imperial  dynasty  was  about  to  be  re- 
stored, Dolcino  took  up  arms  against  the  inquisition,  with  something  like  a 
thousand  men  went  forth  on  a  bold  predatory  expedition,  and  finally  in- 
trenched himself  on  Mount  Zebello.  Here  he  was  surrounded  by  the  host  of 
the  crusaders  which  had  been  sent  against  him  by  the  Bishop  of  Vercelli, 
and  at  last  sank  under  the  power  of  hunger  and  the  swords  of  his  ene- 
mies (1307). 

§  295.  Termination  of  the  Earlier  Sects. 
In  the  soutb  of  France,  after  many  fluctuations  of  fortune,  victory  be- 
came decided  in  favor  of  Catholicism,  amid  fields  strewed  with  the  slain  and 
the  ashes  of  dwellings  (1228).  In  Italy  itself  the  Holy  Father  was  sur- 
rounded by  all  kinds  of  heretics.  The  CatTiarists  bad  been  allowed  opportu- 
nity to  complete  a  regular  system  of  Church  polity,  and  in  Brescia  they  even 
ventured  to  destroy  some  Catholic  churches,  and  solemnly  to  excommunicate 
the  Eoman  Church,  (a)  But  when  the  chief  of  the  Ghibelline  party  had 
fallen  (until  1269),  they  sunk  under  the  power  of  the  inquisition,  and  in 
consequence  of  their  own  unfaithfulness.  In  Bosnia  alone  they  succeeded  in 
maintaining  their  ascendency,  until  the  measures  of  the  government  against 
them  (after  1442)  led  to  the  subversion  of  the  empire  by  the  Turks,  (b)  In 
Milan,  some  who  advanced  the  idea  that  a  female  hierarchy  ought  to  be 
formed  on  the  ruins  of  that  which  then  existed,  because  the  Holy  Spirit  had 
become  incarnate  in  a  woman,  were  obliged  to  atone  for  their  rashness  at 
the  stake,  {c)  The  Waldenscs  were  reduced  in  numbers  because  they  had 
been  burned  by  their  persecutors,  but  some  congregations  still  remained  in 
the  south  of  France  and  in  the  secluded  valleys  of  Piedmont.  The  reasons 
for  the  increase  of  heresy  were  declared  by  a  zealous  Catholic  to  be :  the 
vanity  and  the  zeal  of  heretics  of  every  condition  in  life  to  teach  and  con- 

♦  This  is  sustained  by  the  milder  view  in  the  accounts  discovered  by  Baggiolini  Dole,  e  i  Pa- 
toreni.  Novara.  lS:iS.  A<\er  him :  ,;:  Krone,  Fra  Dole.  u.  d.  Tatarener.  Lpz.  l&W.  Comp.  Hahn  is 
i.  Stud.  d.  ev.  Gcistl.  Würtemb.  1S46.  vol.  XVIII.  II.  1. 

a)  Raynald.  ad  ann.  1225.  N.  47. 

V)  Raynatd.  ad  ann.  1445.  X.  2-3, 1440.  N.  0.  1459.  N.  13. 

c)  After  Pclackij  :  Pischeck;  d.  B..hm.  Wilhehuino.  (Zeibcbr.  f.  hist.  Th.  1539.  U.  S.) 


C^AP.  VI.    OrrOS.  &  KEFOKM.    S  290.  DAILLY.    GEBSON.  343 

Tert  those  witli  whom  they  were  conversant  by  means  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, and  on  tlio  other  liand,  the  neglect  of  popular  instruction,  tlie  contempt 
for  the  Church  shown  by  its  own  servants,  and  tlie  unapostolic  lives  of  the 
nrelates.  {d)  After  the  thirteenth  century,  no  one  who  considered  merely  the 
worldliness  of  tlie  Church  and  the  multitude  and  zeal  of  the  heretics,  could 
have  any  doubt  whether  the  latter  or  the  Catholics  would  obtain  the  vic- 
tory. In  the  commencement  of  the  fifteenth  century  heretical  congregations 
of  almost  every  kind  were  scattered  and  broken  up.  But  it  was  only  in 
secret  that  tliose  forms  of  opposition  were  maintained  or  organized  whicli  in 
the  sixteenth  century  came  forward  under  the  name  of  Anabaptism,  when 
assailing  the  constitution  of  the  Church,  and  of  Unitariauism  when  arrayed 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  (<)  The  victory,  however,  was  depend- 
ent partly  upon  the  hopes  which  might  be  entertained  of  a  reform  and  the 
disposition  of  the  liberal  party  then  powerful  in  the  Church  itself,  partly 
upon  the  lifeless  dispos^ition  of  the  age,  which,  as  represented  by  the  Human- 
ists, was  satisfied  with  a  shrewd  and  selfish  smile  at  existing  evils,  and  finally 
upon  the  more  settled  condition  of  the  states  and  their  reconciliation  with 
Kome.  A  victory  on  the  part  of  such  heretics,  as  most  of  those  were  who 
existed  at  that  period,  would  have  destroyed  for  ever  the  historical  develop- 
ment of  Christianity.  If,  therefore,  we  may  concede  that  the  Church  was 
right  in  slirinking  from  no  calamities  or  laceration  of  feeling  (f)  to  overcome 
tliis  first  threatened  revolution,  the  very  relation  of  such  a  victory  to  Chris- 
tianity rendered  it  evident  that  at  some  future  time  an  entirely  different 
result  might  be  expected, 

11,  Kefor.m, 

§  296.  licformation  in  the  Head  and  Members, 

When  the  ilinorite,  Alcarus  Pelayius  (about  1330),  poured  forth  his 
lamentations  over  the  low  condition  of  the  Church,  the  only  remedy  he 
sought  was  the  re-establishment  of  the  papal  authority,  (a)  About  tlio  close 
of  the  same  century  public  opinion  became  decided  that  the  reformation  of 
the  head  of  the  Churcli  must  commence  with  a  limitation  of  its  power  to 
do  mischief.  In  the  fifteenth  century,  when  every  nation  and  class  in  society 
demanded  the  reformation  of  the  Cimrch,  when  prelates  and  popes  united  in 
the  promise  that  it  should  be  given,  and  in  fact  proclaimed  tliat  it  was  already 
begun  and  completed,  every  one  understood  this  indefinite  term  to  mean  pri- 
marily that  which  he  most  desired,  tlie  removal  of  what  seemed  to  him  most 
oppressive  and  unchristian.  Reformation  was  generally  understood  to  mean: 
the  establishment  of  Christian  morals  among  all  classes,  and  especially  among 
the  clergy,  the  abolition  of  Roman  extortion,  and  the  restoration  of  all  eccle- 
siastical institutions  to  their  original  design.  The  canon  law,  however,  was 
to  remain  untouched,  and  hence  its  meaning  was  indefinite.     Nothing  was 

d)  Append,  to  lialneHi  ßuinina  c  3.  (BIbl.  Max.  vol.  XXV.  p.  268.) 

e)  Illgen,  Pynibb.  ad  vllam  i-t  üoctr.  Latlll  Sue.  111.  1'.   I.  Lp».   1S26.  4.     Gelier,  de  prlmordlli 
Anabaptistar.  Ki-g.  lS:iO. 

/)  Leo,  MAIter.  vul.  I.  p.  6ü9s. 

a)  Siimiiiade  planctu  Eccl.  L'lni.  1474.  f.  ii  oftoa. 


344  MKDIAKVAI.  (  IICKCII  msT()i:V.     I'Kk.  IV.     A.  I).  I-'HVIMT. 

saiil  ros[)ectin;?  doctritio.  In  consistency  with  this  view,  tliosc  whd  gave 
expression  to  public  opinion,  especially  the  Parisian  divines,  represented  tl.e 
retbrmation  ns  essentially  connected  with  the  reconciliation  of  the  great  scliism, 
Tlio  Bisliop  of  Canibray,  Peter  (VAilhj  (d.  about  1425),  combined  all  the  effort« 
of  the  French  Church  in  the  demand  of  a  general  council,  and  although  after 
the  experience  gained  at  Pisa,  he  had  doubts  whether  any  help  could  bo  de- 
rived from  such  a  source,  (Jj)  he  exerted  all  his  intellectual  energy  at  Con- 
stance to  have  one  summoned.  Gerson  also  defended  the  independence  of 
the  general  assemblies  of  the  Church,  as  the  only  medium  by  wliich  a  legal 
and  salutary  reform  could  be  eßectcd,  but  maintained  that  the  only  way  in 
which  a  sound  state  of  heart  could  be  secured  was  by  the  study  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  a  better  education  of  the  people.  Accordingly,  toward  the  close 
of  his  stormy  life,  Jio  commenced  the  reformation  among  the  children,  (c) 
Finall}',  Nicolas  of  Clamengis  (d.  1440),  believing  that  the  time  had  come  in 
which  judgment  should  begin  at  the  house  of  God,  and  having  described  the 
corruption  of  the  Church  in  language  rhetorically  extravagant,  but  in  Roman 
Latin,  and  with  graphic  distinctness,  then  waited  for  the  exaltation  of  the 
Chui'ch  by  external  means,  whenever  she  should  humble  herself,  and  amend 
her  ways,  {d)  Jlemmerlin^  a  canon  of  Zurich,  as  a  preacher  and  as  an  im- 
pressive author,  has  faithfully  represented  the  spirit  of  the  Council  of  Basle, 
but  his  aristocratic  hatred  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy  produced  his  removal 
from  public  life  to  the  prison  of  the  convent  of  Lucerne  (about  1457).  {e) 
Andreas,  Archbishop  of  Crain,  of  the  order  of  preachers,  in  his  wrath  against 
Sixtus  IV.  called,  on  his  own  authority,  a  general  council  at  Basle  (1482),  for 
the  deliverance  of  the  Church.  Although  the  old  City  of  Councils  ventured 
to  endure  an  interdict  in  his  defence,  he  was,  on  the  pope's  requisition,  im- 
prisoned, and  when  he  found  himself  forsaken  by  all  on  whom  he  had  relied, 
he  hung  himself  on  the  railing  of  the  tower  (1484).  (/)  The  more  advanced 
champions  of  reform  in  the  great  councils  sometimes  inadvertently  went  be- 
yond the  fundamental  principles  of  Catholicism.  D'Ailly  appealed  to  the 
opinion  of  the  ancient  fathers  in  proof  of  his  position  that  councils  might  err 
even  in  matters  of  faith,  and  Gerson  advanced  the  idea  of  a  universal  Church, 
which,  under  Christ  its  sole  head,  was  the  only  Church  in  which  salvation 
could  be  found,  was  without  error,  schism,  or  sin,  and  was  consequently  very 
different  from  that  of  Rome,  {g)  The  Mystics  believed  in  the  possibility  of  a 
Reformation  springing  from  within  the  Church  itself.  Those  in  particular 
who  were  called  the  "  Friends  of  God,"  and  Avho  professed  to  take  refuge 
uuder  the  cross  of  Christ,  and  depended  upon  visions  and  secret  leaders,  must 
have  occupied  a  position  quite  ambiguous  with  respect  to  the  Church,  and 
were  full  of  bitter  complaints  of  its  degeneracy.  (A)    The  saint  of  the  Xorth 

V)  De  difflcultate  Reform,  in  Cone.  unir.  {ITarclt.  vol.  I.  P.  VI.  p.  255.) 

c)  Tr.  de  parvulis  tr.ilieiulis  ad  Christum.  (Opp.  vol.  III.  p.  27S.) 

rf)  X.  de  Cliimetiffis,  de  ruina  Eccl.  .ibout  1400.  {ITanlt.  vol.  I.  P.  III.  p.  1.)— Jd  Jfüniz,  Xic.  da 
Cli-manges,  sa  vie  et  ses  ecrits.  Strasb.  1S40. 

e)  B.  lieber,  Felix  Ilemmerlin,  Zur.  1S4Ö.     Here  see  p.  ISss.  of  his  writings. 

/)  Peter  Xumugen.  Ge<ta  Arcbicp.  Crayensis  (Wirceb.  1514.)  in  I/otlinger,  U.  eec.  p.  XV.  jv 
B47SS.  Wuratisen.  Busier  Chronik,  VI,  14.—./  Bunirhartlt,  Erzb.  A.  v.  Krain  u.  d.  letzte  Concilsver- 
rach  in  B.  Basel.  1S.V2.        g)  I/ardt.  vol.  II.  P.  V.  p.  19G.  &  vol.  I.  P.  V.  p.  68. 

A)  liulmati  Jfersiciii  (d.  13Ö-2),  das  B.  v.  d.  neun  Fe'.äen.  (comp.  C.  S^miJt  in  d.  /eitschi.  f.  hi.*t 


CHAP.  VI.     0PP03.  &  EEFORM.     §  206.  EEASMUS.     CCSA.  345 

when  she  visited  Rome  found  the  wliolo  Decalogue  reduced  to  a  single  pre- 
cept, "  Bring  money ! "  and  she  therefore  predicted  a  Reformation,  which 
should  proceed,  not  from  the  pope,  but  from  Christendom,  (i)  Gregory  of 
Ileimburg  (d.  1472),  a  legal  counsellor,  even  when  excommunicated  and 
homeless,  remained  true  to  his  character,  and  with  German  sturdiness  invoked 
the  German  national  spirit,  in  opposition  to  Roman  encroachments.  (A) 
Brastnrts  perceived  that  the  only  vocation  suited  to  his  character  was,  in  the 
quiet  leisure  of  a  literary  life,  to  effect  a  reformation  of  theology,  and  thus 
prepare  the  way  for  a  peaceful  reformation  of  the  Church,  by  promoting  a 
knowledge  of  classical  and  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  and  by  cultivating  the 
faculty  of  independent  and  sober  common  sense.  But  there  were  in  the  hier- 
archy prodigious  resources  for  evading  tliese  calls  for  a  Reformation,  and  f(jr 
corrupting  those  leaders  in  it  who  could  not  bo  overthrown.  All  the  bold 
champions  who  advocated  it  at  Basle  gradually  submitted.  St)me  of  the  more 
cautious  did  this  first,  and  all  could  do  so  with  dignity.  Xicolas  of  Cusa 
(d.  1404),  afterwards  Cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Brixen,  defended  the  supremacy 
of  the  pope  at  the  bar  of  the  very  synod  for  whose  independence  he  had  just 
been  contending.  According  to  his  metaphysical  speculations  all  the  affairs 
of  Church  and  state  were  arranged  on  the  principle  of  a  unity  before  which 
no  opposition  could  be  true.  To  the  scholasticism  of  his  day  he  opposed  his 
learned  want  of  knowledge,  to  an  absolute  faith  in  the  Scriptures  ho  opposed 
the  authority  of  the  Holy  Spirit  who  had  been  given  to  men  and  had  estab- 
lished tlie  Church  before  the  letter  of  the  sacred  writings  had  been  composed, 
and  to  such  as  disbelieved  the  miracles  of  the  Church  he  opposed  his  own 
disintei'estedness  as  a  legate  and  as  a  preacher  of  indulgences.  He,  however, 
preserved  in  his  heart  a  desire  for  a  Reformation,  and  predicted  that  the 
papacy  would  be  subverted  and  the  Church  renovated,  but  at  some  distant 
period.  (?)  At  tlie  commencement  of  the  sixteenth  century  every  thing 
accomplished  for  tlie  Church  at  Constance  and  at  Basle  had  apparently  como 
to  nothing,  and  all  confidence  in  councils  was  given  up.  There  were  not 
wanting,  however,  even  among  the  friends  of  the  hierarchy,  sonae  individuals 
who  warned  them  of  the  consequences  of  this  course.  Cardinal  Julian  wrote 
to  the  pope  (1431),  "  If  all  hope  of  our  amendment  should  be  cut  off,  we  shall 
be  attacked  by  the  laity  according  to  our  deserts."  (;«)  Chancellor  Mayer  of 
Mentz  wrote  (1457)  to  Aeneas  Sylvius :  "  The  German  nation,  once  the  Queen 
of  the  world,  but  now  a  tributary  handmaid  of  the  Roman  Church,  begins  to 
arouse  herself  as  out  of  a  dream,  and  is  resolved  to  throw  otF  the  yoke."  («) 

Th.  1839.  P.  2.  p.  6Iss.)  Plalntes  d'lin  La  quo  allcmand  sar  la  ilOcadence  de  la  chrötlcntö  (1356.)  opus- 
cnle  publlö  p.  Ch.  Srhmktt,  Strasb.  1S40.  4.  liöhrich  d.  Gottcsfr.  u.  Winkler  nm  Oberrlioin.  (Zcitsclir. 
f.  hist  Th.  1S40.  P.  1.)     C'.  Schnii'lt,  Tauler,  p.  ICIss. 

f)  HirgitUif  Itevflatt  in  Wuljii  Lcclt.  incinor.  vol.  II.  p.  670^8. 

/i-)  Admonitio  do  injiistis  usur|iatt.  Pa[inruMi  Rom.  ad  ImiH-nitor.  P.cgcs  ct  Prince,  chr.  s.  Confuta- 
tlo  priinatus  Pnime.  (Oohiast,  Monarch.  S.  \X.  Imp.  vol.  1.  P.  5.')T.v).)  &  othors.  Comp,  ll^igtn  In  d. 
Braga.  IKidelb.  1*39.  vol.  II.  p.  414ss.     I'Umaini,  Reformat,  vol.  I.  p.  212sä 

I)  Do  eath.  conconlantia.  De  doctn  Ignoranlhi,  Apol.  doctae  ignor.  Do  Doo  nbscondito.  Do  con- 
jcclurls.  Kpp.  VII.  ail  Cloruni  ct  Lltoratos  Roliemi.io.  Conjcctnra  do  novi>siiiiis  dieb.  (0pp.  Bji.s 
15C5.  3  vols,  f.)  /•:  A.  Scharj.f,  d.  C.ird.  N.  v.  C.  Mainz.  1S4.J.  vol.  I.  J.  M.  Di'i.r,  N.  v.  C.  Ü.  d.  Iv. 
sr.  Zi'it.  Ralisb.  1S47.  2  vol.-^.     /.'.  Ziinmenmuvi,  Cam.  .ils  Vorläufer  LcibniUens.  Weiui.  1S.V2. 

m)  Richeril  Hist.  Conce,  gen.  Col.  lOSl.  I.  III.  p.  82.        ri)    WiJßi  LcclU  iiicinor.  vol.  I.  p.  S53. 


340  MKDIAKVAL  CHUUCII  IIISTOUY.     I'KK.  IV.     A.  I).  12IC-1517. 

A  litorary  ninii  in  (iinnany  thought  the  Reformation  equally  impracticable 
and  neoesrtary  at  that  tinio.  (o) 

§  2117.     Jofin  de  Wycliffe.     1324.— /)«c.  31,  1384. 

I.  Writing*  "f  -I.  ■\Vicl.  Lond.  1S.3G.  //  Knyghton,  de  cventib.  Angllao  usque  1895.  {Twisden 
Sorr.  Hist.  AiiR.  Lotid.  Iß.VJ.  f.)    Argentri  vol.  I.  P.  2.  p.  \i~\ 

II.  J.  r.ewit,  Illst,  of  the  Lifo  &  Siifferiii!.'«  of  J.  W.  (Lond.  1720.)  0.\f.  1S20.  Kuh.  Vauffhan 
Lifo  &  Opiiiliins  of  J.  do  W.  Lond.  (IS'29.)  1831.  2  vols,  [new  ed.  Lond.  ISM.  4.  C.  W.  Le  Bas,  Life 
of  W.  Xe-v  York.  1838.  2  vols.  LUtell's  Rel.  .Ala^.  vol.  III.  p.  81ss.  142s9.]  De  liaever  Grone^min, 
Hiiitr.  in  J.  W.  vltam,  Ingenium,  scripta.  Trnj.  1S3T.  O.  Weber,  Ge.Stli.  d.  akatli.  K.  n.  Sccten  in 
Grossbrlt.  Lps.  1845.  vol.  I.  Th.  1.  E.  A.  Leicard,  d.  theol.  iJoctrin.  W.  (ZeiUtli.  f.  liist.  Tli.  1840.  U- 
2.  4.  1S47.  II.  2.)     G.  V.  Lechlei;  W.  u.  d.  Lollarden.  L  (lb.  185:3.  II.  3.) 

The  papal  power  in  England  had  been  renovated  by  mean.?  of  the  mendi- 
cant friars.  In  the  time  of  Edward  III.  parliament  enacted  that  every  ono 
■who  should  be  the  bearer  of  any  papal  orders  with  re.spect  to  ecclesiastical 
offices  should  be  imprisoned  (1350),  forbade  all  appeals  to  the  court  of  Rome 
(1353),  and  declared  that  all  rents  paid  to  the  pope  as  a  liege  lord  were  un- 
lawful (1366).  Wycliffe  also  wrote  in  the  style  of  the  Abbot  Joachim 
respecting  the  last  times  of  the  Church,  (a)  Under  the  instruction  of  Brad- 
wardine  he  had  become  skilled  in  scholastic  learning,  and  in  both  branches 
of  the  law,  and  as  a  subordinate  member  of  the  University  of  Oxford  he  sup- 
ported that  institution  by  his  learned  tracts  in  opposition  to  the  mendicant  friars 
(after  1360),  and  defended  the  government  in  its  endeavors  to  render  itself 
independent  of  the  French  papacy.  As  a  professor  of  theology  after  1372, 
and  much  respected  as  a  realistic  philosopher,  he  was  sent  as  one  of  the 
deputies  to  Bruges  (1374—76),  to  confer  with  the  papal  commissioners  respect- 
ing a  free  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  offices  by  the  Church.  lie  afterwards 
spoke  and  wrote  against  the  oppression  of  the  Church  by  the  papacy,  against 
the  arbitrary  mode  of  excommunications  then  prevalent,  against  monasticism, 
purgatory,  and  against  the  necessity  of  auricular  confession,  indulgences,  and 
the  worship  of  saints  and  of  images.  Gregory  XL  condemned  (1377)  nine- 
teen articles  selected  from  his  writings,  which  however  "Wyclitie,  under  the 
protection  of  the  court  and  the  high  nobility,  merely  explained  in  a  milder 
and  more  definite  sense.  But  when  he  longed  to  extricate  himself  from  the 
antichristianity  of  his  own  day,  and  enjoy  the  privileges  of  a  Church  like 
that  which  Paul  bad  constructed,  and  therefore  taught  that  the  Scriptures 
alone  were  Avorthy  of  complete  confidence  (Dr.  Evangelicus),  that  the  tem- 
poral power  of  the  pope  was  derived  solely  from  the  emperor,  that  it  "was 
treason  to  obstruct  appeals  from  the  spiritual  courts  to  the  king,  that  priests 
lost  all  spiritual  power  by  the  commission  of  mortal  sin,  that  tithes  and  other 
alms  should  be  withheld  from  priests  living  in  sin,  that  the  saving  grace  of 
God  was  not  connected  exclusively  with  the  priesthood  and  the  sacraments, 
and,  finally,  that  Christ  was  present  in  the  Lord's  Supper  only  in  a  spiritual 
manner ;  his  doctrines  were  condemned  at  the  Earthquake-Council  at  London 
(1382),  and  "Wycliffe  himself  was  excluded  from  the  University.    He  was, 

o)  Life  of  the  celebrated  Z).  Crantzll.  Hamb.  (1722.)  1729.  p.  51.  Mönckeberg,  d.  theol.  Charak 
tor  d.  A.  Kranlz,  Hamb.  ISol. 

a)  The  last  age  of  the  Cliurcb,  1.356.  Dublin.  1S40.  4 


CHAP.  VL    0PP03.  &  EEFOEM.    §  297.  "WTCLIFFE.    §  203.  nUSS.  347 

however,  assured  of  his  personal  freedom  by  the  ITouso  of  Commons,  and 
betook  himself  to  his  own  rectory  of  Lutterworth,  where  ho  had  leisure  to 
complete  his  principal  work  containing  his  Augustinian  system  of  scriptural 
scholasticism,  and  his  propositions  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church,  (J) 
His  influence  was  exerted  by  means  of  his  translation  of  the  Scriptures  from 
tlie  Vulgate,  his  sermons,  (c)  his  pamphlets,  and  some  poor  priests  whom  he 
sent  among  the  people,  and  many  were  known  to  be  his  adherents  to  whom 
the  name  of  Lollards  was  transferred,  but  he  produced  no  permanent  religious 
impression  upon  the  masses  of  society,  and  the  insurrection  which  occurred 
in  his  day  among  some  peasants,  in  favor  of  liberty  and  equality,  was  only 
aided  by  a  misunderstanding  of  his  doctrines.  His  views  were  principally 
received  and  promulgated  by  the  higher  clas.scs  and  men  of  learning,  and 
hence,  no  sooner  was  the  government  hurried  into  a  sanguinary  ])cr5ecution 
(after  1400)  than  all  his  adlierents  were  easily  tlirust  back  into  obscurity.  It 
was  with  especial  reference  to  Bohemia  that  the  anathema  of  the  Church 
against  the  views  of  Wycliflfe  was  made  so  severe  at  the  Council  of  Constance. 

§  298.     JoJdi  IIuss  and  the  Hussites. 

I.  Tlie  Literature  of  the  Sources  may  bo  found  in  //.  v.  Au/nets,  Anz.  f.  Kunde  d.  dent  MA.  1S88. 
p.  78s  22"ss. — IJitt.  et  .Vonumm.  J.  IIuss  ct  Hier.  Prag.  Nor.  (155*.)  1715.  2  vols.  f.  Gerichtl.  Anlc- 
Ini;e  u.  vertlieid.  d.  J.  11.  ehe  er  nach  Constanz  ginj;,  niit;;cth.  v.  Leliinann.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  Is37.  P.  1.) 
Many  thinirs  are  in  IlariH  &  in  Aen.  Sylvii  Hist  Boheinor.  Eorn.  1475.  f.  &  often. — Bnesynn,  Calix- 
linor,  Canzler  d.  Neust  Prag,  Diarium  belli  IIuss.  {J.  P.  de  Liidcuig,  Eeliquiae  Manuscc  vol.  YL 
Cdinp.  DohroxMky  in  d.  Ablib.  d.  böbm.  Gesellsdi.  d.  Wis-s.  17S8.  p.  3o3s3.) 

II.  J.  CocWr/6M.s,  Hist  Huäsitar.  Mog.  1549.  f.  Z.  Theobald,  llussitenliricg.  NQrnb.  1C21.  8  cd. 
Brs).  1750.  8  vols.  4.  Zitte,  Lebensb.  d.  J.  II.  Prag.  17S9.  f.  2  vols.  A.  Zürn,  H.  zu  Costn.  Lp».  1S3& 
D.  G.  V.  d.  Ilornt,  de  Uussi  vita  praesortiinq.  illius  condomnati  c.iusis.  Atn.<  1S;37.  K.  de  Botine- 
y'lose,  J.  IIus  e  le  Cone,  do  Constance.  (Lcs  reforinatcurs  avant  la  ret  vol.  I.  II.)  Par.  1S45. — Pa- 
lacky.  Gesell,  v.  Cühm.  1945.  vol.  III.  Abtli.  1.  (•/  A.  Ile'/ert,  IIus  u.  lllcr.  Studie.  Prag.  ISÖ.3.)— 
ycander,  Gesch.  d.  ehr.  Kel.  ti.  K.  Th.  XL  p.  SSOas.—Ldi/ant,  Hist  do  la  gnerro  des  Huss.  Amst 
1731.  2  vols.  4.  Prsb.  17S3.  4  vols.  Supplement  p.  lieaiisobre,  L.tus.  1745. 4.  [BoiinetJioge'»  work  above 
referred  to  ^v.^s  republ.  in  Paris  in  1n>3.] 

Ever  since  the  middle  of  the  14th  century  a  few  eminent  priests  of  Prague 
who  had  been  persecuted  but  not  silenced,  as  preachers  of  repentance  (a)  and 
in  their  writings  (h)  liad  contended  against  a  corrupt  clergy  as  the  Antichrist, 
and  had  endeavored  to  draw  off  the  minds  of  men  from  the  human  institu- 
tions of  the  Church  to  the  apostolic  laws,  to  the  universal  priesthood,  and  to 
a  crucified  Redeemer.  John  IIuss,  of  Ilussinecz  (after  1398),  a  Professor  of 
Philosophy,  a  scliolastic  realist,  and  (after  1402)  a  Bohemian  preacher  in  the 
cliapel  of  Bethlehem  at  Prague,  fallowed  in  their  foot.steps.  Toward  himself 
ho  was  rigidly  severe,  but  toward  others  he  exhibited  a  friendly  disposition, 
his  reading  was  not  extensive  and  was  principally  directed  to  the  histories  of 

7>)  Trlalogus  (DIalogor.  I.  IV.)  13S2.  (Bos.)  1525.  4.  FrcC  ot  Lps.  1753.  4. 
c)  Engelhardt,  Wyel.  als  Prediger.  ErI.  lS.3t 

a)  Conr.  of  Waldliauscn  i  13Ö9.  Jan  of  Stckno,  about  13Ö0.  MiUcz  d.  1374.  J.  P.  Jordan,  tl 
Vorläufer  d.  Ilussiteiith.  in  IMlinicn.  Lp».  l#4r>. 

b)  Matth.  v.  Janotc,  d.  1394,  do  regulis  Vet  ot  N.  Testanienti  1392,  do  aboniinatione  &  de  ami- 
Christo  aro  only  sections  of  this  work,  the  last  has  been  regarded  a«  a  writing  of  IIuss  (Hist  et  Mo- 
num.  vol.  I.  p.  87C.SS.)  Xeand«r,  M.  v.  J.  als  Vorläufer  d.  deut.  P.of  u.  Uepräsent  d.  neuen  Prlncipa. 
^WLssensch.  Ablih.  ed.  by  Jacobl.  Brl.  1S51.  p.  92.)    Extracts  in  Jyrd.in  in  Ncander  (KGe.sch.) 


348  MKDi.vr.vAL  ciiriicii  uisToiiV.   ri;it.  iv.   a.  i>.  i2irM5iT. 

(ho  iii.'irtyra,  iiiul  his  cloqiienco,  tliotif,'!!  considerable,  wns  owinf,'  more  to  his 
lofty  enthiisi.'isiii  tliaii  to  liin  natural  talents,  lie  Avas  devotedly  attached  to 
tlio  IJomish  Church  until,  in  consequence  of  the  intercourse  between  Oxford 
and  Prajiuo  ho  bocanio  acquainted  (about  1403)  Avith  tlie  reformatory  wri- 
tings  of  Wyclitfo,  in  -whicli  ho  recognized  particular  truths  of  the  greatest 
importance,  and  soon  publicly  avowed  his  admiration  of  the  name  of  Wye 
lillo.  His  preaching  and  his  publications  were  then  directed  against  the 
worldliness  of  the  clergy  and  the  abuses  of  the  papacy,  but  it  was  not  long 
before  his  direct  reference  to  the  gospel  led  him  to  announce  that  all  clergy- 
men possessed  equal  authority,  that  a  visible  head  was  not  needful  to  the  gen- 
eral Church,  that  the  congregations  possessed  some  special  rights,  that  tithes 
were  nothing  but  alms,  and  that  civil  authorities  had  a  right  to  confiscate  any 
property  of  the  Church  which  had  been  perverted  to  improper  uses.  As  long 
as  the  votes  of  Germans  were  most  numerous  in  the  councils  of  the  Univer- 
6ity  the  writings  of  Wyclifle  were  condemned  there.  But  by  appealing  es- 
pecially to  a  feeling  of  old  national  jealousy  he  succeeded  in  obtaining  the 
I)assage  of  a  law  (1409)  by  Avhich  the  German  corporations  were  deprived  of 
their  privileges  in  the  academic  republic.  In  consequence  of  this  proceeding 
the  University  lost  most  of  its  students  and!  became  strictly  Bohemian,  and 
IIuss,  himself,  became  an  object  of  hatred,  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  (c)  With 
him,  at  the  head  of  an  evangelical  clergy,  advanced  the  impetuous  but  learned 
knight,  Jerome  of  Prague,  who  had  just  returned  from  an  academic  crusade 
in  behalf  of  Wycliife's  scholastic  principles.  On  the  complaint  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Prague,  IIuss  was  cited  to  appear  at  Rome,  deposed  and  excommu- 
nicated as  a  "WyclifBte  (1410),  but  he  appealed  to  a  pope  better  informed,  and 
in  consequence  of  his  favor  with  the  people  and  King  Wenceslaus,  the  arch- 
bishop found  it  necessary  to  become  reconciled  to  him  (1411).  When  John 
XXIII.  (1412)  had  indulgences  oftered  for  sale  to  raise  funds  for  his  crusade 
against  Naples,  Huss  boldly  preached  against  them,  and  against  the  erection 
of  the  standard  of  the  cross  in  opposition  to  professed  Christians.  The  bull 
of  indulgences  was  burned  at  the  public  pillory  in  the  same  manner  in  which 
the  archbishop  had  burned  the  writings  of  Wycliffe,  public  tranquillity  was 
disturbed,  and  the  disturbance  was  avenged  with  blood.  The  views  of  Huss 
Avere  now  elevated  above  all  regard  for  the  Roman  Church,  and  he  formed  a 
conception  of  the  true  Church  as  a  communion  of  aU  who  have  been  eternally 
elected  to  life,  the  head  of  which  could  not  be  the  pope  but  Christ  alone, 
since  no  earthly  dignity,  no  human  choice,  and  no  visible  sign  could  confer  a 
membership  in  it.  {J)  When  the  place  of  his  residence  was  placed  by  a  bull 
under  an  interdict  (1413),  he  retired  to  the  castles  of  his  friends,  and  preached 
to  the  people  with  great  power.  As  he  had  appealed  to  a  general  council,  to 
God,  and  to  Christ,  the  Emperor  Sigismund  summoned  him  to  Constance. 
He  freely  obeyed  this  citation,  trusting  to  his  own  orthodoxy,  and  prepared, 
if  necessary,  to  lay  down  his  life  with  joy.  He  was  soon  thrown  into  con- 
finement (Nov.  28,  1414) ;  the  Bohemian  and  the  Polish  nobility  contended 

f)  J.  T.  mid,  Tontainen  hist  illustrandis  rebus  a.  1409  in  Univ.  Pragena  goeli«.  Trag,  ls-27. 
W.  Toinet^  Gesch  d.  Prag.  Univ.  Prag.  1S49.  p.  47ss. 
d)  Tr.  (L  Eccl.  (Hist  et  Monum.  vol.  I.  p.  243.) 


CHAP.  VI.   opros.  A  i:ki"op.m.   §29s.  iiuss  &  the  iiussirES.  349 

for  his  rights  in  vain,  and  the  emperor  had  nothing  hut  a  blush  to  give  as  an 
apology  for  the  violation  of  his  safe  conduct,  (e)  Some  of  the  charges  alleged 
against  him  he  was  able  to  deny,  and  others  he  could  modify — he  had  never 
rejected  the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation,  the  pope  had  been  created  by  Con- 
stautine  only  with  respect  to  his  temporal  honor  and  earthly  possessions,  a 
king,  a  pope,  or  a  bishop  in  mortal  sin  was  in  the  sight  of  God  unworthy  of 
the  name,  and  sach  a  priest  could  not  properly  administer  the  sacraments. 
The  council  required  him  unconditionally  to  recant  his  opinions,  and  con- 
demned him  for  his  obstinacy,  since  he  would  make  no  concessions  except  to 
the  authority  of  the  Scriptures  or  of  reason.  (/)  A  person  of  a  ditferent 
character  might  perhaps  have  extricated  himself  without  betraying  the  cause  ' 
of  truth,  and  indeed  have  become  a  leader  in  the  synod.  The  farewell  let- 
ters which  nuss  wrote  to  his  friends  were  full  of  heroism  and  tenderness,  Qj) 
and  ho  died  (July  6,  1415)  praising  Christ  and  fully  believing  that  his  cause 
would  become  victorious  at  some  future  period,  in  the  hands  of  more  power- 
ful men,  {7i)  Jerome  at  first  recanted,  but  soon  recovered  his  courage,  sum- 
moned his  judges  before  the  Supreme  Judge  of  all,  and,  according  to  an 
account  left  us  by  a  philosopher,  died  with  the  fortitude  of  a  Stuic.  (i)  Theo- 
logical heresies  were  charged  against  these  men,  only  in  an  indefinite  man- 
ner, and  by  a  misunderstanding  of  their  views.  "When  we  find  that  a  liberal 
assembly  like  that  of  Constance  rewarded  these  liberal  efforts  by  martyrdom 
at  the  stake,  we  must  also  recollect  that  the  hostility  of  the  scholastic  school, 
the  hatred  of  the  Germans,  and  the  bitterness  of  the  clergy  on  account  of  the 
general  contempt  to  which  they  had  been  exposed,  all  co-operated  in  pro- 
ducing the  result.  But  the  decisive  object  which  the  hierarchical  party  had 
in  view  was  simply  to  terrify  its  opponents  by  bringing  to  the  stake  men 
whose  sentiments  were  so  similar  to  theirs ;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  they 
were  sacrificed  by  the  liberal  party  lest  it  should  expose  itself  to  the  suspicion 
of  sharing  in  their  heretical  sentiments.  But  a  largo  part  of  the  Bohemian 
nation  were  seized  with  horror  at  the  cruel  deed  perpetrated  at  Constance, 
under  the  guise  of  sanctity,  and  in  a  body  they  rose  in  rebellion.  IIuss  and 
Jerome  were  honored  as  martyrs,  and  the  priests  and  monks  became  victims 
to  a  most  terrible  and  sanguinary  vengeance.  A  custom  introduced  by  Jacob 
of  Misa  and  approved  by  IIuss,  according  to  which  the  cup  in  the  Sacrament 
Avas  administered  to  the  laity,  was  now  made  the  badge  of  the  Hussite  cove- 
nant, {/c)  "When  Wcnccslaus,  who  had  retained  possession  of  his  crown,  in 
consequence  of  the  weakness  of  his  government,  died  (1419),  and  Bohemia 
became  the  inheritance  of  his  brother,  the  emperor,  the  greater  part  of  the 
estates  refused  to  sAvear  allegiance  to  a  prince  who  had  broken  his  promise, 
and  they  therefore  raised  the  standard  of  civil  Avar  (1-420).     The  Hussites 

«)  On  the  otlicr  hand :  J.  IIuss  u.  s.  QeKltsbr.  (Hist  pol.  Bl.  IS-TO.  vol  IV.  11.  T.) 

/)  A.  Cnppenherg,  utruin  II.  «loclr.  fuerit  horellea  et  mcrito  anntb.  proscrlpta?  Monast.  1S34. 

g)  Briele  d.  J.  II.  zu  KonstiiDz.  Nach.  d.  böliin.  Urtexte  cd.  by  F.  Mikowea  Lpa.  1S49. 

h)  Hist  et  Monn.  vol.  I.  p.  33>s.  vol.  II.  p.  515ss. — Mansi  an  vcre  de  Luthero  vuticinatus  sit  lluas 
(Verm.  Abhh.  Brtl.  1S21.  p.  löTss.) 

i)  Poggii  Ep.  ad  Arotln.  (ea.  Orflll.  Tur.  IS-W.  IhrJt  Th.  III.  p.  G4ss.)  lllst  et  Monn.  Th.  II.  p 
522.'«.— Z.  IleUer,  11.  v.  Prag.  Lüb.  IS;». 

*)  Martini  Ds.  de  Jac.  do  Misa.  Altd.  1T^3.  4.  conf.     Schr^iher,  de  Pctro  Dresdens!.  Lps.  löTS.  4. 


350  MKDIAKVAL  CULUCH  IIISTOIiV.     I'Kli.  IV.     A.  1).  12It;-l.')17. 

•wore  (liviiKd  info  two  parties,  of  wliich  tlio  milder,  cjilled  ddixtines  (I'tra- 
quists),  rediict'il  tiicir  duiiiiuid.s  to  four  iirticlc.s  :  the  iirivilego  of  freely  preach- 
ing the  word  of  God,  tlic  aflmini.stration  of  the  Lord's  Siipjjer  in  both  forms, 
the  return  of  the  clergy  to  the  apostolic  life  of  poverty,  and  the  riglit  of  the 
congregation  to  punish  all  mortal  sin.  The  other  more  rigid  ])arty,  called  the 
TaOoritcs,  cl  limcd  to  be  the  true  elect  of  God,  rejected  unconditionally  all  the 
principles  of  the  Church  -which  could  not  bo  proved  from  the  Scripture?, 
expected  in  a  short  time  the  second  advent  of  Christ,  and  under  their  infatu- 
ated leader,  Zkhi,  carried  on  a  war  of  extermination  against  the  neighboring 
nations.  After  the  death  of  Ziska  (1424),  his  place  was  filled  by  a  raonk 
whose  name  was  Procopius^  but  as  many  of  the  troops  looked  upon  the  loss 
of  their  general  as  irreparable,  they  called  themselves  Orphans.  Although 
these  parties  were  opposed  to  each  other  they  became  united  when  a  common 
danger  threatened  them.  Every  army  sent  against  them  by  the  emperor  or 
the  pajial  legates  was  beaten,  being  composed  only  of  mercenaries  under  the 
name  of  crusaders,  and  opposed  to  a  people  whose  wratli  had  been  power- 
fully awakened.  The  conquerors  were  now  in  the  most  cautious  manner 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  Council  at  Basle.  After  much  debate  the 
Calixtines  came  to  an  agreement  (1433)  respecting  their  articles,  and  it  was 
agreed  that  the  word  of  God  should  be  regularly  preached  under  the  direc- 
tion of  spiritual  superiors,  that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be  administered 
under  both  forms  by  the  special  authority  of  the  council,  that  the  property 
of  the  Church  should  be  managed  by  the  clergy  according  to  the  usages  of 
the  fathers,  and  that  mortal  sins  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  punished  by 
the  civil  magistrates  according  to  law.  The  Taborites  and  Orphans,  who  re- 
garded this  compromise  with  contempt,  were  overcome  (May  30,  1434)  at  the 
battle  of  Prague,  and  Bohemia  became  subject  to  the  emperor  by  a  treaty 
formed  at  Iglan  (1436),  by  which  religious  and  political  liberty  were  secured 
to  the  people  on  the  basis  of  the  compromise  with  the  council.  But  this 
treaty  was  in  many  ways  violated  in  favor  of  the  Catholics,  who,  after  the 
dispersion  of  the  Taborites  were  a  sufficient  match  for  the  Calixtines  alone. 
On  the  death  of  Sigismund  (1437),  when  the  nation  "were  called  upon  to 
choose  a  successor,  controversies  respecting  the  succession  sprung  up,  and 
civil  wars  were  prosecuted  with  no  decisive  results,  until  at  the  Diet  of  Kv.t- 
teiiherg  (1485)  a  religious  peace  was  established  by  King  "Wladislaus,  which 
secured  the  Catholic  and  Calixtine  parties  in  the  possessions  Avhich  they  then 
held.  So  long,  however,  were  the  Hussites  agitated  by  political  storms  that 
ultimately  none  of  their  advantages  remained,  except  the  outward  form  of  the 
cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  recollections  of  former  glory. 

§  299.     The  Bohemian  and  Moravian  Brethren. 

Köcher,  dio  3  vorn.  Glanbensbekennt  A.  B.  Brüd.  Trkf.  u.  Lpz.  1742.  J.  Camerarii  hist,  narra- 
tio  de  fratruin  orthod.  ecclesiis  In  Boh.  Moravia  et  Tol.  (about  1570.)  Heidlb.  1G05.  Frcf.  1C25.  J. 
Comenii  lltst  frat,  Bohemor.  (Amst.  16G0.)  c.  pr.icf.  Buddei.  Hal.  1702.  4.  Locfmer,  Entsteh,  u. 
erste  Schicksale  der  Brüdorscm.  in  B.  u.  M.  Nürnb.  1S32.  A.  Koppen,  d.  KOrdnung  u.  Disciplin.  d. 
»Iten  hiiss.  Brüderkirche.  Lps.  1845. 

A  small  band,  composed  principally  of  remnants  of  the  Taborites,  but 
mollified  by  necessitous  circumstances,  became  dissatisfied  with  the  concea 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFOP.M.    §  299.  BOHEMIANS.    §  :JÖ0.  WESSEL.  35  1 

Bions  made  to  the  Catholics,  and  tho  low  state  to  which  the  evangelical  spirit 
had  declined,  and  therefore  separated  themselves  from  the  Calixtines  (after 
1450).  Their  congregations  were  prescribed  on  the  eastern  borders,  but  soon 
became  numerous  in  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Poland,  in  spite  of  severe  perse- 
cutions. Their  first  bi.shops  received  ordination  from  the  "Waldensian  bishops, 
and  several  renmants  of  the  Waldenses,  with  other  pious  and  peaceable  per- 
sons, were  received  into  their  community.  They  were  generally  poor,  quiet, 
well  versed  in  the  Scriptures,  and  divided  into  three  classes  in  regular  grada- 
tions, called  Novices,  Proficients,  and  Perfect.  They  rejected  tho  saints  and 
prelates  of  the  Catholic  Church,  taught  that  there  was  a  mystical  connection 
between  the  body  of  Christ  and  the  elements  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  did  not 
pretend  to  be  tho  only  saving  Church,  but  only  members  of  it,  and  by  an 
ecclesiastical  di.scipline  like  that  of  the  first  centuries,  maintained  a  habit  of 
life  rigidly  moral,  spiritual,  and  pious,  though  in  many  rcsiiccts  contracted  in 
its  objects. 

§  300.  Learned  Precursors  of  the  Reformation  in  Germamj. 
Nearly  all  the  subjects  which  so  powerfully  agitated  the  world  during 
the  conflicts  of  the  next  century,  were  more  or  less  discussed  by  learned  men 
in  the  midst  of  the  general  opposition  to  the  Church  raised  by  science  and 
piety  in  the  fifteenth  century.  The  great  points  common  to  them  all  were 
the  purification  of  the  Church  by  means  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  reception 
of  Christianity  as  tho  only  saving  faith.  John  (Pujtpcr)  of  Goch^  rector  of  a 
convent  of  nuns  in  Mechlin  (d.  1475),  endeavored  to  find  Christianity  in 
those  errors  which  have  in  all  ages  been  its  snare,  viz.  the  perpetual  observ- 
ance of  the  Mosaic  law  in  some  form,  fiiith  without  works,  satisfaction  with 
works  without  divine  grace,  and  finally  voavs  as  iudispensable  conditions  of 
evangelical  perfection,  {a)  John  Wes!<cl  (Gansfort),  originally  from  Gron- 
ingen, but  afterwards  a  resident  successively  in  Cologne,  Louvain,  Paris,  and 
Heidelberg,  whose  mental  activity  at  last  found  congenial  cnii)loyment  in  the 
stirring  excitement  of  a  counsellor's  and  a  teacher's  life  (Lux  Muudi,  Mag. 
contradictiouum,  d.  1489),  has,  in  the  style  of  the  Scholastics  and  Eumauists, 
conceived  of  Christianity  on  a  basis  of  mysticism,  and  regarded  it  as  some- 
thing entirely  spiritual,  wholly  confined  to  a  man's  own  heart  and  God.  Ills 
expressions,  therefore,  Avith  regard  to  ecclesiastical  institutions  are  generally 
very  limited,  and  formed  with  a  careful  exclusion  of  all  reference  to  doc- 
trines. "Tlie  Holy  Scriptui'c.'j,  God's  own  abbreviated  word,  is  the  living 
source  of  all  true  faith ;  the  Church  is  based  upon  a  compact ;  there  is  a 
general  priesthood  of  tho  rational  universe;  faith  is  to  be  reposed  only  in  an 
orthodox  pope,  and  not  in  every  council ;  sins  can  be  forgiven  by  none  but 
God;  excoiiiinunication  has  only  an  external  inflnenoo  ;  indulgences  refer 
only  to  ecclesiastical  penalties;  repentance  is  internally  complete  through  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  and  God's  free  grace,  when  wo  are  sincerely  grieved  for 
our  sins  ;  the  true  satisfaction  for  sin  is  a  life  in  God  ;  and  purgatory  is  noth- 
ing but  the  purifying  influence  of  a  longing  after  God."  (i)    His  friend  John 

a)  De  liberlate  clir.  ed.  C.  Gntplieu»,  Antii.  W21.  •).     De  quatuor  «rrorib.  Dial.  In  Wnkh,  Mon. 
medil  aevl.  v<il.  I.  Fuse.  4.  C'oiiii).  Wiilck'n  Vorr.  p.  XII I^s. 

6)  .\  cullectionof  liistliool.  tri-alLses:  F^i-rago  We«»eli  {\^1\.   Witt    15'2'2.  aiul  often.    Later  pracl 


SSvi  MKniAKVAL  ciiiiicii  IIISTOKV.    ri:i:.  IV.    a.  n.  i2iß-ir,i7. 

(Iliirnnuli)  of  lIV.s^/,  a  professor  in  Erfurt,  aiul  a  i)rfcaclior  in  "Worms,  stand- 
ing on  tliu  f,'rounil  of  tliü  ri;,'id  Angiistinian  tlicolo;:}',  made  an  assault  upon 
the  received  system  and  usages  of  the  Cliurc]i.  If  the  names  of  all  tlie  elect 
are  inscribed  from  eternity  in  the  book  of  life,  lie  inferred  that  no  cxcommu- 
nicntion  could  ever  blot  them  out,  no  absolution  could  insert  any  in  addition 
to  tiiem,  and  no  observation  of  merely  human  statutes  with  which  the- 
Church  is  burdened,  could  raise  them  to  a  higher  rank.  As  long  as  propo- 
sitions like  these  wero  not  addressed  to  the  people,  they  could  be  tolerated 
under  favorable  circumstances  as  learned  doctrines  in  the  school.  But  John 
of  AVesel,  wlio  glorified  Christ  although  he  despised  the  pope,  was  accused 
by  the  Dominicans  of  Mentz,  was  compelled  to  recant  when  old  and  sick, 
and  was  finally  imprisoned  in  a  convent  (1479)  until  he  was  set  at  liberty  by 
death  (1481).  (c) 

§  301.     Jerome  Savonarola. 

I.  Trattnto  circa  il  resiinento  di  Fircn/e.  Fir.  1494.  ed.  6.  1S4T.  Compendio  di  rlvelazloni.  Fir. 
1495.  4.  (Comp,  revell.  Flor.  1495.  4.)  De  simplidtate  vitae  chr.  Flor.  1496.  4.  Trluinpbus  crucii. 
Flor.  1497.  4.  E.xpos.  in  Psalmum :  Miseroro  mci.  Flor.  1498.  4.  and  often,  especially  sermons  and 
letters.  Catalogue  in  Meier,  p.  393ss. — Roman  \iew:  Bnrchardi  Diarium.  {Eccard  vol.  II.  p. 
20SISS.  Paulus,  Beitrr.  z.  D.  K.  u.  Eel.  Gesch.  Brcm.  1S37.  p.  2Sls3.)  Apologetieal :  J.  F.  Picua 
de  Mirandida,  Vita  Patris  II.  Sav.  1530.  (with  other  orig.  Docc.)  ed.  J.  Quetif,  Par.  1G74.  3  vols.  12. 
Pad/.  Btirlamacchi,  Vita  del.  P.  Sav.  ed.  Mansi  in  Baluzii  Misccll.  Luc.  1761.  f.  vol.  I.  (Bnrlamac- 
chi,  d.  1519.  Mansi  has  edited  only  the  hyperorthodox  revision  by  BotUmi,  which  was  not  made  till 
1527.  I  have  sought  in  vain  at  Florence  for  the  original  test  not  longer  ago  than  1S52,  numerous 
Codd.  in  the  Bibl.  Magliabecchiana,  contain  the  simple  text  of  Mansi  with  only  unimportant  varia- 
tions.) In  connection  with  Gen.  Hist. :  Guicciardini  \.  III.  p.  99ss.  Macchiardli :  Discorsi  I, 
11.  45.    Principe  c.  6.     Commines  Till,  2.  19. 

II.  Buddeus  de  artib.  tyran.  Sav.  Jen.  1690. 4.  with  his  later  Retractatio.  (Parerga  hist  Jen.  1719.) 
F.  ^^:  p.  r.  Ammoyi,  Grundz.  d.  Theol.  d.  Sav.  (Winer's  krit  J.  1S2S.  vol.  VIII.  II.  3.)  Budelbach, 
Hier.  Sav.  u.  s.  Zeit.  Ilamb.  1835.  K.  Jfeier,  Gir.  Sav.  BrI.  1S36.  JT.  JTaae,  Sav.  (Neue  Propheten, 
p.  97.)    [/?.  n.  Madden,  Life  and  Mart,  of  J.  Suv.  Lond.  1853.  2  vols.  8.] 

After  a  period  of  literary  activity  in  a  convent,  the  Dominican  Savona- 
rola became  known  as  an  impressive  preacher  of  repentance  in  Florence 
(after  1489).  lie  reproved  the  sins  of  great  men  as  freely  and  as  faithfully 
as  those  of  ordinary  men,  and  predicted  that  divine  judgments  were  about  to 
break  forth  upon  Italy,  but  that  a  great  purification  of  the  Church,  proceeding 
from  Florence,  should  follow  from  these  severe  troubles.  He  also  predicted 
tlie  approaching  ruin  of  the  house  of  the  Medici,  and  the  march  of  a  foreign 
king  across  the  Alps,  to  chastise  the  tyrants  of  Italy  and  to  reform  the 
Church  with  the  sword.  Accordingly,  Lorenzo  Medici  died,  Charles  YIII. 
advanced  (1494)  across  the  Alps,  and  the  sons  of  Lorenzo  were  banished 
from  Florence.  After  this  partial  fulfilment  of  his  prophecies,  and  when  the 
people  by  his  advice  had  seized  upon  the  government  of  the  republic,  the 
state  was  entirely  dependent  upon  his  counsel,  although  he  never  interfered 
with  the  details  of  the  administration.     He  looked  upon  a  government  by 

by  Luther  In  his  W.  by  WaWt,  vol.  XIV.  p.  219.  0pp.  Groning.  1614.  i.—G.  B.  Goeze,  de  Jo.  Wess 
Lub.  1719.  4.  G.  Muurling,  de  Wes^-li  Gansfortil  cum  vita,  tum  meritis  in  praep.ir.  sacrorum  emen- 
datione  In  Bclgio  sopt  P.  I.  (Vita.)  Traj.  ad  Rh.  1S31.  C.  Cllmann,  J.  Wessel,  ein  Vorgänger  Luth. 
H»mb.  1834.    Die  2  nmg.  A.  in  d.  Reformatoren  vor  d.  Ref.  vol.  IL 

c)  His  treatise  adv.  indiilgentias  in  Walch,  1.  c.  Fasc.  I.  p.  111.  Legal  documents  relating  to  his 
trial  In  Argentri  vol.  I.  P.  II.  p.  891ssl     Ullmann,  voL  I.  p.  S67s8. 


CHAP.  VI.    OPPOS.  &  EEFOEM.    $  301.  SAVONAP.OLA.  353 

tlio  people  as  most  appropriate  to  such  a  place  as  Florence,  and  he  advised 
that  it  sliould  be  a  spiritual  coniiiinnity,  established  upon  the  principles  of 
the  fear  of  God,  true  patriotism,  and  i)eace  among  all  its  citizens.  From  his 
pulpit  he  commenced  a  great  moral  reformation.  His  system  of  faith  was 
founded  upon  that  of  St.  Thomas,  though  it  deviated  somewhat  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Mystics,  and  was  animated  by  the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures.  Of 
course  he  had  no  hope  of  salvation  from  the  saints,  nor  from  his  own  works, 
but  his  Avhole  trust  was  in  tbe  grace  of  God.  Although  he  declined  the 
dangerous  appellation  of  a  prophet,  he  derived  his  predictions  from  a  pro- 
phetic spirit  nourished  by  the  Scriptures,  and  he  believed  that  in  his  conclu- 
sions he  could  no  more  be  mistaken  than  that  God  himself  could  err.  Alex- 
ander VI.,  wounded  in  various  ways,  and  threatened  with  a  council, 
endeavored  to  silence  the  terrible  prophet  at  first  by  brilliant  promises,  and 
afterwards  by  sending  him  a  crafty  summons  to  Rome  (July  21,  1495).  Sa- 
vonarola excused  himself  on  the  groimd  that  he  could  not  at  that  time  be 
absent  from  Florence.  Many  Florentines  were  otlended  at  the  rigid  morality 
which  in  its  enthusiasm  held  a  carnival  with  the  works  of  luxury  and  art, 
and  consigned  them  to  an  auto-da-fe.  The  noble  families  were  chagrined  at 
the  ridiculous  manner  in  which  the  government  was  conducted  by  a  monk 
and  the  people.  An  attempt  to  restore  the  Medici  Avas  expiated  with  the 
heads  of  its  authors,  in  the  midst  of  legal  forms  before  unknown.  The 
sturdy  confidence  which  Savonarola  reposed  in  tlie  King  of  France,  brought 
the  city  of  Florence  into  a  dangerous  political  condition,  and  the  retreat  of 
the  king  gave  a  ridiculous  aspect  to  his  propliecies.  Already  was  his  influ- 
ence over  the  minds  of  the  people  abated,  Avhen  he  was  forbidden  by  the 
Roman  authorities  to  enter  the  pulpit  (Oct.  1496).  As  he  would  not  allow 
the  word  of  God  which  burned  within  him  to  be  smothered,  he  was  excom- 
municated (May  12,  1497).  lie  regarded  such  a  prohibition  as  utterly  void 
when  opposed  to  the  spirit  of  love,  and  concluded  to  appeal  from  the  earthly 
to  the  heavenly  Pope.  lie  therefore  continued  to  ]ireach  to  the  people, 
assuring  them  that  his  cause  would  bo  triumjjhant  though  he  himself  should 
suflfer  martyrdom.  The  Franciscans  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the 
opposition  to  the  Dominicans  of  his  convent  of  St.  Mark,  the  people  became 
excited  at  the  disappointment  Avhich  their  curiosity  had  received  when 
assembled  to  witness  a  divine  trial  of  his  claims  by  the  ordeal  of  fire,  for 
which  neither  of  the  champions  had  any  inclination  or  confidence,  and 
finally  the  city  was  threatened  Avith  a  papal  interdict.  The  convent  of  St. 
Mark  avjls  attacked  by  a  mob,  a  feAV  of  Savonarola's  adherents  Avere  struck 
down,  and  he  himself  was  thrown  into  prison.  An  extraordinary  court  of 
justice  compelled  him  to  confess  on  the  rack  tliat  he  had  played  the  part  of 
a  prophet  from  motives  of  ambition.  Condemned  by  the  judgment  of  the 
pope  as  a  heretic,  and  by  the  voice  of  the  Signoria  for  crimes  not  specified, 
ho  piously  submitted  himself  to  death,  and  between  two  brothers  of  his 
order  Avas  burned  at  the  gibbet  (May  2:3,  1  lOSj.  Even  the  politic  Secretary 
of  State  in  Florence  considered  it  becoming  to  speak  of  such  a  man  with 
reverence.  His  portrait,  with  the  halo  of  sanctity,  painted  by  Fra  Bartolo- 
meo,  is  suspended  in  the  gallery  of  St.  Mark  even  to  the  present  day. 


354  MKDIAKVAL  CIII:KCII  IIISTOUY.   PKU.  IV.     A.  I>.  12IC-1517. 

CIIAI'.   VJI.— THE   GKEEK   ClIUKCII. 

§  .302.     Arsenina. 

G.  P.ii/i>n>ifrfit  III,  in.  14.  lOss.  IV,  Iss.  VII,  22.    Klceph.  Gregoraa  III,  1.  IV,  Iss.  VII,  9.- 
EnOelhardt,  die  Arscnlnnor  u.  Hcsycliastcn.  (Zeitsclir.  f.  bist  Th.  1888.  vol.  VIII.  II.  1.) 

A  complete  re-establishment  of  tho  monarchy  had  been  prevented  by  the 
Introduction  of  an  arrangement  resembling  the  feudal  system,  and  by  the 
formation  of  an  independent  nobility,  composed  of  those  families  Avhich  were 
contending  against  the  occupation  of  tho  country  by  the  Latins.  Tlie  Church 
regarded  itself  as  the  moral  power  by  which  the  unity  of  tlie  nation  was  to 
be  preserved  and  the  erai)iro  was  finally  to  be  restored.  But  when  Michael 
Fiilaeologiis  actually  set  up  the  imperial  autliority  in  Constantinople  (1261), 
he  had  the  lawful  heir  to  the  throne,  John  Lascaris,  deprived  of  his  sight. 
For  this  act  the  patriarch  Arsenius  pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication 
against  the  emperor  (1262),  who  Avas  compelled  by  the  murmurs  of  the  peo- 
ple to  promise  compliance  with  every  penance  required  of  him.  But  when 
the  patriarch  demanded  that  he  should  lay  aside  the  ])urple  which  he  had 
unlawfully  seized,  the  emperor  retaliated  the  ecclesiastical  Bann  with  a  civil 
banishment,  lie  also  succeeded  in  gaining  over  a  synod  to  his  purposes,  by 
which  Arsenius  was  deposed  (12GG),  on  the  ground  that  his  election  and  his 
administration  had  been  irregular.  Only  three  gold  pieces  which  had  been 
earned  by  transcribing  the  Psalms  were  found  in  the  episcopal  treasury. 
Even  when  banished  to  a  desert  island,  and  Avith  his  last  breath,  the  deposed 
patriarch  rejected  the  prayer  of  the  emperor  to  be  reconciled  to  the  Church. 
The  next  patriarch  was  obhged  to  yield  to  the  popular  displeasure.  Michael 
tlien  succeeded  in  having  a  popular  saint  consecrated  as  patriarch,  by  whom 
the  restoration  of  the  emperor  to  the  communion  of  the  Church  was  finally 
effected  (1268).  But  an  influential  party  of  monks  called  Arsenites  persisted 
in  rejecting  the  emperor  and  his  patriarch.  This  dangerous  schism  was  not 
healed  until  Andrviiiciis  caused  the  dead  body  of  Arsenius  to  be  deposited  in 
the  holy  place,  and  the  wrong  which  had  been  committed  against  him  was 
atoned  for  by  a  penance  imposed  upon  the  whole  nation  (1312). 

§  303.     The  Light  of  God  and  Philosophij. 

I.  Among  contemporaries,  for  Bad.  Niceph.  Gregoras  XI,  10.  Against  him,  Jo.  Cantacusen.  II, 
SDss.  (Both  in  tlie  Corp.  Scrr.  Byz.  Bonn.  lS-2Sss.  P.  XIXs.)    Documents  in  3Iami  vol.  XXVs. 

II.  Petatim,  de  theol.  dogmatib.  vol.  1. 1.  I.  c.  12?.    Engelhardt,  de  Hesych.  Erl.  1S29.  i. 

Mount  Athos,  with  its  dark  forests,  in  which  tradition  says  no  creature  of 
the  female  sex  can  exist,  and  looking  far  out  upon  the  sea,  had  become,  after 
the  ninth  century,  covered  with  monasteries.  These  constituted  a  republic 
made  up  exclusively  of  monks,  from  which  the  Eastern  Church  was  supplied 
with  bishops,  (a)  In  this  place  Barlaam^  a  classically  educated  monk  from 
Calabria,  found  monastic  saints  who  thought  they  could  attain  while  yet  in 
the  body,  by  a  perfect  cessation  of  corporeal  life,  an  intuition  of  the  divine 

a)  J.  P.  Follmeraijer,  Fragmente  a.  d.  Orient  Stuttg.  1S45.  vol.  II.  Comp.  Eustaibius  v.  Thos- 
pfilonicli,  Ü.  d.  M.inclisst.niid.  from  the  Greek,  by  G.  L.  F.  Tttfel,  Tub.  1S4T. 


CHAP.  VII.    GREEK  CHÜECIL    §  297.  LIGHT  OF  GOD.    §  29S.  UNION.        355 

Light  and  Essence.  The  method  they  adopted  appears  to  have  produced  a 
kind  of  magnetic  clairvoyance.  "When  Barhiam  ridiculed  these  Quietists  ('Hav- 
Xaa-Tai)  as  uavel-gazers  CO/i(^uXo\//-uxoi),  Gregory  Palamas  maintained  that 
the  divine  light  might  he  intuitively  contemplated,  and  referred  to  the  newly 
created  light  which  surrounded  our  Lord  on  Mount  Tahor.  Barlaam  rejoined 
that  nothing  but  God  could  be  uncreated,  and  consequently  that  his  opponent 
had  made  out  that  there  "were  two  Gods.  A  synod  convened  in  Constantino- 
jile  (13-il)  decided  in  favor  of  the  monks  of  the  sacred  mount,  and  Barlaam 
passed  over  into  Italy  and  to  the  Roman  Church.  At  Constantinople  the 
controversy  was  carried  on  with  reference  to  various  pointed  questions,  and 
with  many  interferences  from  the  court,  until  it  reached  the  conclusion 
(1350) :  that  God's  essence  and  energy  were  distinguishable ;  that  there  is  an 
uncreated  energy,  like  the  light  on  Tabor,  which  is  inseparable  from  God, 
and  that  this  was  denominated  Deity  by  the  fathers,  although  it  is  subordi- 
nate to  the  divine  essence.  Platonism,  whose  gospel  was  proclaimed  by  Ge- 
niistus  Plttho  at  the  time  of  the  Synod  of  Florence,  generally  maintained  its 
pious  trust  in  opposition  to  the  worldliness  of  Aristotle,  hut  its  radical  prin- 
ciples were  deeply  fixed  in  an  atiectiunate  attachment  to  Greek  antiquity.  It 
was  therefore  accused  of  being  a  new  form  of  heathenism  by  those  who  de- 
fended Aristotle,  whose  system,  on  the  other  hand,  had  now  become  adapted 
to  the  requirements  of  the  Church.  (l>) 

§  304.     Attempts  at  Union.     Cont.  from  %  2^5. 
Leo  AUatius,  Graccia  orüicxl.  Eom.  1652. 1659.  2  vols.  1 

While  the  Latins  possessed  the  imperial  authority,  a  reconciliation  be- 
tween the  two  Churches  was  impoi^sible,  on  account  of  the  political  abuses 
of  which  the  Greeks  complained,  and  the  exorbitant  demands  of  the  domi- 
nant Church.  But  when  Constantinople  again  became  the  capital  of  the 
Greek  empire  and  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  emperors  were  anxious  to  effect 
a  reconciliation,  or  at  least  the  .semblance  of  one,  because  during  the  thir- 
teenth century  they  w'ero  apprehensive  of  another  crusade  from  the  West, 
anil  after  the  fourteenth  century  tlioy  were  desirous  of  aiil  against  the 
Turks.  At  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274),  tlierofore,  Michael  I'alaeologus 
allowed  his  representatives  to  subscribe  the  Koman  confe.'^ion  of  faith,  reserv- 
ing only  the  old  established  usages  of  his  Church,  {<i)  and  at  the  Synod  of 
Florence  (1439)  the  union  of  the  two  Churches  was  consummated  by  the 
Greek  emperor  and  tlie  Patriarch  himself.  (/')  But  the  jjcoplc  were  entire 
strangers  to  any  such  union,  and  when  tiie  throne  of  the  ralacologi  was 
tlireatened,  the  poi)ular  party  betook  themselves  to  the  Comneni  at  Trebi- 
zond.  The  learned  men  on  tiie  (ireek  side  defended  tlieir  Church  by  proving 
its  agreement  with  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  and  those  of  the  Latin  party  de- 

l)  PMho,  do  Pint,  ntfjuc  Arist.  phll.  dlfTorcntln.  Par.  15-11.  Georg.  TrapfzuuL  Compar.  Ar.  et 
Plat  Yen.  1528.— jr.  Gus»,  Oenna.lius  u.  Plotlio.  Ilro.Hl.  1S44.    Tlio  2(1  part  contains  both  treatises. 

n)  Raynahl.  ad  ann.  1267.  N.  "2.«3.     Jf-ttisi  vol.  XXIV.  p.  00.  C7ss, 

b)  Lablit'i  ct  Cossartii  Concc.  vol.  XIII.  p.  Sli's".  S>/!r.  &juroj/uli  vera  Hist  unionls  non 
vorae  Inter  Gr.  et  Lat  s.  Cone.  Flor,  narntio.  Gr.  ct  Lit  ed.  U.  Creyg/iton,  Hag.  Com.  1C60.  4.  Oa 
the  other  side  Leo  Allut.  Koni.  ICW.  4. 


35b  MKDIAKVAL  CIIURCn  HISTORY.     I'KP..  IV.     A.  1).  121f^l517. 

fended  theirs  after  the  cxjimplo  of  St.  Thoman,  (c)  by  forged  original  docn« 
meiits  and  false  constructions  of  the  Greek  fathers.  Once  more,  when  the 
Turkish  bastions  had  been  already  erected  against  the  walls  of  Constantino- 
ple, ft  reconciliation  was  celebrated  in  December,  1452,  and  a  Roman  cardinal 
legato  held  mass  in  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  But  the  only  effect  of  this 
was  that  tlio  consciences  of  the  people  were  fretted,  and  their  love  was 
alienated  from  the  emperor  himself.  The  only  true  union  of  the  Churches 
took  place  in  the  social  circle  of  the  Platonist  Cardinal  Bcssarion  (d.  1472), 
Archbishop  of  Nicaea,  who,  after  the  Synod  of  Florence,  abandoned  a  cause 
which  he  regarded  as  desperate.  By  his  interest  in  the  cause  of  his  na- 
tive land  and  her  exiled  children,  he  subsequently  proved  that  he  was  not 
a  deserter,  but  a  mediator  between  two  nations  and  two  mental  king- 
doms. ((/) 

§  305.    End  of  the  Greek  Empire. 

After  Phranza,  Diicag,  and  others,  Cnisiua  Turco-Graecia.  Ba?.  1534.  f.    J.  r.  Hammer,  Gesch. 
A  osmaa.  Eeichs.  Pesth.  lS2Tss.  vol.  L  p.  509ss.  vol.  II. 

Abandoned  by  "Western  Europe,  after  one  more  glorious  struggle  on  May 
29,  1453,  New  Rome  was  stormed  by  the  Turks,  and  the  church  of  St.  So- 
phia was  desecrated  and  converted  into  a  mosque.  The  family  of  the  Palae- 
ologi  retired  to  the  Peloponnesus,  and  there  wasted  away  untU  it  became 
extinct  (1460).  The  Comneni  indulged  the  vain  hope  that  they  could  obtain 
deliverance  by  the  surrender  of  Trebizond  (1462).  («)  One  Christian  hero, 
Scanderheg,  who  had  formerly  attained  the  highest  dignities  among  the  Mo- 
hammedans, but,  late  in  life,  had  forsaken  them  all  to  become  a  Christian, 
now  effected  the  deliverance  of  Epirus,  for  more  than  twenty  years  withstood 
the  whole  power  of  the  Ottomans,  and  finally  may  be  said  to  have  been 
overwhelmed  rather  than  overcome  (1466).  (b)  His  Albaniana  became  more 
properly  the  allies  than  the  subjects  of  the  Porte,  and  generally  adopted  a 
false  kind  of  religion  intermediate  between  that  of  Christ  and  that  of  Mo- 
bammed.  The  Mainots  and  the  Thieves  remained  independent  tribes  of  Chris- 
tians in  the  mountains.  The  remnant  of  the  Grecian  nation  was  allowed  by 
Mohammed  JL,  the  conqueror  of  Constantinople,  to  continue  under  a  mild 
form  of  servitude  and  in  the  free  enjoyment  of  their  religion.  Gennadius, 
who  had  been  chosen  patriarch  by  order  of  this  sultan,  presented  to  Mm  the 
confession  of  faith  of  the  Oriental  Church,  in  which  were  embraced  all  those 
important  particulars  in  which  Christianity  is  distinguished  from  Islam,  (c) 
One  half  of  the  churches  remained  in  possession  of  the  Christians  untU  the 
beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  when  the  Sultan  Selini  appropriated  as 
many  of  them  as  he  thought  needful  to  the  use  of  the  Mohammedans.  The 
patriarch,  being  regarded  as  a  high  political  officer,  receives  his  confirmation 


c)  Opnsc.  contra  errorcs  Graeeorura  ad  Urban  IV. 

d)  A.  Bandini,äiTitcL  et  rob.  gestis  Bess.  Kom.  17T4.  4.    I/.  ITasf,  Bessarion.  (Hall.  EncycL 
Tol.  IX.) 

a)  Fallmerayer,  Gesch.  d.  Kalserth.  Trapezuut  Munich.  1S2T. 

b)  Marinw  Barlttiiis  de  vita  Georgii  Castrioti  L  XIIL  Argent  1537.  t  to  be  modified  by  Git> 
bon  &  nammer.        c)  Gasa.  Abth.  II.  p.  Sss. 


CHAP.  TIL    GREEK  ClIUECH.    §  305.  TURKISH  BULK  357 

or  deposition  according  to  the  will  of  the  sultan.  He  has  a  permanent  synod 
of  bishops  and  notables  to  act  as  his  council  and  judicial  court,  in  connection 
with  which  ho  is  the  arbitrator  and  judge  of  his  people.  The  administration 
of  justice  in  civil  matters,  and  generally  with  respect  to  minor  offences,  is 
performed  in  the  episcopal  courts.  These  have,  it  is  true,  no  power  but  that 
of  arbitrators,  yet  the  fear  of  being  excommunicated  by  them  is  so  great  that 
this  is  sufficient.  ((T)  The  Greek  Church  was  compelled  to  share  the  depressed 
fortunes  of  its  people.  It  now  undertook  the  vocation  of  consoling  a  people 
overwhelmed  by  misfortunes,  and  of  preserving  its  own  peculiar  institutions 
until  a  brighter  day  should  dawn  upon  it. 

d)  G.  Geib.  &»rst  d.  Reclitszust  In  Griecbenland  wahrend  d.  turk.  Ilerrsliftft,  Ueidelb.  :S85k 


"N 


MODERj^  CHURCH  HISTORY. 

FIFTH   PERIOD. 

FEOM  LUTHEK  TO  THE  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA. 


I'or  Gen.  History:  Correspondenz  K.  Kavls  V.  ed.  by  K.  Lanz,  Lps.  1944ss.  3  vols.  Guicciardini 
(p.  2.3S).  P.  Giovio,  Hist,  sui  tomp.  (1493-1513.  1521-27.)  Flor.  1550s.  &  often.  De  Tliou,  Hist,  so! 
temp.  (1543-lGOT.)  Frc£  4  vols.  f.  &  often.  Khevenhiller,  Ann.  Ferdinande!,  2  ed.  (1573-1637.)  Lps. 
1716SS.  Vi  vols.  f.  Goldaat,  Imp.  Pvom.  Frcf.  1607.  £  &  Constt.  Imp.  R.  FrcE  1615.  3  vols.  f.  £och, 
Samml.  d.  Eeicbsabschiede.  Frc£  1747. 4  vols.  f. — Sastrotc,  (1595.)  Herkommen,  Geburt  u.  Laufs.  Le- 
bens, ed.  by  Mohniko,  Greifsw.  1823s.  8  ro\a.—Ilobert3on,  Hist,  of  the  Emp.  Charles  V.  Lond.  1769. 
3  vols.  4.  ed  by  Frost,  1  vol.  8.  New  Törk.  1840.  Uebers.  v.  Eemer,  Brnsch.  1793.  3  vols.  F.  v.  ^k- 
choltz,  Ferd.  I.  Vienna.  1832-8.  9  vols.  [S.  A.  Dunham,  H.  of  the  Germanic  Empire.  Lond.  1334-5. 
8  vols.  8.  W.  a  Taylor,  Anc.  &  Mod.  Hist.  New  York.  1S46.  2  vols.  8.  W.  Smith,  Loctt  on  Mod. 
Hist  &c.  2  vols.  8.  Lond.  1S41.  W.  Busse!!,  Hist  of  Mod.  Europe  to  1763.  8  vols.  8.  New  Nork. 
I',  KoUraiisch,  Hist  of  Germany,  transl.  by  Haas.  New  York.  1347.] 

D         §  306.     General  View. 

The  necessity  of  a  reformation,  now  universally  recognized,  was  the  prin- 
cipal legacy  bequeathed  by  the  preceding  age.  This  work  now  commenced 
among  the  people  simultaneou.sly  in  Saxony  and  in  Switzerland.  It  was  the 
result,  not  of  literary  improvement,  though  in  connection  with  it,  nor  of  con- 
tests with  the  papacy,  although  much  of  its  success  was  owing  to  the  arro- 
gance and  the  corruptions  of  that  system,  but  principally  of  the  fear  which 
pious  persons  felt  lest  true  repentance  and  salvation  should  be  utterly  lost 
sight  of  in  the  eager  chase  after  indulgences  and  human  merit.  It  was  not 
until  the  Reformation  was  decidedly  opposed  by  the  hierarchy,  that  the 
Church  was  compelled  by  the  inevitable  force  of  circumstances  to  divide.  It 
was  then  that  the  principle  of  Protestantism  which  had  previously  been  sub- 
ordinate, led  its  friends  to  establish  an  independent  Church,  that  Christianity 
might  there  find  an  appropriate  development.  This  was  accomplished  in 
Switzerland  in  the  midst  of  isolated  struggles  among  republican  parties,  and 
in  the  interior  of  Germany,  in  the  midst  of  learned  controversies,  solemn 
imperial  transactions,  popular  commotions,  and  mercenary  wars.  Both  re- 
forming parties  justified  their  views  by  appealing  to  the  Scriptures,  and 


§3ÜC.  GENERAL  VIEW.    §307.  LITERATURE.  359 

expected  salvation  wholly  from  the  grace  of  God  through  Christ;  both 
serionsly  misunderstood  each  otlicr,  not  indeed  at  first,  but  at  a  very  early 
period,  and  both  were  German  in  their  national  characteristic.'^,  although,  as 
was  to  be  expected  in  a  border  country,  the  Helvetic  Church  partook  at  an 
early  date  of  a  French  admixture.  The  Reformation  now  began  its  course 
around  the  world.  Pohtical  interests,  foreign  to  its  true  objects,  in  some 
instances  interrupting  and  in  others  promoting  its  progress,  became  involved 
in  the  conflict,  but  the  ecclesiastical  interest  never  ceased  to  be  prominent. 
In  consequence  of  the  very  opposition  it  had  received,  Catholicism  renewed 
its  energies,  and  "Western  Europe  became  divided  into  two  great  hosts,  which, 
in  the  very  country  where  tlie  Reformation  originated,  contended  with  earthly 
weapons  for  the  existence  of  Protestantism.  Its  rights,  however,  were  finally 
purchased  at  the  expense  of  the  devastation  and  disunion  of  Germany.  Both 
Churches,  while  agitated  by  the  highest  excitement  of  opposition,  were  finally 
,''bliged  to  leave  each  other  in  peaceable  possession  of  what  each  actually 
occupied.  The  development  of  this  contest,  and  its  results  in  the  contend- 
ing Churches,  constitute  the  central  object  of  our  history  during  this  period, 
and  supply  tlie  peculiar  conditions  according  to  which  the  topical  arrange- 
ment will  be  formed. 


CHAP.  I.— THE  GERMAN  REFORMATION. 

§  307.     Original  Authorities  and  Literary  Uintorij. 

A.  L  Writings  of  the  Reformers  §  303.  313.  Spalatini  Ann.  Ref.  (till  15  W.)  e<l.  by  Cyprian.  Lps. 
1718.  F.  Myconii  Ili.st  Ref  1518-42.  ed.  by  the  same.  Gotlia  (1715.)  1718.— J!  CocMaeti^,  Cmtr.  clc 
actis  et.  scrr.  Lutlicri  1517-17.  Mog.  1549.  C  &  often.  L.  Siiriui,  Clironicon  1500-66.  Col.  1507.— J!  S!ei- 
daiius,  (le  statu  rel.  et  reip.  Carolo  V  Cacs.  Cmtrr.  Arg.  1555.  f.  completo  1.157.  &  often,  ill.  am  Ende, 
Fref.  17S5S.  3  vols.  Uebers.  v.  Stroth,  Hal.  1770ss.  4  vols.  Contin.  usq.  »il  1564.  Londorp.  FrcC  1019. 
3  vols.  4.  [IIi;.L  of  the  Ref.  of  the  Church.  1517-02.  from  the  Latin  of  J.  Sleidanus,  by  E.  Bohuti, 
Lond.  10S9.  f] — Collections:  F.  Ffortleder,  Handlungen  u.  Ausschreiben  v.  d.  Urs.ichen  d.  dt.  Kriegs 
wider  d.  Schmalk.  l?undts-Ver\v.  (till  15Ä5.)  FrkC  16173.  2  vols.  f.  Gotha.  1645.  f.  //.  r.  d.  ITanlU 
Hist  litter.  R«f.  Frcf.  et  L.  1717.  f.  B.  Löscher,  vol'st.  Ref.  Acta.  (1517-19.)  Lpz.  1720s.s  3  vols.  4. 
J.  Kapp,  Nachlese  z.  ReC  Gesch.  nützl.  Urk.  Lps.  1727ss.  4  vols.  Strohel:  Miscell.  Numb.  177Sss. 
G  Th.  Beitrr.  z.  Lit.  17S4ss.  2  &  5  vols.  Johantuieti,  die  Entw.  A.  Prot.  Geistes,  c.  Samml.  d.  wich- 
tigsten Dokumente  v.  Worms.  Edict  b.  z,  Sp.  Prot.  Kupenh.  ISSO.  C.  G.  Xeudecker  :  Urkunden  a. 
<L  Kef.  Zeit  Cass.  1>30.  Actenstücke.  Nürnb.  1S3n  Neue  Beitrr.  Lps.  1341.  2  vols.  C.  E.  Förstemanii, 
Neues  Urkundenb.  z.  Gesch.  d.  KReC  Hariib.  1342.  1  vol.  4.  J.  A'.  Seideinann :  Erläutt  z.  Ref. 
Gosch.  Drsd.  1344.  IJeitrr.  z.  Ref.  Gesch.  Drsd.  1340.  2  Th.  Vitao  quatuor  Reformator.  Luth.  a  Mel. 
Mel.  a  Cum-erii rio,  Zwlngl.  a  ifijconio,  Calv.  a  Ii>':<i.  Trnef.  est  Neander.  13er.  1341.  4.  J/l  Adaytii 
Vitae  Germanor.  Tlieologor.  Ileidelb.  1620.— IL  /'.  Siirpi,  {P.  Soar«  Pol.)  1st  del.  Cone  dl  Trento. 
Londr.  1619.  f.  &  often.  Hist  Cone,  Tridentlni,  Lond.  1620.  Lps.  1690.  2  voK  4.  &  often.  Uebers.  v. 
liiimbticli,  Hal.  17Clss.  6  vols.  v.  Winterer,  Mergonth.  13.39.  4  vols.  PnUacicini,  1st  del  Cone,  di 
Tr.  Rom.  1646.  2  vols.  f.  Mendrlslo.  1336.ss  10  vols,  lat  redd.  Ginttino,  Antu.  1070.  3  vols.  f.  &,  often. 
Ueber.s.  v.  Klitsche,  Augsb.  1S36.  8  vol.\  Bonnuet,  Hist  des  variations  des  Egl.  prot  Par.  1638.  2  vols. 
4.  &  often.  1731.  4  vols.  /,.  .Vdimbotirf;,  Hist  du  Lutheranlsmo.  Par.  1630.  4.  &  often.  K.  liißel, 
KGesch.  d.  neuesten  Zeit  Mainz.  (1341s\)  1S44-7.  3  vols.—  I'  L.  dt  SeclCi-ndor/,  Cmtr.  hist  et  apol. 
de  Lutheranismo.  Frcf.  et  L  (1033.4.)  1692.  f.  Uebers.  u.  vrm.  v.  Frick,  L|«.  1714.  4.  Ausz.  u. 
Forts.  V.  Juninn,  Frkf  u.  L.  1755.  4  vols.  vrh.  v.  Rons.  Tub.  1733.  2  vols.  TentzeL,  hist  Vor.  v.  d. 
Kef.  z.  ErI.  Seckend.  e<l.  by  Cifpriau-,  Li«.  1718.  2  vols.  C.  A.  Stilig,  Uesch.  d.  A.  Con£  (1517-62.) 
Hal.  1780SS.  3  vols.  4.  t".  J.  Planck,  Ge^ch.  <L  Enst  Veräiid.  u.  BiUL  uns.  prot  Lchrbgr.  b.  z.  Con- 
cord. Li«.  (1731s.s.  8  vol.«.)  1791-1300.  7  vols.  Woltmunn,  GcscU.  d.  Kef.  in  Doutschl.  Alt  (lS01s,s.) 
1817.  3  vols.  Marheineki-,  Gesch.  d.  teufch.  Ref  b.  1555.  (1317.  2  vols.)  ]93Iss.  4  vols.  C.  A.  .Men- 
?«/,  KeC  Gesch.  (Neuere  Gesch.  d.  Duutschl.  12  vol».)  Brsl.  1320.  8  vols,  Z.  Bunke,  deutsche  Gesch.  im 


300  MoDKItN  CHfttCII  IIIöTOUV.     PKK.  V.     A.  D.  lülT-KlS. 

Z.lliL  il.  lief.  Itcrl.  1S39-13.  8  e<l  1S52.  5  vols,  it  1  o<l.  6  voIk.  Soiircf» :  [Illst.  of  the  Met.  In  Germ 
iniiisl.  by  .Wim.  Aiiitln,  2  voK  8.  I-ond.  lS4r..]  A'.  ILtgen,  DcuUsclil.  lit.  u.  rcl.  Verli.  im  Met.  Ä^il^ 
Krl.  1H41-H.  .")  vols  (J  »t  3  vol«. :  Crclst  (1.  Mot.  ii.  ».  OcgensäUo.)— ./:  G.  Midler,  I^eiikw.  a.  d.  Gesclt 
il.  Ucf.  (Ufllq.  nllerZolt.  vol.  8.)  Lp3  ISOO.  Mut.  Alinunatb,  ed.  by  KtijHer,  Krf.  I^IT.  1518.  1820. 
1921.  /totermunJ,  orn.  Andonken  d.  Männer  dlo  für  n.  gegen  d.  Kef.  Lutli.  (.'carbcltct  haben.  Urem. 
ISIS.  1  vol.     C.  G.  Keiide.cker  Qescli.  d.  ov.  Trot  In  Deutsclil.  d.  a.  iin.sro  Tiigc.  Ljiz.  ISW.s.  2  voU. 

B.  I.  Wiltlnss  of  tlio  KufornuTS  §  'AM.  3JC.  V.  Anihelm,  IJcrnor  Chronik  till  l.ViiJ.  cd.  by  Slier- 
tin  &  H>»,  Born.  lS25ss.  vol.  Vs.  /A  BuHingfrS  Wut.  Gcscli.  (till  1532.)  ed.  by  IloUinger  ii.  VixjeU, 
Frauenf.  l-^aSs«.  3  vols.— Hof.  Chronik  d.  Knrtliäus.  Georj.  uebcr».  durch  K.  Bii.\torf,  Bas  IS^.— 
./.  O.  Füxuli:  Beytrr.  z.  Krl.  d.  K.  It.  Hist.  d.  Schwclzerl.  Zur.  1741ps.  5  vol.s.  Epp.  ab  Ecc.  Ilelv.  lie- 
forniator.  vol  ad  eos  .-icr.  Tig.  1742.  J.  J.  Simler,  ?inl.  alt.  u.  neu.  Urk.  Zur.  l"57ss.  6  vol?.— II.  Mninv- 
hoarg,  Hist,  du  Calvinisnio.  Par.  \mi.—Bayli;  Critlquo  Ri<n.  do  \'\l.  dn  Calv.  liotL  IC54.  2  vols.  12.  A 
Lettrcs  do  I'liutcur  de  la  Critique  Pv.  1CS5.  J.  Baanage,  Hist  do  la  IJel.  des  igl.  rtforniee».  (Rot.  1C90. 
2  vols.  12.)  Hiiyc  1725.  2  vols.  i.  J.  J.  ITottinger,  lielv.  KQosch.  Zur.  1G0S.SS.  4  vols.  4.  A.  Jiuc/uit, 
H.  do  la  Uef.  do  la  Suisse.  (Gen.  17:27.s.  G  vols.  12.)  Nyon,  1S35-S.  7  vols.  J.  de  Beamohre,  \l\M.  de  la 
ruC  ((ill  1530.)  Ber.  1785.  3  vols.  L.  Wirz  &  M.  Kirchliofer,  neuere  liclv.  KGcscli.  Zur.  1813-19.  2 
vuis.— .1.  S<-ulteti  Ann.  Ev.  renovati.  Ildlb.  ICIS.  Gerden:  Introd.  in  Hist  Ev.  renovati.  (1510-06.) 
Gron.  1744SS.  4  Th.  4.  Serinium  8.  Miscell.  ad  Eef.  spcct  Gron.  1748>s.  S  Th.  4.  A'.  Ii.  IlagenhacK, 
Vorless.  ü.  Wesen  u.  Gesch.  d.  Eef.  Lps.  (18.34  2  vols.)  1S51.  J.  II.  Merle  d'Auhigiie,  Hist  de  la  rOf. 
d.  1Ö  sicclc.  Par.  lS35s.  4  vols.  [Hist  of  the  Rof.  of  the  ICtb  cent  by  J.  H.  Merle  D'Aubi-n^,  transl. 
by  n.  White.  Edinb.  vt  New  York.  1847-1S5.3.  4  vols.  12.  //.  Stehhing,  Hist  of  the  Ref.  2  vols.  12. 
Lond.  1836.     G.  Waddiiigton,  Hist  of  Kef.  on  the  Continent  3  vols.  8.  Lond.  1841.] 

C.  de  VHler.i,  Essai  sur  I'esprit  et  I'influence  do  la  ref.  do  Luth.  Par.  1802.  ed.  5.  1551.  [Ess-aj  on 
t!ie  KeC  of  Luther  by  Yillers,  transl.  by  S.  Miller,  1  vol.  12.  Phil.  183-3.]  N.  d.  2  ed.  Ucbcrs.  v. 
Cramer,  m.  Beil.  v.  ITenke,  Uamb.  (ISO.').)  1S2S.  v.  Stampeel  m.  Vor.  v.  Eosenmüller,  Lps.  flSOö.) 
XSiM.—Rohelot,  do  l"influence  de  la  Ref.  de  Luth.  Lyons.  1S22.  Mayence.  1S23.  J.  Düllinger,  d.  Kef. 
ihre  Entw.  u.  Wirk,  im  Umfange  d.  Luth.  Bekenntn.  Uatisb.  1S46-S.  3  vols.— A".  G.  Bretichneider,  d. 
deutsche  Ref.  Lps.  1844. 

The  events  of  the  Reformation  Avere  produced  principally  by  published 
Avritiiigs,  which,  in  subsequent  times,  needed  only  to  be  collected.  The  ac- 
counts left  by  Spalatin  (d.  1545)  and  Jlyconius  (d.  154»))  are  valuable  merely 
as  the  testimony  of  those  who  actually  witnessed  what  they  related.  A 
more  comprehensive  picture  is  presented  in  the  work  of  CocJilaeus  (Dobnek, 
d.  1552),  although  colored  by  the  peculiar  views  of  his  party.  In  opposition 
to  his  abusive  representations  the  learned  statesman,  Sleidanus  (Philipson,  d. 
1556),  showed  by  original  documents  that  the  Reformation  was  a  work  of 
Providence,  in  which  the  whole  human  race  was  interested,  and  that  it  had 
important  relations  to  general  history.  In  the  contest  waged  against  Maim- 
honrifs  elegant  but  malignant  representation,  Seclcendorf.  on  account  of  his 
access  to  the  archives  preserved  by  the  State,  is  entitled  to  a  place  among 
the  original  authorities.  Among  the  historical  writers,  the  Reformation  has 
been  described  by  Sarjri,  a  real  Protestant  under  a  monk's  cowl,  and  by  Pal- 
lavicini,  with  all  the  advantages  and  the  prejudices  of  a  cardinal.  Bossuet 
has  more  particularly  noticed  the  gradual  development  and  the  human  ele- 
ments, as  well  as  the  variations  and  arbitrary  character  of  the  Reformation. 
The  work  oi  Plancic  is  impartial,  but  sometimes  altogether  too  full  of  minute 
details,  while  th.at  of  Marheineie  is  popular,  and  yet,  in  consequence  of  its 
documentary  character,  possesses  much  of  an  antiquarian  aspect.  Woltmanti 
has  bestowed  special  attention  upon  the  rights  of  those  who  were  opposed  to 
the  Reformation.  A  vast  amount  of  original  authorities,  especially  from  the 
records  of  the  Gorman  empire,  has  boon  brought  forward  in  an  intelligent 
manner  by  Iianlr,  who  has  interspersed  in  his  narrative  many  admirable 
reflections,  and  in  a  style  of  almost  dramatic  interest  has  contrived  to  exhibit 
not  only  general  characters  and  incidoiU*.  but  the  most  insignificant  agents  ia 


CHAP.  I.  EEFOr.MATION.  §  808.  LUTnEE'S  YOUTH.         361 

their  utmost  efforts  against  the  more  prominent  historical  personages.  Lu- 
ther's cause  has  been  described  ■with  much  less  precision  by  Ilagen^  as  thi 
result  of  a  general  effort  at  a  compromise,  and  as  an  eai-ly  departure  from  its 
own  original  principles.  The  Helvetic  Reformation  does  not  so  clearly  i)re- 
sent  a  common  centre,  and  the  development  of  great  characters  in  the  midst 
of  great  events.  "With  the  sympathies  of  an  actor  in  the  scenes  which  he 
describes,  BulUnger  has  slmplj',  clearly  aTid  faithfully  narrated  in  the  Chroni- 
cle of  his  own  times  and  vicinity  (1510-82)  not  only  those  incidents  which 
were  important,  but  many  which  were  of  but  trifling  consequence  connected 
with  the  glorious  transactions  of  his  native  land.  As  Dayle  had  previously 
vindicated  the  Reformation  in  opposition  to  Maimbourg's  passionate  shrewd- 
ness, so  Basnage  in  a  .skilful  and  si)irited  manner  defended  it  against  the  inge- 
nious declamation  of  Bos.suet.  The  historical  materials  were  collected  with 
honest  diligence  by  JTottlngcr,  and  more  perfectly  and  more  skilfully  by  Bu- 
chat,  but  both  were  under  the  influence  of  a  powerful  party  sjilrit.  From  a 
position  in  which  he  happily  combines  practical  with  contomidative  view«, 
Ilagenlach  instructs  and  consoles  the  paiulully  excited  age  in  which  he  live.«, 
by  holding  up  before  it  a  vivid  picture  of  preceding  times,  and  yet  preserves 
a  proportionate  representation  of  the  whole  Reformation.  In  the  lofty  and 
attractive  picture  presented  by  Merle  d\iul>igne,  the  author  seems  conscious 
of  a  perfect  agreement  with  the  reformers  in  their  theijlogical  views,  and  yet 
avails  himself  of  all  the  resources  of  modern  literature. 

I.    ESTABLISUMENT   OF   THE    LuTlIEKAX    ClILBCII,    TILL   1532. 

Luther.  Literature:  Fahricii  Ccntifolium  Lutli.  Ilaiiib.  172?ss.  2  vols.  Ukert,  L.  Leben.  Gollia. 
ISl".  2  vols.  E.  G.  Vogel,  Bibl.  IJio^raphlc.i  Lutlierana,  Hal.  1S51.  Works:  Lat.  Vit  1545ss.  7  vols. 
f.  Jen.  155GSS.  4  vols.  f.  Gcrmnn,  Wilt  lM9s«.  12  vols.  f.  Jena  ISKJss.  8  vols.  f.  Altenb.  1661ss. 
10  vols.  f.  e<l.  by  J.  G.  Walch,  Ilal.  1737-5:3.  24  voLs.  4.  According  to  the  orig.  language  by  Ploch- 
inann  &  Irmischer,  Krl.  182G-Ö0.  CS  vola  (Selections  by  rßz>-r,  Frkf.  lS.37ss.  O.  v.  Gerluch,  15rl. 
\HUs,.\)y  Zimmermann,  Frkf.  1S4C-'.)  Letters  cd.  by  De  Wettf,  Brl.  1S'.'^-2S.  5  vols.  Life:  ih- 
lanct/ion,  IlisL  de  vita  et  actis  L.  Vit.  V)i6.  den.  cd.  Auou^ti,  Vrat  1S17.  Uebers.  v.  Zimmermann 
in.  Anui.  v.  ViUer«,  Gott,  (ISIS.)  ISlC  J.  JfaOievius,  lIlsL  v.  I«  In  17  I'red.  Nürnb.  15C5.  4.  <k  often. 
^L  Anin.  v.  Jiimt,  Brl.  ISll.  The  MS.  Hist  of  HuUeherger,  Q.  L.  ii.  s.  Zeit  edit  by  Keudecker,  Jena, 
1S50.  IL  Walcli,\.'L.  (Werke,  vol.  XXIV.)  /:  Ä  AV//,  L|.s.  17C4.  4  vols.  4.  &/.ro«cXA,  Lp.«.177j;. 
SjAeker,  Gesell.  L.  n.  d.  KVerb.  Bcrl.  ISIS.  1  vol  Gust.  Pfizer,  L.  Leben.  Stuttg.  1S36.  {Axidin, 
Hist  de  la  vie  de  L.  Par.  (ISiJS.)  ISil.  2  vols.)  M.  Menrer,  L.  Leben,  a.  d.  Quellen  erziililt  Dresd. 
(lS4-'$s.s.  3  vols.)  1S.V>.  M.  L.  der  deut.scbe  l!ef.  In  bildl.  Darst.  v.  G.  König,  in  ge.^cli.  Umrissen  v. 
ir.  Gelzer,  Hainb.  lS.')t.— A'.  Ji'irgrn»,  L.  Li-bon.  (14S.M517.)  Lps.  lS46s.  3  vols,  [/loicer.  Life  of  L. 
ic  early  Prog,  of  the  Itef.  S.  Jf.  MichelH,  Lifo  of  L.  New  York,  1818.  12.  J.  K.  ItiJdU,  L.  ic,  his 
Times,  &c.  I^)nd.  ls:jT.  12.  J.  Scott  L  &,  the  Luth.  KeC  Now  York,  1S.'<3.  2  vols.  12.  Laicson,  Auto- 
biog.  of  L.  Lond.  ICnio.] 

§308.  L'lt/wr's  Youth. 
Martin  Luther  was  born  at  Elsleben  an  hour  before  midnight  on  the  lOtb 
of  November,  1483.  Ills  father,  John,  was  a  respectable  miner  belonging  to  a 
peasant  Thuringlan  family  In  Moehra,  (a)  and  afterwards  the  projirletor  of  some 
foundries  and  a  couiioillor  in  Mansfeld.  lie  was  In  early  liio  subjected  to  a 
severe  discipline.     Having  .';pout  some  time  with  the  Nullbrothren  at  Magde- 

«)  J.  C.  Ortniann,  Moehra  d.  8tanitnt«>rt  Luth.  Salzung.  1S44.    yobbe,  Statnuib.  iL  Familte  M.  I, 

Grimiiia.  HIG.    Comp.  (./  C.  &  T/ion,)  Sehloss  Wartburg.  Kis.  1S2C.  p.  llSs. 


302  MoDKiiN  cHirr.cn  histoiiy.   pkk.  v.   a.  d.  imt-ims. 

Imi-fr,  fiiid  MS  ft  current  scholar  (I)  at  Eisonacli,  wlicrc  lie  was  supported  for  a 
while  hy  the  cliiiritv  of  a  matron  interested  in  his  earnest  style  of  singing  njid 
praying.     With  the  view  of  preparing  himself  for  the  legal  profession  he 
became  a  student  (1501)  in  the  University  of  Erfurt,  where  his  principal 
studies  were  the  Dialectics  of  the  Nominalists  and  the  Latin   Classics,     He 
there  also  became  Master  of  Arts  and  commenced  reading  the  Physics  and 
the  Ethics  of  Aristotle.     But,  full  of  anxiety  for  tlic  salvation  of  his  soul, 
alarmed  by  the  sudden  death  of  a  friend,  and  haunted  by  terrors  respecting 
his  own  death,  on  the  night  of  the  17th  of  July,  1505,  he  fled  to  the  Augus- 
tinian  convent,  where,  in  spite  of  many  remonstrances  he  became  a  monk, 
and  in  1507  a  ])riest.     But  all  the  austerities  of  a  conscientious  monastic  life, 
all  the  humiliations  of  a  mendicant  friar,  together  AVith  the  most  intense  study 
of  the   scholastic  writers,    especially   Thomas,    Occam,    and    d'Ailly,   only 
increased  the  dejection  of  a  mind  which  had  nothing  to  do  but  to  consume  its 
energies  in  a  course  uncongenial  to  its  nature.   The  Vicar  General  of  his  order 
in  Germany,  John  of  Staupitz^  who  had  entered  into  Augustine's  doctrine  of 
faith  and  of  election,  with  all  the  ardor  of  a  sincere  love  to  God  and  man, 
now  gained  his  confidence,  foresaw  his  future  greatness,  and  strove  to  cheer 
his  spirit,  (c)     Gradually  Luther  found  consolation  by  discovering  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  in  the  writings  of  Augustine  and  Tanler,  a  doctrine  which  had 
been  overlooked  by  Scholasticism  and  Monasticism,  but  which  taught  him  that 
man  is  to  be  saved,  not  by  his  own  works,  but  by  faith  in  the  mercy  of  God 
in  Christ.    It  was  not,  however,  until  he  had  been  transferred  by  Staupitz  to 
Wittenburg  (1508)  that  he  began  to  find  rest  in  a  more  abundant  and  unre- 
strained  activity.    He  soon  discontinued  his  lectures  upon  Dialectics  and 
Physics,  turned  his  attention  to  Theology,  acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  origi- 
nal languages  of  the  Scriptures,  took  delight  in  religious  disputations,  and 
finally  ventured,  though  with  great  reluctance,  to  preach.     In  1510  he  took  a 
journey  to  Eome  as  a  pilgrim,  {d)  and  on  some  business  of  his  order.    During 
his  brief  residence  there  the  glories  of  Koman  antiquity  and  art  had  no 
attractions  for  him,  but  with  all  the  zeal  of  a  devoted  Catholic  he  visited 
every  churcli  and  grotto  there,  and  was  ofieuded  by  nothing  but  the  levity 
of  the  inferior  clergy  with  whom  alone  he  then  became  acquainted.     His  call 
to  become  a  Doctor  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  the  oath  he  was  then 
required  to  take  (Oct.  18,  1512),  raised  his  thoughts  to  higher  objects  than 
any  suggested  by  his  monastic  vow.  {e)    His  conscience  now  compelled  him 
freely  to  investigate  and  make  known  the  truths  of  Christianity.    But  though 
lie  preached  Christ  instead  of  the  fables  of  the  saints,  and  the  grace  of  God 
instead  of  any  merit  acquired  by  human  prescriptions,  he  was  even  then  full 
of  wrath  at  the  obstinacy  of  heretics.  (/)     His  literary  eflorts  were  directed 

\Ji)  Current  scholars  are  such  as  get  their  living  by  alms  as  they  wander  tlirongh  the  town  and  sing 
and  pray  at  the  doors  of  the  principal  citizens.] 

f)  Von  d.  Nachfolgung  des  will.  Sterbens  Chr.  1515.  Lib.  de  exsecut,  net.  praedestinationis.  1517. 
Von  d.  holds.  Liebe  Gottes.  Lps.  151S.— (7.  II.  Götze,  de  Stäup.  Lub.  1715.  4,  C.  L.  ^Y.  Grimm,  de 
Stftup.  ojusque  in  sacroruni  instauraL  nieritis.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hisL  Th.  1S37.  vol.  VIL  II.  2.)  -1.  £>.  Geuder, 
Viu  StJinp.  Gott  1<37.  4.     Vllmann,  Eeff.  vor.  d.  Ret  vol.  IL  p.  256ss. 

<i)  Jürgens,  vol.  II.  p  iOOss. 

<?)  Liber  Dec.inor.  Fac  th.  ViL  ed.  Foeratemann,  Lps.  1S3S.  p.  116.     Wakh,  vol.  XVI.  p.  21^1. 

J)  Jürpeii6.  vol.  HL  p.  2ui\«. 


CHAP.  I.    REFORMATION^.    §  309.  TETZEL.    95  THESES.  363 

not  merely  against  the  Pelagian  external  holines«,  but  the  logical  forms  which 
ScholasticLsra  then  sanctioned,  and  these  occupied  his  attention  quite  as  much 
as  his  expositions  of  the  Scriptures,  especially  of  the  Psahns  and  of  the  Epis- 
tle to  the  Romans.  But  the  University  had  already  abandoned  Aristotle  and 
Bubmitted  to  the  authority  of  Augustine.  (^) 

§  309,     The  Ninety-Five  Theses. 

Albert  of  Mcntz  authorized  the  sale  of  indulgences  in  Germany  for  the 
erection  of  St.  Peter's  church,  on  condition  that  one  half  of  the  profits  should 
bo  his.  "When  the  Dominican  Tetzcl  carried  on  this  trade  with  the  utmost 
effrontery  in  the  dioceses  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt,  Luther  found  at  his 
confessional  that  much  injury  was  done  by  it  to  the  practice  of  true  Chris- 
tian repentance.  lie  therefore  preached  against  it,  and  -wrote  to  the  neigh- 
boring bishops  (f/)  against  it,  but  when  he  saw  that  ho  was  despised,  (5)  on  the 
eve  of  All-Saints'  Day,  1517,  ho  affixed  to  the  gate  of  the  Cixstle-Church  of 
"Wittenberg  (c)  ninety-five  propositions,  which  he  proclaimed  himself  ready 
to  defend  against  any  man  who  might  assail  them.  They  asserted :  That 
God  alone  could  bestow  true  absolution,  and  the  pope,  like  any  other  bishop 
and  pastor,  can  only  dispense  this  divine  absolution  to  penitents  and  believ- 
ers ;  that  absolution  might  indeed  bo  beneficial,  but  could  not  bo  indispensa- 
ble to  the  recipient,  nor  should  it  be  esteemed  higher  than  works  of  piety 
and  mercy ;  that  it  referred  only  to  ecclesiastical  punishments,  and  that  it 
was  then  so  much  abused  by  those  who  traded  in  indulgences,  and  w;\s  so 
misunderstood  by  the  jieople,  that  if  the  pope  knew  what  was  going  on,  ho 
would  prefer  to  see  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  reduced  to  ashes  than  to  have  it 
built  by  such  means. — Even  if  Luther  really  thought  that  in  all  this  he  was 
maintaining  nothing  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  the  Church  and  of  tho 
papacy,  he  certainly  must  have  been  aware  that  he  had  thrown  out  a  chal- 
lenge to  the  most  powerful  prelates  and  monks. 

§  310.     Interference  of  the  Fope. 

Tctzcl  now  raised  against  Luther  tho  helpless  outcry  of  an  inquisitor,  («) 
and  the  learned  Sylvester  Frierias^  a  liigh  officer  in  the  papal  palace,  de- 
fended tho  cause  of  his  brother  Dominican  with  a  stately  inditlerence.  (J) 
Both  of  them,  however,  founded  all  their  oi'guments  upon  tho  infallible  au- 
thority and  absolute  power  of  tho  popo.  In  liis  reply,  and  especially  in 
opposition  to  the  quotations  from  St.  Thomiv«,  Luther  avowed  that  he,  like 
St.  Augustine,  recognized  no  authority  a.s  infallible  but  that  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, (c)    The  Dominicans  made  every  eöort  to  arouse  the  people  against  him. 

g)  De  WeHe  vol  I.  p.  5T. 

n)  J.  J.  Vogd,  Lel)oii  il.  pilpstl.  Gnndcn-rred  T.  Lps.  (1717.)  1727.  J.  E.  Ä'ipp,  Schnnpl.  d.  T. 
AblasskniiiifS.  Lps.  M-iO.  mid  Siiiiiml.  lili-rliergehiir.  Schrr.  Lps.  1721.  F.  G.  Uofmann,  Lebeosb.  T. 
I^p9.  1S44.        h)  Jiiryiug  vol.  III.  p.  46;?S9. 

<■)  Disputa  Dr.  M.  Lutlierl  pro  doclarat.  vlrtutls  Indulgcntlar.  Trlnted  In  Ldtcher  vol.  I.  p.  48Ssa 
Wiiich  vol.  XVIIL  p.  2548».    Comp.  Walch  vol.  XVIL  p.  1703. 

a)  Löscher  vol.  I.  p.  45^1.     Wiinplna  In  favor  of  TetztO. 

I)  Dial,  in  presuiiiptuosfL's  Lutli.  concliisioncs  de  potestate  Papae.  (Löschtr  vol.  II.  p.  llae.) 

c)  Resp.  ad  Trier.  {Löschet-  vol.  II.  p.  3S9ss.) 


3G4  MODERN  CIIUKCII  HI9T0UY.     rKK.  V.     A.  V.  1M7-164S. 

But  in  spile  of  nil  tlioir  endeavors,  his  well-tempered  discourses  and  writingf 
convinced  tlio  i)0()i)lo  tlmt  what  ho  had  taught  thorn  respecting  repentance 
and  tlio  abuses  of  indulgences  was  true.  (<T)  His  theses  flew  willi  astonishing 
celerity  into  every  part  of  Germany,  and  were  commended  by  many  honest 
and  learned  persons,  but  the  Bilenco  or  the  displeasure  of  the  prelates  lay 
heavily  upon  him,  and  ho  became  alarmed  at  the  consequences  of  what  ho 
feared  might  be  his  own  rashness.  But  in  tho  midst  of  all  his  internal  and 
external  conflicts,  tho  conviction  became  more  and  more  settled  in  his  mind 
that  ho  was  contending  not  for  his  own  cause,  but  for  that  of  Christ,  and 
tliat  while  he  was  at  peace  with  his  beloved  Redeemer,  he  had  nothing  to  hope 
for  or  to  fear  from  the  world,  (c)  lie  himself  had  sent  a  copy  and  a  defence  of 
his  theses  to  pope  Leo  X.,  (/)  accompanied  with  a  letter  in  which  he  expresses  a 
firm  consciousness  of  possessing  the  truth,  but  unconditionally  submits  his  per- 
son to  his  superiors,  (c/)  lie  was  summoned  (Aug.  7, 1518)  to  appear  at  Rome, 
but  the  Elector  of  Saxony  obtained  a  concession  that  he  should  be  examined 
in  a  paternal  manner  at  Augsburg  by  Thomas  de  Vio,  of  Gaeta,  the  cardinal 
legate.  Luther  appeared  (Oct.  1518),  under  the  safe  conduct  of  the  emperor 
and  the  city  of  Augsburg.  Cajetanvs,  a  learned  scholastic  of  severe  man- 
ners, expected  to  refute  Luther's  propositions  respecting  indulgences  by  sen- 
tences from  St.  Thomas  and  the  Decretals,  but  frightened  at  this  Ger- 
man beast  with  piercing  eyes  and  strange  speculations  in  its  head,  he  soon 
bade  him  go  away  and  never  return  until  sent  for.  Luther  privately  de- 
parted on  the  20th  Oct.,  having  entered  an  appeal  to  the  pope  when  better 
informed.  As,  however,  he  soon  after  became  more  and  more  satisfied  that 
be  could  expect  no  justice  from  a  court  of  Rome,  and  when  a  Bull  had  been 
issued  which  solemnly  confirmed  the  controverted  doctrine  of  indulgences, 
he  changed  this  appeal  and  directed  it  to  a  General  Council.  (A) 

§  311.     Amicable  Negotiations. 

In  the  letter  which  Cajetan  sent  to  the  elector,  he  demanded  that  Luther 
should  be  sent  to  Rome,  or  at  least  into  banishment.  Luther  justified  his  con- 
duct before  his  sovereign  (at  Augsburg)  by  pleading  that  it  was  his  duty  to  yield 
only  to  the  truth,  entreated  that  his  master  would  not  act  towards  him  the  part 
of  a  Pilate,  and  declared  that  he  was  ready  to  wander  forth  into  exile.  (</)  But 
Frederic  the  Wise  was  personally  a  friend  of  the  people,  and  as  a  prince,  was 
distinguished  for  his  caution  and  his  piety  toward  the  Church,  {li)  Though 
he  had  once  gone  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  holy  sepulchre,  and  expended  much 
money  in  the  purchase  of  sacred  reliques,  he  now  prohibited  the  preaching  of 
indulgences  within  his  dominions.  He  became  conscious  of  an  increasing 
attachment  to  the  evangelical  principles  maintained  in  the  writings  of  Lti- 

d)  Sermon  v.  Ablass.  u.  Gnade.  Nor.  1517.  (Löscher  vol.  I.  p.  465ss.) 

e)  Wiilch  vol.  XIV.  p.  4T0.    De  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  US. 

/)  Eesolutlones  disput  de  virt  indulgg.  {Löscher  vol.  IL  p.  ISSss.) 
17)  l>e  ]\'ette  vol.  I.  p.  119. 

/()  Augsb.  Acta  In  Löscher  vol.  II.  p.  4.35«.     Kalch  vol  XT.  p.  544ss.    De  yTette  ToL  I.  p> 
U2s8.— JSörn^r,  de  coIUkiuio  L.  c.  Caj.  Lps.  1722.  4. 
a)  De  VTett^  vol.  I.  p.  I74ss. 
h)  G.  SpaUitin,  Leben  u.  Zeitgescb.  Fr.  d.  W.  (from  biä  MSS.)  Jena.  1861 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  311.  FREDERIC  THE  WI?E.    MILTITZ.  36^ 

ther,  altlioagh  he  was  always  undecided  and  distrustful  of  bis  own  judgment  in 
spiritual  matters.  lie  was  at  least  averse  to  all  violent  measures,  and  was  fearful 
of  the  injury  which  his  university  at  Wittenberg  might  sustain  should  he  sacri- 
fice its  most  distinguished  instructor.  ('•)  lie  therefore  replied,  that  Luther's  de- 
mand to  he  arraigned  before  an  impartial  tribunal  in  Germany  appeared  to  be 
nothing  more  than  was  reasonable.  The  pope  was  under  obligations  to  the  elec- 
tor, and  was  anxious  by  some  favors  to  secure  his  influence  to  prevent  the  Ger- 
man crown  from  being  bestowed  upon  his  grand.son,  Charles  of  Spain,  by 
wliich  the  supreme  power  in  Italy  and  Germany  would  once  more  be  com- 
mitted to  the  same  hand.  A  Saxon  nobleman,  Charks  of  JJildlz,  and  a 
chamberlain  in  the  papal  court,  was  sent  to  Saxony  for  tlie  i)ur[)ose  of  eflfect- 
ing  a  reconciliation.  During  his  journey  through  the  cities  of  the  empire, 
this  legate  found  that  public  opinion  was  already  so  decided  in  behalf  of 
Luther,  that  he  acknowledged  his  utter  inability  to  take  Luther  to  Korae  at 
that  time,  even  if  an  army  were  present  for  his  assistance.  In  a  respectful 
manner  he  summoned  Luther  in  Jan.,  1510,  to  ai)pear  at  AUenhurg.  He 
conceded  that  the  abuse  of  indulgences  was  wrong,  and  avowed  that  he  had 
already  expressed  his  displeasure  at  Tetzel,  but  he  entreated  at  the  same  time 
that  tlie  Church  might  not  for  such  a  reason  be  distracted  by  a  schism. 
Lutlier  promised  that  he  would  maintain  silence  respecting  indulgences  as  far 
as  his  opponents  would  do  the  same  ;  that  he  would  receive  instruction  re- 
specting any  errors  into  which  he  niiglit  have  fallen  from  any  German  bishop 
Avhom  the  pope  might  appoint  for  that  purpose  ;  that  he  would  puLlisli  let- 
ters in  which  he  would  admonish  all  persons  to  be  obedient  and  respectful  to 
the  Roman  Cliurcli ;  and  finally,  that  he  would  write  to  the  pope,  and  assure 
the  Holy  Father,  that  although  he  had  been  unduly  severe  in  some  of  his 
writings,  he  had  never  thought  of  infringing  upon  the  privileges  of  the  Ro- 
man  Church.  ('/)  Accordingly  he  indited  the  promised  letter,  in  which  his 
language  was  full  of  expressions  of  humility,  and  the  Roman  Church  was 
exalted  above  every  thing  but  Christ  himself.  («■) 

§  312.     The  Disputation  at  Leipxic.     June  27-Juhj  16,  1519. 

Acta  colloq.  Lps.  In  Löscher  vol.  III.  p.  SOSss.  IValch  voL  XV.  p.  9,'lM.  I.uth.  Account  In  De 
Wette  vol.  I.  p.  2S4.  290ss.  SO'ss.  MeUmcth.  Account  in  Corp.  lief.  vol.  1.  p.  STss.— ./.  G.  Stickel,  do 
vi,  quam  colloq.  Lips.  Imbuerit  ad  promov.  reform.  Jen.  1S27.  C,  G.  Hering,  do  illsp.  Ltpsiao  a.  15ia. 
hnblto.  Lps.  lSd9.    J.  K.  Seidemann,  d.  Lpz.  Disp.  Dresd.  lS4a 

Luther  had  already  agreed  in  Augsburg  witli  his  learned  friend.  Dr. 
(Mayr  von)  Eck  of  Ingolstadt,  that  the  controversy  of  the  latter  with  Carl- 
stadt  (Andr.  IJodcnstein)  should  lie  decided  by  a  disputation.  15ut  in  the 
polemical  writings  sent  forth  by  Eck,  Luther  perceived  tiiat  ho  was  himself 
the  object  of  tliis  treacherous  attack,  and  he  therefore  deemed  it  indispensa- 
ble that  ho  also  should  take  part  in  the  debate.  («)    The  apprehensions  of 

c)  Comp.  Ids  Letters  to  Biiko  John,  l>')20-23.  In  Forntemnnn'»  new  Urknndenb.  vol.  I.  p.  Iss. 

d)  IMcher  vol.  I.  p.  M2k'«.  vol.  III.  p.  C««.  820^8.  1>«  Wetta  vol.  I.  p.  207iis. — ^itlemann,  IC  v. 
Milt,  Chronolog.  Unters.  Drosd.  1S41.  //.  E.  Aj>el,  quae  C.  Mllt.  c,  Lutli.  Altenb.  cgerlL  Alt 
1S52S.  2  P.  4. 

e)  De  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  23.3» 

a)  Kccii  ObellscL  Lntlieri  Asteriici.  {Löscher  vol.  II.  p.  833s?.) 


3GG  MODKKN  CllUnCII  IIISTOIiV.     I'KR.  V.     A.  1).  151T-1(H9. 

tlioso  who  shrunk  from  tlio  new  agitation  were  allayed  by  their  confidence  in 
the  brilliant  talents  of  Eck,  {h)  and  the  disputation  Avas  held  before  a  highly 
respectable  asscmldy  in  the  Pleissenburg  at  Lcipnic.  At  its  comincncenicnt 
and  at  its  close,  Otrhtadl  maintained  that  the  natur.il  man  is  totally  unable 
to  perform  any  thing  good,  and  that  even  in  a  state  of  grace  no  action  could 
be  meritorious.  ('■)  lie  had  Augustine,  and  Eck  had  the  ancient  fathers  and  all 
the  scholastic  writers  in  his  favor,  but  both  of  them  appealed  to  the  Scrij)- 
turea.  In  his  theses.  Eck  had  ventured  upon  the  assertion,  that  even  before 
the  time  of  Sylvester  the  Roman  Church  lield  rank  above  all  other  churche?, 
and  that  whoever  was  in  possession  of  the  chair  and  the  faith  of  St.  Peter, 
was  always  recognized  as  Peter's  successor  and  the  universal  vicar  of  Christ. 
This  declaration  was  assailed  by  Liithei\  and  the  controversy  was  soon 
pressed  to  the  assertion  that  the  pope  was  not  by  divine  right  the  universal 
bishop  of  the  Church.  Luther  adduced  arguments  for  this  jfosition  from  the 
Scriptures  and  from  history,  but  Eck  threw  upon  him  the  reproach  of  hold- 
ing to  a  Hussite  heresy,  and  urged  him  to  express  a  doubt  of  the  infallibility 
of  councils.  The  glory  of  a  victory  was  not  indeed  obtained  by  Luther  in 
this  contest,  but  the  controversy  had  now  become  universal,  and  Luther, 
finally  freed  from  all  feelings  of  sacred  awe  with  respect  to  the  Ilomau 
Church,  now  saw  Avith  astonishment  that  the  truth  had  been  uttered  long 
before  his  time,  and  that  all  the  spirits  of  opposition  had  become  collected 
within  his  bosom. 

§  313.     Melancthon.     General  Affairs. 

I.  Opp.  Bas.  1541fs.  5  vols.  rec.  Peucer,  Vit.  15G2ss.  4  vols.  f.  Selection  by  Köthe,  Lpz.  ISiSs.  6 
vol.«.  Couiplete  ed.  begun  in  the  Corpus  Eeforniator.  eil.  Bretschneider,  post  Bret-seli.  Binclseil, 
Hui.  et  Brunsu.  1S3-1-53.  19  vols.  4.  Camerarius,  de  Ph.  M.  ortu,  totius  vitae  eurric.  et  morto  nar- 
r.ilio.  Lps.  1566.  ed.  Strohel,  Hal.  ITTT.    Augusti,  Viat  181T. 

II.  Old  Lit  in  Strobel's  ed.  of  Camerar.  s.  569ss.  A.  U.  Niemeyer,  M.  als  Praeceptor  Germa- 
niae.  Hal.  181T.  M.  Faciiis,  M.  Leben  u.  Characteristik.  Lps.  1S32.  L.  F.  Ifetjd,  M.  u.  Tübingen. 
Tub.  1889.  F  Galle,  Ch.iracteiistik  M.  als  Theologen  u.  Entwickl.  s.  Lehrbcgr.  Hal.  1840.  K.  F. 
JfaWies,  M.  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Alteiib.  1S41.  [F.  A.  Cove,  Life  of  P.  Mel.  from  a  Lond.  ed. 
Boat.  1835. 12.] 

A  young  man  accompanied  Luther  to  Leipsic,  Who  brought  to  the  aid  of 
the  Reformation  vast  treasures  of  learning,  and  the  scientific  reputation  of 
the  second  humanist  of  his  age.  This  was  Philip  Melancthon,  the  son  of 
George  Schwartzerd,  a  skilful  armorer,  at  Bretten,  in  the  Palatinate  of  the 
Rhine,  where  he  was  born  Feb.  16,  1497.  His  great-uncle  Reuchlin  was 
much  delighted  with  the  early  development  of  his  precocious  mind.  Hav- 
ing finished  his  preparatory  studies  at  Pforzheim  and  Heidelburg,  after  1512, 
he  passed  through  the  whole  course  of  the  sciences  taught  at  Tubingen,  pub- 
lished his  Greek  Grammar  in  1513,  and  after  151-i  gave  lectures  as  a  Master 
of  Arts  upon  the  classics  and  the  original  philosophy  of  Aristotle.  He  was 
no  sooner  called  to  Wittenberg  than  he  declared  that  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion for  youth  must  be  improved  (Aug.  29,  1518),  and  gave  to  it  a  humanistic 
Greek  tendency.    He  soon  became  intimate  with  Luther,  not  only  on  account 

I)  Eccii  Epp.  Ep.  de  r.it  studior  suor.  Ingol.  1543.  4.  {Strohel,  Misc.  H.  IIL  p.  95ss.)  Uottr- 
viuml,  emeu.  Andenken,  vol.  L  p.  251ss. 

c)  -I.  G.  DUikhof,  de  Carolst  Luth.  de  servo  arbit  doctrinae  defensore.  Gott,  1S50. 


CHAP.  I.    REFOKMATION.    §  313.  MELANCTHON.    §  814.  Ill  TTEN.  367 

of  tho  high  esteem  which  both  felt  for  each  other,  but  because  botii  were 
with  equal  zeal  laboring  to  exi)lain  and  establish  the  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, against  which  nothing  was  looked  upon  as  of  any  avail.  He  was  gen- 
tle only  when  compared  with  Luther,  fur  he  was  really  impetuous  and  easily 
excited.  lie  was  timid  and  sumetimes  yielding  from  his  anxiety  lest  in  the 
excitement  of  controversy  Christianity  itself  should  be  lost  sight  of,  («)  and 
because  he  could  make  proper  allowance  for  the  position  of  an  opponent, 
while  Luther  dashed  onward  to  his  conquests  without  looking  to  the  right  or 
to  the  left.  He  had  more  learning  and  eloquence,  but  less  strcngtli  of  char- 
acter, less  depth  of  feeling,  and  less  creative  enthusiasm  than  Luther.  Tho 
position  which  he  assumed,  and  which  nature  seemed  to  have  designed  for 
him  with  respect  to  Luther,  was  that  of  a  trusty  counsellor  and  assistant. 
There  were  seasons  when  he  felt  lonely  in  Saxony,  (/<)  and  was  wounded  by 
Luther,  but  tlicre  was  something  in  the  latter  which  he  reverenced  as  almost 
divine,  and  which  he  never  ventured  to  restrain,  (r)  iUthough  he  was  con- 
fessedly the  first  among  the  theologians  of  his  party,  ho  often  betook  himself 
fondly  to  his  classics,  and  Luther  found  it  necessary  to  hold  him  firmly  to  his 
theological  Lectures.  (iT)  The  division  of  the  Church  produced  a  pang  of  the 
most  intense  grief  in  his  guileless  spirit,  (e) 

§  31-i.     Appeal  to  the  Christian  Xohility  of  the  German  Xation. 

The  German  knighthood  formed  a  kind  of  third  estate,  wliich  took  rank 
after  the  princes  and  the  bishops,  and  Avas  determined  to  maintain  freedom 
for  themselves,  if  not  for  the  common  people.  At  the  head  of  tliis  order  in 
respect  to  power  at  that  time,  stood  Francis  of  Sickimjcn  (d.  1523),  a  n^an 
violent  in  assault,  but  a  shield  to  all  who  were  oppressed,  {a)  In  respect  to 
intellectual  intiuence,  however,  no  one  was  superior  to  Ulrich  of  Iluttcn  (d. 
1523),  the  knight  that  never  rested,  that  never  hesitated  to  oppose  every 
form  of  injustice,  and  lojig  before  Luther's  appearance  had  boldly  attacked 
popes  and  monks  with  his  utmost  satirical  power.  Ihis  bold  kiiigiit  now 
gave  his  hand  for  the  assistance  of  Luther  in  the  great  contest  with  the  king- 
dom of  Antichrist,  believing  that  in  doing  so  ho  was  struggling  for  the  lib- 
erty of  Germany,  {b)  It  was  to  tho  German  nobles,  many  of  whom  ollercd 
either  an  asylum  or  their  swords  to  the  reformer,  as  the  genuine  representa- 
tives of  his  people,  that  Luther  addressed  his  pamphlet  on  the  improvement  of 
Cliristian  morality.  ('•)  In  the  introduction  he  jiointed  out  how  the  Konuinists 
liad  intrenched  themselves  against  tho  Reformation  within  tlircc  walls :  Threat- 
en them  with  the  secular  power,  they  cry  out,  "The  spiritual  power  is  supe- 
rior!"    riy  tlicin  with  arguments  from  the  Scriptures,  they  exclaim,  "Tiio 


a)  Corp.  R'f.  vol.  I.  p.  S93.  918.        V)  Ih.  vol.  I.  p.  859. 

c)  Ih.  vol.  I.  p.  211.        0)  lb.  p.  0069.  67T.     De  WetU  vol.  II.  p.  60S. 
<?)  Corp.  Uff.  vol.  I.  p.  1110. 

«)  Hub.  Leotiil  L.  do  reb.  gestis  ct  calumUoso  obitu  Fr.  do  SlcV.  (Frther  \\A.  111.  p.  29j).  E. 
Jlüiich,  Fr.  V.  S.  .Stutts.  lS27.<s.  3  vols. 

b)  Werke  cd.  by  Manch,  Hrl.  1521S5.  5  vol».  SelecUon  and  Trans.  I.ps.  ISiJs.  .3  vols.— ^  Scfiu- 
hart,  V.  V.  11.  Lps.  1791.  J/i;//;iiAv,  Jiigfiidlolicn  II.  Grelfcw.  ISIO.  W.iffenifil,  U.  v.  H.  NarnU 
1828.     K  V.  Brunnoic,  V.  v.  II.  1S42.-'.  2  vols.     Comp.  lIlsL  pol.  Bl.  1839.  vol  IV.  II.  5s.  88. 

c)  Aug.  1.V20.     In  M'ahK  v.d.  X.  p.  20Ü8a. 


368  MOUEP.N  CIIUKCII  IIISTOKY.     TKi:.  V.    A.  1).  1517-1CI3. 

pope  alono  can  c'Xi>l!iiri  tho  word  of  God !  "  Appeal  to  a  general  council,  and 
tlicy  reply,  "  None  but  the  pope  can  summon  or  preside  over  it  I  "  He  then 
proceeded  to  break  tlirongli  these  -walls  with  tho  assertion  that  every  real 
Christian  belon;,'cd  to  tlio  spiritnal  order,  and  appealed  to  tho  great  body  of 
Christians  as  the  real  sovereigns  in  each  congregation,  to  whom  he  presented 
tho  articles  of  the  reformation,  for  which  they  should  contend  as  for  a  na- 
tional interest.  These  wore :  The  reduction  of  the  luxuriant  extravagance 
of  the  papal  court,  security  against  the  gradual  exhaustion  of  the  German 
people  by  Roman  avarice,  the  independent  appointment  of  Germans  to  eccle- 
siastical otlices  in  Germany,  the  final  decision  of  all  trials  before  German 
courts,  the  abolition  of  tho  servile  oaths  which  bishojis  Avere  required  to 
receive,  the  surrender  of  all  secular  power  then  held  by  tho  pope,  so  far  as 
it  was  founded  upon  pretended  donations  and  usurpations,  the  hmitation  of 
the  orders  of  mendicant  friars,  the  restoration  of  the  convents  to  their  origi- 
nal design  as  simple  Christian  schools,  the  abolition  of  compulsory  cehbacy, 
reconciliation  with  the  Bohemians  on  reasonable  conditions,  the  abrogation 
of  the  canonical  law,  the  discontinuance  of  the  idolatrous  homage  generally 
paid  to  Aristotle,  and  of  the  worship  of  the  saints,  and  finally  the  improve- 
ment of  the  course  of  academic  studies  and  of  popular  education.  "NVith  the 
grief  of  a  Christian  and  the  indignation  of  a  German  heart,  the  pope  was 
here  called  to  account  for  teaching  by  his  indulgences  a  noble  and  sincere 
nation  to  practise  deception  and  perjury,  and  the  Germans  are  exhorted  to 
hunt  out  aU  papal  messengers  with  their  merchandise,  and  expel  them  from 
the  country.  Indeed,  this  pamphlet  was  a  pubhc  disruption  from  Eome,  and 
a  general  summons  to  the  nation  to  do  the  same.  "With  terrible  eloquence 
the  national  feeling  was  aroused  by  a  relentless  exposure  of  all  those  indigni- 
ties which  had  been  endured  for  centuries  with  a  German  good  nature,  but 
which  had  only  provoked  derision  at  Rome.  The  revolutionary  character  of 
the  reformation  was  decided  by  this  little  work.  Luther,  however,  in  the 
most  absolute  manner  declined  all  offers  of  the  sword  which  were  made  tc 
him  by  the  knights.  As  the  world  had  been  created  and  the  Church  had 
been  originally  established  by  the  word  of  God,  he  had  no  doubt  that  a 
restoration  of  the  Church  could  be  effected  by  the  same  means.  (J) 

§  315.     The  Babylonian  Captivity  and  Christian  Freedom. 

Luther's  army  was  his  ever  fresh  and  always  interesting  writings,  and 
these  he  sent  forth  with  a  rapid  development  of  mental  power.  The  book 
which  he  called  the  Babylonian  Captivity  of  the  Church  ((()  commences  with  an 
expression  of  thanks  to  his  opponents  for  assisting  him  so  much  in  his  attain- 
ment of  truth,  and  an  announcement  that  he  must  now  reject  what  he  had 
in  the  beginning  of  the  controversy  conceded.  In  the  course  of  the  debate 
it  had  become  evident  to  him  that  indulgences  were  nothing  but  a  roguish 
trick  of  Roman  sycophants,  that  the  papacy  itself  was  not  even  a  human,  but 
a  devilish  institution,  that  the  cup  in  the  sacrament  belonged  to  the  people, 

d)  Seckend.  I.  §  83.  p.  193. 

a)  Oct.  6,  1520.    0pp.  Jen.  Tom.  II.  p.  25?ss.     TT'ci/cA  vol.  XIX.  p.  Iss 


CHAP.  I.  EEFOEMATION.  $  315.  LUTHER  ON  CHi:.  FKKEDOM.      369 

that  the  mas.s  was  not  a  sacrifice  nor  a  good  work,  and  that  tlie  newly-dis- 
covered doctrino  of  transubstantiation,  or  any  view  which  as.serted  a  real 
connection  between  the  con.sccrated  bread  and  the  divine  body,  was  not  ne- 
cessary to  faith.  The  only  sacraments  allowed  to  bo  of  divine  institution 
were  baptism,  penance,  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  In  opposition  to  a  reliance 
uj)on  the  outward  Church  and  its  forra.s,  ho  introduced  the  doctrine  of  the 
saving  power  of  fliith  alone.  Christian  liberty,  therefore,  ought  not  to  be 
fettered  by  any  statutes  and  arbitrary  vows  like  those  which  required  fast- 
ings, donations,  pilgrimages,  and  nionasticism.  This  declaration  he  said  might 
bo  considered  as  a  part  of  the  recantation  whicli  had  been  demanded  of  him. 
And  yet,  at  an  interview  with  Miltitz  at  Lichtenburg  (Oct.  12,  1520),  Luther 
once  more  allowed  himself  to  imagine  that  a  reconciliation  was  possible,  {h)  and 
that  he  might  lay  a  foundation  for  it,  he  wrote  a  treatise  on  Christian  Free- 
dom, in  the  s])irit  of  the  old  mystics,  exalted  above  the  pending  controversy, 
but  with  the  whole  reformation  in  his  heart.  ('')  A  Christian  inan  was  repre- 
sented as  a  free  lord  of  all  things  by  a  faith  which  commits  his  soul  to  Christ, 
and  as  a  king  and  priest,  subject  to  no  law  and  dependent  upon  nothing  ex- 
ternal. And  yet  this  Christian  man  was  a  servant  of  all  things,  since  from  a 
regard  to  the  divine  will  he  endeavored  to  be  useful  to  all  around  him. 
From  kindness  of  heart,  and  not  as  a  matter  necessary  to  jtiety  or  salvation, 
he  might  even  comply  with  the  innumerable  mandates  of  the  pope,  just  as 
Mary  conformed  to  the  custom  of  purification,  as  Paul  circumci.sed  Timothy, 
and  as  Christ  j)aid  tribute.  Such  was  the  discourse  wliicli  Lutlier  sent  to  Leo 
X.,  accompanied  with  a  letter  {d)  full  of  expressions  of  personal  regard,  but 
with  sentiments  of  a  lofty  self-respect.  lie  at  the  same  time  exhorted  Leo, 
as  St.  Bernard  once  did  his  Eugenius,  to  remember  that  he  was  as  a  lamb  in 
the  midst  of  wolves,  or  as  Daniel  sitting  among  the  lions,  and  to  avoid  the 
catastrophe  which  could  not  much  longer  bo  delayed,  by  a  reformat i<m  of  his 
infected  court  and  of  the  general  Church.  Tlio  noble  Medici  was  delighted 
with  the  fine  talents  displayed  by  brotlier  Martin,  but  was  disposed  to  regard 
the  whole  controversy  as  a  mere  quarrel  among  tho  monks,  (t) 

§  316.     The  Fire  Signal. 

The  ojjinion,  however,  prevailed  at  Rome,  that  this  perilous  controversy 
could  bo  annihilated  by  a  sudden  blow,  (u)  A  bull  was  issued  on  June  IC, 
1520,  in  which  forty-one  propositions  taken  from  Luther's  writings  were  con- 
demned, his  works  were  ordered  to  be  burned  wherever  thoy  were  found, 
and  ho  himself  was  excommunicated  unless  he  recanted  within  sixty  days, 
after  which  every  Christian  magistrate  was  required  to  imprison  him  and 


h)  De  WetU  vol.  I.  p.  49«.     J.  G.  Droyten,  I'.ef.  Oe^ch.  (Zolt'<ch.  f.  tliQr.  Oo.icli.  1«.3.  If.  2.) 

c)  Do  llbcTtRtc  clir.  Vit.  1520.  4.  (Opp.  Jen.  Tli.  I.  p.  640.)    Von  Freiliilt  clnos  Cliristi'niiicn!«cbcn. 
Witt  1520.  4.  (  WuUK  vol.  XIX.  p.  ]2iiC.) 

d)  After  Oct.  13.  dateil  back  to  Sept,  6,  1520.    Ep.  I.utlierlang  ad  I.co  X.  Witt.  1520.  4.  published 
•t  the  same  time  in  Geniian.     />«  WetU  vol.  I.  p.  497^!*. 

e)  After  IJandrlll  (ierdeg,  H.  Kv.  ren.  vol.  I.  p.  205. 

a)  Lilerso  cvjtmd<nn  (I'irckhelnicr)  e  liorna.   (liUJerer,  Nachrr.  z.  K.  Hi-I.  u.  BücherpescU 
iltd.  1764.  vol.  I.  p.  17983.)    Sarpi,  II.  Cone  Trid.  vol.  I.  p.  15s.    Pallavic.  II.  Cone.  Trld.  I,  20. 
24 


370  M(>i»r.i:N  CHUUCII  iiisTonv.   ri:ii.  v.   a.  d.  iöi7-1648. 

deliver  him  at  Rome.  0')  Tlii.s  bull  was  brought  to  Germany  by  Eck  as  a 
token  of  his  victory.  The  heart  of  Ltitlier  now  becaine  strong  as  he  saw 
tlmt  tlio  (lie  was  cast,  and  lie  no  longer  doubted  tliat  the  pope  was  antichrist. 
His  works  were  burned  in  Mentz,  Cologne,  and  Louvain,  but  in  many  cities 
those  who  endeavored  to  execute  the  bull  met  with  severe  abuse,  and  in  the 
electorate  of  Saxony,  in  accordance  with  the  precedent  given  by  the  Univer- 
sity, it  was  rejected,  (c)  Luther  published  a  pamphlet  in  opposition  to  this 
bull  of  Antichrist,  renewed  his  appeal  from  the  pope  as  from  an  obdurate 
heretic  to  au  independent  Christian  council,  (cl)  and  on  the  10th  Dec,  1520, 
at  the  head  of  a  procession  of  students,  he  went  out  of  the  city  by  the 
Elster-giite,  and  threw  the  bull,  together  with  the  book  of  the  canon  law, 
into  the  flames.  At  the  same  time  he  offered  up  thanks  for  the  burning  of 
his  own  writings,  and  declared  his  present  act  the  fire-signal  of  his  irrevoca- 
ble renunciation  of  the  papacy.  Other  books  of  his  opponents  were  also 
committed  to  the  sanae  flames  by  other  hands,  (e) 

§  317.     Foliiical  Relations  until  1521. 

In  the  legal  condition  in  which  .the  German  empire  then  was,  common 
measures  either  for  good  or  for  evil  were  equally  difficult.  The  chivalrous 
emperor  Maxiinilian,  that  he  might  effect  a  reformation,  had  at  one  time 
seriously  entertained  the  strange  idea  of  becoming  a  pope  himself,  (a)  It 
was  not  therefore  consistent  for  him  to  attempt  any  thing  rashly  against  one 
who  Avas  contending  against  Eoman  abuses.  After  his  death  (Jan.  12th, 
1519),  nothing  of  a  violent  nature  could  be  undertaken  against  Luther  while 
the  elector  of  Saxony  was  the  imperial  regent  in  Lower  Germany.  Charles 
I.  and  Frcaicis  I.  were  candidates  for  the  German  crown.  The  influence  of 
the  pope  was  secretly  opposed  to  France,  and  as  long  as  he  had  hope  of  suc- 
cess he  openly  protested  against  Spain.  Frederic  the  Wise  declined  accept- 
ing the  crown  when  it  was  offered  to  him,  on  the  ground  that  the  power  of 
his  house  was  insufficient  to  maintain  it.  It  was  principally  through  his 
influence  that  Charles  was  elected.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.,  on  his  way  to 
bis  first  Diet  at  "Worms,  was  saluted  with  splendid  promises  if  he  would  in 
the  spirit  of  the  German  people  place  himself  at  the  head  of  the  movement 
for  the  establishment  of  a  national  Church.  Ilis  mind,  however,  was  now 
occupied  with  preparations  to  contend  with  Francis  I.  for  the  sovereignty  of 
Italy.  The  natural  policy  of  the  pope  with  respect  to  this  contest  was  openly 
to  attach  himself  to  the  party  of  him  who  might  for  the  time  be  victorious, 
and  yet  secretly  to  support  the  vanquished.  The  conduct  of  the  emperor 
with  regard  to  Luther  depended  very  much  upon  his  interest  and  policy  in 
this  struggle.  Just  as  he  was  about  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  pope,  whose 
assistance  he  needed  in  Spain,  he  was  compelled  to  pay  deference  to  the  feel- 

l)  Kxsurgc  Dotnlne:  Bullarum  ampl.  Col.  ed.  Coqiiel,  P.  III.  toI.  III.  p.  4S7ss.     With  Mutten» 
Anin.  in  Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  1691ss. 

c)  JlUdei-er,  Gesch.  der  durch  Public  d.  Bulie  gesjen  Luth.  erregten  unrnhen.  Altd.  n.  Nürnb 
776.  4. 
(T)  Witlch  vol.  XV.  p.  1732SS.  ^909ss.        e)  Ih.  p.  1025ss 
a)  S<.ü.  Ci/prian,  dc  Max.  I.  Pontificatuin  M.  ail'oct.'inte.  (Dss  varil.  arg.  Cob.  1755.  4.) 


CHAP.  I.    KKFOIIM-VTION.     §  8'S.  DIET  AT  WORMS.  371 

ings  of  Frederic  the  AVii^c,  who  continually  demanded  that  Luther  should 
be  tried  before  an  impartial  tribunal.  Hence  even  a  second  bull  of  excom- 
munication issued  against  Luther  (Jan.  3d,  1521),  the  object  of  which  was  to 
deprive  him  and  his  followers,  reproachfully  called  Lutherans,  of  all  the 
privileges  of  men  and  Christians,  produced  no  eflfect  whatever,  (b)  Spalati- 
nus,  the  learned  and  sinftero  friend  of  the  elector  as  well  as  of  Luther,  (c)  at 
the  request  of  his  master  made  every  ellort  to  moderate  the  rapidity  of  Lu- 
ther's course.  The  attempt,  hoAvever,  was  without  success,  and  the  reformer 
only  a«ked  that  his  sovereign  would  allow  him  to  proceed  at  his  own  peril, 
as  he  had  no  fear  that  the  power  of  God  would  be  impeded. 

§  318.     The  Diet  at  Worms,  1521. 

I.  Acta  Luthcri  in  cotnitiis  Wormat  cd.  Pollicariita,  Tit  154G.  (0pp.  Jon.  vol.  II.  p.  43Cs.) 
Walch  vol.  XV.  p.  2052SS.  vol.  XXII.  p.  2026s.  Förstemann,  new  Urkundenb.  vol.  I.  p.  27ss. 
SpdMiii.  Ann.  p.  3Sss.  Sfnidan.  I.  III.  p.  Slsa.—Cochlaeus  (Col.  156S.)  p.  65ss.  Parody:  Paseio 
Miirtini  Lutli.  sccund.  Marcollum.  (Genlesii  Monuin.  vol.  II.  N.  5.) 

II.  Boye,  L.  z.  Worms.  Ilal.  (ISIT.)  1S24.  Zimmer,  L.  z.  W.  Heidclb.  \il\.—X<jnv:eiUr,  Wlcdor- 
crinn.  an  L.  u.  d.  Kef.  Mainz.  1S2I. 

The  legate  Aleander  demanded  of  the  states  of  the  empire  at  "Worms, 
that  in  order  to  carry  out  effectually  the  papal  excommunication,  Luther 
should  be  placed  under  the  ban. of  the  empire.  The  demand,  however,  that 
he  should  bo  condemned  without  a  hearing,  was  regarded  as  inconsistent 
with  German  usage.  The  states  made  a  distinction  between  the  opinions 
which  he  entertained  respecting  the  constitution  of  the  Church  and  tho.sc 
which  were  opposed  to  the  faith  of  their  ancestors.  With  regard  to  the 
former,  they  were  disposed  to  deal  very  leniently  with  him  even  if  he  should 
refuse  to  retract  what  he  had  published,  but  with  regard  to  the  latter  they 
were  willing  to  take  his  case  into  consideration,  {a)  On  receiving  a  citation 
and  a  pledge  of  safe  conduct  from^  the  emperor,  Luther  came  to  "Worms, 
though  he  regarded  his  situation  much  like  that  of  lluss  at  Constance.  On 
the  17th  and  18th  of  April  he  stood  before  the  emperor  and  the  imperial 
diet.  At  the  close  of  a  discreet  defence,  in  which  he  showed  why  he  could 
not  retract  what  he  had  written,  either  with  respect  to  tlie  word  of  God  in 
the  Holy  Scriptures,  or  against  the  ungodly  conduct  of  the  pope,  or  yot 
against  the  wicked  advocates  of  the  pope,  his  last  words  were,  '•  Unless  I  am 
refuted  and  convinced  by  proofs  from  the  Holy  Scrijitures,  or  by  plain,  lucid, 
and  evident  argument,  I  yield  my  faith  neither  to  the  pope  nor  to  the  coun- 
cils alone,  for  it  is  clear  as  the  day  that  they  have  fre(]uently  erred  and  con- 
tradicted each  other.  Until  so  convinced,  I  can  and  will  retract  nothing,  for 
it  is  neither  safe  nor  expedient  to  act  against  conscience.  Here  I  stand,  I 
can  do  nothing  else ;  God  help  me !  Amen."  In  subsequent  communica- 
tions with  a  committee  of  the  princes,  when  it  was  proposed  that  he  should 
hitrust  his  cause  to  the  diet  or  to  a  council,  ho  remained  constant  to  his 

h)  naynahl.  ad  a.  1521.  N.  1?3.     Wnleh  vol.  XV.  p.  2030. 

c)  Siial.  bist.  Nachlass.  n.  IJriif.-,  cd.  besriin  by  Xeiid.uler  and   L.  Prellfr,  1.  vol.  Jena.  1851. 
(§  811.  n.  b.)     M'ligner,  G.  Spal.  Altenb.  1S.'50.    J'trlhtl.  G.  Sp.  In  emend,  eacrr.  nierlta,  Jena.  1S4(1 
(/)  litinke  vol.  I.  p.  37ös. 


372  MODEBN  CnUBCH  HI8T0KT.    PKE.  V.    A.  D.  151T-1648. 

avownl  that  lio  could  yield  to  nothing  but  the  Holy  Scriptures  or  to  reason- 
ahlo  arfi:uinc'nt,  and  einoo  the  cause  in  which  he  Avas  engaged  was  not  hia 
own,  hut  tlio  cause  of  God,  lie  could  not  commit  it  to  the  hands  even  of  his 
dearest  friends,  (ft)  The  promise  of  the  emperor  to  afford  him  a  safe  conduct 
Avas  sacredly  fulfilled.  On  the  20th  of  May,  when  many  of  the  states  had 
loft  the  diet,  sentence  was  pronounced  against  Luttier  and  all  his  adherents, 
and  permission  was  given  to  any  one  to  assault  their  persons  and  seize  upon 
their  property,  (f)  But  Luther's  heroic  confession  had  won  the  hearts  of  the 
people  more  than  ever  to  himself,  and  the  very  members  of  the  diet  who 
condemned  him  in  compliance  with  the  requirements  of  law,  presented  to 
the  same  assembly  101  articles  of  complaint  against  the  Roman  See.  (cl) 

§  319.     The  Warthurg,  and  the  Tumxilt  at  Wittenberg,  1521,  1522. 

De  Wette  vol.  I.  I-IZI. —Attgustini  Antonil  Ds.  de  Patmo  Luth.  HaL  ICDC.  and  often.     C. 
KHhUr,  Lnth.  a.  d.  "Wartburg.  Eisen.  1793.  4. 

On  the  4tli  of  May,  while  Lnther  was  on  his  journey  homewards,  he  was 
seized  by  a  company  of  horsemen,  who,  according  to  a  previous  understand- 
ing with  the  elector,  conveyed  him  to  the  fortress  of  the  Warthurg.  Here 
he  lived  under  the  name  of  Yonker  George,  often  sick,  depressed  in  spirits, 
and  lamented  in  all  parts  of  Germany  as  lost.  The  bold  publications,  how- 
ever, which  he  sent  forth  from  his  retreat  until  after  the  middle  of  summer, 
against  the  necessity  of  auricular  confession,  masses  for  the  dead,  monastic 
vows,  and  the  new  idol  of  the  archbishop  of  Mentz,  gave  unequivocal  evi- 
dence that  Luther  was  still  alive.  The  Elector  Albert  of  Mentz  humbled 
himself  under  the  severe  reproof  administered  by  the  condemned  monk,  (a) 
Meanwhile,  the  brethren  of  his  order  connected  with  a  monastery  in  "Witten- 
berg, shut  up  their  convent  and  abolished  the  practice  of  private  masses.  A 
few  of  the  priests  renounced  celibacy  and  were  married,  (b)  On  Christmas 
day  the  Lord's  Supper  was  administered  by  Carhtadt  in  both  kinds  and  in 
the  German  Language.  These  proceedings  were  approved  by  Luther  and 
tolerated  by  the  elector,  who  only  required  that  no  innovations  should  be 
introduced  until  all  had  become  united  and  satisfied  with  respect  to  them  by 
means  of  written  and  oral  discussions  and  sermons,  (c)  But  when  Carlstadt 
proceeded  so  far  as  to  disturb  public  worship,  demolish  the  images  of  the 
saints,  and  commit  other  wild  acts  of  violence,  and  when  prophets  came 
from  Ziciclau  with  menaces  according  to  their  caprice  against  Church,  and 
State,  and  Science,  Luther  could  no  longer  be  restrained  by  his  friends.  In 
the  beginning  of  March,  1522,  he  left  the  Wartburg,  amused  himself  in  the 
course  of  his  journey  with  his  knightly  incognito,  (d)  and  in  the  sublime 

b)  Eler.  Tehm,  ü.  b.  Yerhandl.  m.  Luther,  ed.  by  Seidemann.  (ZeiUch.  t  hist  Th.  1S51.  H.  1.) 

c)  Goldast,  Constt  Imp.  vol.  IL  p.  143ss.     Walch  vol.  XY.  p.  22Ws.    Dated  back  to  May  S. 

d)  Walch  vol.  SV.  p.  2058. 

o)  De  Wette  vol.  II.  p.  112ss.     Walch  vol.  XIX.  p.  656ss. 

i)  J.  G.  Walter,  prima  gloria  Clerogamiae  restitutae  Luthero  vindicata.  Xeost  ad.  O.  1767.  4 
Vteeenmeyer  in  Stud.  u.  Krit  1S31.  II.  I. 

c)  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  550. 

d)  Helv.  Alman.  1S08.  p.  Il9sa.    Bernet,  Jo.  Kessler,  genannt  Ahenarlus.  S.  GalL  1S26.  p.  27sa 


CHAP.  L    EEFOKMATION.    §  8S0.  MEL.  LOCI.    LUTH.  BIBLE.  373 

calmness  of  one  who  felt  that  he  was  acting  by  divine  direction,  (e)  -n  rote  an 
heroic  letter  to  the  elector  from  Borne.  He  then  preached  daily  during  a 
•whole  week  in  Wittenhcrg^  in  behalf  of  the  supreine  power  and  liberty  of 
the  spirit,  in  those  immortal  words  of  Christian  mildness  by  which  he  won 
the  hearts  of  his  hearers  in  favor  of  a  peaceable  development  of  a  reforma- 
tion founded  upon  voluntary  conviction  and  the  evident  letter  of  the  sacred 
Scriptures.  (/) 

§  820,  System  of  Doctrines  and  the  Scriptures. 
The  scientific  representation  of  the  religious  principles  of  the  Reformation 
was  furnished  by  Melancthon  in  his  Theology^  (a)  a  work  wliicli  grow  out  of  his 
Lectures  upon  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans.  It  had  its  origin  in  that  deep  con- 
Bciousness  of  human  impotence  on  account  of  sin,  which  is  exhibited  in  the 
Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin.  For  this  sin  of  the  human  race  Christ  has 
made  complete  satisfaction  to  divine  justice.  Hence  salvation  is  to  be  found  in 
faith  alone,  /.  c.  in  the  surrender  of  the  whole  spirit  to  Christ,  and  the  ordi- 
nances of  the  Church  and  all  kinds  of  works  are  profitable  only  so  far  as  they 
proceed  from  faith.  If  tliis  grand  but  simple  system  of  faith  was  sufficient 
to  vindicate  the  reformation  in  the  opinion  of  literary  men,  tjie  opposition 
of  the  Roman  Church  to  the  word  of  God  in  the  Scriptures  was  its  most  suc- 
cessful plea  in  the  minds  of  the  common  people.  In  his  solitude  in  the 
Wartburg,  Litther  had  translated  the  New  Testament  jjrincipally  from  the 
original  text  into  the  German  language.  After  revising  it  in  company  with 
Melancthon,  he  published  this  work  in  1522.  A  translation  of  each  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament  afterwards  appeared,  in  composing  which  ho 
was  assisted  by  the  counsel  of  his  friends.  It  displays  a  strong  prejudice  ia 
favor  of  that  which  had  before  been  regarded  as  the  true  rendering,  but  it  is 
no  less  distinguished  for  its  extreme  conscientiousness.  They  thus  succeeded, 
in  1534,  in  printing  the  whole  Sacred  Scriptures,  a  master-piece  of  the  Ger- 
man language  and  heart,  and  forming  the  basis  on  which  Avere  established 
the  Scriptural  phraseology  and  spirit  of  the  peojjle  fur  many  generations,  (h) 

§  321.     The  Diet  at  Xitrcmhcrg,  1522,  1523. 
rrulch  vol.  XV.  p.  2504SS.    JiiiijtialJ.  8<1  aun.  1522. 

The  emperor  was  bnsy  in  Spain  with  his  war  against  France,  his  brother, 
the  Archduke  Ferdinand,  was  threatened  by  the  Turks,  and  at  the  head  of 
the  empire  stood  a  regency  chosen  by  the  states.  The  execution  of  the  edict 
of  Woi-ms  was  therefore  left  to  the  will  of  each  state.  Leo  was  succeeded 
by  Hadrian  TY.,  an  honest  native  of  the  Netherlands,  who  had  been  edu- 
cated in  the  scholastic  manner,  and  was  as  thoroughly  convinced  of  the  ne- 

e)  De  TTt«/«  vol.  II.  p.  ISTss. 

/)    ^Y^a^•h  vol.  XX.  p.  «SS. 

a)  Loci  coinimincs  rcrum  tliool.  Wit,  1.'21.  and  often.  Slrobel,  Vre.  e.  Llfcraturgescli.  von  MeL 
Loci.  Altd.  M.  Kürnb.  (1770.)  17S2. 

h)  Iji-stcdit  with  Luther's  correction«,  154il— /-mW.  Senilbr.  t.  Dollmctschen  dor  II.  9.  (^r,ihh 
vol.  XXI.  p.  SlCs-o.)  ,V,i</«i.«ii(Ä,  l.'Jtli  VrM.—P,in:fi\  Oc'cli.  d.  Bibel  übers.  L.  Nilrnb.  (17S3.)  1791. 
MarheincK-e,  d.  rcl.  Worth  d.  Blbelubers.  L.  Brl.  1S15.  ff.  Scfiotf,  Gesoh.  d.  BibelQbers.  L.  Lpt 
1S35.     G.  W.  Ilopf,  Würdig,  d.  Luth,  Bibelverdeutscli.  Nttrnb.  ISlT. 


371  MftDEUN  CIIUIJC«  niSTOHY.    I'ICR.  V.    A.  D.  l.MT-iCl?. 

coasity  of  a  reformntion  ns  of  tlio  licretical  nature  of  Luther's  doftrinc!.  (a) 
llonco  liis  lepite  C/iirrcjati,  at  tlie  Diet  of  Niircmherrj,  on  tlie  one  hand  de- 
manded that  the  edict  against  Luther  should  be  executed  as  though  it  were 
against  a  second  Mohammed,  and  suggested  that  the  insurrection  now 
directed  against  the  spiritual,  would  soon  be  turned  against  the  civil  rulers; 
and  on  the  other,  acknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  reformation,  and  promised 
that  it  should  bo  etiected  in  a  lawful  manner  in  tlie  head  and  members  of  the 
Church.  The  estates  fastened  upon  the  eecond  part  of  this  communica- 
tion, and  hastened  to  bring  forward  a  hundred  articles  of  complaint  against 
the  papal  see.  {J>)  It  was  owing  to  these  abuses  tliey  declared  that  Luther 
possessed  such  power,  and  a  general  rebellion  would  therefore  be  the  probable 
consequence  of  any  violent  measures  for  his  destruction.  Tliey  therefore  urged 
that  a  free  Christian  coimcil  for  the  removal  of  these  grievances  should  be 
held  within  a  year  in  some  German  city,  and  argued  that  until  it  might  be 
assembled  nothing  should  bo  taught  but  the  pure  gospel,  with  mildness  and 
according  to  the  explanation  generally  received  by  the  Church.  Hadrian 
had  nothing  to  offer  at  this  turn  of  affairs  except  lamentations,  yet  be  was 
really  zealous  for  a  reformation,  and  actually  commenced  it  in  his  own  court. 
But  a  pope  "who  was  obliged  to  regard  the  rights  and  wrongs  on  which  his 
own  power  was  based,  was  necessarily  more  inefficient  in  this  matter  than  a 
professor  who  had  nothing  to  think  of  but  eternal  truth  and  public  opinion. 

§  322.  Introduction  of  tlie  Reformation. 
The  divine  power  which  attended  Luther  received  the  co-operation  of  the 
Humanists  with  all  their  worldly  wisdom,  and  the  Preformation  was  looked 
upon  as  a  struggle  for  the  liberty  of  Germany.  Its  opponents  were  ridiculed 
as  blockheads  or  threatened  as  traitors.  Even  the  imitative  arts  came  to  the 
assistance  of  the  struggling  Church.  (<i)  The  Wittenberg  ITightingale  also 
now  announced  the  opening  of  spring,  (5)  and  all  the  liberal-minded  youth 
gave  in  their  adherence  to  the  new  party,  which,  however,  professed  to  be 
merely  returning  to  the  God  of  ancient  times.  (<•)  From  the  success  of  the 
movement  the  princes  expected  the  forfeited  property  of  the  Church,  the 
priests  expected  wives,  and  the  people  freedom.  (</)  It  was,  however,  the 
pure  enthusiasm  of  Luther  and  the  introduction  of  a  new  form  of  the  Chris- 
tian spirit,  which  drew  these  favorable  influences  into  his  triumphal  march, 

a)  J.  F.  BudtJeus,  do  Pontiff.  R.  qui  ref.  frnstra  tentarnnt  Jen.  1718.  4.  p.  29s5.  C.  Burmann, 
Hadr.  YI.  Traj.  ad  Rli.  1T2T.  4.    J.  T.  L.  Banz,  Analecta  crit.  do  Adr.  YI.  Jen.  ISlSs.  2  P.  4. 

h)  Dio  100  Beschwerden  d.  Deutsclien  Nation,  m.  Aum.  v.  G.  JA  Welter,  Frkf.  IMD.  comp. 
Banke  vol.  II.  p.  40ss. 

a)  Walch\o\.  XIY.  p.  210ss.  vol.  XY.  p.  930ss.  German  Litany:  Walch  \o\.  XY.  p.  2175*5. 
Caricatures:  SleidA.  XYI.  p.  2C1.  Ballavic.  I,  25.  Spieker,  p.  657.  Carnival  plays:  Be  VTetta 
vol.  I.  p.  5til.  Mute  comedy :  Majus,  Yita  EcuchL  Durl.  1GS7.  p.  546s.  Papal  ass  and  Munich  calf: 
Wakh  vol.  XIX.  p.  2403.  J.  Voigt,  Pasquille,  Spotüieder,  n.  Sehmälischr.  a.  d.  1.  Hälfte  <L 
IG.  Jalirli.  {Baumer's  hist.  Taschenbuch.  1S3S.  p.  S20ss.)  Bij^er,  Mythol.  d.  chr.  KunsL  vol.  L 
p.  816s. 

I)  Bans  Sac7is :  Wittcnb.  Nachtigall.  1523.  Disputacion  zw.  c.  Chorherm  u.  c.  Schuhmacher 
>524.  4. — jE  J.  Kimmel,  de  J.  Sacbsio,  quantum  ad  reuipubl.  clirist.  valuerit  restaurandam.  Gel 
1S87. 

c)  Yom  alten  u.  nüen  Gott,  Glauben  u.  Ler.  1521.  4. 

d)  J.  Marx,  Ursachen  d.  schnellen  Yerbreit  d.  Ecf.  Mainz  1SS4. 


CHAP.  L    REFORMATION.    §  822.  SAXOXT.    HESSE.  375 

and  whicli  was  alone  al>le  to  shake  tlie  vet  colossal  power  of  Catholicism, 
withont  exhausting  in  the  struggle  the  strength  to  form  a  new  ecclesiastical 
establishment.  The  introduction  of  the  Eeformation  in  particular  localities 
generally  took  place  in  the  following  manner :  8ome  individuals  in  the  con- 
gregation, by  means  of  Luther's  writings,  were  led  to  perceive  the  inconsis- 
tency of  the  existing  state  of  the  Church  with  genuine  Christianity;  then 
some  preacher,  probably  an  Augustinian,  possibly  a  Franciscan  monk  of  the 
same  view.s,  would  draw  the  multitude  after  him  ;  tlion  the  sacrifice  of  the 
mass  would  be  discontinued  in  spite  of  much  opposition  from  the  spiritual  or 
the  secular  authorities,  and  finally,  divine  worship  in  the  language  of  the 
people  would  be  commenced,  with  a  strange  confusion,  at  first,  of  various 
nsages.  The  people  were  seized  with  a  horror  of  the  papacy,  and  in  almost 
every  place  where  the  popular  will  prevailed,  as  in  the  imperial  cities,  the 
Reformation  was  triumphant.  Instead  of  guiding  these  great  popidar  move- 
ments, the  princes  were  rather  borne  along  by  them.  Frederic  the  Wise  died 
(May  5,  1525)  trusting  to  the  grace  of  God  through  the  righteousness  of 
Christ.  Ilis  brother  and  successor,  John  the  Constant,  a  mild  and  sincere 
ruler,  was  devoted  with  all  his  heart  both  to  the  cause  and  to  the  person  of 
Luther.  Philip,  the  youtliful  Landgrave  of  Hesse,  after  the  Diet  of  Worm.«, 
joined  the  party  of  the  Reformation,  became  a  personal  friend  of  iielanc- 
thon,  and  declared  (152-3)  that  he  would  rather  part  Avith  his  lands  and  sub- 
jects than  to  aljandou  the  word  of  God.  As  a  leader  of  his  party  he  was 
':rafty  but  at  the  same  time  upright,  fond  of  novelties,  a  pious  Christian,  and 
a  firm  friend  of  the  Bible,  but  either  independent  of  the  theologian.?,  or  with 
a  singular  scrupulosity  bringing  them  to  his  terms,  full  of  confidence  not  only 
in  divine  aid,  but  in  the  worldly  means  by  which  a  spiritual  revolution  was 
to  be  effected,  intelligent,  and  in  his  best  days  powerful,  (e)  In  rrussia, 
where  the  German  order  was  already  despised,  the  gosjjcl  entered  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances.  Gcorije  of  I'ohntz,  Bishop  of  Samland,  hav- 
ing conducted  himself  at  an  earlier  period  of  life  as  became  a  pious  priest  of 
noble  blood,  now  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  reforming  party,  and  on 
Christmas  day,  1523,  in  the  cathedral  at  Königsberg,  proclaimed  with  great 
joy  that  the  Saviour  had  been  once  more  born  for  his  people.  The  Grand 
Master,  Albert  of  JJrandenhvrfj,  gave  to  all  princes  and  bi.>hops  the  example 
of  a  successful  secession  from  the  Church  and  the  empire,  by  receiving  the 
hereditary  dukedom  of  Prussia  as  a  fief  from  the  Polish  crown  (_1525).  (/)  In 
the  South,  the  Dukes  of  Bavaria,  in  consequence  of  the  spirit  which  prevailed 
in  their  university  at  Ingolstadt,  and  the  favor  of  the  pope,  enjoyed  nearl}'  all 
the  political  advantages  of  the  Reformation,  and  formed  a  wall  of  defence 
for  the  old  faith,  (jr)     In  the  North,  GcorgCy  Duke  of  Saxony ^  was  personally 


t)  Ch.  V.  liommel,  Plilllpp.  d.  Oros.«m.  (Hessen.  IS-IO.  H  vols.  Nouo  Bcltrr.  t.  GomIi.  Phil.  od.  by 
Puller,  Daniisf.  1S42.  H'.  Münscfier,  Ocwli.  d.  lies.«.  Tvt.  K.  Co-v«.  ISSO.  /'.  IP.  /fiiniifuk-itmp,  licss. 
KGescli.  ini  Zilta.  d.  Rcf.  Mnrb.  1S52.  vol.  I.  Coinp.  Tlicol.  Hrlofwcclisel  zw.  Plill.  v.  II.  ii.  Ouorg  v. 
Sachsen.  (Zoitsoli.  f.  liist  Th.  1S4».  II.  2.) 

/)  Concioncs  sacrno  O.  Polcntts  cd.  A.  7?.  Gelmer,  Rcpiom.  1S43.  4.  J.  Voigt,  Brlofw.  d.  bt» 
rdhmt.  Gelehrton  m.  Albrecht  v.  Pr.  Kunlpsb.  1S4I.— ///«"«(f,  do  prlnds  sarror.  refonnatorlbiis  ip 
Prussia.  Regioni.  2  P.  182.5  et  1S2T.    A.  Lamhgcl;  Oo^ch.  d.  Hcf.  In  Westpr.  Thorn.  IS^.O. 

ff)  r.  -1.  Winter,  Gesch.  d.  cv.  Lebro  in  IL  durch  Balorn.  MQnch.  ISOOs.  3  vols. 


376  MODEKN  CIIUKCri  IIISTOKV.     TKl'..  V.     A.  I).  1517-1648. 

anxious  for  n  riforniation,  but  ono  which  shouhl  bo  foundofi  uixm  old  catlio« 
lie  grmiiKls,  iiii«!  coiidiicted  by  the  legitimate  authorities,  and  not  by  a  cloi.-- 
torcd  monk.  (/()  The  complete  accomi)lisIiment  of  the  Keformation  some- 
times occasioned  much  inconvenience  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  ancient 
Church,  and  such  as  resided  in  convents  especially  were  driven  forth  upon 
tiio  wide  world;  but  in  general  the  Reformation  neccs.sari]y  triumphed  by 
tiie  power  of  an  unbiassed  conviction.  Tiie  Catholic  Church,  on  the  other 
liand,  i)roteoted  all  its  established  po.sse.ssions  not  only  by  calunmies  upon 
Luther's  doctrines,  but  by  a  rigorous  censorship,  by  restraints  upon  literary 
investigations,  imprisonment,  banishment,  and  other  violent  measures.  Some 
were  even  deprived  of  life.  Luther  praised  the  Lord  that  even  this  glory  of 
the  apostolic  Church  was  now  restored  to  the  world.  (/) 

§  323,   Commencement  of  the  Division  in  Germany^  1524-1526. 

Clement  VII.  perceived  the  impending  danger  and  made  every  exertion 
to  avert  it.  At  the  Diet  of  Nuremberg  (1524)  his  legate,  Campeggio,  de- 
clared that  the  list  of  grievances  which  had  been  presented  was  regarded  at 
Rome  as  the  Avork  of  a  few  evil-minded  persons,  but  the  utmost  that  he  could 
obtain  was  the  promise  that  the  edict  of  Worms  should  be  executed  as  far 
as  was  practicable  for  each  state  of  the  empire.  It  was  at  the  same  time 
decided  that  the  empire  itself  would  soon  after  at  a  diet  appointed  at  Speyer 
(Spire)  undertake  the  regulation  of  ecclesiastical  affairs,  (a)  The  legate  also 
succeeded  in  forming  at  Ratishon  an  alliance  between  Ferdinand  of  Austria, 
the  Dukes  of  Bavaria  and  most  of  the  bi-shops  in  the  south  of  Germany,  by 
the  terms  of  Avhich  an  apparent  reformation  was  accepted  of  under  hLs 
sanction,  and  they 'agreed  not  only  to  abolish  some  of  the  grossest  ecclesias- 
tical abuses,  but,  by  a  decree  of  July  6th,  1524,  to  exclude  the  "Wittenberg 
innovations  from  their  respective  countries,  and  sustain  each  other  in  every 
danger  which  might  result  from  such  a  course.  (V)  The  emperor  Avrote  letters 
threatening  all  who  would  not  execute  the  edict  of  Worms,  and  forbade  the 
assembly  at  Speyer.  At  a  diet  held  at  Dessau  (June  26,  1525),  the  opponents 
of  the  Reformation  among  the  princes  of  Northern  Germany  also  consulted 
about  the  attitude  which  they  could  most  properly  assume  in  opposition  to 
the  Lutheran  heresy,  but  the  extent  of  the  danger  from  this  meeting  was 
much  exaggerated,  (c)  In  consequence  of  these  proceedings  the  Landgrave 
of  Uesse  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  met  together  at  Gotha  and  pledged  them- 
selves to  assist  each  other  with  all  their  power  against  every  assault  on  ac- 
count of  the  word  of  God.    The  original  document  was  ratified  at  Torgau, 

h)  A.  J/".  Scftiiltze,  Georg  u.  Luth.  Lps.  1S34.  Z.  Fischer,  H.  Georg,  Luth.  u.  d.  verjagten  Leip- 
Blger.  Lps.  1S39.     SeUlemann,  d.  Ref.  Zeit  in  Sachsen,  151T-39.  Dresd.  1S46. 

0  Witlch  vol.  XXI.  p.  Sflss.  94ss.  173ss.  Jiulixs,  llist  d.  Ueiligen,  Auserwälilton  Gottes  Zeugen 
zu  diesen  unsern  letzten  zeytten.  Strassb.  1554.  venu.  1571.  2  vols.  f.  Acta  martyruni.  qui  hoc  saec 
in  Gallia,  Genn.  Angl.  Flandria  et  Italia  constans  dcJerunt  nomen  Ev.  Gen.  1556.  JTeckel,  die  M.:r- 
tyrer  d.  ev.  K.  Kürnb.  1S2S. 

a)  PaUaric.  II.  10.     Walch,  vol.  XV.  p.  2GÜ6ss.     nanü-e,  vol.  IL  p.  Ills. 

l)  HWcA,  vol.  XV.  p.  2699SS.  Strobel,  msc.  St.  II.  p.  109ss.  Golda^t.  Conslitt.  Imp.  vol.  IIL 
p.  4J7s6. 

c)  De  WttU,  vol.  III.  p.  22.    Seidemann  d.  Pess.  Bündn.  (Zeitsch.  f.  liisL  Tli.  1>47.  11.  4." 


CHAP.  I.    EEFORMATION.    §  823.  TOBGAÜ.    §  324.  HENRY  VI IL  377 

(March  4,  1526.)  (d)  Tins  confederation  was  soon  after  strengthened  by  the 
accefision  of  Lüneburg,  Anlinlt,  Mansfcldt,  Prussia,  and  Magdeburg,  but  it 
always  remained  ratlier  vacillating  and  undetermined,  for  Luther  was  exceed- 
ingly displeasetl  that  any  one  should  set  himself  in  opposition  to  the  emperor, 
or  think  of  defending  the  almiglity  word  and  providence  of  God  by  carnal 
Aveapons  and  worldly  policy,  (e) 

§  324.     7'/ic  Ki?iy  and  the  Theologian. 

Henry  VIII.  of  England,  wlio  coveted  the  reputation  of  a  tlicologian  and 
an  ecclesiastical  kniglit,  eitlier  wrote  or  cau.'jed  to  bo  written  in  his  name,  a 
defence  of  tlie  seven  sacraments,  {<i)  in  the  course  of  which  lie  even  impeached 
Luther's  sincerity.  So  highly  was  tliis  royal  production  extolled  at  Rome 
that  it  was  declared  that  no  one  could  have  composed  it  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  it  was  placed  in  the  same  rank  with  the  writings 
of  St.  Augustine.  But  Luther,  conscious  that  he  was  contending  for  a  Mon- 
arch in  whose  presence  all  earthly  sovereigns  must  stand  ct>nfounded,  hurled 
his  words  of  wrath  at  the  King  of  England,  and  hesitated  not  to  call  the 
royal  disputant  a  liar  and  a  knave,  {l)  In  the  midst  of  such  a  storm  the  king 
soon  found  that  he  was  never  intended  for  a  theologian.  Some  years  after- 
wards, through  the  influence  of  the  Danish  king,  Luther  became  elated  with 
the  hope  that  Henry  might  be  induced  to  decide  in  favor  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. He  therefore  became  so  regai-dless  of  his  manly  dignity  while  seeking 
only  the  interest  of  his  cause,  that  he  wrote  an  humble  apology  to  the  king, 
and  offered  to  recall  his  offensive  language.  Henry  made  use  of  this  letter 
publicly  to  mortify  Luther,  who  found  it  difhcult  to  regain  the  lofty  tone 
which  ho  had  first  used  with  respect  to  the  scandalous  lampoon  of  the  King 
of  England,  (c) 

§  325.     The  Pcamnt^'  War.     1524,  1525. 

I.  Llteratare  of  the  orig.  Documents:  ir.  v.  AuirneM,  Anz.  t  Kunde  d.  dt.  Mittelalt  1838.  p.  801s. 
Collections:  Wal<:h,  vol.  XVI.  p.  öss.  vol.  XXI.  p.  UitK  TenUel,  vol.  IL  p.  »JIss.  Kiipp,  Naelil. 
vol.  IV.  p.  SGls-s. 

IL  SartoriM,  Gcwli.  <1.  dt  BK.  Brl.  1795.  J.  (Vt.  t^fmivl,  BK.  (Hall.  Encjkl.  vol.  YII.) 
I'fchreibar,  Bundschuh.  Freib.  1SJ5.  Oi-rhnle  Boltr.  z.  Gosch.  d.  BK.  in  d.  »chwi'ib.  frfink.  Orfinrl. 
llellhr.  1S30.  WadttmuUt,  d.  dt  BK.  Lpz.  18iM.  W.  Zimmermann,  allg.  Gisch.  d.  grossen  BK. 
Btntt«.  1841-8.  8  vols.  C.  lletjd,  i.  Gosch.  u.  lioiirtb.  d.  dt  BK.  (.Ml;;.  Monnlr(h.  f.  Wis-,  u.  Lit  ls62. 
July  ».) 

Tlie  conspiracy  of  the  nobility  against  the  spiritual  and  secuhir  princes, 
which  had  sought  to  strengthen  and  vindicate  itself  by  the  principles  of  the 
Reformation,  had  finally  been  put  down  by  the  overthrow  of  Sickingen.  (a) 
But  the  long  cherished  discontent  of  the  oppressed  peasantry  which  had  al- 
ready broken  forth  on  dill'ercnt  occtusions,  {b)  took  occa.sion  from  a  inisundc-r- 

d)  nortUder,  VIII,  2-6.  "     t)  Kupp.  vol.  IL  p.  671ss.    Dt  Wrtt«,  vol.  IIL  p.  AM».  (»Cm. 

a)  Adsertlo  VH.  Sacrr.  adv.  I.nth.  I^nd.  1.V21.    Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p  lÄ*«. 
h)  Contra  Hcnr.  KL-irom  Martlnus  Luth.  1.V.'2.    "Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p.  29.'>. 
c)  De  Jlt«c,  vol.  Ill  p.  23-«.     Walch,  vol.  XIX.  p.  46Ss». 

o)  Ilomnifi.  vol.  III.  Ablh.  L  p.  2>24».  Ranhe,  vol.  II.  p.  Slsa.  Hist  pol.  HI.  1S39.  7ol.  IV 
K.  9-12. 

h)   Witchsmut/i,  Aut'st.iiulo  u.  Kriege  J.  U.  lin  MA.  (Kauiiicrs  lii>t  Taschenb.  1534.) 


37S  Mi»i)r.i:N  cinrucii  hihtokv.    ricit.  v.   a.  d.  vat-icah. 

Bt.indinp  of  Rotno  sermons  oa  Christian  liberty  find  tlic  jiowerfiil  popiilai 
niovenicnts  connected  witli  tlio  Reformation,  to  rise  in  open  rebellion  against 
the  secular  and  si)iritual  nobility,  that  they  might  secure  their  rights  as  Chris- 
tians and  as  men.  Tins  took  place,  too,  at  a  time  in  -which  an  evangelical 
preacher  condemned  not  only  all  loans  upon  interest,  and  the  possession  of 
wealth,  but  the  owning  of  any  permanent  property  as  inconsistent  with  Chris- 
tianity and  the  word  of  God.  (c)  Its  first  appearance  was  in  Snabia  (1524), 
but  soon  extended  to  Franconia,  and  along  the  Rhine  to  Thüringen  (1525). 
These  peasants  in  justification  of  their  course  appealed  to  their  12  Articles,  ('/) 
the  Scriptures,  and  the  writings  of  Dr.  Luther.  In  the  opinion  which  Me- 
lanctlion  expressed,  the  articles  of  the  peasantry  were  condemned  witliout 
reserve,  and  the  people  were  enjoined  unconditionally  to  obey,  and  to  submit 
to  their  grievances  without  resistance,  {e)  But  Luther  had  a  heart  which 
pympathized  with  the  sufferings  of  the  people.  In  his  exhortations  to  peace 
he  acknowledges  that  most  of  their  articles  were  reasonable,  and  admonishes 
the  princes  as  well  as  the  peasants  to  concede  whatever  was  equitable.  (/) 
But  when  the  latter  maintained  their  cause  with  fire  and  slaughter,  proceeded 
to  the  bold  design  of  completely  remodelling  the  government  of  the  empire, 
received  as  their  leaders  enthusiastic  persons  like  Thomas  Munzer^  who  in  the 
character  of  a  prophet  with  the  sword  of  Gideon,  and  in  the  terrific  language 
of  the  Old  Testament  proclaimed  universal  equality  ;  when  they  introduced  a 
community  of  goods  and  published  abusive  libels  upon  what  they  called  the 
unspiritual  and  luxurious  carnality  of  the  people  of  "Wittenberg,  (r/)  Luther's 
wrath  was  inflamed,  and  fearing  that  the  purity  of  his  cause  might  be  pol- 
luted and  confounded  with  the  abominations  of  this  rebellion,  he  enjoined,  in 
his  pamphlet  against  the  plundering  and  murderous  peasants,  Qi)  that  they 
should  be  slaughtered  like  so  many  mad  dogs.  The  advice  was  literally  fol- 
lowed by  the  princes  of  both  the  Catholic  and  the  Protestant  parties.  But 
even  this  did  not  j)revent  the  enemies  of  spiritual  liberty  from  ascribing  to 
it  those  abuses  which  were  committed  in  its  name,  and  the  people  imagined 
that  they  saw  in  Luther's  exhortation  to  engage  in  this  crusade  against  the 
peasants  more  of  the  courtier  than  of  the  popular  reformer.  {()  It  was  at 
this  time  that  an  element  which  had  sprung  up  in  Luther's  mind  after  his 
return  from  the  Wartburg  became  decided,  and  gave  a  character  to  the  whole 
future  progress  of  the  Reformation.  In  connection  with  the  importance  of 
the  inner  life  and  of  faith,  was  introduced  the  necessity  of  an  external 
Church,  the  bold  process  of  demolition  was  modified  by  a  regard  for  history, 
and  amid  the  ruins  scattered  around  them,  the  reformers  now  commenced  the 
work  of  forming  a  new  ecclesiastical  estabUshment. 

c)  Stra'.iss,  llauptst.  n.  Art  chr.  Lehr,  wider  d.  nnchr.  Wnchor  gepredigt  za  Eisenach  152a  4 
Strotjel,  Miscell.  vol.  III.  p.  8ss.       d)  Walch,  vol.  XVI.  p.  24ss. 

<) /ft.  p.  32as.       /)/6.  p.53. 

O)  Förshmatm,  neues  Urkundenb.  vol  L  p.  22Sss.  Melancthon,  Hist.  Tli.  MTinz.  (liot'iö  vol  I 
p.  203.  WiiMi,  vol.  XVI.  p.  199.)—Slrobel,  Leben,  Schrr.  u.  Lehren  Tli.  M.  ^'arnb.  1790.  Seid»- 
vmnn,  Th.  M.  Dresd.  1S42. 

A)   Wak-h,  vol.  XVI.  p.  Olse.        i)  lb.  p.  99ss. 


CHAP.  L    REFORMATION.    §  326.  ERASMUS.  379 

§326.     Erasmus  and  Lather.     Coiit.  from  ^  28S. 

E.  Lieherkühn,  de  Erasmi  ingonio  et  doctr.  quid  valuorint  ad  instaur.  sacroriim.  Jen.  1536.    (7/ii> 
lu.%  Er.  u.  Lu^  (Zeita-lir.  f.  Hist.  Tb.  1S45.  P.  2.) 

Although  Luther  always  discovered  in  the  writings  of  Erasmus  more  of 
tlic  human  than  of  the  divine  element,  nu^re  argument  for  error  than  revela- 
tion of  truth,  and  more  love  for  peace  than  for  the  cross,  with  an  humble 
admiration  of  his  talents  he  had  still  sought  (1519)  his  friendship,  (a)  In 
pleasant  but  serious  terms  Erasmus  commended  Luther's  cause  to  Frederic  the 
"Wise,  for  he  could  not  but  see  its  justice  even  from  the  faults  of  its  oppo- 
nents, (h)  lie  also  proposed  terms  of  compromise  in  wliich  the  papacy  was 
treated  simply  as  an  equal  party,  (c)  But  in  consistency  with  his  character 
he  disapproved  of  carrying  a  controversy  which  miglit  arouse  any  amount  of 
passion  among  the  people  so  far  as  to  threaten  a  division  in  the  Church  and 
the  empire,  and  he  trembled  for  his  literary  world  and  for  his  learned  leisure. 
But  for  these  very  reasons,  as  Avell  as  from  his  regard  for  higlier  intellectual 
affinities,  he  maintained  silence  in  spite  of  tlie  solicitations  of  prelates  and 
kings.  (^7)  It  was  finally  the  friends  of  the  Reformation  themselves,  who 
sometimes  boasted  that  he  belonged  to  their  party,  and  sometimes  reproached 
him  for  what  they  called  his  cowardly  silence,  that  compelled  him  to  speak,  (e) 
In  writing,  however,  against  Luther,  he  did  not  attempt  to  defend  the  super- 
stitions of  the  mendicant  friars,  nor  the  absolute  power  of  the  pope,  but  to 
adduce  the  proof  which  Luther  had  demanded  from  the  Scriptures  of  the 
freedom  of  the  moral  will.  (/)  The  great  champion  of  intellectual  freedom, 
in  consistency  with  the  logical  requirements  of  Ids  system,  did  not  hesitate 
in  a  passionate  reply  to  contend  for  the  innate  bondage  of  the  will,  (g)  for  he 
disposes  of  those  Scriptural  passages  which  imply  the  freedom  of  the  will  by 
asserting  that  God  secretly  intends  the  reverse  of  what  he  expresses  in  his 
revealed  will,  and  that  the  apostles  spoke  of  such  a  freedom  only  by  way  of 
irony.  Erasmus  showed  that  such  an  assertion  was  arbitrary,  and  contrary 
to  all  scientific  rules.  (Ä)  But  while  Erasmus,  dreading  the  reproach  of  senu- 
pelagianism  to  which  he  was  justly  obnoxious,  concealed  and  anxiously  guarded 
his  own  views,  his  opponent  avowed  and  defended  what  he  regarded  as  infal- 
lible truth  with  bold  confidence.  Luther  therefore  appeared  to  the  literary 
men  of  his  own  party  triumphant,  and  to  the  people  the  whole  controversy 
was  completely  unintelligible.  After  this  dispute  Luther  committed  Enxsmus 
to  the  judgment  of  Christ  as  an  epicurean,  an  atheist,  and  an  enemy  to  all 
religion.  (/) 


a)  De  Wette  vol.  I.  p.  SOss.  p.  52.  vol.  11.  p.  49s.— Vol.  I.  p.  Ulas. 

I)  Spalatln,  Ann.  p.  2'^s.    Jf>ecken(J.  Addltt  1.  I.  p.  Ilia». 

c)  Krasmi  Epp.  (od.  Cleric.)  XIII,  80.    Buriymj  vol.  I.  p.  3SGiA 

(?)  Corp.  He/,  vol.  I.  p.  6SS.  092. 

e)  Erasmi  Epp.  XVIII,  23.  Corp.  lief.  vol.  I.  p.  (nX.—  Vlrici  ah  JTutten  E.xpostulatio  cum  Eras 
nio.  Ardent.  1522.— />«  ^S'elte  vol.  II.  p.  4'^'J.    Unschuld.  Nachr.  1725.  p.  545. 

/)  Eraffin.  do  libcro  nrbitrio  Dlatr.  1524.    Walch  vol.  XVIII.  p.  1902. 

g)  Luth.  de  sitvo  nrbitrio  nd  Era^m.  1525.     AValch  vol,  XVIII.  p.  2050. 

/()  llypcraspistes  Di.itr.  adv.  scrvum  arb.  Luth.  P.  II.  1520«.  (0pp.  vol.  X.  p.  1249.  1335.)  ComiL 
Epp.  XXI,  2S. 

i)  Do  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  427.  vc.l.  IV.  \>.  497.     W:ilch  vol.  XXII.  p.  1012ss. 


880  MODERN  CllüßCU  HISTOnV.    PKR.  V.    A.  P.  Iöl7-lfrl9. 

§  327.     Luther^»  Domestic  Life  arid  his  Colleague». 

Lnther  remnincd  longer  tlmn  any  of  his  companions  with  tlie  prior  of  the 
ilcscrti'd  inonftstcry,  and  did  not  lay  nsido  his  monk's  habit  until  Ä^me  time  in 
Deo.  1524.  His  marriage  with  Catharine  von  Bora  (.Jnne  13,  1535),  a  nun 
hclonpinff  to  the  disbanded  Cistercian  convent  of  Nimptsch,  was  neither  tlie 
result  of  an  ardent  passion,  nor  a  part  of  his  policy  as  a  reformer,  but  it  be- 
longed rather  to  his  private  lite,  and  in  view  of  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
times  was  entered  upon  with  some  hesitation,  but  with  little  consultation.  It 
proceeded  from  a  general  inclination,  encouraged  by  the  wishes  of  the  parents, 
for  the  happiness  of  donjestic  life,  the  joys  and  the  sorrows  of  which  he  after- 
wards experienced.  («)  Indeed  about  this  time  he  was  frequently  oppressed 
by  sickness,  and  prepared  for  a  sudden  death  by  reports  of  consjiiracies 
against  his  life,  but  as  a  general  thing  he  sat  very  pleasantly  in  the  circle  of 
his  friends,  enjoying  with  a  keen  relish  not  only  the  holier  and  higher  pleasures 
of  religion,  but  the  innocent  amusements  of  music,  song,  and  many  a  bold 
jest,  (h)  His  extreme  kindness  and  honesty  of  heart  fitted  him  to  be  the 
comforter  and  assistant  of  all  who  were  distressed.  His  moderate  circum- 
stances were  precisely  such  as  his  disposition  and  position  rendered  suitable,  (c) 
Stavpitz^  who  was  in  1519  in  the  service  of  the  Cardinal  of  Salzburg,  and  in 
1522  Abbot  of  tlie  Benedictines  (d.  1524),  about  1521  withdrew  himself  from 
Luther,  being  alarmed  at  the  storm  raised  around  the  reformer.  Luther 
looked  upon  Staupitz  as  cold  and  pusillanimous,  but  the  man  wlio  first  kin- 
dled in  his  bosom  a  love  for  the  gospel  was  never  forgotten.  QI)  His  colleagues 
faithfully  assisted  him  in  his  labors :  Nicolas  of  Amsdorf  (d.  at  Eisenach, 
1565),  who  adhered  to  Luther's  words  with  Luther's  own  vehemence ;  (e) 
Justus  Jonas  (d.  at  Eissfeld,  1555),  who  had  been  a  jurist,  and  was  therefore 
appointed  provost  of  the  Castle  Church  at  Wittenberg,  an  eloquent  and 
skilful  man,  (/)  and  the  gentle  Bugenhagen  (d,  at  Wittenberg,  1558),  who,  ia 
spite  of  his  Pomeranian  dialect  and  prolixity,  was  in  the  highest  degree  dig- 
nified, adapted  to  govern  a  church,  disinterested,  and  a  comforter  to  Luther 
in  evil  times,  but  entirely  under  his  influence,  {g)  These  were  all  frequently 
engaged  in  various  ways  in  ecclesiastical  aftairs  beyond  the  limits  of  Saxony, 
and  were  scattered  in  the  time  of  the  German  war.  Carlstadt  for  a  long 
time  persevered  in  advocating  a  destructive  process  as  the  only  proper  method 
of  reform,  and  was  anxious  to  introduce  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil  afltairs  an 


a)  De  Wette  vol  II.  p.  &46.  vol.  III.  p.  Iss.  lOss.  yet  p.  21.  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p-  '54s.  Walcb 
vol.  XXIV.  p.  182ss.  S'2()S9.  Veesenmayer,  ü.  gleichzeit  Schrr.  gegen  L.  Verheir.  (KHist  Arch.  1SÜ5. 
vol.  III.  P.  2.)  F.  Walch,  Cadi.  v.  B.  IlaL  1751ss.  2  voL«.  W.  Beste,  Oescb.  C.  v.  B.  Hal.  1S4-3.  F 
O.  Ifo/mann,  K.  v.  B.  1S45. 

I)  Luth.  Tischreden.  (Memoirs  of  his  friends,)  collected  by  Aurifaber.  Eisl.  1566.  t  &  ffeqnently 
In  zweif.  Redaction  s.  Walch  vol.  XXIL  ed.  by  Forstetnann  &  Bindseil.  Lps.  lSi4-8.  [Luther's  Ta- 
blc-Talk,  LoniL  12mo.  &  with  Life  by  BtirMiardt,  Lond.  Svo.]  Michelet,  Memoires  de  L.  cents  pai 
.ui-mi-me.  Par.  15:35.  4  vols. 

c)  Palliiric.  IV,  14. 12.  De  Wttte  vol.  III.  p.  495a  vol.  V.  p.  767.  Walch  vol  XXL  p.  270.  vol 
XXIV.  p.  579. 19SSS.— Coto  de  panpcrtate  L.  Lub.  1719.  4     Ukert  vol.  L  p.  347ss. 

rf)  $  30i  nt.  h.         e)  G.  Bergner,  do  Nie.  d.  Amsd.  Maijd.  171Sss.  2  Pgg.  4. 

/)  Knapp,  Xarr.  de  Justo  Jona.  H.il  1S17. 

g)  Zittz,  J.  Bu;:enb.  Lps.  1S29.    Krafl,  de  J.  Bug.  In  res  eon.  nierttis.  Hmo.  1S31.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    REFORMATION.    §  82S.  PROTESTATION.  38 1 

:inconditional  adherence  to  the  obvious  and  literal  construction  of  the  Scrip- 
tures. By  such  a  course  he  necessarily  came  into  collision  with  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  approached  very  near  the  brink  of  spiritual  apostasy,  but  at  last  he 
found  peace  and  moderation  for  his  a;,'itated  spirit  in  Switzerland  (d.  at  Basle, 
1541).  (/()  "SVith  the  jurists  also  Luther  had  some  misunderstanding  for  a 
while,  on  account  of  his  burning  of  the  canon  law.  But  as  he  could  not  pre- 
vent others  from  studying  it,  and  finally  commenced  the  study  of  it  himself,  (i) 
we  find  that  even  at  "Worms  Dr.  Schürf  came  forward  as  his  faithful  advo- 
cate. 

§  328.     Religious  Liberty  and  the  Protestation. 

The  emperor  finally  succeeded  in  destroying  the  French  army  near  Pavia, 
and  in  taking  their  king  a  prisoner.  The  latter  at  the  peace  of  Madrid  (Jan.  14, 
1526)  purchased  his  liberty,  though  on  difficult  terms,  which  he  never  intended 
to  fulfil.  Clement  VII.  soon  after  absolved  him  from  his  oath,  and  became  the 
prime  mover  of  a  confederacy  against  the  exorbitant  power  of  the  emperor. 
This  made  the  emperor  willing  to  suspend  the  execution  of  the  edict  of 
"Worms,  but  his  brother  in  Germany  was  reluctant  at  such  a  time  to  embitter 
the  feelings  of  the  members  of  the  Catholic  league  by  such  a  step,  and  ac- 
cordingly the  diet  at  Speyer  (Aug.,  152G)  was  unanimous  in  the  decree,  that 
until  the  meeting  of  a  general  council,  every  state  should  act  with  respect  to 
the  edict  of  Worms  as  it  might  venture  to  answer  to  God  and  his  imperial 
majesty.  («)  The  vile  notification  by  Otho  von  Pack,  that  the  Catholic  princes 
had  combined  together  for  the  overthrow  of  the  Protestant  powers  (1528), 
was  the  occasion  not  only  of  bringing  out  the  warlike  spirit  of  Hesse  and  of 
Electoral  Saxony,  but  of  showing  how  t;ir  the  peace  of  Germany  itself  was 
endangered  by  the  controversies  with  respect  to  religion.  Qi)  The  army  of 
the  emperor,  urged  on  by  the  zeal  of  the  Lutheran  foot  soldiers,  stormed  and 
plundered  the  city  of  Rome  (May  6,  1527).  After  many  vicissitudes  in  the 
fortune  of  the  war,  the  sovereignty  of  Italy  was  secured  to  Charles  in  the 
spring  of  1529,  and  the  pope  himself  acquiesced  in  the  arrangement.  Charles 
v.,  however,  was  obliged  to  pay  some  deference  to  the  feelings  of  his  Catho- 
lic subjects  in  his  hereditary  dominions.  A  Catholic  majority  was  therefore 
obtained  at  the  Diet  of  Speyer,  which  enacted  that  the  edict  of  Worms 
should  continue  to  be  enforced  in  those  states  which  had  hitherto  acknowl- 
edged its  authority,  but  that  no  innovations  should  be  required  in  the  remain- 
ing provinces,  that  none  should  be  obstructed  in  celebrating  the  mass,  and 
that  the  privileges  of  every  spiritual  estate  should  be  respected.  Against 
this  Recess  of  the  imperial  diet,  by  wliich  the  Reformation  would  huve  been 
condemned  by  its  own  friends  to  a  fatal  stagnation,  Electoral  Saxony,  Hesse. 
Lüneburg,  Anhalt,  the  ^Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  and  fourteen  imperial 
cities,  presented  a  Protestation  (April  19,  1529)  and  an  appeal  (April  25) 

h)  FicJ<Hli,  Lebenegesc'h.  A.  Bodenst.  v.  Karlst  Frkf.  u.  L.  1776.  M.  Göhel,  A.  B.  v.  Karlst  (Stud, 
n.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.) 

i)  De  WMe  vol.  III.  p.  4M. 

o)  Tlio  orlj.  df>cumeiit8  lu  Jiucholtz,  Ford.  I.  toU  HI.  \\  371s».  ^yalch  vol.  XVI.  p.  248s« 
Ranke  vol.  II.  p.  27Sss. 

h)  Uortleder  vol.  I.  Book  If.     n<inke  vol.  III.  j).  29s3. 


382  MODERN  CIMKCir  IIISTOUV.     I'KR.  V.     A.  I).  1517-1048. 

to  the  eiiijicror,  to  a  general  or  German  couiKil,  and  to  all  impartial  Ciiris- 
tian  ju<lgeH,  not  only  on  the  ground  of  the  prior  and  clear  decision  at  Speyer, 
but  on  tiic  princi|)lo  that  in  matters  which  relate  to  the  honor  of  God  and 
the  salvation  of  souls,  the  authority  of  a  majority  was  not  to  he  regarded. 
This  was  done  not  only  in  behalf  of  themselves,  but  also  of  their  people,  and 
of  all  wlio  then  or  afterwards  might  Ijelicvc  in  the  word  of  God.  ('•) 

§  321».     Si/)iod  of  Ilomlerr/,  152G.     Saxon  Church  Visitation^  1527-1520. 

Tiie  Reformation  had  been  introduced  in  various  forms  according  to  the 
circunistanccs  of  the  different  places  where  it  prevailed.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  bishops  had  been  in  fact  abolished,  and  yet  no  other  government  had 
been  substituted  for  it.  A  synod  was  therefore  convened  b}'  the  Landgrave 
at  Ilomherg^  composed  of  all  who  could  be  considered  according  to  the  old 
or  the  new  views  the  proper  representatives  of  the  Church  in  Hesse.  Monks 
and  prelates  were  silent  under  the  glowing  eloquence  of  the  exiled  Minorite, 
Lambert  of  Avignon  (d.  1530),  and  a  synodal  constitution  based  upon  demo- 
cratic principles  was  adopted,  according  to  which  every  congregation  was 
competent  to  the  whole  duty  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  (a)  The  Elector  of 
Saxony,  on  the  urgent  solicitation  of  the  pastors  in  his  dominions  that  he 
would  take  up  the  same  subject  for  their  churches,  appointed  ecclesiastical 
and  lay  commissioners,  who  formed  a  directory  for  divine  worship  and  popu- 
lar instruction  on  the  basis  of  Melancthon's  Book  of  Visitation,  Qi)  the  first 
Confession  of  the  evangelical  faith.  This  had  the  effect  of  harmonizing  the 
practice  of  all  the  churches,  evangelical  preachers  were  appointed  by  these 
commissioners  in  all  places,  and  arrangements  were  made  with  those  who 
possessed  the  titles  to  spiritual  endowments  by  which  these  were  abolished. 
Superintendents  were  appointed  to  exercise  ecclesiastical  supervision,  and 
decide  cases  relating  to  marriage,  (c)  The  ignorance  of  the  people  and  of 
their  teachers  which  Luther  discovered  during  this  visitation  aflected  him 
very  deeply,  and  reflecting  that  intellectual  fi-eedom  can  be  endured  only  by  aa 
intelligent  people,  and  that  children  are  the  true  sovereigns  of  the  future,  he 
composed  (1529)  two  Catechisms^  in  which  divine  mysteries  are  presented  in 
simple  popular  language,  and  in  a  form  suitable  for  children.  {J)  The  eccle- 
siastical Constitution  which  was  the  result  of  this  Saxon  visitation,  became 
the  common  model  to  which  the  other  German  churches  in  the  country  were 
conformed. 

c)  J.  J.  Midler,  Hist.  v.  d.  ev.  Stände  Trot.  u.  App.  Jonn.  1705.  4.  J.  A.  IT.  Tittmann,  d.  Prot, 
d.  ev.  Stände  ni.  hist,  Erläut.  Lps.  1S29.  A.  Jung,  Gesch.  d.  lleicbst  zu  Sp.  1529.  (Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d. 
Eef.  1S30.  vol.  I.  Abth.  1.)    For  the  oiig.  documents  tlicre  quoted:  Corp.  lief.  vol.  I.  p.  1067s. 

a)  lief.  Ecci.  Ilassiae.  (Schminke,  >Ionn.  Hass.  Th.  II.  p.  6SS.)  Lamh.  Ep.  ad  Colon,  ed.  Druud, 
aiess.  1730.  4.—Jf,irtin,  Nachr.  r.  d.  Syn.  zu  Homb.  Cass.  1S04.  Bommel  vol.  III.  Abth.  I.  p.  .32'.)ss. 
ÄicA,  Gesch.  d.  Kurbcss.  KVerf.  Marb.  1S32.  J.  W.  Baum,  Fr.  Lamb.  Strasb.  1S40.  P/iilipj/s 
Hess.  KUef.  Ordnung,  ed.  hj-  Ä'.  A.  Credner,  Giess.  1S52. 

I)  Unterricht  d.  Visitatoren  an  die  Pfarh.  (Lalx  1527.)  M.  Luth.  Torr.  Vuitt.  152S.  4.  edit,  in  Latin  Ä 
German  by  Strohel,  Altd.  1777. 

c)  Kapp,  Naclilese.  vol.  I.  p.  173s.s.    Rosenherg,  .'.  d.  ersten  Kirchenvis.  Brsl.  1754.  4. 

d)  H'd/c/i  vol.  X.  p.  2sä.  .4i/£7!/6(;,  hist  kritEinl.  in  beide  Haupt-KatElbrf.  1524.  IU{jen,yi«. 
moria  ntr.  Cat  Luth.  Lps.  1S25S!S.  4  P.  4. 


CHAP.  L    KEFORMATION.    §  330.  DIET  OF  AUGSBURG.  383 

§  330.     The  Diet  of  Angsburg,  1530. 

I.  Pro  rel.  chr.  res  gestae  in  comitiis  Au?.  a.  1530.  (Cyprian,  Ilist  p.  S7ss.)  On  the  othe»  side: 
Brück,  Gesch.  d.  religlonshandl.  zu  Augsb.  {Förstemann,  Archiv.  Hal.  1S31.  vol.  I.  P.  1.)  A  report 
which  was  presented  at  Angsb.  15311,  contributed  by  Jfoeiler.  (Stud.  a.  Krit  1S50.  II.  3.  before  in 
LnUi.  Werke  by  Watch  vol.  XVI.  p.  S73.  912ss.  as  if  from  Spalatin,  comp.  Giender,  Stud.  u.  Krit. 
1S51.  11.  2.  Walch  vol.  XVI.  p.  734*3.  Föisteuuinn,  Urkundenbncli  z.  Gesch.  d.  Keichst.  zu  A.  Hal. 
1S33-5.  2  vols.  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  II.  p.  50ss.— CTy^raei«,  II.  d.  A.  C.  Post.  157 G.  4.  Lat.  Frcf.  1575.  4. 
and  often.  Coelentini  Hist.  Comitior.  Ang.  celebr.  FrcC  ad  V.  (1577.)  1597.  C  Veexenmai/er,]^]. 
Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  K.  zu  A.  Numb.  1S30.  16. 

II.  Cijprian,  Hist.  d.  A.  C.  Goth.  (1730.)  1736.  liotennund,  Gesch.  d.  zu  A.  überg.  Bekenntn. 
ITann.  1S29.  Jf.  FuciuK,  Gesch.  d.  Reich<  zu  A.  Lpz.  1S30.  Fikenacher,  Gesch.  d.  Reichst  zn  A. 
Nurnb.  1S30.  C.  P/aff,  Gescb.  d.  Reichst,  zu  \.  Slultg.  1S30.— (7.  G.  Weber,  Gesch.  d.  A.  C.  Frkf. 
ITSSs.  2  vols. 

A  peace  had  been  concluded  by  the  victorious  Charles  V.  Avith  France 
and  Rome.  In  the  spring  of  the  year  1530  he  crossed  tlie  Alps,  resolved 
either  to  lead  back  to  the  Cliurch  those  who  had  wandered  from  it,  or  to 
avenge  the  ignominy  heaped  upon  Christ.  At  his  i-equest  the  protesting 
states  drew  up  a  statement  of  their  faith  and  of  the  abuses  discarded  by 
tliem.  This  Con  fens  ion.,  composed  by  Melancthon,  approved  by  Luther,  and 
signed  by  the  States,  presented  the  ultimate  points  to  which  they  could  go  in 
the  way  of  concession  for  the  sake  of  peace.  On  the  25tli  of  June,  it  was 
read  in  German  by  the  Chancellor  of  Saxony  before  the  Diet  at  Augsburg, 
and  afterwards  committed  to  the  hands  of  the  emperor  in  Latin  and  German. 
As  the  object  of  this  paper  was  religious,  practical  and  political,  the  peculiar 
development  of  Protestantism  is  not  made  so  prominent  in  it  as  the  points 
in  which  that  system  agreed  with  the  ancient  Catholic  faith,  and  the  opposi- 
tion to  abuses  which  were  generally  acknowledged  by  all  intelligent  persons 
of  that  period.  A  few  of  the  prelates  avowed  themselves  ready  to  dip  their 
pens  in  their  own  blood  to  answer  it,  but  some  of  the  princes  and  lords  were 
brought  by  it  to  perceive  that  they  had  hitherto  been  incorrectly  informed 
respecting  the  new  doctrine,  and  the  Protestants  themselves  attained  by  it 
an  established  centre  for  their  own  unity.  By  the  command  of  the  emperor, 
a  Confutation  was  composed  by  Eck,  Fabcr,  Cochlaeus,  and  AVimpina,  and 
read  (Aug.  3)  in  the  diet,  but  it  was  so  pitiful  an  atTair  that  it  only  raised  the 
courage  of  tlic  Protestants.  On  the  22d  of  Sept.,  however,  when  the  States 
presented  their  Apology,  tlie  emperor  refused  to  receive  it,  and  had  a  decree 
passed  which  asserted  that  the  Confession  was  opposed  to  the  unquestionable 
principles  of  the  Sacred  Scriptures.  Melancthon,  otlended  at  such  abuse, 
once  more  revised  his  Ajiology,  and  published  it  even  during  the  session  of 
the  diet  as  an  appeal  to  the  age  in  wliich  he  lived,  as  Avell  as  to  subsequent 
times.  The  recess  of  the  diet,  passed  Xov.  10th,  thrcatoned  after  a  brief  pe- 
riod of  indulgence  utterly  to  exterminate  the  new  .sect.  The  protesting 
princes,  esteeming  the  favor  of  Christ  far  more  than  the  displeasure  of  tho 
emperor,  after  presenting  their  Protest,  took  their  leave  of  the  city. 

§  331.     League  of  Sinalkald  and  Peace  of  Kurenihcrg. 

The  danger  of  the  Protestants  became  evident  at  Aug.sburg.  The  impe- 
rial council,  to  wiiich  was  committed  tlio  task  of  executing  the  recess  of  the 
diet,  next  coinmenced  a  legal  process  against  the  Protestant  States  for  hav- 


884  .m(>i>ki:n  ciicncn  iiistout.   per.  v.   a.  d.  1517-1049. 

ing  confiscated  tlio  property  of  the  Churcli.  When,  therefore,  tlie  divines 
of  "Wittenberg;  Imd  acknowledged  that  the  imperial  states  were  justified  as 
mapiHtrnto»  in  i)rotectinp  tlieir  subjects  from  unjust  apgression.s,  (a)  these 
Protostaiit  jiowor.s  ns.scnibled  together  at  Smallald  on  Chrisimas,  1530,  and 
formed  a  well-organized  league  in  1531,  for  mutual  defence  by  force  of  arms, 
embracing  tlio  princes  and  the  mo.st  powerful  cities  of  Uj»per  and  Lower  Ger- 
many, with  the  Elector  of  Saxony  and  the  Landgrave  as  the  leaders  of  the 
confederacy,  (h)  All  those  who  were  dissatisfied  with  the  imperial  govern- 
ment, among  whom  was  Bavaria  itself  on  account  of  its  displeasure  at  the 
appointment  of  Ferdinand  to  be  king  of  the  Pwomans,  placed  themselves 
under  the  protection  of  this  formidable  power.  As  the  Sultan  Solyman  was 
threatening  to  invade  Germany,  and  especially  Austria,  the  emperor  was 
obliged  to  pnr(^hase  internal  peace  and  eflScient  aid  against  the  Turks  at  any 
price.  Even  his  confessor  advised  him  to  give  up  the  vain  fancy  of  saving 
men's  souls,  and  content  himself  with  winning  back  his  obedient  subjects,  (r) 
A  religious  peace  was  therefore  concluded  at  Nuremlcrg  (July  23,  1532)  ((7) 
through  the  mediation  of  the  Elector  of  Mentz  and  the  Elector  Palatine,  by 
the  terms  of  which  botb  parties  agreed  to  abstain  from  mutual  hostilities 
until  the  meeting  of  a  general  council.  This  could  be  regarded  only  as  an 
acknowledgment  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics  that  they  were  yet  unprepared 
to  become  assailants,  and  on  the  part  of  the  Protestants  that  they  were  re- 
strained by  conscientious  scruples.  This  peace  embraced  only  those  who  had 
already  professed  adherence  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  The  emperor 
pledged  himself  that  the  suits  in  religious  matters  should  in  the  mean  time  bo 
suspended. 

n.   Establishment  of  the  Reformed  Chtjboh  ttntil  1531. 

J.  V.  MQUer's  u.  E.  Glutz-Blotzlieim's  Geschch.  Sebweizer.  Eidgcn.  (5  vols.)  cont  hy  J.  J.  HoU 
linger,  6.  7.  vol.  till  1531.  Zur.  1S25-9. 

§  332.     Youth  and  Doctrine  of  Zwinfjle. 

I.  0pp.  0(1.  Gualther,  (Tig.  545s.)  5S1.  4  vols.  £  iL  Schid-er  et  J.  Schtilthess,  Tig.  1S23-42.  8  vols. 
(1st  and  2d  vols,  the  German,  vols.  3-S.  the  Lat.  original,  and  the  former  in  a  L.it  transl.)  Ausz.  v.  L. 
U&terl  Ja  Vügelin.  Zur.  lS19s.  2  vols.  Selections  from  the  pract  Works  (and  translations  in  the 
Germ.)  V.  R.  Chfiatoffel,  Zur.  lS4Ss.  S  vols.  Oecolampadii  et  Zicinglii  Epp.  I.  IV.  Bas.  (1536.  f.) 
1592.  4.  Before  this  edition :  Osic.  Myconii  Ep.  de  Vita  et  obitu  Z.  Kespecting  the  Letters  of  Z. : 
Arch.  f.  KGeseh.  1S15.  vol.  III.  St.  S. 

II.  (^Nicicheler)  Z.  Lebensgesch.  Zur.  1776.  J.  C.  ITess,  vie  d'U.  Z.  Par.  et  Gen.  Transl.  into 
Germ,  with  obs.  by  L.  L'gteri,  Zur.  ISll.  Suppl.  in  Archiv,  f.  KG.  1S13.  vol.  I.  St  2.  II,  8.  H.  W. 
Jiotermiitid,  Leben  Z.  m.  Abriss  d.  schw.  Eef.  Brm.  1S18.  J.  M.  Schüler,  Z.  Gescb.  sr.  Bildung  z. 
Refonuator.  Zur.  1S19.  Sal.  J/ess,  Ursprung,  Gang.  u.  Folgen  d.  durch  Z.  in  Zur.  bewirkten  Eef. 
Zur.  1S20.  4.  J.  J.  Hottinger,  H.  Z.  n.  s.  Zeit.  Zur.  1&43.  [Lifo  of  Zwingle,  transl.  from  Germ,  of  J. 
II.  Iless,  by  Lucy  Aiken,  Svo.  Lond.  1S12.  In  Blackwood's  Mag.  for  1S23.  and  Littell's  Eel.  Mag. 
voL  II.  for  1S2S.  MiscelU  of  Tract.  Soc.  vol  8.  p.  2S9-S20.  Life  of  U.  Z.  and  Sketch  of  OecoL  publ. 
by  Pres.  B.  of  Publ.  Philad.  IS.    £.  Zelter  has  announced  a  work  on  the  theoL  system  of  Zwingle.] 

Euldrkh  Zwingli,  the  son  of  the  amman  of  Wildhaus  (h.  Jan.  1,  11S4), 

fl)  VTalch  vol.  X.  p.  660SS.  comp.  656. 

b)  W,tUh  vol.  XVI.  pi  2142SS.    Horileder  vol.  I.  L  VIII,  Tss. 

c)  Briefe  an  K.  Karl  V.  v.  s.  Beichtr.  Mitgeth.  (ftom  the  Span.  Imp.  Archives,  by  G.  Heine, 
Brl.  1S49. 

<f)   IFu^cA  vol.  XVL  p.  21S2SS.    HortUder  yoV  I.  \,^Q. 


CHAP.  I.     EEFOEMATION.     §  882.  ZWINGLE.  385 

became  versed  in  classical  learning,  and  received  a  liberal  theological  edu- 
cation in  the  city  of  Basle.  lie  was  for  some  time  no  stranger  to  the  pleasures 
of  the  world,  and  was  especially  skilful  in  playing  upon  the  lute,  but  he 
gradually  became  (after  1513)  deeply  interested  in  the  study  of  tlie  original 
text  of  the  New  Testament,  that  he  might  learn  the  will  of  God  from  the  divine 
,word  itself.  After  spending  ten  years  as  the  pastor  of  a  church  in  Glarus,  he 
was  appointed  preacher  in  the  convent  of  Einsiedlin  (1516),  where  he  took 
occasion,  from  the  crowds  Avhich  thronged  as  pilgi-ims  to  the  miraciilous 
image  of  Mary,  to  preach  tliat  prayer  sliould  be  otl'ered  not  to  Mary,  the  pure 
handmaid  of  the  Lord,  hut  to  Christ  the  only  mediator.  In  consequence  of 
his  evangelical  preaching  he  was  invited  to  become  a  chaplain  at  Zurich^ 
where  on  New  Year's  morning,  1519,  his  powers  of  popular  eloquence  were 
exerted  in  the  cathedral  itself  in  defence  of  the  reformation  both  in  Church 
and  in  common  life.  The  Swiss  Confederacy  was  in  legal  form  still  a  mem- 
ber of  the  German  empire,  and  at  that  time  the  recollection  of  those  glori- 
ous deeds  by  which  liberty  had  been  restored  to  their  mountains  was  by  no 
means  lost  in  the  hearts  of  the  people,  but  the  honesty  and  unanimity  of  the 
olden  times  had  already  become  much  impaired  by  numerous  enlistments  of 
the  people  as  mercenaries  in  the  wars  of  foreign  nations.  As  an  earnest  re- 
publican, Zwingle  was  zealously  opposed  to  the  oligarchy,  to  their  annuities 
from  foreign  princes,  and  to  their  trade  in  Christian  blood,  (a)  Conscious  of 
their  own  independence,  the  people  had  set  bounds  to  the  exorbitant  claims 
of  the  spiritual  courts  (p.  288).  But  the  idle  and  warlike  youth  fought  the 
battles  of  the  pope  for  his  money,  and  Avhen  this  could  not  be  obtained, 
Julius  II.  paid  them  with  ecclesiastical  gifts  and  preferments.  In  the  fidelity 
of  his  Swiss  guards  the  vicar  of  Christ  found  a  security  for  his  body  against 
the  fickle  spirit  of  the  Roman  people.  From  a  papal  nuncio  residing  at 
Zurich,  Zwingle  annually  received  fifty  florins,  with  which  ho  purchased 
books.  Bernardin  Samson^  a  Franciscan  from  Milan,  opened  a  traffic  in 
indulgences  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  (1518).  Zwingle  preached 
against  him,  but  the  Bishop  of  Constance  himself  persuaded  the  city  of 
Zurich  to  close  its  gates  against  him,  and  when  complaint  was  made  to  the 
pope  respecting  the  mischief  caused  by  the  traffic,  Leo  X.  promised  to  call 
the  trader  to  an  account.  Zwingle  was  acquainted  with  some  of  Luther's 
Avritings,  but  although  very  unlike  that  great  reformer  in  religious  profund- 
ity and  genius,  in  consequence  of  his  demand  that  every  thing  should  be  set 
aside  which  could  not  be  proved  from  the  Scriptures,  he  was  induced  by  the 
independent  study  of  those  Scriptures  nmch  more  suddenly  and  uncondition- 
ally to  break  loose  from  the  ancient  Church,  (ft)  It  was  for  this  reason  also, 
that  although  nothing  was  dearer  to  him  than  truth,  many  errors  which  had 
long  been  i)crccived,  were  not  distinctly  condemned.  (<•)  His  faith  mounted 
upward  in  bobl  speculations,  though  it  always  returned  to  the  path  which  an 
intelligent  judgment  approved,  and  wldch  was  favorable  to  spiritual  im- 
provement.    In  opposition  to  a  righteousness  by  mere  external  works,  ha 

a)  BulUnger,  Kefonnallonspcsch.  vol.  I.  p.  41s.  4Ss.  61. 
I)  Proofö  In  KüscMer  p.  ISTss.    Schüler,  p.  119.  883. 
c)  E.  g.  Ilottingei',  11.  ccc  p.  XVI.  P.  II.  p.  207. 

25 


886  MoDKriN  ClItlRCII  IIISTOKY.     I'KR.  V.     A.  D.  ISIT-ICIS. 

also  Brtw  tliat  jiistific.'itioM  was  to  be  obtained  entirely  through  the  merits  of 
C'lirist.  I'.iit  ori^riiial  sin  was  in  lils  estimation  a  mere  disease,  the  moral  will 
was  siil>Jrct  only  to  Providence,  and  be  looked  npon  Hercules,  Socrates,  and 
the  CatoH,  as  bfli)n;,'iii,£?  to  the  communion  of  the  blesscJ,  tbougli  they  could 
bo  saved  only  tiirongli  Christ,  ('/j 

§  333,     Introduction  of  the  Reformation. 

Throufrb  Zwingle's  influence  the  great  Council  of  Zurich  gave  orders  that 
all  preachers  should  confine  themselves  to  what  was  contained  in  the  divine 
Scriptures,  but  maintain  silence  with  respect  to  non-essential  innovations  and 
institutions  (1520),  (")  For  the  sake  of  those  who  were  opposed,  and  that  the 
truth  might  bo  more  publicly  known,  he  determined  to  defend  in  the  muni- 
cipal hall  at  Zurich  sixty-seven  propositions  which  he  had  formed  against 
the  whole  external  polity  of  the  Catholic  Church,  When,  however,  he  pub- 
licly announced  them  (Jan.  29,  1523),  only  a  few  objections  were  presented 
by  Faler  of  Constance,  (fi)  In  a  second  disputation  (Oct.  2G-2S),  a  decision 
was  given  against  the  use  of  images  and  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  (c)  An 
easy  victory  was  obtained  for  the  Reformation  when  the  principle  was  once 
adopted,  that  every  thing  must  be  proved  by  the  Scriptures,  interpreted  only 
by  the  Scriptures  themselves.  Leo  Juda,  Zwingle's  colleague  in  office,  in  the 
spirit  of  the  Eeformed  Church  translated  Luther's  New  Testament  into  the 
Swiss-German  dialect  (1525),  and  the  Old  Testament  from  the  original  text 
(till  1529).  Zwingle  looked  upon  every  local  church,  in  proportion  as  its 
opinions  were  based  upon  the  Holy  Scriptures,  as  completely  justified  in  con- 
tending against  the  whole  hierarchy.  The  Great  Council,  regardless  of  the 
protests  of  the  Bishop  of  Constance,  but  sustained  by  public  opinion,  intro- 
duced the  new  constitution  into  the  Church  (152-4s).  The  established  church 
of  A2>penscU,  beyond  the  Ehone,  resolved  that  preachers  who  taught  what 
could  not  be  proved  from  the  Sacred  Scriptures  should  be  denied  support 
and  protection,  (d)  BerthoJd  Ealler  (d.  1536)  preached,  though  with  cau- 
tion, in  behalf  of  the  Reformation  in  Berne,  (e)  and  Manuel.^  in  a  Carnival 
play,  exposed  to  public  derision  the  avarice  of  the  clergy  and  their  fear  of 
the  gosi)el.  (/)  Oecolampadius  (d.  Nov.  23,  1531),  the  learned  friend  of 
Erasmus,  and  in  ordinary  matters  a  timid  and  peaceable  man,  but  kept  in 
perpetual  agitation  in  such  stormy  times  for  his  advocacy  of  the  cause  of  his 
Lord,  was  the  principal  instrument  in  directing  the  minds  of  the  people  of 
Basle  into  the  path  of  the  Reformation,  although  a  knowledge  of  its  elements 
had  been  previously  acquii'ed  from  the  general  perusal  of  Luther's  writ- 

d)  Com.  de  vera  et  falsa  rel.  Tig.  1525.  Fiilci  ratio  ad  Car.  Imp.  Tig.  1530.  4  Chr.  fidci  brevU 
et  Clara  exp.  ad  Regem  ehr.  (ed.  Bullinger.)  Tig.  1530.  De  Providentia,  (vol  I.)— Zeller,  de  theoL 
System  Zw.  (Th.  Jahrb.  1S53.  H.  Is.) 

«)  Füfidi,  Beitrr.  Vol.  II.  p.  237.    Bullinger  vol.  I.  p.  32. 

l)  Conclusiones.  (Opp.  vol.  I.  p.  Is.)  E.'iplanatio.  (/i.  p.  Sss.)  Acta  disput  (vol.  II.  p.  COTssO 
Bullinger  vol.  I.  p.  S4s«.  9Tss. 

c)  Acts  in  Zwingle's  Works,  vol.  I.  p.  5.^9ss.    Bullinger  vol.  I.  p.  126ss. 

d)  KUtarer'»  account  in  Simlcr,  vol.  I.  Part  III.  p.  SÜSss. 

e)  Kirvhlutf^r,  B.  Haller  u.  d.  Ref.  v.  Birn.  Zur.  lv2S. 

f)  C.  Grüneinen.  Xiclaus  Manuel,  Leben  u.  Werke.  Stuttg.  153T. 


CHAP.  L    EEFOEMATIOX.     §  333.  BADEN.     BERNE.    BASLE.  387 

ings.  (.■?)  The  inhabitants  of  those  places  which  were  favorable  to  the  Catho- 
lic Church,  hoping  to  overcome  their  opponents  by  their  fovorite  weapon?, 
and  relying  upon  the  talents  and  skill  of  Dr,  Eck,  appointed  a  day  for  a  pub- 
lic disputation  at  Baden  (May,  152G).  As  Zwingle  had  reason  to  fear  for  his 
safety  should  he  venture  to  be  present  in  that  city,  Oecolampadins  was  the 
principal  opponent  of  Eck  in  this  disputation.  The  subjects  which  engaged 
their  attention  Avere  the  presence  of  Christ's  sacred  body  in  the  sacrament, 
the  sacrifice  of  the  mass,  the  worship  of  saints,  the  use  of  images,  and  the 
doctrine  of  purgatory.  On  the  part  of  Eck  there  was  great  blustering, 
while  Occolanipadius  contended  only  by  arguments,  but  both  claimed  the 
credit  of  a  victory,  (/<)  Berne  endeavored  to  keep  aloof  from  the  agitations 
of  the  controversy,  and  its  council  gave  orders  that  some  of  the  more  obvi- 
ous and  serious  abuses  should  be  removed,  and  that  preaching  should  be  con- 
formed both  to  the  Scriptures  and  to  the  ancient  faith.  (/)  But  such  partial 
measures  were  by  no  means  adequate  to  the  exigencies  of  the  times.  No 
sooner  had  the  great  council  once  more  assumed  the  supreme  power,  than 
both  parties  were  invited  to  a  public  discussion,  which  was  attended  by  all 
the  leaders  of  the  Reformation  in  the  country  (Jan.,  1528).  The  result  was 
so  decisive,  that  soon  after  a  public  decree  was  issued  by  the  council,  in  which 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  was  entirely  renounced,  and  the  idolatrous 
vror.ship  of  Rome  was  abolished.  (/.•)  In  Basle,  the  Reformation  became  vic- 
torious in  consequence  of  the  triumph  of  the  municipal  guilds  (1529).  (I) 
The  city  of  St.  Gall  embraced  the  evangelical  doctrine  (152S),  the  abbot 
fled,  and  the  friends  of  religion  became  organized  into  a  community  under 
the  protection  of  Zurich  and  Glarus.  (?»)  For  in  Giants,  where  it  was  de- 
cided after  a  severe  contest  that  every  congregation  should  choose  for  itself, 
the  majority  were  in  favor  of  the  Reformation.  Schaffhaxisen,  after  consid- 
erable hesitation,  gave  in  its  adhesion  to  it  (1529),  and  in  Soleure  neither 
party  obtained  the  ascendency.  In  every  place  where  the  new  doctrines  pre- 
vailed, every  thing  opposed  to  them  was  rigorously  put  down.  The  altars 
were  destroyed  and  the  idols  were  burned.  In  the  Gray  Lca<juc  alone  (the 
Orisons),  after  the  disputation  at  Ilantz  (1526),  the  law  allowed  every  one  to 
take  his  choice  between  the  old  and  the  new  faith.  And  yet  when  Schlegel, 
the  abbot  of  St.  Luke,  contrived  a  treasonable  conspiracy  Avith  the  Castellan 
of  Musso  for  the  overthrow  of  the  heretics  of  Coire,  he  was  beheaded 
(1529).  (/i)  The  popes,  who  stood  in  need  of  Swiss  soldiers,  and  could  do 
nothing  against  the  will  of  a  republican  people,  preserved  for  a  long  time 
little  more  than  the  semblance  of  peace.  {<>) 


g)  Gninafuit  et  Capito,  de  vita  ct  obltn  Oce.  before  his  nn<l  Zwinslc's  Epp.— .<J.  TTeux,  Lebcns- 
gesch.  .T.  Otk.  Zur.  1793.     J.  J.  Ihr:o'j,  il.  Leben  J.  <\'k.  w.  d.  lief,  zu  V,i\s^c\.  Has.  1S43.  2  voK 

h)  BitUiiigfir  vol.  L  p.  331ss.  Edit,  of  the  .\cts  of  the  Reformer.«,  by  Manier,  (Luccrue.  1527.  4.) 
Incorrectly  regarded  by  tlie  Reformers  ns  Inaccurnte.        i)  Butlingfir  vol.  L  p.  llOss. 

;t)  lb.  vol.  L  p.  805ss.  42C.«.  Wtihh  vol.  XVII.  p.  2009.— ff.  Fischer,  Gesch.  d.  DIsp.  n.  Eef  In 
Bern.  Bern.  1S2S.  Kuhn,  d.  Reforinaloren  Berns.  Bern.  1S2S.  Respecting  the  other  Jubilee  pnbli- 
cations:  Stud.  ii.  Krit.  1828.  P.  4.  p.  OOlss.  {C.  L.  v.  //aller,  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Rev.  o.  prot.  Rcf.  d. 
Kantons  B.  u.  d.  iimliog.  Gegend  Luc.  1S3C.        /)  Butlinger  vol.  IL  \\  S-V-^s.  Sis?. 

m)  /b.  vol.  II.  p.  25USS.    Simler  vol.  I.  p.  115^.     W-rtut,  Kes.sler.  (§  319.  nt.  (/.) 

n)  After  Katiipell  and  do  Porta:  L.  Truog,  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  v.  Graub.  Coire.  1S19.  p.  29ss.  .39.  Birl 
linger  vol.  II.  p.  3 Is.        o)  E.  g.  BiiUinger  vol.  L  p.  f3?. 


388  MODKKN  ClltnCII  mSTOUV.     TER.  v.     a.  v.  1MT-1W9. 

§  334.     iJivision  of  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

TIio  evangelical  doctrines  of  the  Keformation  agitated  all  the  cantons  of  thi 
ponfedcTHcv,  but  tlio  rural  population  of  the  mountainous  districts  being  dis- 
pleased under  the  inlluonco  of  the  priests,  Avith  the  political  demands  of  Zwingle, 
were  especially  distinguished  for  their  adherence  to  the  ancient  faith.  Uri, 
Schwytz,  Unterwaldcn,  Zug,  and  Lucerne,  jjledged  their  faith  to  each  other  in  a 
diet  at  Lucerne  (1524),  that  they  would  defend  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  but 
they  availed  themselves  of  the  opportunity  to  forbid  the  sale  of  indulgences,  to 
improve  the  manners  of  the  clergy,  to  limit  the  revenues  of  the  Church,  and 
to  extend  the  jurisdiction  of  the  courts  in  ecclesiastical  affairs.  («)  In  those 
places  which  were  under  the  direct  government  of  the  whole  confederacy,  it 
was  impossible  to  avoid  the  clashing  of  parties.  The  burning  of  images,  and 
sometimes  even  of  monasteries,  was  of  course  exceedingly  painful  to  the 
Catholic  authorities,  especially  when  it  occurred  in  places  subject  to  their 
control.  They  therefore  took  an  oath,  that  every  one  who  treated  the  saints 
or  the  mass  in  a  contemptuous  manner  should  be  punished.  It  soon  became 
evident,  from  the  maimings  and  public  executions  they  inflicted,  that  their 
oath  was  no  idle  threat.  iV)  A  Christian  compact  was  now  formed  among 
the  Reformed  cities,  into  which  even  Strasburg  and  Constance  were  admit- 
ted. The  five  Catholic  cantons  also  formed  an  alliance  with  Ferdinand  of 
Austria  for  the  protection  of  the  faith.  An  irruption  was  made  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  Unterwaiden,  to  sustain  an  insurrection  of  the  people  in  the  npper 
part  of  Berne  against  the  Refonnation  which  had  been  forced  upon  them,  (c) 
Zwingle  now  demanded  war ;  the  cities  brought  into  the  field  a  powerful 
army,  and  the  five  cantons  purchased  peace  (June  24,  1529)  by  conceding : 
that  each  party  should  be  permitted  to  adopt  what  faith  it  pleased,  all  slan- 
derous speeches  should  be  punished,  and  in  every  congregation  under  the 
government  of  the  general  confederacy,  a  majority  of  votes  should  decide 
upon  religious  matters.  The  articles  of  compact  with  Austria  were  then  torn 
in  pieces,  and  with  respect  to  free  preaching,  general  promises  were  sufficient 
to  give  satisfaction,  (J)  But  it  was  never  the  intention  of  the  Catholics  to 
fulfil  these  promises  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  understood  by  the 
people  of  Zurich,  as  the  calumnies  alluded  to  were  nothing  but  the  expres- 
sion of  a  universal  feeling.  "When  the  authors  of  these  calumnies  were  there- 
fore allowed  to  remain  unpunished,  the  cities  next  forbade  all  supphes  and 
intercourse  with  the  mountainous  districts.  {/)  To  save  themselves  from 
starvation,  the  five  cantons  now  betook  themselves  to  the  sword.  Against 
this  the  cities  were  not  prepared,  and  the  Cathohc  host  fell  upon  an  advanced 
outpost  of  the  army  of  Zurich  at  Cappel  (Oct.  11, 1531).  Zicingle,  who,  during 
the  last  years  of  his  life,  had  been  threatened  in  various  ways,  was  fuU  of 
melancholy,  and  had  singular  presentiments  of  his  approaching  end.  With 
the  least  possible  confidence  in  man,  and  the  highest  in  God  and  in  his  cause, 
he  accompanied  the  standard  of  the  city  as  the  pastor  of  his  people.  Zurich 
lost  the  battle,  and  Zwingle  was  left  on  the  field,  surrounded  by  the  bodies 

a)  BulUnger  yoL  I.  p.  142ss.  21Sss.        &)  It.  vol.  I.  p.  ]45ss.  lS2ss. 
c)  lb.  vol.  II.  p.  21ss.  48sa.        (J)  Jh.  vol.  11.  p.  168ss.  155.^ 
«)  Jb.  vol.  11.  p.  SSSss. 


CHAP.  I.  EEFOKMATION.  §  335.  SACRA.MENTAEIAN  CONTEOVEEST.   389 

of  the  choicest  portion  of  the  friends  of  the  Reformation  in  the  city.  (/) 
The  superior  strength  of  the  cities  was  indeed  soon  after  brought  into  action, 
but  the  confidence  of  victory  and  unity  "was  on  the  side  of  the  Cathohc 
array.  The  religious  peace  whicli  was  soon  afterwards  concluded  (Nov.  IG), 
recognized  the  right  of  each  canton  freely  to  make  its  own  arrangements 
respecting  its  religious  affairs,  but  in  those  portions  which  were  under  the 
general  government,  and  in  those  cantons  which  were  hitherto  undecided,  the 
old  Church  was  almost  universally  restored  by  violence.  (^) 

§  335.     The  Sacramentarlan  Controccrxy. 

Walch  y(^.  SVII.  p.  ISSOs.».  vol.  XX.  {Selnecker  and  Chemniiz.)  IHst.  d.  Sacramcntsstr.  Lpz. 
1591.  4  Lon^im',  complete  Hist  motuum,  between  Luth.  and  the  Ecf.  Frkf.  and  Lelp.  2  cd.  1723. 
3  vols.— Z.WC/.  Lavater,  II.  controv.  facramcntariae.  Tig.  (1563.)  1672.  Zur.  1564.  I/oipimani  II.  sa- 
crani.  Tig.  (159S.)  1602.  2  Th.  f.  Zur.  1611.  i.—A.  Ebrard,  d.  D.  v.  h.  Abeudm.  FrkC  1S46.  voL  II.  p. 
1-358. 

In  the  spirit  of  Erasmus,  and  with  a  proper  sense  of  his  own  indepen- 
dence, Zwingle  always  protested  against  being  numbered  among  the  adhe- 
rents of  Luther.  («)  He  could  discover  nothing  in  the  Lord's  Supper  but  a 
sign  of  commemoration  and  fellowship.  Even  Luther  was  obliged  to  reject 
the  doctrine  of  transubstantiation  together  with  the  priesthood,  (h)  but  the 
depth  of  his  sensuous  mysticism  needed  a  spiritual  presence  of  Christ's  body 
in  the  sacred  ordinance.  Carhtadt,  during  his  iconoclastic  fury,  had  put 
forth  the  assei-tion  that  Christ  pointed  to  his  living  body  when  he  instituted 
the  supper.  In  consequence  of  this,  a  controversy,  embittered  by  the  per- 
sonal relations  of  the  parties,  sprung  up  (after  lo2-i)  between  him  and  Lu- 
ther, (c)  The  Swiss,  respecting  whose  position  the  divines  at  Wittenberg 
were  for  a  long  time  indistinctly  informed,  undertook  in  their  own  way  (after 
1525)  the  defence  of  the  severely-persecuted  Carlstadt.  Zwingle  translated 
"  this  is "  by  the  words  "  this  signifies,"  and  Oecolampadius  regarded  the 
bread  when  called  the  bodj^,  simply  as  the  symbol  of  the  body.  These  dif- 
ferent views  led  to  a  dispute  between  Luther  and  Zwingle  at  the  head  of 
their  respective  parties.  ((/)  The  Swiss  Confederacy  adhered  to  Zwingle,  and 
the  imperial  cities  of  Upper  Germany  were  disposed  to  do  so,  but  the  doc- 
trine of  Luther  found  a  trusty  and  influential  advocate  in  Suabia  in  the  per- 
son of  Brentz,  a  man  who  would  listen  neither  to  the  fathers  nor  to  Aristotle, 
but  to  Christ  alone,  (e)  Luther  appealed  with  absolute  confidence  to  the 
letter,  Zwingle  to  the  sense  of  the  word  of  God.  The  first  was  boisterous 
and  sometimes  ludicrous,  while  the  latter  was  more  polished  but  bitter. 
When  Zwingle  referred  to  the  nature  of  a  body,  Luther  endeavored  to  show 

/)  Kur/e  Besclir.  d.  5  katli.  Orto  Kriojr^.  {Balthamr,  Helvetia.  voL  II.  p.  lS6ss.)  BtMinger  voL 
III.  p.  llös?.— (yZ  Other)  Die  Schlaclit  il.  Knppel.  Zur.  1S31. 

g)  Bullinger  vol.  III.  p.  247.     UuUinger  vul.  II.  Commencement. 

rt)  Explanation  of  the  IStli  article.  1523.  (vol.  I.  p.  255.) 

I)  De  ire«<3  vol.  II.  p.  577. 

c)  Wtdch  vol.  XV.  p.  2422SS.  vol.  XX.  p.  ISCss.  Comp.  Gölel  in  Stud.  u.  Krlt  1842.  H.  i 
1S43.  II.  3. 

cf)  Zw.  Arnica  exegesis.  TIsr.  1527.  4.  LntK  Dass  die  Worte  Christi :  das  ist  m.  Leib.,  noch  fcst> 
Stelin.  Weder  die  Sclnvanngeister.  Wit,  1527.  and  others. 

e)  Syntagma  Snevicuni.  1525.  Comp.  J.  Ilartmann  and  K.  Jäger,  J.  Brentz.  Ilainb.  1840.  vol 
.  p.  189S8. 


390  MODKRN  ClIÜECn  1II9T0UT.    I'P:U.  V.    A.  D.  1517-1C4S. 

tli.'it  tlio  l)«i(ly  of  Christ  "wns  oiiiriipresent  in  consequence  of  its  inseparable 
union  with  tht'  Deity,  and  the  assertion  of  his  ojiponent  seemed  to  him 
eiiuivalent  to  n  denial  of  Christ,  Tiiis  controversy,  therefore,  inasmuch  as  it 
had  its  orifdn  in  the  peculiar  mental  character  of  these  f,'rcat  leaders,  and  yet 
was  not  of  much  importance  to  the  interests  of  piety  itself,  became  finally  so 
I)romincnt  as  to  produce  a  complete  misunderstanding  between  the  dispu- 
tants. In  vain  did  the  Landgrave  endeavor  to  effect  a  reconciliation,  re- 
minding them  that  their  common  danger  should  keep  them  united.  (/)  At 
the  meeting  which  took  place  between  them  at  2Iiirliirg  (Oct.,  1529), 
Zwinglo  was  induced  by  the  strength  of  his  convictions  with  tears  to  olTer 
Luther  his  fraternal  hand,  even  if  the  principal  point  of  difference  should 
remain  undecided,  but  this  was  rejected,  (f/)  The  principal  points  of  their 
common  faith  were,  however,  arranged  in  fourteen  articles  on  the  basis  of 
the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  With  regard  to  the  memorable  fifteenth  arti- 
cle, which  asserts  that  Christ's  body  and  blood  are  corporally  present  in  the 
Lord's  Supper,  both  parties  promised  to  exercise  Christian  charity  so  far  as 
the  conscience  of  each  would  periait.  The  Landgrave  now  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  league  of  the  reformed  cities  (April,  1530).  Although  Strass- 
burg,  Constance,  Meiningen,  and  Lindau  presented  their  separate  confession 
at  Augsburg  (July  11,  1530),  (A)  they  acknowledged  in  it  that  the  souls  of 
believers  were  nourished  by  the  true  body  of  Christ.  The  pliant  Martin 
Bucer  reconciled  matters  by  introducing  the  acknowledgment  of  a  presence 
of  Christ  also  for  the  hand  and  the  mouth,  {t)  By  this  means  the  cities  of 
Upper  Germany  were  induced  to  adopt  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and 
enter  into  the  League  of  Smalkald.  (1531). 

III.    EsTABLISmiENT   OF   THE   LuTHEEAN   CnUECH   rXTIL   1555. 

§  336.     Articles  of  SmaUald. 

As  the  only  method  by  which  peace  could  be  secured,  the  emperor  now- 
demanded  that  the  pope  should  call  a  general  council.  It  was,  however, 
feared  at  Rome  that  the  complaints  of  the  several  nations  might  in  a  general 
assembly  of  the  Church  unite  with  the  voices  of  the  Protestants,  or  that  the 
latter  might  be  so  used  by  others  as  to  compel  the  papacy  to  make  some 
general  concessions.  Clement  VII.  held  out  promises  which  were  intended 
only  to  prevent  the  calling  of  a  national  council  in  Germany,  and  Faul  III. 
sent  forth  a  call  for  a  council  in  May,  1537,  to  assemble  at  Mantua,  at  a  time 
Avhen  such  a  council  was  hardly  possible  in  Lombardy  on  account  of  the  war 
with  France.  A  confession  was  laid  before  the  league  at  Smalkald,  signed 
(Feb.  15,  1537)  by  the  theologians  there  present,  and  intended  to  be  pre- 
Bented  to  thp  general  council,  or  otherwise  to  remain  a  new  monument  of  their 

/)  De  Wette  vol.  III.  p.  465s, 

O)  Acts  in  Wdlch  vol  XVII.  p.  236is5.  Corp.  lief.  vol.  I,  p,  1095ss,  BuUinger  vol.  11.  p. 
828ss.-Die  15  Marb.  Artikel  nach  d.  Orijr.  verOffentl.  v.  H.  Hfppe,  Mnrb.  1S4S.  4.  (Zeitsch.  £  hisi 
Tb.  1S4S.  II.  1.)—/..  J.  K.  Schmitt,  d.  Kolisionsgespr.  zu  Marb.  Marb.  1540. 

h)  Conf.  Tctrnpolitana.  Arg.  1531.  4.  {yiemej/er,  Col.  ConfE  Lps.  ISIO.  p.  LXXXIII.  ITiOsi 

0  VTiitch  vol.  XVII.  p.  2491SS. 


CHAP.  I.     REFORMATION.    §  3.36.  ARTICLES  OF  SMALKALD.  391 

ananimity.  (n)  These  Articles  of  SmalJcald  were  composed  by  Luther  when 
violence  was  no  longer  to  he  apprehended,  and  reconciliation  Avas  impossible, 
and  they  present  the  doctrines  opposed  to  the  Romish  Church  in  the  .strong- 
est terms.  lu  addition  to  this,  by  request  of  the  League,  a  tract  was  ])re- 
pared  in  Latin  by  Mclancthon^  in  whicli  it  was  proved  from  historical  facts 
that  neither  the  primacy  of  the  pope  nor  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops  had 
been  instituted  by  divine  authority.  This  treatise  was  designed  to  be  the 
first  formal  attempt  to  justify  those  who  solemnly  renounced  all  papal  and 
prelatical  sway.  But  its  author  had  the  courage  to  subscribe  Luther's  arti- 
cles, with  the  remark  that  fur  the  sake  of  general  peace,  a  superiority  over 
tliose  bishops  who  had  been  created  by  human  authority  might  be  volunta- 
rily conceded  to  the  pope  if  he  allowed  the  gospel  to  be  preached  in  its  purity. 
Luther,  overwhelmed  by  sulferings  caused  by  the  gravel,  left  Smalkald  with 
these  parting  words :  "  May  God  fill  you  with  hatred  for  the  pope  1  He 
knows  his  people,  and  feels  like  them  !  "  The  confederates  were  unanimous 
in  the  conclusion  that  they  were  bound  to  decline  a  council  which  met  in 
Italy,  and  which  contained  a  condemnation  of  their  cause  in  the  very  terras 
in  Avhicli  it  was  culled  together,  {h) 

§  337-     Progress  and  Political  Poircr  of  the  Reformation. 

In  Electoral  Saxony,  e7b7(?i  Frederic  the  M((ffnanimoit.\  a.  conscientious,  sin- 
cere, and  truly  pious  prince,  with  a  mind  somewhat  contracted,  but  heroic  in 
purpose  and  in  endurance,  succeeded  his  father  (1532).  Philip  of  Hesse,  on 
his  own  responsibility,  but  sustained  by  the  power  of  the  Protestant  League, 
in  a  sudden  expedition  reinstated  (153-i)  Ulrich,  Duke  of  Wurtemberg,  who 
had  been  driven  from  his  pos.sessions,  which  had  been  given  to  Austria  b}-  tlie 
Suabian  League.  Ulrich's  refractory  spirit  had  in  misfortune  found  conso- 
lation in  the  gospel,  and  the  Reformation  which  had  for  a  long  time  been  kept 
down  by  violence,  after  a  little  vacillation  suddenly  became  victorious  in 
Wurtemierff  under  the  direction  of  Brentz,  a  man  who  possessed  the  same 
views  as  Luther,  (a)  A  Holy  League  was  formed  (1538)  at  Nuremberg,  com- 
posed of  the  Archbishops  of  Mentz  and  of  Salzburg,  the  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
George  of  Saxony,  and  Henry  of  Brunswick,  But  the  j)Ower  of  the  emperor 
continued  to  be  nmch  restrained  by  his  foreign  wars.  A  considerable  sup- 
port was  obtained  for  the  Protestant  League  in  the  Northern  kingdoms,  and 
splendid  promises  were  held  out  to  it  by  Henry  of  England  and  Francis  of 
France.  George  of  Saxony,  whose  spirit  became  every  year  more  and  more 
embittered  tuward  Luther  and  the  age  in  which  he  lived,  struggled  in  vain 
against  what  seemed  to  be  his  destiny,  for  ho  was  obliged  to  leave  his  pos- 
sessions to  a  Protestant  heir.     Ills  brother  Henry  already  belonged  to  the 


a)  Sr.  Meurer,  d.  Tag.  zu  Smalk.  u.  d.  Schm.  Artikel.  Lps.  188T. 

I)  Wulch  vol.  XVI.  p.  21'2Css.  Corp.  Uef.  vol.  II.  p.  902ss.  9S2»s.  Aonii  Palcarii  de  Cone, 
iniv.  et  libero  Ep.  cd.  ill.  lügen,  Lps.  18-'i'.'.  J. 

a)  Schiiurrer,  Erhiut.  d.  Würt.  K.  Rcf.  u.  Gol.'Iirton-r.osch.  Tub.  1799.  J.  C.  Schmidt  &  F.  E 
Pfiiter,  Denkw.  d.  wärt  u.  scliwiib.  Kef.  Ge.scli.  Tub.  1S17.  {Griineinfn)  Doukblatt  d.  Ref.  in  Stiittj: 
Btiittg.  1S.35.  J.  Jliirttiiann,  Gesell,  d.  Ref.  in  Wiirt  Ptuttjr.  1S.35.  llartmann  u.  Jäger,  J.  15rents 
Uainb.  1842.  vi'l.  11.     L.  F.  HojU,  Ulr.  H.  zu  Wiirt.  Tub.  IS-ll-l.  3  vols. 


302  MOOKKN  CIIÜKCII  iriSTOUV.     TKi:.  V.     A.  1>.  1517-104"». 

Lengne  of  SmalkaM,  and  on  tho  festival  of  Pentecost,  1539,  Lutlier  and  tbi 
Reformation  entered  the  city  of  Leipsic  in  triumph,  (b)  The  Elector  oi  Bran- 
ilenburif  <()ini)elle(l  his  wife  to  fly  from  his  residence  that  slie  might  live  iu 
tho  enjovnieiit  of  lier  fnitli,  and  exacted  an  oath  from  his  sons  that  they  would 
cleave  to  tho  ancient  faith  in  opposition  to  modern  innovations.  But  Joa- 
chim II.  (1535)  allowed  the  word  of  God  to  have  free  toleration  in  his  do- 
minions, and  in  1539  partook  of  the  Lord's  Supper  according  to  the  forms  of 
tlie  Evangelical  Church,  although  he  preserved  an  independent  position 
unconnected  with  the  League.  That  body,  however,  was  soon  after  (after 
1545)  strengthened  by  the  accession  of  tho  Electoral  Palatinate,  (c)  When 
tho  bishoi)ric  of  Naumhiirg  became  vacant,  Julius  ton  Pßug,  the  provost  of 
the  cathedra],  a  learned  and  at  the  same  time  a  mild  divine,  {d)  was  elected 
by  tho  chapter,  but  the  elector  could  not  resist  tho  temptation  to  provide  for 
it  an  apostolic  bishop.  Nicolas  von  Amsdorf,  by  an  act  of  arbitrary  power 
was  invested  with  the  oflBce  of  a  bishop,  but  with  the  salary  of  a  pastor,  and 
Luther  boasted  that  he  and  his  friends  had  been  guilty  of  the  sin  of  conse- 
crating a  bishop  without  chrism,  and  even  without  suet,  lard,  tar,  grease,  in- 
cense, or  coals,  (e)  An  electoral  officer  was  appointed  to  administer  the  secu- 
lar affairs  of  the  diocese.  JJenry  of  Brunswick  and  the  Protestant  princes, 
assisted  by  Luther,  assailed  each  other  by  pamphlets,  in  which  all  the  pro- 
prieties not  only  of  princely  dignity  but  of  human  life  were  violated,  and  when 
Henry  threatened  Goslar,  he  was  attacked  by  Saxony  and  Hesse  with  a  pow- 
erful army,  driven  from  his  dominions  (1542),  and  finally  made  a  prisoner 
(1545).  (/)  Among  the  secular  princes  Bavaria  was  the  only  power  which 
continued  to  support  the  papacy,  and  even  there  much  difficulty  was  expe- 
rienced iu  resisting  the  opposition  of  the  people  and  the  states,  (g)  Herman., 
the  Elector  of  Cologne.,  commenced  with  a  Catholic  reform,  but  he  finally 
assumed  a  Protestant  position,  and  the  archbishop  Avas  informed  of  his  plan 
of  reformation  according  to  a  form  drawn  up  by  Bucer  and  Melancthon 
(1543).  (Ä)  Cardinal  Albert  of  Mentz  allowed  the  Reformation  to  go  for- 
ward in  his  Chapters  of  Magdeburg  and  Halberstadt  as  long  as  the  states 
were  willing  to  assume  the  payment  of  his  debts  (1541).  All  bishops  were 
tempted  to  go  over  to  the  Protestant  side  by  tho  prospect  of  becoming  here- 
ditary princes.  King  Ferdinand  himself,  influenced  by  the  writings  of  Lu- 
ther, and  by  a  father  confessor,  who,  on  his  deathbed,  repented  of  his  whole 
ecclesiastical  life  and  actions  as  a  deception,  now  promised  to  compromise 


I)  Xohhe,  Ileinr.  d.  Fromme,  Lps.  1S39.  G.  B.  Winer,  de  Facult.  theol.  ev.  in  Univ.  Lips,  origi- 
nlb.  Lps.  1S.39.  4.  K.  W.  Ileriiuj,  Gesch.  der  im  Markg.  Meissen  u.  d.  dazu  geliür.  tliür.  Kreise  erf. 
Kef.  Grossenbain.  1S39.     //  G.  Hasse,  Abriss  d  meissneisch-albcrt,  siiscli.  KGescb.  Lps.  1S47.  vol.  IL 

e)  Ad.  MiUl'r,  Gesell,  d.  Eef.  in  d.  Mark  Brandenb.  Brl.  1S39.  J.  Schtadthach,  d.  Uebertr.  d. 
Kur£  Joach.  z.  luth.  K.  Lps.  1840.—//.  Allmg,  II.  Ecc.  Palatinae.  (Monn.  piet  et  lit  Fret  1701.  4.) 
B.  G.  Sti-uve,  Ber.  v.  d.  l'ßlz.  K.  Hist.  Frk£  1721.  4.  A'.  F.  Yierordt,  Gesch.  d.  Kef.  im  Grossh.  Ba- 
den. Karlsr.  1S47. 

rf)  C.  G.  .Vüller,  de  meritls  Julii  Mugii.  Lps.  ISli 

e)  Witlch  vol.  XVII.  p.  Slss.  esjiecially  12'2.-;s.  Fürstemann,'Sexie 'MHth.  hist  antiq.  Forsch.  Hal 
.905.  vol.  n.  P.  2.  (Lepsiu^)  Bericht  u.  d.  Wahl  u.  EinfTihr.  Nie  v.  A.  Nordh.  1S35. 

/)  Wiilch  vol.  XVII.  p.  154SS3.  ITorU-cd,'r  Buch.  IV.  TH  Sl«Ur,  Charakteristik  Heinr.  d.  Jiing 
Marb.  1S45.        g)   Wint<^r  (§  823.  nt.  g.) 

/i)  M.  VecK-ers,  Herni.  v.  Wied.  Er/.b.  v.  K«",ln.  Colojne.  1S40. 


CHAP.  I.     REFORMATION.     §  G3S.     NP:G0TIATI0XS.     MAURICE.  393 

matters  with  respect  to  religion,  with  the  states  at  an  imperial  diet,  and  in 
accordance  with  Luther's  counsel,  (i)  Aside  from  personal  inclinations  nothing 
but  the  necessity  of  adhering  to  Catholicism  under  which  the  House  of  Ilaps- 
Iturg  was  placed  on  account  of  its  connection  with  Spain,  Belgium,  and  Italy, 
was  sufficient  at  that  time  to  upliold  that  religion  in  an}'  part  of  Germany. 

§  338.     Xegotiations  for  Peace  and  Preparations  for  War, 

Once  more  was  presented  some  prospect  of  preserving  the  Church  from  a 
division.  Divines  of  both  parties  were  appointed  by  the  emperor  at  the  Diet 
of  Eatiisbon  (15-il)  to  adjust  measures  for  a  peaceful  accommodation.  The 
pious  Contarini^  who  was  favorable  to  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Protes- 
tantism as  they  were  then  maintained,  had  been  appointed  legate.  («)  With 
his  approbation  a  compromise  was  proposed  by  GrareUa,  in  which  it  was 
asserted  that  salvation  was  founded  upon  faitli  in  the  merits  of  Christ  alone, 
and  not  upon  our  own  works  or  deserts.  The  divines  were  tiierefore  agreed 
with  respect  to  the  four  Articles  of  Original  Righteousness,  Original  Sin,  Hu- 
man Liberty,  and  Justification,  which  Luther  had  always  maintained  as  the 
fundamental  principles  of  Christianity.  With  reference  to  other  subjects  on 
which  no  agreement  was  yet  attained,  and  with  respect  to  which  the  proposed 
scheme  conceded  every  thing  which  could  be  given  up  by  the  Catholics  of 
that  period  without  renouncing  their  distinctive  character,  the  emperor  re- 
quired that  until  the  decision  of  a  general  council  could  be  obtained,  all  should 
exercise  fraternal  forbearance  toward  each  otiier.  The  Landgrave  and  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  were  entirely  agreed,  and  Julius  Pßug  and  Melancthon 
were  just  on  tlie  point  of  extending  to  each  other  the  hand  of  reconciliation. 
But  Luther  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony  saw  nothing  in  all  these  concessions 
but  a  snare;  the  King  of  France,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  of  a  reconciliation 
in  Germany,  complained  of  treachery  to  the  Ciiurch  ;  and  the  legate,  threat- 
ened from  Rome  for  having  transcended  his  powers,  made  a  retrograde  move- 
ment. (5)  This  result  was  only  the  manifestation  of  opposing  principles  in 
the  person  of  their  advocates,  and  in  this  failure  of  a  reconciliation  which 
seemed  so  near,  all  became  distinctly  conscious  that  the  scliism  was  irrecon- 
cilable. The  emperor  concluded  at  Cres])y  (1544)  an  honorable  peace  with 
France,  and  the  Roman  King  a  live  years'  armistice  with  tlie  Turks.  In  the 
League  of  Smalkald  the  cities  began  to  complain  of  the  princes,  and  unkind 
feelings  were  produced  in  various  ways.  Maurice^  a  keen  ambitious  young 
man,  had  succeeded  (15-il)  his  father  in  the  dukedom  of  Saxony.  Although 
ho  regarded  the  Reformation  in  the  light  of  an  historical  necessity  he  felt  no 
enthusiasm  in  its  behalf,  and  while  personally  disputing  with  the  elector  ho 

i)  Ferd.  an  Loth.  1.  Febr.  1537.  in  Walch  vol.  XVL  p.  2424 

a)  CVM?artfnf  Tr.  dcjustlflciilionc.  Tiir.  1571.  BcccateUn,  Vita  del  C.  Cont.  Willi  his  Letters 
In:  Epp.  Rcgin.  Poll,  wl.  Qnirini.  vol.  Ill — A'itsliiiff,  nd  Qulr.  Ep.  do  Cont.  purloris  doctr.  deJustiC 
ieste  et  confi-ssoro.  Lps.  1749. 

I)  Acta  Colloquii  in  Comlliis  lintUponao  h.ibitl.  (od.  Bttcer.)  Argent  1541.  4.  Act,'»  in  Convcntu 
Ratlsb.  (od.  Melanvthon.)  Wit.  1541.  4.  C(inip.  irorUeder  vol.  I.  I,  87.  M'ulcli  vol.  XVII.  p.  C95-.S. 
Corp.  lief.  vol.  IV.  p.  llilss.  In  oppo.'ition  to  Hiicer:  Eclii  Apol.  pro  Trincipibus  oath.  Injiolst. 
1.'j42.— /?(;ynrtW.  ad  ann.  1541.  ä-oX-chi/.  Ill,  23.  y?(«;jX;<s,  IMpsto.  vol.  I  p.  l.').V>.s.  BreUschnekler, 
i  d.  K.  Gespr.  angef.  zu  Worms,  fortg.  zu  Reg.  (Zcltscbr.  f.  lilsU  Th.  vol.  II.  V.  I.) 


394  MiHir.KN  (IMT.CII  IIISTOUV.     I'KU.  V.     A.  I).  iMT-1048. 

iihaiwluiii.l  the  lA'ii/ruü  or  Smalkald  (1542),  and  secretly  pledged  himself  tc 
the  einpcTor  tliat  -wliatever  iiiiglit  ho  the  issue  of  the  war,  the  imperial  au- 
thority Hlmiild  ill  no  respect  ho  impaired,  (r)  The  Council  which  was  opened 
at  Trent  (1545)  was  rejected  hy  tlie  Protestants.  Lepal  proceedings  hy  order 
of  the  erniteror,  and  on  complaint  of  the  Chapter  of  Cologne,  Avere  instituted 
against  the  archhisliop  of  that  see.  It  was  soon  evident  from  the  execution 
of  some  evangelical  preachers  in  the  Netherlands  that  he  was  in  earnest.  lie, 
however,  persuaded  himself  that  his  conduct  sprung  more  from  a  reference  to 
lil)erty  than  to  Lutheranisra,  and  to  the  property  than  to  the  doctrine  of  the 
Church.  Indeed,  the  complicated  condition  in  which  the  material  interests 
of  all  i)arties  were  placed,  stood  very  much  in  the  way  of  an  amicahle  adjust- 
ment of  other  things.  But  Avhen  it  had  hecorae  apparent  that  the  position 
of  the  respective  parties  at  the  diet  rendered  the  adoption  of  any  general 
measures  almost  impossihle,  and  when  the  decision  of  the  imperial  council 
which  treated  the  proceedings  respecting  ecclesiastical  property  as  a  mere 
juatter  of  spoils,  had  been  rejected  by  the  Protestants,  it  was  evident  that 
the  empire  was  indeed  divided,  and  tliat  the  peace  of  the  country  was  de- 
stroyed. 

§  339.    Luther  s  Death  and  Public  Character. 

The  last  years  of  Luther's  life  were  spent  in  great  exhaustion  and  pro- 
tracted sickness.  He  was  so  much  offended  at  the  immorality  and  luxury 
which  prevailed  at  Wittenberg,  that  he  left  that  city  (1545)  and  returned  only 
on  the  urgent  request  of  the  Univei'sity  and  the  elector.  lie  foresaw  that 
troublous  times  were  approaching  his  native  country,  and  he  longed  to  depart 
in  peace.  His  last  days,  however,  Avere  illuminated  by  some  beams  of  his 
former  power,  and  he  stiU  indulged  in  bold,  childlike  pleasantries,  even  in  the 
midst  of  sublime  conceptions,  {a)  Having  been  invited  to  Eisleben  to  act  as 
umpire  between  the  Counts  of  Mansfeld,  he  gently  and  devoutly  fell  asleep 
on  the  night  of  the  18th  of  February,  1546.  (J)  The  sudden  changes  which 
took  place  during  his  career,  and  in  Avhich  he  was  obliged  to  act  as  a  leader, 
produced  marked  contrasts  between  different  periods  of  his  life.  The  pope 
was  regarded  by  him  at  one  time  as  the  most  saintly,  and  at  another  as  the 
most  fiendish  father.  "When  he  was  excited  with  passion  his  feelings  changed 
in  the  most  boisterous  manner.  His  Avhole  life  was  devoted  to  the  promo- 
tion of  intellectual  freedom,  and  yet  he  was  zealous  in  behalf  of  the  letter. 
Relying  wholly  upon  spiritual  influences  Avhile  giving  laws  to  the  most  turbu- 
lent storms  of  revolution,  he  nevertheless  occasionally  advised  that  the  pope 
with  all  his  menials  should  be  cast  into  the  Tyrrhene  Sea.  (c)  His  opinions 
were  always  expressed  with  absolute  sincerity,  and  he  Avas  an  utter  stranger 

<^)  G.  Ai-nolJ,  A'itaMaur.  (Jfenl-en.  vol.  IL)  Brandt,  Vindiciae  Mauritianae.  Jen.  1617.  4  F 
A.  c.  Langenn,  Moritz,  Ilerzoj:  n.  Kurf.  zu  Saclis.  Lps.  1S41.  2  vols.  //  R  Brandes,  Deitrr.  z.  Char 
»kler.  »1.  11.  n.  Chnrf.  M.  Lps.  1S53. 

a)  Kspcclally  his  Letters  to  Catharine :  Do  tVctte  voL  A',  pp.  TS3.  757.  789. 

V)  J.  Jona  u.  JA  Oi<lU  Bericht  v.  Luther!  Absterben.  Besides  other  records  of  his  death  in  Wa!c> 
vol.  XXI.  p.  274SS.  J.  Jonas.  Sclir.  an  Joh.  Fr.  ü.  Luth.  Lebensende,  lirsg.  v.  Kret/ssij,  Meiss.  1S47. 
—J/bAniiv,  L.  Lebensende.  Slrals.  1S17.    K.  -1.  Credncr,  L.  Tod  u.  Bedcntung.  FrkC  1S4Ö. 

c)  Waleh  vol.  XVII.  p.  1396ss. 


CHAP.  I.    EEFOEMATION.    §  339.  LUTIIEß'3  DEATH  AND  ClIARACTEn.      395 

to  every  form  of  earthly  interest.  By  a  vigorous  sensuousness  of  disposition 
iie  stood  firialy  rooted  in  tlie  e:irtli,  wliile  his  head  readied  into  the  heavens. 
No  one  of  his  age  equalled  him  in  creative  power,  his  style  was  frequently 
rougher  than  even  that  rough  period  seemed  to  have  allowed,  but  in  popular 
eloquence  he  had  no  superior  in  all  Germany.  The  eagerness  and  paasion 
which  ho  always  felt  in  the  midst  of  his  conflicts,  supplied  him  with  the  en- 
jovinent  which  ho  needed  in  them.  "Wherever  he  discovered  injustice  he  saw 
nothing  but  hell  itself.  His  service.'^,  however,  did  not  consist  so  much  in  his 
destroying  and  breaking  loose  from  what  was  wrong, — fur  many  others  extri- 
cated themselves  from  the  ancient  Church  with  much  more  facility  and  deci- 
sion, —as  in  his  constructive  power,  and  in  the  exuberance  of  his  warm  faith 
and  love.  And  yet  there  wore  some  periods  of  great  trial  in  his  life,  when 
the  temptations  of  the  devil  made  him  fear  that  he  should  bo  bereft  of  God 
and  Christ,  and  every  thing  dear.  {(T)  lie  had  no  hesitation  even  in  the  pres- 
ence of  his  opponents  freely  to  avow  the  deliberate  conviction  of  his  heart, 
that  he  was  Avell  known  in  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  as  the  chosen  instrument 
of  God  for  the  accomplishment  of  the  divine  purposes,  and  yet  this  seemed 
to  have  nothing  to  do  with  his  individual  person.  He  never  wished  to  hear  of 
Lutheran  doctrines,  (e)  and  his  sublime  confidence  in  God  never  appeared  to 
assure  him  of  his  own  deliverance  from  danger,  but  simply  to  convince  him 
that  God  was  able  to  raise  up  every  day  ten  such  men  as  Br.  Mart  inns.  (/) 
The  time  in  wliich  such  a  man  sliould  be  vilified  by  absurd  reproache«,  or 
defended  by  illiberal  vindications,  has  now  passed  away,  and  he  should  be  re- 
garded, not  as  the  property  of  an  individual  party,  but  of  the  German  nation 
and  of  Christianity. 

§  340.     The  SmaUaldic   War.     1540,  1547. 

Ifortleder  vol.  II.  book  III.  nml  paf;o  101Ss.s.  Watch  vol.  XVII.  p.  ISlTfS.  Oimerarii  Comm. 
belli  Smale.  graece  scr.  (Freher  Tli.  III.  p.  457.)  Litomry  bist  of  tbo  accounts  of  tho  war  in  Ukert 
Tol.  II.  p.  19Ö.— t/!  G.  Jahn,  Ocscli.  il.  sclimalk.  Kriegs.  Lps.  1S:37. 

An  edict  was  proclaimed  by  tho  diet  (July  20,  154G),  in  whicli  the  Elector 
of  Saxony  and  tho  Landgrave  of  IIo-sso  were  declared  guilty  of  high  treason 
against  the  emperor  and  the  empire.  Although  the  emperor  was  very  care- 
ful not  to  give  his  expedition  tho  name  of  a  religious  war,  Paul  IIL  openly 
])roclaimed  a  crusade  for  tlio  extermination  of  heretics,  and  called  for  oftcr- 
ings  from  the  Cliurch  for  this  i)uri)ose.  An  army  was  hastily  assembled  by 
tlie  Protestants  en  tho  borders  of  Suabia  and  Bavaria,  Avhich  Avas  much 
superior  to  that  of  the  emperor  posted  at  first  near  Katisbon,  and  afterwards 
occupying  a  strong  position  near  Landshut.  But  as  many  persons  had  an 
equal  right  to  command,  and  many  things  were  presented  for  consideration, 
the  hour  for  successful  action  was  allowed  to  pass,  and  time  was  aflbrded  for 
the  emperor  to  collect  around  hira  his  forces  from  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands. Even  then,  however,  tho  forces  were  nearly  equal,  but  tho  Protes- 
tant princes  shrunk  from  tho  blow  wliich  was  to  decide  their  fate.  Just  at 
that  time  news  was  received  that  Duke  Maurice  had  taken  possession  of  the 


<D   Walch  vol.  XII.  p.  2270!«.     .Viitlh^xiun,  12.  Predigt  p.  133». 

e)   W.ilch  vol.  X.  !■.  4-.'('.  vol.  XV.  \>.  19>0.       /)  De  Wette  vol.  V.  p. 


396  MODEUN  CUURCII  III.SToi:Y.    I'KIi.  V.    A.  D.  ISK-lftB. 

Electornto  of  Saxony  under  tho  protenco  of  preventing  a  similar  act  by  tho 
Kinjf  of  tho  Romans.  TJiis  induced  tlio  elector  to  hasten  hack  to  Saxony  ; 
lute  in  tho  fall  tlio  allied  army  was  disbanded,  and  one  city  after  anotiier  im- 
plored [xirdon  from  tlio  emperor,  or  purchased  it  with  various  offerings,  until 
tho  victory  on  ]m  side  was  by  no  means  difJicult.  Tho  Elector  of  Cologne, 
excommunicated  by  tlie  pope,  menaced  by  tho  emperor,  and  abandoned  by  hia 
estates,  laid  aside  his  office  (Feb.  25,  1547).  (a)  By  the  commencement  of 
tho  succeeding  spring  the  whole  of  Southern  Germany  had  been  reduced  to 
submission  without  a  single  blow,  John  Frederic  had  in  the  mean  time  taken 
possession  of  liis  own  dominions  as  well  as  those  of  his  cousin  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Dresden  and  Leipsic,  but  he  was  not  blind  to  the  fate  impending 
over  him.  And  yet  even  in  this  extremity  the  princes  did  not  tliink  of  tho 
only  means  of  deliverance  now  remaining  to  them,  which  was  an  appeal  to 
the  people  to  rise  in  defence  of  their  faith,  (b)  While  the  elector  was  sur- 
rounded only  by  the  vassals  and  mercenaries  which  composed  his  ordinary 
army  ho  was  surprised  by  the  emperor  in  the  forest  of  Lochau  near  MuTilherg 
(Apr.  24,  1547),  and  compelled  to  run  the  chance  of  a  battle.  His  army  was 
comi)letely  destroyed,  and  he  himself  was  taken  prisoner.  Ilis  life  was  pur- 
chased l)y  the  surrender  of  Wittenberg  and  the  abdication  of  his  croAvn.  The 
electorate  and  a  part  of  the  dominions  of  Ernest  were  bestowed  upon  Mau- 
rice. The  landgrave  surrendered  at  discretion  (June  19),  and  contrary  to  his 
own  expectation,  and  in  spite  of  the  security  given  by  his  son-in-law,  he  was 
retained  in  close  confinement,  (c)  The  other  members  of  the  League,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  cities  of  Lower  Germany,  now  also  submitted. 

§  341.     The  Interim. 

Biel;  d.  dreifache  Interim.  Lps.  1721.  J.  Schmiil,  Ilist.  intcriniistiea.  Illmst,  1730.  Spieker, 
Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  d.  Augsb.  Int  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1851.  H.  3.) 

The  emperor  allowed  of  no  interruption  of  the  forms  of  worsliip  adopted 
in  the  several  countries  w^hich  he  had  conquered,  {a)  and  appeared  anxious  to 
make  good  his  previous  assurance  that  he  had  no  design  to  interfere  in  matters 
of  faith.  This  policy  may  have  originated  either  in  his  desire  to  force  the 
pope  to  enter  upon  a  general  reform,  or  in  his  conviction  that  such  subjectn 
were  beyond  his  jurisdiction.  The  only  thing  which  he  demanded  Avas  that 
all  should  agree  to  submit  to  the  authority  of  a  general  council  at  which  he 
engaged  that  all  should  receive  reasonable  and  Christian  treatment.  But 
with  the  view  of  re-establishing  by  his  own  authority  the  unity  of  the  West 
ern  Church,  he  published  at  Augsburg  (March  15,  1548)  an  imperial  edict,  in 
which  directions  were  prescribed  respecting  the  way  in  which  all  mat 
ters  relating  to  religion  should  be  arranged  until  the  decision  of  the  council.  [I'') 

n)  Deckers,  Herrn,  v.  Wied.  p.  14Sss. 

^)  Comp.  liommel,  riiilipp.  Urkundenb.  p.  225. 

0)  For  evidence  of  deception  :  L.  O.  Mögen,  II.  Captivitatis  Ph.  Frcf.  17G6.  Rommel  vol.  IV'.  p. 
83iis3.  In  favor  of  a  misunderstanding:  Ratnner  \o\.  I.  p.  547ss.  Gesch.  Eur.  Lps.  1*32.  vol.  I.  p 
647s3.  For  an  intentional  deception  :  Rcntke  vol.  IV.  p.  40Sss.  Comp.  Rommel  in  d.  Moiiatbl.  /. 
Allg.  Zeitung,  April,  1S4G. 

«)  Comp.  Biifjenhngen,  "Wie  es  vns  zn  Wittenberg  gegangoii  ist  in  d.  vergangnen  Krieg.  1.MT.  4 

l^  BUk,  p.  2Ö6SS.    Fonii  sacror.  emend,  a  J.  Pflugio  propo.'.ita,  od.  (7.  G.  Müller,  Lj«.  1S03. 


CHAP.  L   i:kfoi:mation.  §  an.  interim.  §  g4-'.  Maurice.  397 

This  Interim,  which  had  been  composed  by  Julius  von  Pflug,  with  the  assistance 
of  Agricola,  the  court  preacher  of  Brandenburg,  and  was  originally  intended 
by  the  emperor  tor  the  Catholic  as  well  as  for  the  Protestant  states,  conceded 
the  marriage  of  the  clergy,  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  some 
iudeönite  constructions  of  particular  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church.  Such 
concessions  were  regarded  by  the  emperor  as  of  vital  importance,  and  yet 
their  value  was  much  impaired  by  the  condition  that  the  property  of  the 
Church  was  not  to  be  restored  until  the  terms  were  agreed  upon  in  an  amica- 
ble settlement.  Only  two  of  the  inferior  princes  ventured  openly  to  oppose 
this  proceeding  in  the  diet  itself,  and  John,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg,  with  a 
lofty  earnestness  and  a  bitter  raillery,  avowed  his  disgust  at  the  noxious  com- 
pound thus  prepared  for  them,  (c)  In  many  of  the  cities  of  Upper  Germany 
the  Interim  was  carried  into  etfect  by  violence  and  threats,  but  its  general 
execution  would  have  required  another  war,  and  one  too  in  direct  opposition 
to  the  people.  Those  who  had  formerly  preached  the  reformed  doctrines  were 
now  compelled  to  wander  abroad,  and  in  some  instances  they  were  perse- 
cuted. ((/)  John  Frederic,  who  now  displayed  a  heroic  constancy  and  devo- 
tion in  his  continement,  rejected  not  only  the  authority  of  the  Interim,  but 
that  of  the  council  also.  The  answer  of  Maurice,  so  far  as  it  related  to  his 
subjects  was  evasive,  but  he  exhorted  his  states  and  the  divines  to  concede  all 
that  could  be  given  up  with  a  good  conscience.  It  was  principally  in  conse- 
quence of  this  advice  that  the  Leijmc  Interim  was  drawn  up  under  the  di- 
rection of  Molancthon,  in  which  everything  decidedly  contrary  to  evangelical 
doctrine  was  declined,  but  the  greater  j)art  of  the  Catholic  ritual  was  con- 
ceded, on  the  ground  of  its  being  indifterent  (Adiaphoron).  The  power  of 
the  pope  and  of  the  bishops  was  to  bo  acknowledged  so  long  as  they  used  it 
for  the  edification,  and  not  for  the  destruction  of  the  Church,  (e)  This  form 
was  accepted  by  many  of  the  states,  and  was  generally  executed  in  the  midst 
of  strenuous  opposition  on  the  part  of  many  congrogatii)ns  and  pastors,  and 
at  the  expense  of  the  expulsion  or  inij)risonincnt  of  the  latter.  Both  Inter- 
ims, however,  were  despised  by  both  Catholics  and  Protestants. 

§  342.     Maurice.     1552. 

I/ortlerler  vol.  II.  book  V.  Ciimerarit  Or.  in  inemor.  Maur.  {Jfeiiken,  Scrr.  rer.  Gerui.  vol.  11.) 
BartennUin,  do  bello  Imperator!  a  Maur.  lUato.  Arg.  1710.  4.    Langeini.  (p.  894.) 

Tlie  German  cities  still  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  foreign  merce- 
naries, the  consciences  of  the  people  were  disturbed  by  the  ojjoration  of  the 
Interim,  or  were  threatened  by  the  action  of  the  general  council,  to  which 
the  Elector  of  Brandenburg  had  already  professed  his  submission,  (a)  Ger- 
many appeared  about  to  become  a  mere  province  of  Spain  by  the  accession 
of  the  imperial  prince  Philip  Avhich  the  emperor  now  demimded,  and  the 
word  which  the  young  elector  had  pledged  for  the  liberation  of  the  land- 

c)  Wegener,  Lebensgosch.  d.  Markg.  Johannes  v.  Br.  BrI.  1827.    Ill«  "Kleiner  Catechlsnius "  is 

gfven  by  SjjiA'er,  p.  38Cs3. 

(/)  E.  <;.  JAt)iiiiiin>i,  ,T.  Brontz,  vol.  II.  p.  137js.     JiiinUe  vol  V.  p.  Slaa. 

e)  liiek,  p.  105ss.  SGlss. 

a)  liaynald.  ad  a.  1&51.  N.  41s. 


398  mohekn  cnuucn  irisTonv.   vvai.  v.   a.  d.  i.mi-khs. 

gravo  wns  entirely  disrcpnrded.  Äfaiirice  perceived  tliat  nothing  could  ro 
store  111«  honor  in  the  estimation  of  the  German  people  but  some  bold  and 
decisive  stop.  He  therefore  resolved  that  he  would  achieve  the  freedom  of 
the  eiii|)iro  and  of  tlic  Cliurch  by  one  bold  stroke.  A  secret  treaty  wa'i 
fiirinod  by  him  with  Mccklciibiirfr,  tlic  Mar^'rave  Albert  of  Brandenburpr,  and 
the  sons  of  tlie  landgrave,  and  an  alliance  was  formed,  in  opposition  to 
the  advice  of  Melancthon,  with  France,  by  which  he  lost  the  possession  of 
Mentz,  Toul,  and  Verdun.  (J)  An  occasion  was  afforded  for  the  collection 
of  an  army  by  tlie  pretence  of  executing  tlie  decree  of  outlawry  which  had 
been  issued  against  Magdeburg,  then  the  home  of  Protestant  opposition. 
The  susj)icions  of  the  emperor  were  allayed  with  consummate  skill.  On  the 
20th  of  ^farcli,  1552,  he  left  Tluiringin,  overthrew  one  after  another  the  gar- 
risons of  the  emperor  in  the  several  cities,  and  on  the  22d  of  May  presented 
himself  before  Innspruck.  The  emperor,  though  at  that  time  enfeebled  by 
sickness,  was  obliged  to  escape  by  night,  and  the  council  fled  with  precipita- 
tion before  him.  By  the  courage  exhibited  in  this  martial  expedition,  it  Avas 
shown  that  the  existing  religious  innovations  could  never  be  put  down  by 
force.  In  July  (16.  29),  the  treaty  of  Passau  was  formed  under  the  guaran- 
ty of  the  empire,  (r)  by  the  terms  of  Avhich  the  landgrave  was  set  at  lib- 
erty, the  imperial  council  was  to  be  open  to  those  who  professed  the  new 
creed,  and  a  diet  was  promised  in  a  short  time  for  the  removal  of  the  griev- 
ances with  respect  to  violations  of  the  laws  of  the  empire,  and  for  the  settle- 
ment of  religious  differences.  Only  one  clause  in  these  articles,  providing  for 
a  permanent  peace  at  least  for  all  those  who  sympathized  witli  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  or  at  all  events  for  all  who  were  not  connected  with  sects  con- 
demned by  the  recess  of  the  imperial  diet,  was  seriously  resisted  by  the  em- 
peror. The  two  illustrious  martyrs  were  received  by  their  people  with  great 
joy  and  many  tears.  Maurice  now  turned  his  attention  to  an  expedition 
against  the  Turks. 

§  343.     Religions  Peace.     Sept.  25,  1555. 

I.  Lehmann,  Acta  publ.  de  pace  rel.  d.  i.  Eeichsbandl.  u.  Protocolle  d.  TS.  Frkf.  (1631.  4.)  1707. 
Suppl.  1709.  f. 

II.  G.  I.ikel.  Gcsch.  d.  EF.  Frkf.  1755.     As  to  the  spirit  of  the  VS.  {Uenkes  Mag.  vol.  III.  p. 
ÜWJss.)  Hatike  vol.  V.  p.  276ss. 

Maurice,  while  young  and  victorious,  fell  in  battle  (July  11th,  1553)  for 
the  peace  of  Germany.  After  numerous  hindrances,  the  promised  diet  assem- 
bled üi  Augslnirg.  Both  parties  were  now  convinced  by  bitter  experience 
that  no  peace  could  be  maintained  in  the  empire  without  mutual  forbearance. 
The  imperial  council  was  composed  of  an  equal  number  of  members  belong- 
ing to  the  old  and  to  the  new  fliith,  all  of  whom  were  to  take  their  oath  only 
'.ipon  the  luAv  of  the  empire  and  the  word  of  God.  The  right  to  reform  the 
Church  was  conceded  to  the  imperial  states,  in  spite  of  the  continual  protests 
of  the  pap.al  court  in  opposition  to  it,  and  it  was  agreed  that  they  should 
never  bo  oppres.sed,  molested,  or  contemned  on  account  of  the  fiuth,  ecclesi- 

^0  mnUiUr  vol.  II.  p.  lOOSss.  c)  ITortUder  vol  II.  p.  lOoTss. 


CHAP.  I.    KEFOEMATION.    §  544.  CONCOEDIUM  OF  -WITTENBEKr,.  399 

astical  usages,  or  regulations  which  they  had  established,  or  niiglit  afterwards 
establish.  It  was  conceded  that  the  ntutes  of  the  empire  had  a  right  to 
retbrm  tlic  Church,  although  Rome  never  ceased  to  protest  against  it.  The 
only  condition  conceded  to  subjects  was,  that  when  they  were  oppressed  on 
account  of  religion,  they  had  the  right  without  obstruction  to  leave  the 
country,  {n)  "With  respect  to  indWulual  countries  to  which  the  Catholic 
party  were  unwilling  to  concede  religious  liberty,  the  King  of  the  Romans 
promised  to  see  that  none  of  those  states  which  had  already  professed  adhe- 
rence to  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  sutler  oppression  on  account  of  it. 
But  while  it  was  acknowledged  that  the  actual  possession  of  any  church  or 
of  any  ecclesiastical  property,  whether  by  spiritual  or  lay  persons  at  the  pre- 
cise time  of  the  treaty  of  Passau  was  valid,  the  Catholics  demanded  that  all 
spiritual  states  of  the  empire  which  should  subsequently  go  over  to  the  Augs- 
burg Confession  should  by  that  very  act  forfeit  all  their  oflices  and  posses- 
sions. All  parties  perceived  that  the  very  existence  of  the  Catholic  Church 
in  Germany  depended  upon  this.  This  article,  which  w;\s  called  the  Ecclesi- 
astical lUsirreition,  because  the  states  could  come  to  no  agreement  respecting 
it,  was  proclaimed  by  the  Roman  king  as  an  actual  ordinance  of  the  diet,  (//) 
and  became  the  germ  of  future  sanguinary  contests.  The  peace  was  regarded 
as  applicable  only  to  those  who  adhered  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg  and 
to  the  votaries  of  the  old  religion,  but  it  was  looked  upon  as  absolute  until 
the  several  parties  in  religion  finally  came  to  an  understanding.  The  empe- 
ror Charles  took  no  further  part  in  these  negotiations,  and  was  already  pre- 
paring to  lay  aside  his  crown  and  to  withdraw  from  the  world, 

IV.    ESTABLISnMEXT   OF   THE   REFORMED   CllUUCn   FNTIL   loGi. 

§  344.     The  Concordium  of  Wittenberg.     Cont.  from  §  335. 

The  doctrine  which  had  been  especially  established  at  Strasburg,  afhrm- 
iug  a  true  though  a  spiritual  participation  in  the  body  of  Christ,  appeared  to 
be  consistent  with  all  the  formulae  Luther  had  used,  and  could  be  distin- 
guished from  them  only  by  the  assertion  that  such  a  participation  could  bo 
enjoyed  by  none  but  believers.  On  the  basis  of  this  a  plan  was  formed  by 
Bucer  and  Cajiito,  by  wliich  they  hoped  to  ell'ect  a  union  of  the  Swiss  and 
tlio  "Wittenberg  divines.  They  went  personally  to  Wittenberg,  and  there 
sußered  tlieir  orthodoxy  to  bo  severely  tersted.  They  finally  subscribed  a 
Concordium  composed  by  Mclancthon  (May  25,  153Ü),  the  phraseology  of 
which  was  so  strictly  Lutheran  that  it  could  bo  reconciled  with  their  own 
faith  only  by  some  peculiar  and  private  explanalitm,  {ei)  which  sometimes  con- 
founded together  and  sometimes  distinguislied  between  the  unworthy  and  tho 
unbelieving.  But  as  Luther  did  not  object  to  these  explanations,  the  Con- 
cordium was  accepted  by  most  of  the  Swiss,  and  the  different  parties  were 


a)  Rudoljihi,  Oe  cmigr.  subditoruin  ct  expiiK  ErI.  175G.  4. 

V)  Frirk  (pr.  //tieherlitio),  do  rcservnto  eca  e.K  ineiite  Pods  rcl.  rjus<{iiü  ctloctibiis  ac  feUs. 
Hhnst.  1755.  4. 

(/)  Corp.  Hf/.  vo!.  III.  p.  758S.  E brard  yo\.  II.  p.  8S2ss.  .A'»te«c/i,  Urkiinleiib.  d.  Ev.  Union. 
Bonn.  1>5:5.  p.  COs. 


40U  MnMKKN  CUUUCII  IIISTOKY.     VIA'..  V.     A.  I).  1M7-1Ö1S. 

repordcd  as  iiiiifod.  (/<)  But  Lutlicr  was  convinced  that  there  wan  no  real 
Tiiiioii,  and  as  lio  lelt  utterly  nvcrse  to  the  whole  Zwinglian  «chool,  and  hus- 
pecti'd  Mi'hitictliDii  Iiimself,  (r)  ho  once  more  renewed  the  controversy  in  tlie 
Tnost  violent  manner.  He  was  now  fast  tending  to  the  grave,  and  he  wag 
thorc'tbre  anxious  tliat  his  testimony  against  these  fanatics  and  soul-destroyers 
might  ho  left  unimpaired.  ('/)  In  this  manner  the  schism  between  the.se  two 
great  parties  of  the  Keformation  was  restored,  (e)  There  is  no  apparent  foun- 
dation for  the  common  report,  that  in  his  last  days  he  felt  any  ai)prehen3ions 
tliat  lie  had  been  too  violent  in  his  opposition  to  the  people  of  Zurich.  {/) 

§  345.     Italian  Switzerland, 

J.  Stnnehier,  II.  lit  de  Genive.  Gen.  17S0.  SUiudlin  im  KIIisL  Arcli.  1824.  vol.  II.  V.  II. 
Kirchhofer,  Leben  Willi.  Farels.  Zur.  ISSls.  2  vols.  CA.  Schmidt,  Etudes  sur  Farel.  Strasb.  18*4.  4. 
Ch.  Cheneviere,  Farel,  Froment,  Virct  Reformatcurs  religieux.  Gen.  15-35.  Jarjuemot,  Viret,  Eo- 
formateur  de  Lausanne.  Strasb.  1836.  4.  Ituchat  and  Merle  d'Auhiyne.  [Hist  of  the  lief,  in  Switz. 
and  France.  New  York.  1S47. 12.  (p.  860.)  /.  Spoji,  Hist  of  tlie  City  and  State  of  Geneva,  &c  coll. 
froui  Mas.  &.C.  Loud.  16S7.  f.J 

Tiie  reformed  faith  had  been  preached  after  1527  on  the  borders  of  Savoy 
and  France.  The  people  of  Geneva  regarded  the  bishops  appointed  over 
them  by  the  Dukes  of  Savoy  as  the  uniform  and  stanch  enemies  of  their 
municipal  rights.  After  many  severe  disturbances,  however,  the  influence 
of  Savoy  was  finally  overthrown  by  means  of  an  alliance  with  Berne,  the 
Reformation  was  triumphantly  successful,  and  Geneva  became  a  member  of 
the  Swiss  Confederation  (1535).  After  the  victory  of  the  people  of  Berne 
in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  the  Keformation  triumphed  there  also,  and  subse- 
quently to  a  religious  conference  at  Lausanne  (Oct.  1536)  was  formally  intro- 
duced. At  the  head  of  this  religious  movement  stood  larel  (d.  15G5),  a 
native  of  Dauphine.  He  had  been  educated  in  liberal  studies,  but  to  only  a 
limited  extent,  under  the  instruction  of  Faber,  and  had  taken  part  in  all  the 
controversies  respecting  the  Keformation  in  the  surrounding  country.  In 
word  and  in  deed  he  may  be  said  to  have  been  an  Elias,  who,  though  often 
in  danger  of  death,  overthrew  an  ecclesiastical  system  which  he  regarded  as 
idolatry.  In  comparison  with  his  style  of  speaking,  the  vigorous  eloquence 
of  Vii'et  had  the  appearance  of  only  a  mild  persuasion.  The  constitution  of 
Geneva,  however,  still  continued  unsettled,  the  morals  of  the  people  disso- 
lute, the  people  themselves  uncultivated,  and  even  the  higher  degrees  of  edu- 
cation corrupt. 

§  346.    John  Calvin.    July  10,  1509-J/f/?/  27,  1564. 

L  Epp.  et  responsa.  Gen.  1576.  f.  Opera.  (Gen.  1617.  12  vols,  f )  Amst  1671.  (1667.)  9  vols.  C 
Calvini,  Bezae,  I/eiir.  IV.  aliorumqne  literao  qu-iedam.  ed.  BreUchneider,  Lps.  15.35.  L'bist  de  la 
vie  et  mort  d.  J.  Calv.  par  Theod.  de  Bese,  Gen.  1564.  4.  1565.  Lat  in  tbe  Epp.  and  often.  Epi- 
grams: Bol«ec,  Hist  de  la  vie  de  Calv.  Tar.  1577.  and  often.  Gen.  1S35.  [Beza's  Life  of  C.  transL 
by  F.  Gibaon,  and  notes  by  an  Am.  Ed.  Pbilad.  1S36.  12.] 

I)  De  VTette  vol.  V.  p.  83ss.        c)   U'a^cÄ  vol.  XVIL  p.  2520ss.  p.  2627s8. 

d)  Kurzes  Bek.  v.  h.  Sacr.  Witt  1544.  4.  (  Walch  vol.  XX.  p.  lOOlss.) 

*)  Corp.  Rff.  vol.  V.  p.  475. 

/)  At  first  in  the  Responslo  sd  narrat  'Würtembni^ensium  de  coUoq.  Maulbrnn.  Hdlb.  1565. 
On  the  other  side:  A'.  Ströbel,  die  Legende  v.  Lutb.  Uebertritt  z.  Calvinism.  (Zeitsch.  £  Luth.  Tbeoi 
u.  K.  1S40.  IL  2.) 


CHAP.  I.  REFORMATION.  §  846.  CALVIN.  BEZA.  40  J 

II.  BrtUchneider,  Bildiine  a.  Geist  C.  u.  d.  Genfer  K.  (Ucf.  Aim.  1S21.)  P.  Henry,  Leben  G 
Ilamb.  1S35-1-1.  3  vols.  [Life  of  Ciilvin,  traiisl.  from  tlie  Germ,  of  P.  Henry  by  //  Stehhing,  Lond. 
.852.  2  vois.  S.]  ,/  A.  Jfirjnft,  d.  Einf.  d.  Ref.  u.  d.  Verf.  d.  Calvinism  in  Genf.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  Stolz, 
Lpz.  1848.  [J.  Mackenzie,  Life  of  C.  Lond.  ISSl.  12.  T.  Smi/tA,  Obsk«.  on  the  Life  and  Cliar.  of  C. 
Philad.  1835.  la    Art  in  Kitto's  Jourual  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  IIL  and  VII.] 

■Calvin  (Cauvin)  was  a  native  of  Noyon  in  Picardy,  and  was  always 
ardently  attached  to  France.  He  was  originally  educated  for  the  Church, 
and  even  when  a  hoy  had  the  charge  of  a  congregation.  At  a  later  period 
he  acquired  some  distinction  as  a  jurist,  and  tinally,  under  the  influence  of 
the  Reformation,  became  a  theologian.  In  consequence  of  a  bold  declaration 
in  behalf  of  the  Reformation,  which  he  made  through  the  Rector  of  Paris, 
he  was  obliged  to  become  a  fugitive  (1533),  and  published  at  Basle  his  Insti- 
tutes of  the  Christian  Religion,  in  which  his  object  was  to  vindicate  the 
Reformation  from  the  aspersions  cast  upon  it  in  France.  Tliis  work  was 
even  then  complete  with  respect  to  Cliristian  doctrine,  but  by  subsequent 
revisions  it  became  the  noblest  scientific  vindication  of  evangelical  Augustin- 
ism  which  has  ever  been  given  to  the  world,  and  is  full  of  profound  religious 
sentiments  in  connection  with  a  bold,  relentless  carrying  out  of  his  principles 
to  their  utmost  logical  consequences,  (a)  From  the  very  fact  of  the  abso- 
lute omnipotence  uf  God  and  the  ab.solute  dependence  of  men,  he  inferred 
that  God  had  by  an  eternal  decree  created  some  for  salvation  and  others  only 
equally  guilty  for  destruction.  "With  respect  to  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  struck 
out  an  intermediate  scheme,  according  to  which  believers  spiritually  though 
really  partake  of  the  very  body  of  Christ  which  was  exalted  to  the  right 
hand  of  God.  His  representation  of  the  controversy  was  mild,  and  the  posi- 
tion which  he  gave  to  Luther  was  far  superior  to  that  which  he  assigned  to 
Zwingle.  (h)  Having  wandered  for  some  time  witliout  any  fixed  residence  in 
various  parts  of  Italy  and  France,  Calvin  was  authoritatively  stopped  by 
Farel  in  the  name  of  God  as  ho  was  passing  through  Geneva  (1536).  As  ho 
believed  himself  by  nature  too  much  inclined  to  tenderness  and  timidity,  he 
fortified  his  powerful  mind  by  a  faith  as  severe  against  others  as  himself.  Ho 
gradually  became  more  and  more  austere  toward  those  who  opposed  him,  and 
shrunk  not  from  making  use  of  even  the  most  formidable  measures  against 
them,  (e)  He  was  not  destitute  of  profound  sensibilities,  but  ho  was  averse 
to  all  earthly  enjoyments,  indifferent  to  popular  favor,  and  exercised  a  com- 
I»lete  control  over  the  minds  of  others  by  the  awe  inspired  by  the  simple 
power  of  a  firm  will,  and  after  a  tliree  years'  banishment  (1538ss.)  by  the 
terrors  of  an  ecclesiastical  discipline.  His  opponent«,  the  Libcrtim^,  were 
partly  those  who  had  succeeded  the  Fraternity  of  tlie  Free  Spirit  (Spirituels), 
and  had  embraced  all  the  practica  consequences  of  the  doctrine  of  a  sole 
universal  Spirit,  to  wliom  all  things  and  events  were  to  be  a.scribed,  ('/)  and 
partly  of  those  who,  Avith  various  degrees  of  moral  character,  were  anxious 
to  avoid  the  heavy  yoke  of  the  Reformation.  (<■)     By  the  theocratic  power 

a)  Instltutio  clir.  rcligionis  ad  Reg.  Franc.  Ba.i.  15.36.  Argent  15.19.  Gen.  l.V>9.  f.  and  oft.  den.  ed, 
Thohick,  Ber.  IS-Ms.  2  P.     [Transl.  Into  Engl.  2  vol».  8.  Pliliad.  K41.  and  olUn.] 

b)  De  8.  Coena.  1545.  at  first  in  Fr.  1540.  Comp.  Henry  vol.  I.  p.  270.S 

c)  Henry  vol.  II.  p.  425ss.  485.ss.  489.-«. 

d)  Ciilv.  Instriictio  adv.  fanutlcam  sectam  LibiTtlnoriim  544. 
«)  Henry  vol.  I.  p.  431.'S. 

20 


402  MoDKUN  cnui:cii  iiisToitv.  ri:ii.  v.   a.  d.  1017-1019. 

wliicli  Calvin  establislicd  over  tlio  state,  but  which  sometimes  wavered  ;  by 
tlio  [»iiblic.  interest  Aviiicli  lie  awakened  in  ecclesiastical  afTairs,  and  by  the 
estal)lishMK'nt  of  a  representative  constitution  intimately  connected  with  the 
civil  power,  he  gave  to  his  ecclesiastical  system  a  strictly  regulated  freedom. 
By  his  jiublislied  writings,  by  his  personal  counsels,  by  his  public  services, 
and  by  the  theologians  whom  he  educated,  his  influence  tnumphed  over  tho 
Zwinglian  school,  extended  itself  far  beyond  tho  limits  of  Switzerland,  and 
subjected  even  the  people  of  Zurich  to  its  power.  (/)  Through  his  influence 
Geneva  became  a  republic,  firmly  established,  governed  by  an  oligarchy,  i)er- 
vadcd  by  an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  and  renowned  in  the  history  of  the  world. 
Thither  resorted  all  who  during  that  age  were  persecuted  for  their  faith,  and 
it  became  tho  acknowledged  centre  of  a  Ilrformcd  Church.  ((/)  His  work 
was  faithfully  carried  out  by  Theodore  Beza  (1519-1005),  who  had  risen  to 
maturity  in  tho  most  brilliant  circumstances  in  France,  and  as  a  promising 
Humanist  had  like  Abelard  enjoyed  at  ono  period  the  highest  pleasures  of 
science  and  of  social  life,  but  had  at  last  found  safety  in  the  Reformed 
Church.  He  there  became  the  faithful  colleague  of  Calvin,  but  he  was  more 
beloved.  With  his  reformatory  views  he  combined  his  former  humanistic 
culture,  (Ä)  and  finally  attained  an  extensive  literary  and  ecclesiastical  influ- 
ence, which  made  him  the  patriarch  of  the  Reformation  to  the  succeeding 
generation.  (/) 


Mli'^'f 


CHAP.   II.— ESTABLISHMENT    OF  A  PROTESTANT    ORTHODOXY. 

I.    LrTDERAXISM. 

ScJilitsselburff,  Catalog!  Ilaeroticor.  Frcf.  1597-9.  13  1.  (7  vols.)  J.  Jfusaei  Pradl.  in  Epit  F. 
Cone.  Jen.  1701.  4.  Löscher,  (§  335.)  fortges.  v.  Kieding,  (till  1601.)  Schwab.  1770.  4.  J.  G.  Walch, 
hist  n.  ttieol.  Eiul.  in  d.  R.  Streitigkeiten.  2  ed.  Jen.  177.3.  3  vols.  Planck :  prot.  Lchrbeg.  4-6  vols. 
Biid  Gescb.  d.  piot.  Th.  v.  d.  Concordienf.  b.  Mitte  d.  IS.  Jahrh.  Gott  1S81.  U.  Ileppe,  Gesch.  d. 
deutschen  Protest  I555-S1.  Marb.  lS52s.  (till  1574.)  2  vols. 

§  347.     Antinomian  and  Oslandrian  Controversies. 

I.  Wulch  vol.  XX.  p.  2014SS.  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  I.  p.  915ss.  Rateberger,  p.  965s.  Förstemann' 
noueä  Urliundcnb.  vol.  L  p.  29Iss.— C  L.  Kitzsck,  de  antinoinismo  Agr.  2  Pgir.  Vit  1S04.  4  (De 
(iL^T.  revelat  Vit.  1S31.  Fsc.  II.  N.  9s.)  A.  WeiieUer,  de  antin.  Agr.  Strals,  Is-'O.  4.  K.  J.  Kitssch, 
Ü.  Gesetz  u.  Ev.  (Deutsche  Zeitschr.  1S51.  N.  10.)  E.  Ehcert,  do  antinomia  Agr.  Tur.  liSl.—R 
KordeSy  Agr.  Sclirr.  möglichst  vollständig  verzeichnet  Alton.-u  1S17. 

IL  \cU  Osiandristica.  Königsb.  1553.  4.  F.  Funccii,  wahrh.  Bericht,  wie  d.  Sp.alt  v.  d.  Ge- 
rechtlgk.  d.  Gl.  sich  Im  L.  Preussen  erhoben.  Koen.  1653.  4.  J.  Moerlin,  llist  d.  Os.  Schwermerey. 
(Rruschw.  1554.)  i.—Ilartknoch,  Preuss.  KGesch.  Frk£  16S6.  4.  p.  809ss.  F.  C.  Raur,  Inq.  in  Os. 
do  juslif.  doctr.  Tub.  1S31.  4.  J.  C.  LeIinercU,  de  Os.  vita  et  doctr.  Ber.  1S35.  Jlid.  Cmtt  de  Os. 
1S35SS.  4  Pgg.    U.  Wilken,  Os.  Leben,  Lehre  u.  Sclirr.  Abth.  1.  Strals.  1S44.  4. 

Luther's  fundamental  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith  alone  was  quite  as 
much  opposed  to  moral  levity  as  to  ascetic  self-torture.    It  caused  the  mind  to 

/)  Consensus  T'^rinns.  1549.  Kiemeyer,  Col.  Conf.  p.  191ss.  cf.  XLIss.  Comp.  JTundeshageii. 
i.  Conflicte  d.  Zwinglianismiis,  Luthcrth.  u.  Calvinism  in  d.  Bernischen  Landesk.  Bern.  1S42. 

ff)  Ilenkf,  12  Beil.  zu  Villers. 

h)  E.  g.  Bt^za,  Icones,  i.  e.  imagines  vlrorum  doctrina  simul  et  pictate  illustr.  Gen.  1S50.  4. 

j)  Fiijits,  de  Vila  et  obitu  Th.  B.  Gen.  \(,i)(>.— Schlosser,  Leben  des  Th.  de  Beza  n.  P.  Martyi. 
Ddlb.  1*U9.     J.  W.  B.utm,  Tli.  Beza.  Lpz.  18*3-51.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  II.    LÜTUEKAXISM.    §  S47.  AGEICOLA.    OSIANDER.  403 

penetrate  deeper  into  its  own  nature,  and  conveyed  in  it^■elt'  the  highest 
moral  earnestness  and  the  most  cheerful  energy  of  a  new  life  in  Christ.  By 
its  very  nature,  however,  it  was  liable  to  be  misunderstood  by  its  friends  as 
well  as  its  enemies.  Agricola  of  Eisleben,  after  1536  a  professor  at  Witten- 
berg, and  after  1540  a  court  preacher  in  Berlin  (d.  15CG),  contended,  in 
opposition  to  Melaucthon  in  1527,  and  to  Luther  in  1537,  that  in  the  sphere 
of  Christianity  the  law  of  God  had  no  jdace,  and  hence  that  the  gospel, 
which  killed  as  well  as  quickened,  should  be  the  only  theme  of  preaching.  («) 
lie  had  reference  to  the  Catholic  doctrine  of  justification  by  works,  and  to 
the  Mosaic  law,  which  he  confounded  with  the  moral  law,  while  Luther  had 
reference  to  the  law  expressed  in  the  Decalogue,  and  in  the  conscience  as  a 
perpetual  schoolmaster  to  bring  us  to  Christ.  Agricola  was  probably  influ- 
enced by  an  idle  vanity  as  well  as  by  this  obscurity  of  views,  but  with  all  his 
talents,  his  cheerfulness  and  popularity,  lie  humbled  himself  (/<)  when  in  an 
independent  position  before  even  the  unjust  re[>roachcs  of  Luther,  Avho  con- 
tended that  such  an  onset  upon  the  divine  law  was  dangerous  to  all  moral 
seriousness.  (<)  In  this  controversy,  however,  was  involved  the  deeper  prin- 
ciple, that  man  still  possessed  sufficient  moral  goodness  to  apprehetid  what  is 
best  for  him  out  of  love  to  Christ,  without  the  fear  of  the  law  or  of  hell.  In 
this  we  may  discover  its  affinity  with  various  disputes  respecting  human  works 
and  divine  co-operation,  which  have  been  several  times  renewed  since  1556, 
but  always  with  tlie  same  obscurity  of  views. — To  guard  against  the  danger- 
ous error  that  Christ's  merits  merely  cover  our  sinl'ul  nature,  and  are  im- 
puted to  the  believer  in  an  external  way,  Andreas  Otiiandcr,  the  reformer  of 
Nureraburg,  and  a  man  remarkable  for  his  Scriptural  knowledge,  maintained 
that  Christ  becomes  our  righteousness  in  his  divine  nature  and  by  dwelling 
essentially  in  the  believer,  and  in  general,  that  if  man  had  never  fallen,  the 
incarnation  would  still  have  taken  place  to  complete  the  divine  imago  in 
human  nature.  (</)  He  even  succeeded  in  jiroducing  some  kindred  expres- 
.sions  of  Luther,  which  had  been  written  in  the  sjärit  of  the  old  mysticism,  (f) 
and  Luther,  who  was  aware  of  his  morbid  sensibility,  declined  any  contro- 
versy with  him.  (/)  But  when  he  was  by  the  operation  of  the  Interim 
driven  from  Nuremburg,  and  was  placed  by  his  friend  Albert,  Duke  of  Bran- 
denbui-g,  at  the  head  of  ecclesiastical  atlairs  in  Prussia ;  above  all  when  he 
proclaimed  his  doctrine  in  its  boldest  contrast  witli  the  theological  sentiments 
of  Luthci"  and  tlie  other  reformers,  in  which  justitication  an  as  always  repre- 
sented as  a  judicial  sentence  of  God  with  respect  to  the  believer,  (;/)  nearly 
every  Lutheran  divine  denounced  his  positiitn  as  a  relapse  to  the  Catbolio 
amalgamation  of  divine  grace  witli  human  merit.  In  Prussia,  Oslander  tri- 
umphed by  driving  his  opponents  into  banishment.    After  his  death  (1562), 


a)  IS  Pcsitlone».  {Förxtemann  vol.  1.  p.  313-s.) 
6)  Föi-sUmann  vol.  I.  p.  849. 

c)  6  Disputiitiiincs.  15.'JS.  40.  (Lnth.  0pp.  Jen.  vol.  I.  p.  SlTss.) 

d)  Ileherle,  Os.  Lehre  in  Hirer  früliefttn  Gestalt.  (Stuil.  u.  Krit  1544.  H.  2.) 

«)  Etliche  schiino  Sprüche  v.  d.  Kechlf.  <1.  01.  il.  Ehrw.  Luther,  vertlulinctsclit  v.  Ostanil  Kiin. 
651.  4.       /)  De  yVette  vol.  IV.  p.  4S6. 

g)  Disputt.  II.  una  do  lege  cc  cvang.,  altera  do  Justif.  Hog.  1550.  4.     Von  d.  einigen  Mittler  a 
Kcclitf.  Bfkenntnuss.  KOn.  1551.  4. 


104  MODEBN  CUUKOn  HISTORY.    VKU.  V.    A.  I>.  1517-164S 

his  soii-iii-l.'iw  FiiKc/,;  at  tlio  head  of  a  party,  sought  and  obtained  reconcilia- 
tion  with  ihoso  who  belonged  to  Melancthon'a  school.  But  as  all  invasions 
of  tlio  civil  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  were  imputed  to  liim 
who  controlled  the  duke's  conscience,  a  i)olitical  party  favored  by  the  Polish 
feudal  sovereign,  coobined  with  his  theological  enemies  against  him.  The 
controversy  was  terminated  by  th«  execution  of  Funck  (1560),  and  the  con- 
domnatiou  of  Osiander's  doctrines  as  an  essential  heresy.  (A) 

§  348.     Lutherans  and  Philippists.     General  Affairs. 

The  controversy  respecting  the  Lord's  Supper  had  given  to  the  Refonna- 
tion  a  tendency  toward  the  letter  of  the  creeds.  Luther  had  foreseen  that 
this  would  become  a  pernicious  source  of  theological  quarrels,  and  yet  he 
was  among  the  first  to  commence  them.  Melancthon  was  the  personal  friend 
of  Calvin,  on  whose  breast  he  had  often  reclined  his  weary  head,  (a)  A  con- 
ciliatory impression  had  also  been  made  upon  Luther's  mind  by  Calvin's  doc- 
trine of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  both  of  these  reformers  had  a  high  esteem  for 
one  another,  (h)  But  in  the  exasperation  which  Luther  felt  in  his  last  days 
toward  the  divines  of  Zurich,  all  who  would  not  recognize  the  natural  body  of 
Christ  in  the  sacred  Supper  were  looked  upon  as  belonging  to  the  same  gene- 
ral batch.  In  the  later  editions  of  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  Melancthon 
unconsciously  made  some  alterations  in  accordance  with  his  own  gradual  de- 
velopment. These  were  confined  principally  to  the  tenth  article,  in  which 
every  thing  inconsistent  with  the  views  prevalent  in  Upper  Germany  was 
obliterated.  This  "  explanatory,  and  in  some  respects  enlarged  Confession '' 
of  1540,  (c)  which  even  Calvin  subscribed  as  the  deputy  from  Strasbourg, 
became  henceforth  the  general  banner  of  the  Reformation.  TTithout  noticing 
any  essential  change,  men  generally  regarded  it  in  the  same  light  as  the  ori- 
ginal confession,  until  an  express  ratification  of  it  was  called  for  at  an  assem- 
bly of  princes  at  Naumlurg  in  1561.  Here  a  declaration  in  favor  of  the 
'Unchanged  Confession  of  Augsburg  met  with  opposition  from  the  Duke  of 
Saxony,  and  gave  occasion  to  the  reproach  that  internal  divisions  prevailed 
among  the  Protestants.  A  new  generation  of  princes  therefore  nnited  to- 
gether and  put  their  seals  to  the  old  confession.  (J)  Although  the  path  into 
which  Melancthon  was  led  by  Luther  was  more  elevated  than  what  he  would 
have  followed  if  he  had  been  left  to  himself,  it  was  in  some  respects  also 
uncongenial  with  his  peculiar  temperament.  But  even  during  Luther's  last 
years,  when  he  frequently  expected  to  be  sent  from  the  University,  and  some- 
times felt  himself  subjected  by  Luther's  stubborn  and  imperious  spirit  to  a 
rather  dishonorable  servitude,  (t)  he  was  actually  exerting  a  supreme  author  ■ 

h)  Historie  t.  Funk  ex  actis  publ.  (Acta  Borussica.  Kön.  1732.  vol.  IIL  p.  217.  811.  471ss.)— Corpus 
ioctr.  Prutenicum.  1567. 

a)  Henry,  Calv.  vol.  I.  p.  244ss.  86S.  3T5. 

l)  C.  IT.  Pezel,  Erzähl,  r.  Sacramentstr.  Brcm.  1600.  p.  137ss.  "WTiat  lias  been  cited  in  ITenri/, 
Calv.  vol.  I.  p.  2C5S3.  and  in  Ebrard,  Abendm.  vol.  IL  p.  474äS.  is  more  to  be  relied  upon. 

c)  Libri  Sj-mb.  s.  Concordia.  eiL  ITust,  ed.  8.  p.  IX.  XIIss. 

rf)  G.  P.  Iloenn,  d.  v.  d.  ev.  Ständen  zu  Jfaumb.  geh.  Convents.  Frkt  17i4.  X  R  Gelhke,  d 
S'arstenUg  zu  N.  Lps.  1793.    Heppe  vol.  I.  p.  86438. 

0  Corp.  lie/,  vol.  V.  p.  471  476s.  49S.— vol.  VL  p.  SSO. 


Cn.vr.  II.    LUTÜEEANISM.    §  34S.  PHILIPPISM.    §  349.  STNEEGISM.         405 

ify  at  "Wittenberg.  The  hearts  of  these  excellent  men,  however,  always 
affectionately  returned  to  each  other.  (/)  "When  the  storm  of  war  had 
passed  away,  the  University  was  re-established  under  the  auspices  of  Melanc- 
thon,  and  the  system  of  doctrines  which  he  had  fonned,  referring  every 
thing  to  man's  moral  and  religious  wants,  was  generally  adopted.  But  so 
deep  was  the  impression  which  Luther  had  left  upon  the  spirit  of  the  age, 
that  many  could  find  salvation  only  in  the  words  and  forms  which  he  had 
sanctioned.  Hence,  when  Melancthon  was  induced  by  his  attachment  to  the 
new  elector,  and  .sometimes  by  his  forgetful ne.'^s  of  his  relations  to  the  world 
at  large  in  his  extreme  love  of  literary  tranquillity,  to  seek  for  an  easy 
method  of  establishing  peace  with  tlie  ancient  Church  by  means  of  the  Inter- 
im, Flacius  resigned  his  professorship  at  "Wittenberg  (lö-iS),  and  in  Magde- 
burg invoked  the  spirit  of  Luther  against  Melancthon's  perfidy  to  the  Church. 
This  proscribed  city  was  then  an  asylum  for  tho.?e  divines  who  felt  o[)pressed 
by  the  weight  of  Melancthon's  autJiority,  and  who  entertained  apprehensions 
for  the  purity  of  the  Lutheran  faith.  Even  when  the  adiaphoristic  contro- 
versy had  lost  all  practical  importance,  its  agitation  still  hngered  in  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  Avhether  any  but  iuditierent  points  were  surrendered 
in  the  Interim,  and  whether  even  inditferent  things  may  be  surrendered  to 
the  enemies  of  the  gospel,  (g)  To  maintain  an  intellectual  contest  with  the 
new  electoral  house  and  with  "Wittenberg,  then  suspected  of  being  possessed 
by  a  Calvinistic  devil,  and  to  constitute  a  fortress  for  genuine  Lutheranism  in 
general,  the  L^niversity  of  Jena,  with  a  charter  from  the  emperor  and  the  bless- 
ing of  heaven,  was  founded  (1548-58)  by  the  .sons  of  John  Frederic,  who 
in  troublous  times  confided  in  the  future,  (h)  Filled  with  anxieties  for  the 
harmony  of  the  Church,  Melancthon  was  finally  delivered  from  this  sophistic 
iaecidum^  and  from  the  wrath  of  the  theologians  (April  19,  1560).   • 

§  349.     Synergistic  Controversy. 

Luther  opposed  to  the  requirement  of  merely  external  works  made  by 
the  Roman  Church,  and  to  the  Pelagian  notion  of  the  merit  of  human  acts, 
the  doctrine  that  good  works  were  not  iudisjjcnsable  to  salvation.  To  pre- 
vent the  abuse  which  might  be  made  of  this  a.«sertion,  Melancthon  asserted 
in  his  revised  Confession  of  1535,  that  good  works  were  truly  necessar}-,  but 
in  no  respect  meritorious.  Such  an  expression  had  been  disapproved  of  by 
Luther,  and  when  it  was  afterwards  incorporated  in  the  Interim,  it  was  capa- 
ble of  an  interjiretation  favoralde  to  the  necessity  of  good  works  in  the 
Catholic  sense.     Hence,  in  opposition  at  first  to  Major,  who  used  it  to  sup- 

/)  Luther  In  the  Praof.  to  the  1st  vol.  of  the  Witt.  Ojip.  and  In  h's  last  Letters,  Mel.  In  bis  Tcst«- 
ineut  of  1540.  (Corp.  /.V/  vol.  III.  p.  S25.)  and  In  his  Funiral  Disc, 

O)  Wieder  d.  sehniiden  Teiifi-1,  d.  I.  wider  des  Interim  durch  Carolurn  .Vzarlam.  1540.  4.  FlacU 
Serf.  c.  Interim  ct  adiaphora  edlta.  Magdb.  1050.  Comp.  IJluk  and  Schinld.  (§  341.) — On  Luther's 
side:  RaUeherger,  Ilist  arcana,  piven  l>y  Arnold  In  his  KGescli.,  and  last  by  Str.bol,  .\lld.  1774,  a 
falsification  of  the  genuine  work  of  the  Physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  On  the  Phllipplst  .»Ide : 
J.  Jfiijor,  Synodus  avium.  (Scripta  publ.  Acad.  Witt  vol  I  IL  Eidt.  by  C.  £.  Schtcarz,  In  Zeltsch.) 
t  unirte  K.  1536.^^'.  18. 

/()  Melancth.  Brief w.  ü,  d.  Gründung  d.  Univ.  Jen«,  zusammengeht,  v.  /f.  ]Veisiifnhoi-n,  Jens. 
1S4S. 


lOG  m(»i>ei:n  ciiri:cii  iiistout.   ri:n.  v.   a.  d.  1517-1049. 

l>f>rt  thi'  Iiitoriin,  Aimdorf  maintained  that  justification  by  mere  graco  was 
ill  tliis  way  dt-iiiücl,  and  as  long  as  the  nature  of  good  works,  and  the  kind  of 
coniioc'tiou  wliic.h  tlicy  must  necessarily  have  to  salvation,  was  not  defined, 
he  succeeded  in  j)roving  witli  Paul  tiiat  good  works  wore  pernicious  to  salva- 
tion, ('/)  just  as  lie  afterwards  asserts  the  same  thing  of  human  learning,  (i) 
This  obscurity  of  thought  and  bitterness  of  feeling  was  only  increased  at  a 
religious  conference  at  Altenlurg  (1508).  (c)  Luther  had  at  one  time  boasted 
much  of  the  absolute  omnipotence  of  God,  and  did  not  shrink  from  absolute 
l>rodestination  as  the  necessary  inference  from  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of 
original  sin.  But  Mclancthon^  that  he  might  avoid  at  the  same  time  the  ter- 
rors of  tliis  doctrine  and  those  of  Polagianism,  began  to  maintain  in  1535,  in 
more  and  more  decided  terms,  that  in  conversion  the  will  of  man  consented 
and  conspired  with  the  grace  of  God.  Luther  had  been  silent  upon  this 
subject,  for  his  own  heart  was  a  witness  to  him  against  his  system,  and  in 
behalf  of  the  universality  of  divine  mercy.  In  the  Interim,  this  Synergism 
was  incorporated  as  a  concession  to  the  Catholic  Semi-Pelagianism.  A  work 
having  been  published  at  Leipsic  by  P/effinger  in  favor  of  this  synergistic 
doctrine,  Amsdorf  publicly  opposed  it.  ('/)  The  professors  at  Wittenberg 
were  obliged  to  defend  Pfeffinger's  party.  On  the  other  hand,  those  at  Jena, 
led  on  by  Flacii/s,  took  up  the  controversy  and  endeavored  to  prove  that  the 
natural  man  could  never  co-operate  with  the  divine  influence  in  the  heart, 
but  was  always  in  opposition  to  it.  In  accordance  with  the  sentiments  of 
this  party,  a  confutation  of  all  the  heresies  Avhich  then  survived,  and  espe- 
cially of  Synergism,  was  sent  forth  for  the  acceptance  of  the  evangelical 
states,  with  the  authority  of  the  ducal  court,  (c)  But  even  at  Jena  there  was 
a  party  fiivorable  to  this  Synergism,  and  Victorine  Strlgclim^  its  leader,  was 
violently  -thrown  into  prison.  (/)  By  various  solicitations,  however,  the 
court  was  induced  to  allow  a  disputation  to  be  held  at  Weimar  between 
Strigelius  and  Flacius  (1560).  (y)  In  opposition  to  the  inquisitorial  tribunal 
of  Flacius  at  Jena,  a  ducal  consistory  was  established  at  "Weimar,  to  which 
was  committed  the  censorship  of  the  press  and  the  exclusive  right  of  excom- 
munication, ^hen  the  party  of  Flacius  in  the  name  of  Christ  complained 
of  this  subjugation  of  the  Church,  demanded  that  the  liberty  of  the  press  as 
a  divine  right  should  be  restored,  and  in  their  appeals  to  the  people  opposed 
with  increasing  violence  this  papacy  of  the  princes,  (Ji)  they  were  banished  from 

a)  Dass  die  Propositio :  gute  Werke  sind  z.  Seligk.  schädlich,  eine  rechte  ehr.  Prop,  sei,  durch  d. 
h.  Paulhim  n.  Lutherum  gepredigt  Without  place.  15D9.  4. 

li)  Wie  christlich  u.  treulich  Hesshus.  ni.  d.  II.  Schrift  u.  mir  handelt  Mngdeb.  1564.  4. 

c)  Acta  colloquii  Altenb.  Lp?.  1570.  t.—Löber,  ad  II.  coli.  Altenb.  animadvv.  Alt  1776.  4.  J/n- 
jorU  Opp.  1569.  3  vols.  f.  with  autobiog.  in  the  1st  vol. 

d)  Pfeffinger,  Propos.  de  üb.  arbitrio.  Lps.  1556.  Ämsdorf,  öffentL  Eck.  d.  reinen  L.  d.  Ev.  ii. 
Confutatio  d.  jetzigen  Schwärmer.  Jen.  155S. 

e)  Solida  ex  verbo  Dci  suinta  confutatio  et  condemnatio  praecip.  corruptelarnm,  sectarum  et  erro- 
rum.  Jen.  1559. 1  (Corpus  doct  Thuring.) 

/)  IL  Erdmann  (I'r.  J.  Gerluvdo)  de  Strigelianismo.  Jen.  1G5S.  Ilan.  1675.  4  Merz^(VT.  Weis- 
manno)  II.  vitao  et  controv.  Strig.  Tub.  1732.  4.  J.  C.  T.  Otto,  de  Strig.  liberioris  mentis  in  Ecc. 
lutli.  vindice.  Jen.  1S43. 

g)  {Sim.  Mumem)  Disp.  inter  Flae.  et  Vict  Tinnriae  habita.  Brem.  1563.  4.  (Unsch.  Kach.  1740.  p. 
Vm.)    (Flacius)  Ereälil.  wie  d.  Streit  Tictoriui  endlich  geschlichtet  worden.  AVithout  ptice.  1563.  4. 

/i)  Resp.  pro  prclorum  übertäte;  Jen.  1501.  and  others.— Sii/<V  vol.  III.  p.  CSOss.  Planck  vol  IV 
p.  61'.2»s. 


CHAP.  II.    LUTHERANISM.    §  350.  CKYPTO-CALVINISM.  407 

the  country  (Dec.  1561),  and  the  theological  faculty  was  filled  by  the  advic« 
of  llie  party  at  Wittenberg.  But  -when  the  unfortunate  Duke  John  Frederic 
was  overthrown  (1507),  the  opponents  of  the  school  of  Melancthon  Avere 
once  more  triumphant.  The  friends  of  Flacius  were  recalled,  though  ho 
liimself  remained  in  exile.  In  the  disputation  which  he  had  held  in  "Weimar, 
lie  had  been  urged  to  the  assertion  that  original  sin  was  the  very  essence  of 
man.  But  when  he  attempted  to  establish  this  extravagant  assertion,  which 
\^  as  at  the  time  but  slightly  considered,  and  as  an  indefinite  expression  of 
I'ocling  was  by  no  means  unprecedented,  it  was  supposed  to  imply  that  either 
(j«)d  was  the  author  of  sin,  or  that  man  was  created  by  the  devil.  Hence 
even  the  former  friends  of  Flacius  became  his  bitter  opponents,  (j)  Avoided 
as  this  man  seems  to  have  been  by  the  society  of  his  day,  be  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Luther,  and  possessed  the  very  spuüt  of  a  Gregory.  lie 
opened  the  path  to  every  kind  of  knowledge  then  regarded  as  indispensable 
to  Pro,testant  science,  but  expended  his  talents  upon  the  smallest  trifles  and 
the  most  useless  controversies,  and  died  at  last  in  extreme  poverty.  (/•) 

§350.     Crypto- Call- iimm.     Cont.  f/wn  ^  SH. 

Lüicher  and  others,  before  §  335. — Peuceri  Hist  carcerum  et  llberationis  <iiv.  cil.  Pezel,  Tig. 
1605. — Frimel,  Wittebcrga  a  Calv.  divesata  et  divinitiis  libcrata  d.  i.  Ver.  wie  der  sacrain.  Teufel  in 
Sacbsenland  eingedrungen.  Witt,  1G46.  4 — irt//t7(,  Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  II.  p.  SSSss.  Eidintadii  Nar.  do 
C  Peuc.  Jen.  1S41.  4.     £.  A.  //.  Ileimhurg,  de  C.  Peuc.  Jen.  1S41. 

Altliougli  by  continual  conflicts  with  himself,  ÜJolancthon  finally  suc- 
ceeded in  believing  that  the  actual  body  of  Christ  was  present  in  the  Lord's 
Supper,  (a)  he  decidedly  refused  all  fellowship  with  Zwingle's  imaginary 
Christ,  {b)  By  the  suggestion  at  first  of  Bucer  (153-i),  he  regarded  it  as  suf- 
ficient to  believe  that  the  whole  Christ  was  present,  and  was  imparted  in  the 
sacred  ordinance,  and  yet  ho  did  not  hesitate  to  call  this,  in  the  language 
ordinarily  used  in  the  Roman  Church,  a  communication  of  the  flesh  and 
blood  of  Christ,  (c)  lie  accordingly  maintained  fellowship  with  the  divines 
of  Zurich,  {>[)  even  when  Luther  ha<l  once  mure  renounced  it ;  and  as  he  was 
convinced  that  neither  Li'.ther's  nor  Calvin's  doctrine  of  the  sacrament  was 
an  insuperable  bar  to  a  savmg  communion  with  Christ,  ho  thought  ho  might 
comply  with  the  suggestions  of  his  own  timidity  and  inclination,  and  allow 
both  of  them  to  continue  in  the  Church.  Hence,  when  Westphal  of  Ham- 
burg furiously  assailed  Calvin  with  the  assertion  that  the  real  incarnate  body 
of  Ciirist  was  present  in  the  bread, — when  he  saw  the  noble  John  of  Lcisl-i, 
who  believod  iu>t  only  in  the  symbol  but  in  the  mystery  of  the  sacrament, 
with  his  foreign  congregation,  driven  from  England,  and  refused  an  asylum  in 
all  parts  of  Protestant  Gcrnuiny  as  robbers,  poisoners,  and  martyrs  of  the 
devil, — and  wiien  Calvin  himself  solemnly  agi'eeJ  with  the  Confession  of  Augs- 

»■)  Literary  history  In  Wttlcli,  Bibl.  Theol.  vol.  II.  p.  öüTssl 

I)  C.  IMdclin,  elir.  Predljit  u.  d.  Leiche  Hn.  FI.  Märtyrers  J.  Ch.  Frkf.  1575.  4.— C  //  LCher, 
(Pr.  J.  Oerkanio)  de  I'liiclnnismo.  Jen.  1(m\  4.  J.  li.  JtilU'i;  Fl.  Li'ben  u.  Tod.  Frkf.  u.  Lps 
(1723.)  nae.  £.  a.  ll.  Ueimhurg,  de  Fl.  lllyr.  Jen.  l'*4i.  Tuentfn,  Fl.  Illyr.  mit.  Bell.  v.  I/.  /iV» 
lel,  Brl.  1S44.     E.  Schmid,  Fl.  Erbs.  Streit  lil>t.  lit,  (Zeltsch.  C  hist  Th.  1S49.  II.  Is.) 

(()  Corp.  liff.  vol.  I.  p.  HOC.        V)  Und.  p.  IOC«.  luCS.  1070.  1077.  1ÜS4. 

c)  Jbid.  vol.  HI.  p.  514.— vol.  IX.  p.  491».        </)  Ibid.  vol.  V.  p.  342s. 


403  MODKKN  (•IIIKCII   IIl.STOIiV.     VFAl.  V.     A.  T).  ISlT-lftl.S. 

bnr^?  m  it  was  explained  by  its  own  author,  (e)  Melancthon  avoided  a  distinct 
dcclnrntion  of  Iiis  sentiments  on  this  sulyect ;  (/)  and  it  was  not  until  the  doc- 
trine of  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  body  (ubiquity),  which  had  been  hastily 
nicntiotiod  by  Luther,  was  proposed  as  the  only  saving  basis  of  the  Holy  Sup» 
per,  and  made  by  Brentz  the  law  of  the  Church  in  "Würtembcrfr,  (y)  that  ho 
expressed  his  disapprobation  that  such  novel  articles  in  such  provincial  Latin 
phould  be  introduced  into  the  symbols  of  faith.  (/()  ]}ut  the  theolog-ical  school 
which  he  left  behind  him  thought  that  salvation  could  bo  obtained  only  in  a 
Calvinistic  sacrament,  and  was  opposed  to  another  which  looked  npon  Cal- 
vinism as  only  a  bridge  to  Mohammedanism,  and  supposed  that  their  eternal 
salvation  might  be  eaten,  and  that  a  personal  violence  Avas  inflicted  upon  tho 
God-man  when  the  consecrated  bread  or  wine  was  accidentally  injured.  (;') 
Those  belonging  to  the  former  school  were  sufficiently  numerous  in  Electoral 
Saxony  to  form  a  powerful  party  in  the  court  under  the  direction  of  Peucn\ 
a  learned  physician  and  a  member  of  the  elector's  privy  council.  The  eftects 
of  this  controversy  in  Lower  Saxony  and  in  the  Rhenish  Palatinate  were  per- 
ceptible not  merely  in  the  theological  schism  which  it  produced  there,  but  iu 
all  ecclesiastical  and  political  relations.  The  Elector  Augustus  avowed  his 
faith  in  Luther's  sentiments,  even  when  he  knew  not  precisely  what  they 
were.  The  Philippists  therefore  found  it  necessary  to  preserve  the  sem- 
blance of  Lutheran  orthodoxy,  that  they  might  avoid  the  complaints  of  their 
opponents.  Through  their  influence  the  elector  was  induced  to  bestow  legal 
authority  upon  a  collection  of  Melancthon's  writings, X^-)  and  as  soon  as  he 
had  attained  a  guardian  power  over  Jena,  to  expel  the  zealots  "Wigand  and 
Ilesshusius  from  their  professorships  and  from  his  territories  (1573).  In  an 
anonymous  pamphlet,  which  appeared  without  the  co-operation  but  with  the 
recommendation  of  the  Philippist  professors,  Melancthon's  doctrine  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  was  shown  to  be  the  only  true  one,  the  various  views  of  the 
Lutherans  were  opposed  as  papistic,  and  the  remarkable  prosperity  which 
was  visible  in  the  Reformed  churches  in  and  around  Germany  was  pointed 
out  as  an  evidence  of  the  divine  favor  and  agreement  with  them.  (/)  The 
suspicions  of  the  elector  were  awakened  by  the  denunciations  of  the  princes 
on  account  of  this  book,  and  some  intercepted  letters  showed  that  the  object 
of  the  Philippists  was  to  draw  him  over  to  the  Calvinistic  faith.  The  re- 
ward which  the  divines  received  for  this  proceeding,  was  the  banishment  or 
imprisonment  of  themselves  and  all  who  favored  them  at  court.  Prayers 
were  offered  up  in  all  the  Saxon  churches  for  the  extermination  of  the  Cal- 
vinistic heresy,  and  a  medal  was  struck  in  commemoration  of  this  triumph 
of  Christ  over  human  reason  and  the  devil. 

f)  Hist  and  Lit.  in  Ebrard,  Abendm.  vol.  11.  p.  582?«. 
/)  Corp.  nef.  vol.  VIII.  p.  8G2.  vol.  IX.  p.  874. 

I/)  Confc«sio  et  doctr.  in  Dnc.  Wirt  do  vera  praes^ntia  corp.  J.  C.  (Acta  publ.  Ecc.  Wirt  cd. 
rji-fff.  Tub.  1720.  4.  p.  8348.)    Brenz  de  personali  unione,  duarum  natur.  in  Ch.  1061.  4. 

h)  Corp.  r.ef.  vol.  IX.  p.  1034.     Opinions  in  Fred.  III. :  Judicium  de  C.  Dom.  Heidelb.  1560. 

0  Comp.  Ileppf,  Protest  vol.  II.  p.  8S5s.    Spitker,  Job.  Musculus.  (Zeitscli.  f.  hist  Tb.  1S49.  U.  3.;) 

*)  Corp.  doctr.  Pliilippicnm  s.  Misnicum.  Lps,  IMO.  f.  and  often. 

t)  Exegesis  perspicua  ct  ferme  Integra  controversiao  do  s.  coena.  Without  place  or  ye.ir.  (Ed.  bj 
Ibe  publblier  Vügelein  at  I.eips.  1574.  with  tlie  marks  of  a  Genevan  printer,  but  composed  by  the  ^i 
lealaji  physician  Joachim  Curaeus,  a  piipll  of  Mclar.c'.hon.)  Comp.  Ilepi^e  vol.  II.  p.  103.  4G7ss. 


CHAP.  IL    LUTHEEANISM.    §  a"Jl.  AXDEEAE  FOKM  OF  CONCORD.  400 

§  351.     Efforts  at  Concord. 

ITospiniani  Cone,  dlscors.  Ti?.  IfinT.  Gen.  1C7?.  C    ITutteri,  Cone  Concors.  Vit  1614.  f.  Lp». 
690.  4.    Anton,  Gesch.  d.  C.  F.  Lps.  1779.  2  vol?. 

The  Lutherans  were  now  victorious,  but  it  was  no  very  difficult  thing  for 
their  opponents  to  recover  themselves.  In  the  form  of  the  Eucharist  which 
had  been  forced  upon  the  churches,  the  sentiments  of  Melancthon  Avere 
represented  as  identical  with  those  of  Luther,  {a)  and  the  spirit  of  iifelanc- 
thon  still  reigned  in  the  churches  of  other  countries.  The  shamo  which 
many  felt  on  account  of  these  internal  dissensions,  Avas  increased  by  tho 
reproach  of  tho  Catholics.  But  the  only  Avay  by  Avhich  the  dogmatic  spirit 
of  that  age  could  think  of  attaining  unanimity,  Avas  by  a  confession  of  faith 
constructed  on  the  most  scientific  principles,  and  deciding  by  the  highest 
authority  the  controversies  then  agitating  the  Church,  and  all  others  of  infe- 
rior importance.  Jacob  Andrcae,  the  indefatigable  and  pliant  but  tenacious 
chancellor  of  Tubingen,  endeavored  to  obtain  the  honor  of  completing  tho 
Eeformation  by  composing  such  a  Avork.  In  the  accomplishment  of  hie  pur- 
pose he  turned  his  attention  especially  to  the  princes  of  the  several  coun- 
tries, (b)  He  was,  however,  repelled  by  both  Lutherans  and  Philippists, 
until,  after  the  overthroAv  of  the  latter,  the  Elector  Augustus  became  a  leader 
iu  the  affair.  After  various  assemblies  of  clergymen,  much  preparation  (c) 
and  many  corrections,  a  number  of  distinguished  divines  were  convened 
from  the  established  churches  of  different  provinces  in  a  monastery  at  Berg. 
In  the  last  revision,  performed  entirely  by  Andrcae,  with  the  assistance  of 
Selnecker  and  Chemnitz,  who  had  been  educated  under  Philippistic  influ- 
ences, every  thing  Avhich  looked  like  Philipjiism  Avas  stricken  out.  (</)  In 
this  manner,  Avith  the  utmost  caution  and  fear  of  exaggeration,  tho  Form  of 
Concord  Avas  completed  on  the  28th  of  May,  1577.  The  Scriptures  are  recog- 
nized in  it  as  the  only  rule  of  faith,  but  their  entire  agreement  Avith  Luther 
is  presupposed.  Not  only  should  the  gospel  be  preached  as  tho  only  means 
of  salvation,  but  the  laAv  should  be  proclaimed  as  a  terror  to  evil-doers,  for 
the  di.scoA'ery  of  sin,  and  for  the  discipline  and  instruction  of  believers.  It 
concedes  that  there  are  indifferent  tilings  (Adiaphora)  in  religion,  but  it  con- 
tends that  in  times  of  persecution  even  they  may  be  connected  Avith  impor- 
tant consequences.  An  appropriate  distinction  is  drawn  between  justitioatiou 
by  faith  alone  and  the  subsequent  gradual  sanctification.  Good  Avorks  are 
not  represented  as  indis])ensable  to  salvation,  but  as  tho  necessary  conse- 
quences of  true  faith.  All  co-operation  on  the  part  of  man  in  the  work  of 
moral  improvement  is  denied,  but  the  Augustinian  doctrine  of  original  sin  is 
set  forth  after  a  rejection  of  tho  offensive  errors  of  riacius,  in  immediate 
sonneotion  Avith  that  of  the  universality  of  divine  gi\icc,  Avith  no  attempt  to 

a)  Articles  of  Torsrati:  Kui-z  Bek.  u.  Art  v.  li.  Abcndin.  AVitt  1574.  4. 

V)  Jo.  Viil.  Andrene,  Fnina  Amlrenna  roflorosccn.s.  Arg.  1070.  12.  /,<?  Bret,  de  .1.  ,\.  vltn  ct  mis- 
«ionibus  pro  reformanda  Ecc.  Lutli.  Tub.  17'.>9.  4.  J.  C.  O.  Johannsen,  J.  A.  concordisL  Thiitigk. 
(Zeit'ch.  f.  hist  Tli.  1S53.  H.  8.) 

c)  Scliwäbiscli-sücli.i.  Concorilic.  (Acta  ct  scr.  Ecc.  AVQrt.  p.  881.ss.)  Manlbr.  Formel,  Torglschcs 
Buch  (cd.  by  Semlcr,  Hal.  17G(i.)    J.  Jl.  Bulthasar,  Hist  d.  Torjr.  B.  Grclfsw.  1741-4.  6th  pL 

d)  Chi/tniei  Epp.  llonnov.  1014.  p.  417.  Torg.  Buch,  Semler,  p.  7Sss.— <;.  Queck,  de  M.nrt 
Chemnitio.  Jen.  1S40. 


410  MODKUN  cm  K(  M  IIISTOKV.     VKK.  V.     A.  D.  1517-lClS, 

roconcilo  their  u]>i)arcnt  inconsistency.  Calvin's  liideous  doctrines  of  tho 
Eucharist  and  of  Trcdcstination  are  condemned,  and  the  Lutheran  doctrine 
of  tlie  Lord's  Supper,  involving  the  omnipresence  of  Christ's  body  by  virtue 
of  a  mutual  comuuinication  of  the  attributes  of  his  two  natures  from  the 
time  of  his  conception,  was  sustained.  A  general  synod  for  deciding  upon 
the  new  creed  had  been  promised,  but  it  was  now  looked  upon  as  dangerou?, 
and  was  finally  avoided.  The  Form  of  Concord  was  adopted  by  the  imperial 
Diet,  and  all  Avho  held  office  in  the  several  schools  or  churches  under  it  were 
required  to  subscribe  it.  (e)  It  was,  however,  rejected  by  Hesse,  Nassau, 
Anhalt,  (/)  Pomerania,  Holstein,  {g)  Bremen,  Nuremberg,  Strasbourg,  and 
others,  on  the  ground  that  in  some  respects  it  was  too  rigid,  especially  when 
it  separated  two  much-beloved  heroes,  by  canonizing  the  one  and  making 
tho  very  name  of  the  other  offensive,  and  yet  many  pastors  despised  it  be- 
cause they  regarded  it  as  too  lenient  and  too  fluctuating  in  its  meaning.  (/() 
Its  original  object  was  therefore  never  completely  attained,  and  it  became  to 
the  Calvinists  and  the  Catholics  a  convenient  object  of  ridicule,  under  the 
title  of  the  Form  of  Discord.  Even  Julius,  Duke  of  Brunswick,  had  taken 
a  deep  interest  in  this  affair  through  Chemnitz,  whose  administration  was 
characterized  by  so  many  prelatical  tendencies,  and  through  his  own  treasu- 
rer. But  his  secular  and  his  religious  interests  were  not  quite  identical,  and 
he  felt  himself  painfully  wounded  by  some  of  the  friends  of  the  Form  of 
Concord.  He  therefore  withdrew  from  the  support  of  that  Confession,  and 
neither  in  Helmstadt  nor  in  any  part  of  Brunswick  could  it  stand  by  its  own 
power.  ((■)  But  besides  this  Form  of  Concord,  other  pieces  were  agreed  upon 
that  they  might  together  constitute  a  general  code  of  ecclesiastical  faith, 
viz. :  The  oecumenical  symbols  of  the  ancient  Church,  the  original  unchanged 
Confession  of  Augsburg  together  with  the  Apology,  the  Articles  of  Smal- 
kald,  and  Luther's  Catechisms.  This  Book  of  Concord,  with  a  prefiice,  and 
subscribed  with  the  names  of  as  many  of  the  imperial  states  as  were  of  the 
same  mind,  was  sent  forth  in  the  German  language  from  Dresden  ou  June 
25,  1580,  and  ever  since  in  its  isolation  has  constituted  the  mag7ia  charta  of 
German  Lutherauism. 

§  352.     Reaction  of  Saxon  Calvinism. 

Besclir.  d  calv.  Eotte,  die  sich  in  Sachsen  eingeschlichen.  Jena.  1591.    Samml.  \crinlschL  Nachrr. 
r.  siiclis.  Gesch.  Chemn.  1767ss.  vol.  IV.  V.    Kiesling,  (before  §  S47.) 

The  Philippists  in  Electoral  Saxony  were  neither  annihilated  nor  convinced 
that  they  Avere  wrong,  and  it  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  they  soon  ob- 
tained another  brief  victory  by  means  of  the  same  arbitrary  princely  power 
which  had  overthrown  them.  Christian  J.  (after  1586)  was  induced  by  his 
brother-in-law,  tho  Elector  Palatine,  to  attempt  a  compromise  with  them. 

e)  Comp.  Johanmen,  d.  IJnterschr.  d.  C.  F.  in  Sachsen.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1547.  11.  1.) 
/)  Johannsen,  d.  freie  Protestantism,  im  Fürst  Anhalt  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S46.  U.  2.) 
fJ^  J  bid.  Schlesw.  Holst  Stellung  z.  C.  F.  im  16.  Jhh.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S50.  U.  4.) 
A)  E.  g.  comp.  J.  Wiggerg,  KGesch.  Mccklenb.  Farchim.  1S40.  p.  170ss. 

i)  E.  L  T.  ITenlf,  d.  Univ.  Helmst  H.hI.  1S38.  p.  12äs.  C.  G.  II.  Lenk,  d.  C.  F.  im  Herzogt 
Braunschw.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1545.  II.  2.) 


CHAl'.  II.    LUTHEEANISM.    §  352.  CHELL.    §  353.  IIESHUSIUS.    KEPLER.      411 

His  chancellor,  Nichola.s  Crcll,  ■who  then  directed  public  affairs  Avithout  the 
counsel  of  the  nobles,  and  wished  to  be  called  neither  a  Lutheran  nor  a  Cal- 
vinist,  managed  in  such  a  way  as  gradually  to  effect  a  union  with  the  Re- 
formed Church.  AU  controversial  quarrels  iu  the  jjulpit  were  forbidden,  the 
principal  offices  in  the  parisbes  and  in  the  scbools  were  filled  with  Pliilippists, 
exorcism  in  baptism  was  abolished  in  spite  of  the  raurnmrs  of  the  people,  no 
more  subscriptions  to  the  Book  of  Concord  were  obtained,  and  an  edition  of 
the  Bible  was  commenced  with  comments  in  the  spirit  of  Melancthon.  In 
the  midst  of  these  proceedings,  however,  the  young  prince  died  (1591),  and 
no  sooner  was  Duke  Frederic  "William  I.,  the  guardian  of  his  successor,  es- 
tablished in  the  regency,  than  rigid  Lutheranism  Avas  again  restored.  Arti- 
cles of  Visitation,  expressing  the  most  decided  opi)Osition  to  Calvinism  and 
the  doctrine  of  predestination,  were  proclaimed  (1592),  and  all  officers  in 
Church  and  state  were  required  to  adopt  them  under  oath,  (n)  A  spirit  of  re- 
venge induced  the  nobles  to  offer  their  swords  as  instruments  of  the  rage  of 
the  divines,  and  after  an  imprisonment  of  ten  year.«,  Crell  was  beheaded  for 
high  treason.  (J>) 

§  353.  Spirit  and  Result  of  the  Doctrinal  Controversy. 
During  these  theological  controversies,  the  idea  became  generally  preva- 
lent that  the  principal  fruit  of  the  Reformation  was  a  clearly  defined  system 
of  doctrines,  for  the  purity  of  which  every  pastor  and  congregation  felt  respon- 
sible to  God.  Every  other  feeling  and  right  was  obliged  either  to  yield  to 
this,  or  to  identify  itself  with  it.  Undismayed  by  misfortunes,  and  hurling  his 
treatises,  sermons,  and  excommunications  against  his  enemies  at  home  and 
abroad,  Tileman  Ilcshusius  was  seven  times  deposed  from  eminent  stations  in 
the  Church,  and  exiled  from  his  country.  But  the  literal  sense  for  which  lio 
zealously  contended  was  finally  turned  against  himseh*.  Wigand,  who  had 
been  his  companion  in  controversy  and  excommunication  for  Christ's  s;ike, 
and  was  now  like  him,  and  by  his  assistance  a  Prussian  bishop,  denounced 
him  as  a  heretic,  and  overtlirew  him  on  account  of  a  subtle  scholastic  fornmla. 
lie,  however,  still  maintained  a  calm  and  dignified  consciousness  that  ho  was 
struggling  in  the  service  of  his  Lord,  and  in  his  last  will  expressed  no  regret, 
except  that  he  had  not  punished  sinners  with  greater  severity,  and  had  not 
contended  against  factious  persons  with  an  intenser  zeal  (d.  1588).  («)  Kep- 
ler (d.  1G31),  who,  while  listening  to  the  harmonies  of  the  universe,  investi- 
gated the  laws  of  the  planetary  motions  that  ho  might  with  devout  joy  make 
knuwn  to  others  the  miracles  of  divine  wi.sdom,  and  would  rather  starve  than 
apostatize  from  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  was  driven  from  the  Lord's  fold 
as  an  unsound  sheep,  because  lie  would  not  subscribe  the  articles  in  which  the 
Calvinists  were  condenmed,  and  doubted  whether  the  body  of  Christ  wa? 
truly  omnipresent.    Ilis  mother  also  died  iu  fetters  under  the  accusation  ot 

a)  Lil.rl  Symb.  3  cd.  by  Ifasf,  p.  CXXVII.s.«.  S.')7ss. 

h)  Bluvif,  Li'iclionpr.  ü.  d.  cusUdirton  u.  onllmiii>tot<>n  Dr.  N.  Or.  Lp.i.  1601.  4.  Ills  controv. 
writings  in  Wiilrh  vol.  II.  p.  Ml.—/Ciigelck;'ii,  d.  N.  Cr.  Kost,  1721.  4.  //.  G.  I/iis»e,  d.  Bedeut. 
d.  (."roH'schen  rrooesst'.«,  a  arcliiv.  I'.eilrr.  (Ziitsoli.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S4?.  II.  2.)— Chr.  Gundennani 
»u  Lcijizis  Kla^o  I'ein  u.  Delientdnis.  (satyr.  Gclidit.)  1532.  4. 

a)  J.  G.  Leuckfeld,  Hist.  lIcshusianiL  Cjiicdiinb.  1710.  4. 


412  MODERN  CllUnClI  HISTOÜV.     PKH.  V.     A.  !>.  1&1T-1643. 

boiiiff  ft  witcli.  (//)  Tlio  oi)positi()n  to  tlio  Form  of  Conconl  gradually  disap- 
j)eart'(l  wlicn  it«  most  decided  opponents  went  over  to  the  Kelbrined  Church, 
but  tho  Hchism  between  the  two  churches  became  permanent,  in  consequence 
of  tiio  food  whioli  was  then  so  plentifully  supplied  to  tho  relipious  passions 
of  tlio  people.  Tlio  writings  of  Chemnitz  and  Ilutter,  composed  in  the  spirit 
of  the  strictest  Lutheranism,  were  then  generally  cöteenied,  and  supplied  tho 
place  formerly  occupied  by  the  theological  works  of  Melancthon.  (c)  Their 
ascendency  was  also  sustained  by  the  independent  authority  of  the  literature 
of  that  period.  John  Gerhard  (d.  at  Jena,  1037)  attained  the  dignity  of  a 
Protestant  ecclesiastical  Father,  in  consequence  of  a  happy  combination  of 
polemic  learning  and  quiet  devotion.  The  sphere  of  his  literary  and  official 
activity  was  very  extensive,  and  when  almost  every  thing  seemed  to  be  in 
ruins  around  him,  his  talents  were  devoted  to  the  work  of  preserving  and  au- 
thenticating what  he  esteemed  useful  and  true.  ('/)  But  the  youthful  energies 
of  Protestantism  were  much  impaired  even  in  the  midst  of  its  victories  by  these 
controversies,  and  Melancthon's  condemnation  as  a  heretic  was  felt  to  be  a  dark 
shadow  upon  the  original  principles  and  type  of  the  Reformation. 

11.   Calvinism. 

LöscJier,  (§  335.)  J.  G.  Walch,  hist  u.  theol.  Einl.  in  d.  Streitig,  sonderlich  ansser  d.  luth.  K.  8 
cd.  Jen.  1733SS.  5  vols.  Jleppe,  (before  §  317.)  [Jferle  d'Auhigyie,  Spirit  of  the  Eef.  Church,  Mi3 
cell.  Writings.  New  York.  1S46.  p.  245ss.] 

§  354.  German  Reformed  Church. 
After  the  violent  rejection  of  Philippism,  a  German  Reformed  Church 
sprung  up  in  the  midst  of  the  established  churches  where  it  had  prevailed, 
by  the  side  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  Switzerland.  Although  it  originally 
did  not  expressly  adopt  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  and  never  received  the 
peculiar  stamp  of  Calvin's  character,  it  wore  a  Calvinistic  aspect,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  special  fellowship  with  Calvinistic  churches,  and  its  reception  of 
a  large  number  of  Calvinistic  refugees,  through  whom  its  institutions  became 
based  upon  the  exclusive  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  {a)  In  the  Palatinate^ 
where  the  Reformation  received  its  original  character  also  from  the  influence 
of  !Melancthon,  the  sovereignty  was  exercised  by  Frederic  III^  who  desired 
in  the  Eucharist  to  partake  of  nothing  but  an  entire  Christ,  with  all  his  bene- 
fits. After  the  disorders  excited  by  Heshusius'  eflorts  to  establish  Lutheran- 
ism, he  deposed  every  clergyman  (Aug.  1560)  who  would  not  accommodate 
his  views  to  those  of  Melancthon  (§  350.  nt.  Ä.),  and  after  the  diet  of  princes 
at  Naumburg  he  still  adhered  to  the  amended  Confession  of  Augsburg,  and 

V)  J.  V.  Breitschicert,  Job.  Keppler's  Leben  n.  "Wirken.  Stuttg.  1831.  Comp.  Tholuck,  verin. 
Bcbrr.  vol.  11.  p.  3S4sa.    [Life  of  Keppler,  in  Lib.  of  Us.  Know.  Lond.  1S33.] 

c)  Ilutterus  redivlvus,  bv  K.  Ilase,  7  ed.  Lps.  1S4S.  p.  SSs. 

«0  Moditationes  sacrae,  1C06.  12.  and  often.  Uebers.  \.  IT.  A.  ScJtmidt,  Brl  (15-27.)  1SS7.  Loci 
th.  Jon.  1610-2-2.  9  vols.  4.  den.  ed.  CoUa,  Tub.  17G2ss.  20  vols.  4  Methodus  studii  th.  Jen.  1617.  ed. 
4.  1654.  Schola  pict.itis  d.  i.  chr.  Unterrichtung,  was  vor  Ursachen  z.  GottseeL  bewogen  sollen.  Jena. 
1623.  6  cd.  Nürnb.  1663.  Confessio  cath.  Jon.  1633-7.  4  vol?.  4.  Frcf.  1679.  f.  Dispp.  quibus  dogmni. 
Calvinianor.  exper.duntur.  Jen.  163S.  4— £".  J  Fischer,  Tita  J.  G.  Lps.  17-23.  Hist  ecc.  p.  XVIL  Ic 
vlu  J.  O.  illnstr.  Lps.  1727. 

fl)  tf''PP«,  d.  Charakter  d.  deutsch.-Ref.  K.  u.  d.  Verb.  drs.  z.  Lutbertb.  u.  Calv.  (Stul.  u.  Kri( 
1S50.  IL  3.) 


CHAP.  II.    CALVINISM.    J  354.  PALATINATE.     HESSE.  413 

introduced  into  the  clinrches  the  simplicity  and  chilliness  of  Switzerland 
(1562).  By  his  authority,  Ursinus  and  Olevianus  composed  the  Uddelherg 
Catecliism^  wliich  was  soon  after  not  only  received  as  the  Creed  of  the  Ger- 
man Reformed  Church,  but  has  been  highly  esteemed  in  many  foreign  coun- 
tries. The  devotional  spirit  of  this  Confession  gives  prominence  to  the  doc- 
trine of  divine  Predestination  only  so  far  as  it  seemed  needful  to  console  the 
Christian  Avith  the  certainty  of  redemption,  and  to  that  of  the  Eucharist  only 
to  impart  an  assurance  of  communion  with  Christ,  (h)  At  the  religious  con- 
ference held  for  the  reconciliation  or  for  the  conversion  of  parties  at  MauU 
Irunn  (1564),  the  theology  of  "Wurtemberg  was  found  to  be  in  striking  con- 
trast with  that  of  the  Palatinate,  and  the  doctrine  of  the  Eucharist  based 
upon  that  of  the  ubiquity  of  Christ's  body  exhihited  sufficient  power  to  divide 
the  Church,  (c)  Under  Ix)uis  VI.  (1576)  LutheranLsm  was  established,  but 
after  his  death  (1583),  the  Calvinistic  tendency  became  predominant.  The 
latter  also  triumphed  in  the  midst  of  violent  popular  commotions  in  Bremen 
(1561-81),  although  the  cathedral  was  finally  opened  (1638)  to  the  Lutherans, 
Avho  could  not  be  entirely  exterminated  there.  (»/)  In  Anhalt^  the  ecclesias- 
tical establishment  of  the  Palatinate  was  adopted  from  attachment  to  Melanc- 
thon  (1596).  (c)  Under  a  similar  influence,  Xussau^  protesting  against  the 
monster  ubiquity  in  the  Form  of  Concord,  was  induced  to  adopt  the  lleidel- 
berg  Catechism  (1582),  and  in  consequence  of  its  relation  to  the  house  of 
Orange,  it  was  brought  to  accept  of  the  ecclesiastical  system  which  prer\'ailed 
in  the  Netherlands  (1586).  (/)  Maurice,  the  learned  Landgrave  of  IIchsc- 
CasscI,  after  many  fruitless  eftbrts  to  reconcile  the  two  Churches,  compelled 
the  Lutheran  Church  to  adopt  such  improvements  (1605)  as  ultimately  brought 
them  into  the  Calvinistic  communion ;  but  in  Upper  llesse  Lutheranisiu  still 
prevailed.  ((/)  Notwithstanding  many  disturbances,  the  established  churches 
generally  followed  the  form  of  reformation  adopted  by  their  respective  princes, 
for  no  alternative  was  allowed  their  ministers  but  cither  to  preach  the  doc- 
trines embraced  by  the  civil  authorities,  or  to  leave  the  country.  John  Sigis- 
mund,  Üie  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  once  gave  his  oath  to  his  father  that  he 
■would  never  forsake  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  but  on  Christmas  1613,  ho  re- 
ceived tl)o  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  court  church  in  Berlin,  ac- 
cording to  the  Calvinistic  ritual.  In  the  confession  of  faith  which  he  made 
(1614),  he  declares  that  in  professing  himself  of  the  Reformed  Evangelical 
Church,  he  acted  without  regard  to  the  authority  of  human  names,  under 
the  direction  of  the  Holy  Spirit  through  the  Scriptures,  that  his  object  w.-is  to 
«ast  away  all  remnants  of  papal  superstition,  (//)  and  that  in  God's  cause  he 

I)  First  impression  In  Qennan  and  Latin,  Hcidclb.  15<53.    Niemeyer,  Col.  Confess,  p.  LVII, 
SOOss.— Ä  V.  Alpeii,  Ocsili.  u.  Lit  d.  lUld.  Cut  Erl.  1S()0.    Augunti  (411.)  p.  9Gs8. 

c)  (Ursinus)  Protocull  d.  1.  Acta  d.  Qcsjir.  zii  Maulb.  Ildlb.  10<J5.  4.     Jfej'J'f,  Oescli.  d.  dt  Prot 
Tol.  XL  p.  71ss. 

d)  Genies,  IMst.  niotuum  ecc.  In  ctv.  nretiicnsi  tcuip.  Ilnrdcnbergll.  Gron.  1750.    J.  11.  Duntz«, 
Gesch.  d.  fr.  Stadt.  Hr.  Itreiii.  1S4'?.  vol.  IlL  p.  859ss. 

e)  Ilepctltlo  Anlinltln«.  1579.     Niemeyer,  Col.  p.   Cl'iss.     Jkckmann,  Illst.  d.  Fürst  Anhalt 
Zcrbst  1710s?.  vol.  VI.  p.  I'ilw. 

f)  J.  IT.  Stellhing.  K.  u.  Kef.  Gcsch.  d.  Oranlcn-Xa,s».  I.ando,  Iladain.  1S04. 
0)  Jleppe,  d.  Kiiifülir.  d.  Verbcssorungspunkte  In  Hessen.  löiH-lO.  Cass.  1S49. 
A)  Nienxeyer  \\  LXXVII,  Wiss. 


414  MODERN  CIIUECII  IIISTOKV.     I'KU.  V.     A.  I).  1517-1C4S. 

wju  ,iot.  boiiml  by  liis  previous  covenant.  Althouf,'h  lio  souglit  to  iinluco 
oth^fs  to  follow  him,  divested  the  University  of  Frankfort  of  its  Lutheran 
character,  and  abolished  the  legal  authority  of  the  Foi-m  of  Concord,  he  only 
dcniandod  Christian  toleration  from  his  own  country  ;  and  yet  so  great  Avas 
tho  dissatisfaction  of  the  Lutheran  i)eoplc  of  the  Marquisate  and  of  Prussia, 
that  however  beneficial  such  a  change  of  faith  may  have  been  to  his  foreign 
relations,  it  could  not  on  the  Avhole  have  been  recommended  on  the  score  of 
mere  expediency.  (/)  The  feelings  of  those  connected  with  the  Reformed 
I>arty  were  much  more  decided,  and  those  Lutherans  who  went  over  to  it 
never  looked  upon  themselves  as  apostates,  inasmuch  as  they  still  firmly  ad- 
liercd  to  tho  Confession  of  Augsburg  (of  15i0).  In  the  Religious  Peace  no 
Micntioii  had  been  made  of  the  Reformed  Church,  but  its  members  claimed 
the  privileges  of  those  professing  a  faith  kindred  with  that  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession.  Accordingly,  in  the  negotiations  on  this  subject  at  the  Diet  of 
Augsburg  (1576),  and  under  the  influence  of  the  evangelical  spirit  of  Fred- 
eric IIL,  the  Lutherans  did  not  venture  in  the  presence  of  the  Catholic  impe- 
rial party  to  repel  these  powerful  allies,  (k) 

§  355.      17ie  Ketherlands. 

G.  Brandt.  Hist.  dor.  Eeformatie  de  Nedorl.inden.  Amst  (I663ss.)  1C77.  4  vols.  4  Engl.  Lond. 
1720.  4  vols.  French,  Abstnict  Amst.  1730.  3  vols.  12.  D.  Gerdes,  H.  Ref.  vol.  III.  Tpey  en.  Der- 
tnont.  Geschiedenissen  der  Nederkndsclie  hervormde  Kerk.  Breda.  1S19-27.  4  vols. — Correspondance 
Je  Philippe  II.  sur  les  affaires  des  Paysbas,  publice  par  Gachard,  Par.  1S4S-51.  2  vols.  [SchiUer, 
Kovolt  of  the  Netherlands.  New  York.  1S47.  12.  T.  C.  G-'iUan,  Hist,  of  the  Netherl.  Philad. 
1S81.  12.] 

The  Netherlands  were  inhabited  by  an  industrious  and  thriving  people, 
especially  jealous  of  their  municipal  and  provincial  rights,  and  according  to 
tho  most  ancient  laws  were  regarded  as  a  fief  of  the  empire.  But  in  conse- 
quence of  a  connection  by  marriage  between  the  house  of  ITapsburg  and  the 
royal  family  of  Spain,  it  became  subject  to  the  Spanish  crown.  Such  a 
peojilo  were  sure  to  welcome  the  principles  of  the  Reformation,  and  the  way 
had  long  been  prepared  for  their  promulgation.  The  first  step  was  taken  by 
the  general  diffusion  of  Luther's  writings,  but  as  the  people  were  more  con- 
nected with  Switzerland  and  France,  the  Reformed  faith  made  the  greatest 
progress  among  them.  Here  in  his  patrimonial  dominions,  Charles  Y. 
evinced  the  strength  of  his  attachment  to  the  Church,  by  a  complete  enforce- 
ment of  the  edict  of  Worms.  Hundreds  died  in  prison  or  on  the  scaffold. 
"When  the  emperor  had  become  fatigued  with  the  cares  of  sovereignty  and 
of  life,  his  son  Philip  11.^  to  whom  he  surrendered  the  Netherlands,  and  to 
whom  all  civil  and  religious  liberty  was  equally  odious,  sent  thither  the  in- 
quisition for  the  extirpation  of  both.  The  heroes  of  the  nation  fell  beneath 
the  axe  of  the  executioner  or  the  knife  of  the  assassin.  After  enduring  in- 
credible hardships,  the  people,  witli  their  swords  in  their  hands,  ventured  to 
demand  their  rights.    The  struggle  for  their  faith  was  in  some  respects  difler- 


t)  D  IT.  ITeHng.  hist  Nacbr.  t.  d.  Anfang,  d.  ev.  ref.  K.  in  Brandenb.  n.  Preussen.  Hal.  i;7?. 
A.  Müller,  (§  3:i7.  nt  c.)  p.  826ss.  E.  2/elicing,  Gesch.  d.  Prenss.  Staats.  Lemgo.  1S34.  vol.  I.  p 
'.Xt'ss. 

i'i  Slruve,  pmir.  KUist  Cap.  5.  p.  ISOs. 


CHAP.  II.     CALVINISM.    §  356.  DORT.     ARMIXIUS.     GROTIU^.  415 

ent  from  the  civil  war  in  which  they  contended  for  their  ancient  rights,  but 
both  were  carried  on  under  the  skilful  direction  of  the  heroic  prince  of 
Orange.  The  ornaments  found  in  the  ancient  churches  were  entirely  de- 
stroyed. The  seven  northern  provinces  in  which  German  manners  and  an 
evangelical  faith  jirevailed,  formed  (1570)  a  confederation  called  the  Union 
of  Utrecht.  The  civil  and  religious  freedom  of  these  provinces  was  not, 
however,  acknowledged  by  Spain  until  it  became  so  completely  exhausted 
tliat  it  was  obliged  to  conclude  an  armistice  (1609). 

§  356.  Synod  of  Dort.     Xov.  13,  l(jl3-cnd  of  .!/<///,  1019. 

Acta  Synodi  n.itlonalis  Dordrechti  liab.  Lngil.  B.  1020,  f  Ilan.  1620.  4.  Acta  et  scr.  synofialia  Ee- 
monstrantium.  Harder.  1020.  4.  Ualesil  Hist  Cone.  Dordraccnl,  ed.  Jfoshem.  limb.  1T24.  Epp. 
pracstant.  et  erud.  viroruni  ccc.  et  tlieol.  Amst,  (1660.  16S4.)  1704.  f.  Lltterae  delegatorura  Ilassiacor 
ad  Landgrav.  niiss.ae.  ed.  ab  //  Ueppe,  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Tli.  1SÖ3.  II.  i.)-J.  üerjtnhooff,  Hist.  d.  De- 
monstranten. Amst.  1774.  3  vols.  a.  d.  IIolI.  (v.  Cramer.)  Lemgo.  17S1.  2  vols.  JA  Gm/,  Bcitrr.  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Syn.  v.  Dord.  Bas.  1S25.  [Artt.  of  the  Syn.  of  I),  with  the  Hist.  &c.  by  the  States-Gen. 
from  the  Lat.  by  T.  Scott,  Utica.  1831.  12.     X.  Chuttluin,  Hist  d.  Syn.  d.  Dordrecht  Par.  1S41.  8.] 

In  the  University  of  Lcydon,  established  under  the  influence  of  the  Re- 
formation, the  spirit  of  Zwinglo  came  into  open  conflict  witl»  the  victorious 
spirit  of  Calvin.  Arminim  (d.  1G09)  having  become  pcriilcxed  with  respect 
to  the  doctrine  of  unconditional  predestination,  Gomnrua  defended  it  against 
him.  {it)  Both  became  leaders  of  opposite  parties,  and  when  Armiuius  at- 
tempted to  establish  an  ecclesiastical  peace  among  those  congregations  whicli 
had  abandoned  the  papacy  on  the  basis  of  a  few  simple  articles  selected  from 
the  Scriptures,  and  regarded  as  essential  to  salvation,  the  effect  was  to  tlireat- 
cn  the  young  Church  and  republic  of  the  Netherlands  with  an  open  division. 
A  justification  of  their  creed,  called  the  Ju' monstrance^  was  presented  (IGIO) 
by  the  party  of  Armiuius  to  tlie  assembled  states  of  Ilolland  and  "West  Fries- 
Lind.  {h)  But  as  most  of  the  ministers  had  been  educated  at  Geneva,  Calvin- 
ism had  the  ascendency  among  the  clergy,  and  tlirough  tlieir  influence  among 
the  common  people,  to  whom  the  merits  of  the  controversy  were  unknown. 
But  the  venerable  Oldenharneveld  and  Hugo  Grotius,  who  as  a  humanist 
and  a  statesman  had  paid  some  attention  to  tlieology,  were  at  that  time 
political  leaders  in  the  republican  party,  and  were  the  protectors  of  the  Iic- 
moiistnoits.  {(■)  This  was  sufKcieut  to  induce  Maurice,  rrinco  of  Orange^  the 
StadthoUler  and  the  General  of  tlio  Republic,  then  striving  to  attain  the 
supreme  jjower,  to  form  a  connection  with  tlio  Calvinists.  A  synod  was 
called  by  the  States-General  for  the  determination  of  the  controversy. 
Although  all  the  Reformed  churches  except  that  of  Anhalt  were  invited  to 
take  part  in  its  delil>eration.<(,  the  number  of  foreign  deputies  actually  i)resent 
was  very  small  in  comparison  with  tliat  of  the  members  from  the  Netlicr- 
laud.s.     Even  before  the  synod  was  opened,  the  Prince  of  Orange  by  an  act 

a)  Annin ii  0pp.  tliool.  L.  B.  1629.  4.  and  often.  [Works  of  J.  Arm.  cd.  by  J.  Xicftnlii,  Lond.  9 
vols.  S.]  G.  ßronilt,  Hist.  Vitao  .\riiiiiill.  ed.  Monhi'm.  Ilrtinsv.  172.'>.  [»V.  Biinga,  Life  of  ArmiQ-ua, 
Now  York.  1S44.  12.    Life  and  Works  of  A  publ.  In  Auburn,  1SÖ2.  2  vols,  S.] 

V)  In  Lat  in  the  Kpp.  i>raest  ct  erud.  Vlroruin,  cd.  2.  p.  14.">. 

e)  If.  Luiten,  Hu?o  Grotiu«  nach  Schicks,  u.  Schrr.  Brl.  IS'JS.  [J/.Z)«  ßuiijuy.  Life  of  IL  Qro- 
Uus,  tran.-I.  fiMin  Fr.  Lum.I.  1754.  S.] 


416  MODKKN  CHURCH  III.STOUY.     VIM.  V.     A.  i).  151T-10IS. 

of  exori)itant  power  expolk-d  all  who  belonged  to  the  republican  party.  TLo 
members  of  tlio  synod,  therefore,  consisting  of  thirty -six  pastors,  twenty 
ciders,  and  five  jirofessors,  were  selected  with  some  degree  of  arbitrariness, 
and  it  was  obvious  tliat  tlic  fate  of  the  Remonstrants  was  decided  upon  be- 
fore the  oi)fnin^'  of  the  meeting.  Their  s])iritufd  leaders,  imder  the  conduct 
of  Episc()piu.s,  the  eloquent  and  inflexible  successor  of  Arminius,  (il)  were 
suiunioned  before  the  sj'nod  merely  as  accused  persons.  They  there  protest- 
ed against  an  unconditional  submission  of  themselves,  but  notwithstanding 
the  milder  views  of  the  foreign  deputies,  they  were  declared  by  a  majority 
of  votes,  and  by  the  authority  of  the  word  of  God,  incapable  of  any  ecclesi- 
astical or  academic  functions  until  they  should  penitently  return  to  the  fel- 
lowship of  the  Church.  In  most  of  the  provinces  of  the  Union,  those 
preachers  and  teachers  belonging  to  the  Remonstrant  party  wlio  Avould  not 
innnediately  resign  every  spiritual  office  were  expelled  from  the  country. 
But  after  the  death  of  Maurice  (1625),  when  the  Republican  party  again 
obtained  the  ascendency,  the  Arminians  were  tolerated,  and  their  churches 
became  numerous  and  flourishing  on  account  of  their  liberal  exegetical  litera- 
ture, (e)  The  Articles  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  were  confirmed  by  the  States- 
General,  and  although  they  received  legal  authority  in  no  foreign  country 
but  France,  Calvinism  became  henceforth  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Re- 
formed Church.  Calvin's  twofold  doctrine  of  predestination,  based  upon 
that  of  original  sin,  was  in  some  degree  modified  in  them,  and  all  who  pro- 
perly used  the  means  of  grace  were  told  that  they  need  have  no  doubt  of 
their  final  salvation.  (/)  But  even  the  tendency  which  proceeded  from 
Zwingle  and  Melancthon  was  fostered,  and  occupied  a  subordinate  position  in 
the  churches.  Its  most  important  original  record,  after  the  Ileidelberg  Cate- 
chism, is  the  creed  left  by  Bullinger,  and  adopted  through  the  influence  of 
the  Elector  Palatine  by  the  Swiss  Confederacy  under  the  name  of  the  Second 
Helvetic  Confession  (1566).  According  to  it  the  promises  of  God  are  general 
for  all  believers,  {(j) 


CHAP.  III.— PROGRESS  OF  THE  REFORMATION  THROUGH 

EUROPE. 

§  357.     Urdted  Aiistrian  States,  until  1609. 

Eaupack,  ev.  Oest  Hmb,  1782ss.  3  vols.  4.  Waldav,  Gcsch.  d.  Prot,  in  Ocst.  Ansp.  17S3.  2 
vols.—.;:  £urii.  Hist.  dipl.  do  statu  reL  ev.  in  Hung.  s.  1.  1710.  f.  (P.  Emher)  Hist.  Ecc  ref.  in 
Ilung.  et  Transsylvania,  ed.  Lampe,  Traj.  172S.  4.  J.  Jiibini,  Memor.  Aug.  Conf.  in  Ilung.  Poson. 
17S7SS.  2  vols.  Die  wichtigsten  Schicksale  d.  ev.  K.  Augs.  Bt-k.  in  L'ng.  1520- 160S.  Lps.  1?0S. 
[Miinj/ay)  Hist,  ecc.  cv.  A.  C.  addictorum  in  Ilung.  Halb.  1S30.  Corpus  Synodonim  Aug.  Conf.  in 
Hung.  ed.  J.  Szeherinyi,  Pe«th.  1S48.  O.  Uaner,  Hist  Ecc.  Transylvanicar.  Frcf.  et  Lps.  1694. 
"^I—Pontani  a  Braiteiiherg,  Bok.  pia.  Frcf.  160S.  f.—BucholU.  (p.  85S.)  /ia7ile,  ü.  d.  Zeiten 
Ferd.  I.  u.  Max.  II.  iu  s.  Zeitsch.  vol.  L  p.  223. 

German  Protestantism  was  extensively  diffused  at  an  early  period  among 


d)  P/ua  LimhorcK  Vita  Episc.  Amst  1701.    J.  Konynenhurg,  Landes  Ep.  Ibid.  1791.  4 
<)  Adr.  a  Cattenhurgh,  Bibl.  Scrr.  Kemonstr.  AmsL  1728.    G.  S.  I'rancke,  de  Hist  dogniatam 
Arminianorum.  Kil.  1S14.    D.  de  Bray,  Essai  sor  I'Hist  de  I'eglise  Arminlenne.  Strasb.  1S35.  4 
/)  Xifmeyer,  Col.  p.  690ss. 
g)  Ed.  0.  P.  PritMchf,  Tur.  1SS9.  in  Niemeyer  p.  462s3. 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  EEFOEM.    §  357.  AUSTRIA.     HUNGARY.  417 

the  higher  classes  in  Austria.  Ferdinand  /.,  during  the  last  years  of  his 
reign,  stood  aloof  from  the  strife  of  parties.  Alaxbnilian  II.  (1564—76), 
Avhom  the  Protestants  regarded  as  a  secret  believer  in  their  principles,  and 
the  Eomans  as  an  apostate,  endeavored  to  reconcile  both  sides,  and  to  pro- 
mote a  general  reform  consistently  "with  the  laws,  hy  giving  to  the  knights 
and  to  tlie  jirincely  cities  the  privilege  of  forming  an  ecclesiastical  system 
according  to  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.  Hungarian  students  "who  studied 
at  Wittenberg  and  returned  to  their  native  country  imbued  with  Lutheran 
sentiments,  "Waldenses,  Ilussite.s,  and  Humanists,  "were  all  instrumental  in 
carrying  the  principles  of  the  Reformation  in  every  direction.  The  most 
sanguinary  laws  were  insufficient  to  impede  the  progress  of  these  agencies. 
All  laws  were  silent  during  the  storm  which  followed  tlie  battle  of  Mohacs 
(1526).  No  greater  severity  against  the  Protestants  was  exercised  by  the 
house  of  Ilapsburg  when  its  hold  upon  Hungary  was  so  precarious,  than  "was 
indispensable  to  its  OAvn  security;  and  wherever  the  Turks  held  sway,  a  form 
of  worship  in  which  no  images  were  used  might  be  extended  without  ob- 
struction. Ferdinand  I.  conceded  to  a  few  magnates  and  towns  in  his  domin- 
ions the  enjnyment  of  a  free  religious  toleration,  "which  was  still  further 
increased  under  Maximilian.  The  Reformed  churches  became  equally  numer- 
ous, and  soon  began  to  be  disturbed  by  controversies.  The  writings  of  Luther 
were  also  carried  into  Transylvania  by  some  merchants  of  Ilermanstadt.  on 
their  return  from  the  fair  at  Leipsic  (1521).  After  enduring  many  persecu- 
tions, all  the  Saxon  churches  declared  themselves  adherents  of  the  Augsburg 
Confession  (1544),  the  Magyars  connected  themselves  with  the  Reformed 
Church,  and  the  Wallachians  continued  to  worship  according  to  the  Greek 
ritual.  During  the  civil  "wars  which  took  place  in  Hungary  for  the  posses- 
sion of  the  throne,  complete  religious  freedom  was  granted  to  Transylvania 
at  the  Diet  of  Clausenhurg  (1556).  In  an  election  of  a  king  of  Bohemia 
(1526),  Ferdinand  was  chosen  instead  of  the  Duke  of  Bavaria,  principally  on 
account  of  the  favor  which  he  showed  to  the  Utraqukts.  In  the  commence- 
ment of  the  Smalkaldic  war  tlie  Electors  of  Saxony  were  invested  with  the 
power  to  command  the  army  furnished  by  the  Bohemian  states  in  any  way 
which  might  promote  tlie  common  cause.  These,  in  consequence  of  Luther'i 
success,  had  regained  their  former  spirit  and  power,  had  become  reconciled 
with  the  Bohemian  brethren,  and  now  combined  their  Hussite  sentiments 
partly  with  Lutheran  and  partly  with  Reformed  doctrines.  (</)  Budolph  II. 
(after  1576)  permitted  evangelical  persons  in  all  parts  of  his  dominions  to  be 
oppressed,  freedom  of  opinion  was  confined  to  the  nobility,  and  divine  wor- 
ship (after  1004)  was  entirely  suppres.'^ed  by  puldic  violence.  Stephen  Bot- 
skai,,  Prince  of  Transylvania,  "whose  power  was  coit'^iderablo  on  account  of 
his  alliance  with  the  Turks,  no-v  took  up  arms  for  the  establishment  of  po- 
litical and  religious  liberty.  He  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Peace  of  Vienna 
(160G),  by  which  Hungary  and  Transylvania  were  allowed  freely  to  receive 
either  the  Augsburg  or  the  Helvetic  Confession,  {h)    In  the  latter  province 

a)  Confession  of  1535  ic  1575  In  Lat  In  Nifmeyer,  Col.  p.  771.  619s8.  With  many  origin»! 
documents:  Die  andcro  Apologia  der  Stünde  d.  K.  Bub  el  mb,  a.  d.  bulim.  Spr.  in  die  teutfche  ver- 
tetrt  a,  1610.  4. 

h)  Pacificatio  Vionncnsls  In  Enibfr- Lampe,  p.  3'2.'5ss. 
'^7 


418  Ml  II )KKN  CHURCH  niSTORT.    PKR.  V.    A.  D.  1,M7-1C48. 

popery  liiiil  lioiii  cntiroly  renounced,  and  in  Hungary  .a  innjority  of  the 
people  and  nearly  all  tlio  nobles  had  done  the  same.  AVhilc  the  members  of 
the  honse  of  llapsbnrg  were  contending  with  one  another,  the  evangeli«il 
states  of  Anstrin,  with  arms  in  their  hands,  obtained  from  the  Archduke 
Matthias  the  restoration  of  all  the  privileges  they  had  acquired  under  Maxi- 
milian. The  Bohemians  at  the  same  time  received  from  the  Emperor  Ru- 
dolph an  imperial  charter,  (<•)  by  -whicli  they  were  placed  on  the  same  ground 
with  the  Catholics,  and  the  supreme  power  was  conceded  to  the  states  (1609) 

§  358.     Sicedcn. 

J.  Biuu,  InvcntJirium  Eec.  Suco-Gothor.  Lincop.  1042.  4.  P.  E.  Thyselius,  Ilandlinfrar.  til 
Bverces  Retorinations-och  Kyrkohistoria  under  Gustaf.  I.  Stockli.  lSll-5.  2  vols.  (Comp.  Zeitsch.  f. 
bist.  Th.  1541;.  H.  2.  1S47.  II.  2.)— 7?.  C.  Römer,  du  Gust.  I.  rcrum  sacr.  instauratore.  Traj.  ad  Rli. 
1S40.  Geijer,  Gesch.  Scliw.  (p.  246.  nt  &.)  1834.  vol.  W.—Schinmeier,  Leb.  d.  drei  schwcd.  Keff.  Lor. 
Anderson,  Oluf  u.  Lor.  Peterson.  Lub.  17S3.  4. — A.  ThHner,  Schw.  u.  s.  Stellung  z.  h.  Stuhl,  unter 
Job.,  Sig.  and  Karl  IX.  Aumb.  1838.  f.  2  vols.  \_Vertot,  Rev.  In  S^v.  on  account  of  the  change  in 
Religion,  from  the  French  by  J.  Mitchel,  Lond.  1723.  8.] 

Sweden  had  been  delivered  from  the  sanguinary  hands  of  the  Danes  by 
Gustavus  Vasa  (after  1521).  The  Reformation  was  preached  there  by  the 
brothers  Olaf  and  Laicrcnce  Peterson^  who  had  studied  at  Wittenberg,  and 
were  so  constituted  by  nature  that  the  one  possessed  those  intellectual  quali- 
ties in  which  the  other  was  deficient.  The  bishops,  who  held  in  their  hands 
the  princii)al  wealth  of  the  country,  were  connected  with  the  Dani.-Qi  inter- 
est, and  the  new  government,  anxious  to  relieve  the  people  of  their  taxes 
and  to  pay  off  their  Hanseatic  mercenaries,  longed  to  obtain  possession  of  the 
property  of  the  Church.  A  public  discussion  was  held  under  the  royal  pro- 
tection at  Upsala  (1526),  and  a  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  made 
by  the  Chancellor  Anderson.  The  king,  sustained  by  the  nobility  and  peas- 
antry, humbled  the  bishops  at  the  Diet  of  Westcras  (1527),  and  took  posses- 
sion of  tlie  property  of  the  Church.  The  Reformation  was  introduced 
in  accordance  with  the  advice  of  Luther,  although  the  greater  portion  of  the 
people  for  a  long  time  received  only  its  external  form,  and  scarcely  noticed 
the  change,  and  even  the  king  had  cause  to  deny  that  any  change  had  taken 
place  in  the  national  religion.  Those  bishops  who  acknowledged  the  new 
order  of  things  remained  members  of  the  diet  and  superintendents  of  the 
Church,  but  they  were  made  dependent  upon  the  royal  favor,  and  their  pow- 
ers were  circumscribed  by  the  authority  of  consistories.  A  reconciliation 
with  Catholicism  was  sought  for  under  John  III.  (after  15C8),  whose  wife 
was  a  Polish  princess,  and  belonged  to  the  Catholic  Church ;  but  in  conse- 
quence of  the  refusal  of  the  Romish  court  to  concede  the  demands  of  the 
king,  and  the  opposition  of  the  people  to  the  Catholic  ritual,  the  etibrt  proved 
unsuccessful,  (a)  Sigismund,  King  of  Poland  and  (after  1592)  of  Sweden, 
atoned  for  his  attempt  to  oppress  tlio  evangelical  Church  by  the  loss  of  the 
Swedish  crown,  which  was  won  (1599,  1604)  by  his  uncle,  Charles  IX.,  the 
champion  of  Protestantism.     At  first  nothing  but  the  word  of  God  contained 

c)  A.  e.  bi.hm.  Urk.  übers,  m.  Anm.  v.  Boroft,  Gorl.  1803. 

a)  Hie  Jesuiten  als  Vermittler  e.  prot  Kirchenagende.  Brl.  Monatschr.  1794.  lately  ed.  by 
Bohr,  Neust.  1825. 


CHAP.  III.     EUROPEAN  r.EFORM.     g  359.  DENMARK.  419 

in  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  aclinowledged  as  the  creed  of  tlie  Church.  But 
finally  the  clergy,  that  they  might  meet  the  calumnies  of  their  Catholic  op- 
ponents, and  that  the  whole  Swedish  nation  might  have  but  one  God,  aud 
might  worship  him  as  one  man,  proclaimed  their  adherence  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession  in  1.593,  and  to  the  Form  of  Concord  in  1CG3,  (h)  and  a  law  was 
enacted  wliieh  provided  that  al]  who  sliould  apostatize  to  popery  should  be 
Danished  from  the  country. 

§  359.     Denmark  with  Noncay  and  Iceland. 

Pontoppidan,  (p.  246.  nt  a.)  vol.  IL  p.  754ss.  vol.  III.  Munter,  Danske  Ref.  Historie.  Kjübenh. 
2  vols.  n.  KGesch.  v.  Dun.  u.  Nor.  Lpz.  1834.  vol.  III.  Stemmer  fra  don  Danske  Kirkes  Rcf.  Tid. 
Odense.  1S36.  4 — Müleriz,  de  causis  propagatae  oeleriter  In  Dan.  ref.  Haf.  ISIT.  4. 

The  whole  power  of  the  Danish  state  was  shared  betweeu  the  bishops 
and  the  barons.  Chrhtiern  II.  was  elected  king  in  1513,  and  proved  to  be  a 
tyrant  under  the  tyranny  of  the  mother  of  his  paramour.  Under  him  the 
nobility  were  degraded,  the  people  were  exalted,  and  the  Reformation  was 
favored  that  he  might  obtain  the  mastery  of  the  bishops.  («)  On  his  expul- 
sion by  the  united  power  of  the  barons  and  prelates,  his  undo  Frederic  I.  of 
Holstein  (1523— 33  \  Avho  was  connected  by  marriage  with  the  house  of  Sax- 
ony, and  a  firm  friend  of  the  gospel,  was  raised  to  the  throne.  But  in  the 
stipulations  made  before  his  election,  he  pledged  himself  to  maintain  the 
privileges  and  rights  of  the  bishops,  and  to  punish  those  who  preached 
against  the  God  of  heaven  and  the  holy  Father  by  fines  and  bodily  chastise- 
ments. The  Reformation  continued  still  to  spread  among  the  people  until 
the  king  obtained  a  law  at  the  Diet  of  Odense  (1527),  by  whicli  Protestants 
and  Catholics  were  i>ut  in  possession  of  equal  civil  privileges,  the  marriage 
of  priests  was  tolerated,  and  the  election  of  bishops  was  rendered  indepen- 
dent of  Rome.  The  bishops  protested  against  the  succession  of  his  oldest 
son,  with  whom  Luther  was  known  to  be  on  terms  of  intimacy.  Christ icni 
III,  however,  succeeded  in  gaining  over  to  his  party  the  lay  members  of  the 
diet,  when  all  the  bishops  were  suddenly  attacked  on  the  20t]i  Aug.,  153G, 
and  their  freedom  was  obtained  only  by  the  renunciation  of  their  dignities. 
Ii'oennoic^  Bishop  of  Roeskild,  alone  would  yield  nothing  to  tlie  injury  of  liis 
Church,  and  died  the  death  of  a  martyr  in  ])rison  (1544).  At  a  diet  lield  at 
Copcnhiiffcn  (Oct.,  1530),  from  which  the  clergy  were  entirely  excluded,  the 
political  privileges  of  the  Church  were  completely  destroyed,  and  its  posses- 
sions were  shared  by  the  king  and  the  nobles.  The  king  was  crowned  by 
Bugcnhofjcn^  and  an  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  adopted  by  which  a  few 
titular  bishops  were  appointed,  and  the  Church  was  made  entirely  dependent 
upon  the  court.  ('')  The  Form  of  Concord  was  cast  into  the  tlanies  by 
Frederic  II.  (1581),  (')  but  during  the  17th  century  it  possessed  great  au- 
thority among  the  people.    The  new  Church  was  established  without  oppo- 

h)  Ev.  K.  Zc-ltun?.  1*35.  N.  56. 

a)  Diihlmdun,  Gesch.  v.  Diinnemark.  vol.  III.  p.  850ss. 

V)  ^fl'h)lU■e,  Kn^nung  Chr.  u.  s.  Oomalilln  durch  Bug.  Strals.  1S35.  Hunter,  Synibb.  ad  ill.  ^^- 
genlia^rii  in  Dania  conimorationein.  Hufn.  1^86. 

c)  J.  If.  (lb  Elmcic/i,  de  V.  C.  tmni  in  Danla  sit  combusta?  "Wit  1710.  4.  Gegen  s.  Zweifel  die 
Urkunde:  Genie«,  11.  Rcf.  vol.  III.  pracf. 


420  MODKUN  CIII'IICII  III.STOUV.     I'KIt.  V.     A.  I).  UlZ-lßia. 

Bition  in  Norway^  not,  however,  until  tlio  Archbishop  of  Drontheim  had  fled 
M-ifli  nil  the  oeclcf^iasticnl  treasures  (1537).  In  Iceland  the  Episcopal  party 
were  destroyed  while  struggling  with  arms  in  their  hands  (1550). 

§  360.     Poland.,  Livonia,  and  Koorland. 

Ailr.  Jifgenrolneii  (  WetigierKki),  Syst.  lilst.  ehron.  E«cl.  Slavonlcaniin.  Ultraj.  16.52.  4.  Jura  et 
llbortt,  DisMilentiiim  in  regno  Pol.  Uer.  1707.  f.  Sclilcksalo  d.  pol.  Disaid.  limb.  17CS5S.  3  voK  C. 
<!.  r.  Friese,  lief.  Gesch.  v.  Polilen  u.  Litth.  Brsl.  17SG.  3  vols.  G.  W.  0.  Lochner,  Fata  et  rationes 
fiiniilLinim  clir.  in  Pol.  quae  ab  Ece.  catli.  allenae  fuerunt,  nsquo  ad  consen.sns  Sendom.  tcinp.  (Acta 
Soc.  Jablonovianac.  Lps.  1S32.  Th.  IV.  Fsc.  2.)  C.  V.  Krasiniki,  llistor.  Sketch  of  the  i:i?e,  Pro- 
gress, r.nd  Decline  of  the  Ref.  in  Poland.  Lend.  ISSSss.  2  vols.  8vo.  bearb.  v.  Lindau.  Lpz.  1S41.— A'. 
L.  Tetsch,  knrl.  Kllist  Riga  u.  L.  1767ss.  3  vols.  J.  Lukaazeicicz,  Gesch.  d.  Ret  Kirchen  in  Lith. 
Lpz.  1349-50.  2  vols.  8.    [Ac  Account  of  Livonia  and  the  Marian  Ten.  Ord.  Lond.  1701.  S.] 

^fany  persons  expelled  from  various  countries  on  account  of  their  religion, 
found  an  asylum  in  Poland  under  the  protection  of  particular  nobles. 
Churches  had  therefore  been  formed  which  were  composed  of  Bohemian 
brethren,  of  the  Reformed,  and  of  Lutherans.  After  some  warm  controver- 
sies these  became  united  at  the  Synod  of  Scndomir  (1570),  nnder  one  gene- 
ral confession,  whose  indefinite  articles  afforded  room  for  minor  differences 
of  opinion.  («)  As  the  power  of  the  waiwodes  was  almost  nnlimited  in  their 
respective  domains,  the  kings  and  bishops  had  very  little  power  to  inflict 
persecution.  By  these  inferior  governors  a  religious  peace  was  concluded 
during  the  interregnum  (^Pax  Dissidcntium,  1573),  which  had  the  force  of  a 
law  of  the  empire  to  secure  equal  privileges  to  Catholics  and  Protestants. 
But  as  early  as  the  time  of  Sigismund  III.  (after  1587),  the  Catholic  party 
had  acquired  much  strength  by  means  of  the  inducements  which  the  king 
and  the  Church  could  present  to  the  higher  nobility,  while  many  of  the  Dis- 
sidents had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  general  confession  of  faith,  and  had 
renewed  the  former  controversies  in  the  body  to  which  they  belonged. 
Vladislaus  IV.  sought  in  vain  to  effect  a  general  reconciliation,  or  at  least  a 
mutual  understanding  of  the  contending  parties,  by  means  of  a  religious  dis- 
cussion held  at  Thorn  (1644).  (i^) — The  Grand  Master  of  Livonia  could  not 
refrain  from  following  the  example  of  Prussia,  although  the  archbishop 
arrayed  himself  in  defence  of  prescriptive  rights  and  the  ancient  faith, 
Riga  decided  in  favor  of  the  Reformation  (1523),  and  conscious  of  its  inde- 
pendence as  an  imperial  city,  it  became  a  member  of  the  League  of  Smal- 
kald  (1538).  ISTearly  all  the  population  had  embraced  the  cause  of  the 
Reformation  when  the  Grand  Master,  Conrad  Kctthr.,  assumed  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Koorland  and  Semigallia  (1561).  That  portion  of  Livonia,  how- 
ever,  which  was  situated  on  the  other  side  of  the  Dwina,  and  which  he 
could  not  defend  against  the  power  of  Russia,  was  ceded  to  Poland  on  con- 
dition that  it  should  be  permitted  to  profess  the  Augsburg  Confession. 

«)  Consensus  Scndomiriensls  Ficf.  ad  V.  nOi.—J<tllonski,  Hist  Cons.  Sendoni.  Ber.  1731.  4 
b)  Scripta  facientia  ad  Coiloq.  Thoruu.  llelmst  1645.  4.    Acta  Conv.  Thor.  Varsav.  1G4Ö.  4. 


CHAP.  (IL    EUROPEAN  EEFOEM.    §  361.  ENGLAND.  4-21 

Great  Beitain  and  Ireland. 

Wilkinx.  Cone.  Brit.  vol.  III.  Kef.  Ecc.  Anglic  Lond.  1C0.3.  t—G.  Burnet,  H.  of  tlic  Ret  of  the 
Cburcii  of  Engl.  Lond.  (1C79S8.  2  vols,  f )  [New  Yorlc.  3  and  4  vols.  8.]  E.  Cardwell,  Documentary 
Annals  of  the  ReC  Church  of  Engl.  1546-ni6.  Oxt.  18.39.  2  vol«.  J.  Strype,  Ecc.  Memorials  under 
Henry  VIIL,  Edw.  and  Mary.  Lond.  17'21.  3  vols.  f.  and  Annals  of  the  Rcf.  during  the  reign  of  Q. 
Eliz.  Lond.  (1709s6.)  17255.«.  4  vols.  f.  //  Soamea,  II.  of  the  Ref.  of  the  Church  of  Engl.  Lond. 
1S26SS.  4  vols.  J.  V.  Gvmpach,  Gesch.  d.  Trennung  d.  engl.  K.  v.  Rom.  Darmst  1S45.  Weher, 
(g  297.)  vol.  II. :  Der  construct.  Tlieil.  d.  Rcf.  u.  d.  purit  Sectenbildung.  ISRJ.  [./  A'.  Worgan, 
Si)eculum  Eccl.  Anglicanae,  or  Rcf.  in  Engl.  Lond.  18.30.  Zurich  Letters,  ed.  by  //  Itohinson,  Lorn!. 
1846.  8.  T.  Fuller,  Church  Hist,  of  G.  B.  Lond.  1^37.  3  vols.  8.  C.  Mnitluml,  The  Ref.  in  Engl. 
Lond.  1&49.  8.  Dod'H  Church  Hist  of  Engl,  from  1500-168S.  Lond.  1839.  5  vols.  8.  T.  V.  Short, 
Hist  of  the  Church  of  Engl,  till  1688.  Lond.  ISIO.  s.]_PrimordIa  Ref.  Hibernicae.  (Oerdes,  MUcell. 
Groning.  vol.  VII.  P.  I.)  Ji.  Mant,  II.  of  the  Church  of  Irel.  from  the  Rcf.  to  the  Eevol.  Lond. 
1839.  As  a  curiosity :  Cobhett,  II.  of  the  Prot  Ref.  in  Engl,  and  Irel.  Lond.  1828.  2  vols.—/).  Hume : 
Hist  of  Great  Brit  {Stuart.)  Edinb.  Lond.  1754ss.  2  vols.  4.  Hist  of  Engl.  {Tudor.)  Lond.  1759.  2 
vols.  4.  and  often.    Lingard,  Hist  of  Engl,  till  1638.  Lond.  1849.  13  vols.  12. 

§  361.  Establishment  of  the  Anfjlican  Church. 
A  party  favorable  to  the  Reformation  bad  been  prepared  in  England  by 
the  influence  of  WyclifFe,  and  it  was  now  revived  by  the  circulation  of  the 
writings  of  Luther.  An  English  translation  of  the  N"ew  Testament  by  Fryth 
and  Tindal  was  printed  at  Antwerp  (152Gj,  and  went  like  a  Phoenix  from  its 
ashes  across  the  channel.  But  Henry  VIII.  defended  the  religion  of  St.  Tho- 
mas with  his  pen  and  his  sword.  Subsequently,  however,  his  deadly  love  was 
fixed  upon  Anna  Boleyn,  and  he  entertained  doubts  of  the  lawfulness  of  his 
marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon,  his  brother's  widow.  Clement  VII. 
could  not  consent  to  annul  this  marriiigo  with  the  aunt  of  the  emperor.  By 
the  advice  of  Cranmer  the  king  obtained  a  decision  of  a  body  of  learned  men, 
who  declared  that  the  marriage  of  a  brother's  widow  was  null  and  void.  lie 
then  married  Anna  and  fell  under  the  papal  ban.  A  Parliament,  in  which 
servility  rather  than  a  love  of  reform  prevailed,  sundered  all  connection  be- 
tween England  and  the  pope,  and  the  king,  who  ruled  in  God's  stead  both 
in  Church  and  state,  probably  according  to  his  lusts,  was  recognized  as  the 
sole  head  of  the  Church  (after  1532).  An  immense  property  belonging  to  the 
monasteries  now  fell  into  the  hands  of  tiie  king,  and  a  still  greater  treasure 
of  art  and  antiquity  was  squandered.  Cranmer,  who  had  been  exalted  to  the 
archiepiscopal  see  of  Canterbury  and  secretly  married  to  a  German  lady,  now 
endeavored  to  involve  the  king  in  the  Reformation,  even  contrary  to  the  royal 
wishes.  Tiie  superstition  of  the  times  was  exposed  in  the  most  unsj)aring 
manner,  Becket's  sepulchre  was  dishonored,  and  the  Holy  Scrijjtures  were 
distributed  among  the  peoide.  The  venerable  bishop,  Jolm  I'Uhcr.,  died  in 
defence  of  the  liberties  of  the  Cliurcii,  and  tlie  Ciiancellor  Thomas  More  was 
beheaded  pleading  for  such  a  reformation  as  no  royal  or  popular  violence 
could  effect,  and  clinging  fondly  to  his  ideal  of  a  future  commonwealth,  in 
which  all  might  have  room  to  labor  ccjually  for  the  common  weal  in  a  life  of 
happiness  conformed  to  natural  laws,  {a)  But  the  Catholics  sometimes  re- 
minded the  king  of  his  celebrated  defence  of  the  faith,  and  of  the  law  of  1539,  in 

a)  De  optimo  reipnbl.  statu  deque  nova  Insula  Utopia  15IC. — G.  Th.  liudUavt.,  Thouijis  Moru* 
Numb.  1829.     W.J.  ir««<?r,  Sir  Thos.  More.  Lond.  13;J0.    [./ J/acjn/o«/(,  Life  of  Sir  Thomits  .Moie. 

Lond.  12  I 


422  MODKKN  CIUJRCII  HISTORY.     VIM.  V.     A.  I).  1517-10«. 

^^lli.•Il  trnnsubstnntiation,  celibacy,  masses  for  the  dead,  and  auricnlar  confes- 
Hioii  had  been  i)lacod  under  the  protection  of  the  common  hangman,  (h)  The 
followers  of  Luther  and  of  the  pope  were  frequently  executed  on  the  same 
gibbet.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  tlie  regency  during  the  minority  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  (after  1547),  that  Cranmer  was  able,  by  means  of  the  Parliament, 
to  enter  tlioroughly  upon  the  work  of  reform,  and  by  calling  Bucer  to  Cam- 
])ridge,  to  form  an  alliance  with  the  German  divines.  Edward,  however,  died 
in  early  youth  (1553),  and  Manj,  the  daughter  of  Catharine,  inherited  the 
crown.  She  had  been  educated  in  the  Catholic  Church,  had  endured  in  her 
youth  many  sacrifices  in  its  behalf,  and  now  became  animated  with  extreme 
enthu.'iiasm  to  see  it  victorious.  With  hands  full  of  blood  and  violence  she 
now  gave  back  England  to  the  pope,  and  Cranmer  died  at  the  stake  far  more 
heroically  than  ho  had  lived  (1556).  (c)  In  early  life  Mary  sunk  under  the 
weight  of  her  ovm  melancholy  and  the  hatred  of  her  peofjle  (1558).  Eliza- 
leth,  the  daughter  of  Anna,  then  ascended  the  throne.  Her  birth  was, 
according  to  the  decision  of  the  Romish  Church,  illegitimate,  and  she  had 
been  educated  in  the  evangelical  faith  of  her  mother,  as  well  as  in  the  school 
of  misfortune.  During  the  long,  rigid,  and  prosperous  reign  (till  1G03)  of  this 
virgin  queen,  the  Reformation  was  established  in  spite  of  internal  and  external 
enemies,  with  a  good  degree  of  circumspection  and  moderation.  But  even  she 
sometimes  found  occasion  for  the  axe  of  the  executioner  against  Anglo-Ro- 
man missionaries  and  assassins.  Many  Catholic  ceremonies  were  still  retained 
in  the  book  of  Common  Prayer.  A  confession  of  faith  was  formed  under 
Edward,  and  afterwards  reduced  to  39  Articles,  which  was  accepted  by  a 
convocation  of  the  clergy  at  London  (1562),  and  Avas  made  by  Parliament  the 
rule  of  faith  for  all  the  clergy  (1571).  In  this  it  is  declared  that  the  Scrip- 
tures contain  every  thing  necessary  to  salvation,  that  justification  is  through 
faith  alone,  but  that  works  acceptable  to  God  are  the  necessary  fruit  of  this 
faith,  that  in  the  Lord's  Supper  there  is  a  communion  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
which  is  spiritually  received  by  faith,  and  predestination  is  apprehended  only 
as  it  is  a  source  of  consolation,  (d)  Supreme  power  over  the  Church  is  vested 
in  the  English  crown,  but  it  is  limited  by  statutes.  Bishops  continued  to  be 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  officers,  and  the  first  barons  of  the  realni.  "Whatever 
was  done  by  the  kings  of  England  against  the  papacy  and  in  behalf  of  the 
Reformation,  was  enforced  also  as  the  law  for  Ireland.  But  the  Irish  obsti- 
nately resisted  every  effort  of  their  tyrannical  oppressors  to  compel  them  to 
embrace  the  new  faith.  The  English,  however,  proved  from  the  Old  Testa- 
ment that  as  a  conquered  territory  Ireland  belonged  to  them  as  Canaan  onco 
belonged  to  the  Israelites.  The  free  and  common  territory  of  the  confeder- 
ated and  kindred  tribes  was  converted  into  royal  fiefs,  and  when  the  principal 
chiefs  were  goaded  on  by  continual  oppressions  to  rise  in  rebellion,  their  lands 
were  given  to  Englishmen,  until  the  native  inhabitants  were  almost  com- 


l)   n'ilk-ins,  vol.  III.  p.  S4Ss. 

c)  Sinjpe,  Th.  Cr.  Lond.  (1694.)  ITll.  f.  GUpin,  Th.  Cr.  Lond.  17S4.  Samml.  merkw.  Lebens- 
beschrr.  a.  d.  brit  Bio-r.  Hal.  17&4ss.  vol.  II.  IT.  J.  Todd,  Lifo  of  Cr.  Lond.  ISSl.  [Lives  of  Or.  b> 
C.  W.  Lebag,  &,  Mrs.  Lee  &  Vind.  of  Cr.  by  Toddr^ 

d)  Xiemeijer,  Col.  p.  601s3. 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  EEFOEMATIÜN.    §  3C2.  TURITASS.  423 

pletely  destitute  of  property.  The  entire  revenues  and  property  of  the  Church 
were  gradually  taken  possession  of  by  a  foreign  Protestant  hierarchy,  by  the 
6jde  of  which  the  Irish  were  obliged  to  sustain  their  own  bishops  and  pastors 
from  their  own  scanty  resources. 

§  302.     Origin  of  the  Puritans  and  Imlependents. 

{Bradnhaw.)  The  English  Puritane.  Loud.  1G05.  Lat :  Puritanismus  angl.  Frcf.  1610.  ß.  Xeal,  II.  of 
the  Puritans.  Loud.  (ITSlss.  4  vols.)  1793-7.  1S22.  5  vols.  [With  notes  by  J.  0.  Choules.  New  York.  1844. 
2  vols.  8.]  J.  B.  Marsden,  Hist,  of  the  early  Puritans  (till  IG4'2.)  Lond.  ISöO.  [  IV.  II.  Stowell  &  I).  Wilson, 
IL  of  the  Puritans  in  Engl.  &  of  the  Pllg.  Fathers.  Lond.  1S2G.  12.  li.  Brooks,  Lives  of  the  Puritans. 
Jyond.  1813.  3  vols.  S.]—I?obinson,  Apol.  pro  exulibus  Anglis,  qui  Brownistae  appellantur.  Lugd.  1619. 
4.  f.  Widker,  II.  of  Independency.  Lond.  (16t8ss.)  1661.  3  vols.  4.  B.  Ilanhury,  Hist  Memorials, 
relating  to  the  Independents  or  Congrcgationalists.  LoniL  1839.  3  vols,  \liogue  &  Bennett,  Ilist  of  the 
Dissenters.  Lond.  lSOS-12.  4  vols.  8.]— IK  Chlebus,  die  Dissenters,  (Zc.Uch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S4S.  IL  1.) 

A  party  consisting  principally  of  those  strict  Calvinists  who  had  suffered 
persecution  under  the  reign  of  Mary,  and  now  had  returned  as  confessors,  took 
offence  at  the  dependence  of  the  Clmrch  upon  tlie  state,  at  the  high  preroga- 
tives of  the  bishops,  and  at  the  splendid  ritual  of  Avorsliip,  whose  indifferent 
forms  not  being  exi)ressly  authorized  by  Scripture,  were  looked  upon  as  rem- 
nants of  Antichrist.  These  Puritans  demanded  a  Presbyterian  form  of 
Church  government,  a  simple  spiritual  form  of  worship,  and  a  strict  disci- 
pline. Elizabeth  endeavored  to  overcome  their  opposition,  but  this  was  found 
rather  to  increase  with  their  Sabbatical  festivals  on  Sunday,  and  their  Calvin- 
istic  doctrine  of  predestination.  By  the  Art  of  Uniformity  (lüSfi)  all  Xon- 
conformists  were  threatened  with  fines  and  imprisonment,  and  their  ministers 
with  deposition  and  banishment.  But  those  ministers  who  had  resigned  theii 
congregations,  or  been  deposed,  established  new  congregations  in  connection 
with  Presbyteries  (after  1572),  and  the  most  vigorous  portion  of  the  estab- 
lished Church  itself  exhibited  an  inclination  toward  Puritanism.  A  separa- 
tion from  a  church  which  was  regarded  as  a  persecutor  of  Christians  was  now 
effected  on  conscientious  principles  by  Robert  Brown  (after  1580),  and  after 
Ills  return  by  John  Rohinson  (after  1010),  wlio  preached  that  according  to 
apostolic  example  every  congregation  should  be  an  independent  church,  that 
every  man  was  justified  in  worshipping  God  according  to  his  own  conscience, 
and  that  ministers  were  dependent  only  on  their  congregations.  These  Inde- 
pendents., when  they  were  compelled  to  leave  their  own  country  formed  con- 
gregations in  the  Netherlands  and  in  America,  but  tliey  were  still  firmlv 
rooted  in  England,  Avhero  the  Puritans  under  continual  persecutions  became 
daily  more  violent  and  gloomy,  and  gradually  a  dangerous  and  powerful  party. 
In  their  morals  and  manners  they  were  eminently  pious,  they  looked  upon  al. 
earthly  pleasures  as  sinful,  their  own  fancies  were  regarded  as  divine  inspira 
tions,  and  they  thought  that  the  state  itself  should  be  subject  to  their  demo 
cratic  hierarchy. 


i24  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTOFIY.    PKH.  V.    A.  D.  IS'.T-IC«. 

303.     Scotland. 

./.  A"/i«r,  H.  of  tlic  Rof.  of  Pcot?.  (till  15C7.)  I»n(l.  16C4.  f.  A  oflcn.  D.  CuldertcooiJ,  H.  of  tli« 
Kirk  i)f  So.  Lnnil.  Ifl''^.  f  IMInb.  1S45.  7  vols.  Gil.  Stuart,  11.  of  the  Kef.  In  «c.  Lond.  1780.  G.  Cook, 
H.  «f  ttio  Cliiircli  «t  Sc.  fl-i>m  the  Rof  Edlnb.  1915.  3  vols.  K.  U.  Suck,  <i.  K.  v.  S<;h.  Helrllb.  1*44. 
2  AMlu  K.  G.  r.  Ritdlof,  Oescli.  <1.  Kof  In  Scli.  Brl.  1=47-9.  2  vol«.  [./  Skinner,  Eccl.  Ulst  of  Sc. 
I»n<l.  I'^IS.  2  vols.  ?.  Analccta  Scot'.a,  llliistr.  the  civil,  eccl.  tc  lit  11.  of  Sc.  E<L  1434-7.  2  vols.  S. 
W.  JA.  JMIieHiigton,  II.  of  tho  Church  of  Sc.  till  1S43.  4  ed.  Edinb.  1S53.  8.  3  ed.  New  York.  1844.  8] 
—Robertmn,  II.  of  Sc.  Edinb.  1750.  2  vols.  4.  &  often.  [New  York.  1936.  8.  P.  F.  Tytler,  H.  of  Sc. 
Lend.  1842-44.  9  vols.  8.  &  1S45.  7  vols.  8.    Sir  W.  ScoU,  II.  of  8c.  new  ed.  Lond.  1837.  2  vols.  12  ] 

The  first  martyr  for  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  (1528)  was  FatricJc 
Hamilton,  a  youth  belonging  to  the  royal  family,  but  favorable  to  the  Refor- 
mation in  Gonsequence  of  his  studies  in  Germany.  Cardinal  Bentoun  continued 
to  burn  persons  at  the  stake  until  a  martyr  predicted  from  the  midst  of  the 
llamcs  his  own  violent  death  (1546).  Such  martyrdoms  were  the  most  im- 
pressive kind  of  preaching  for  a  rude  and  sensuous,  but  true-hearted  people. 
Under  the  unsettled  regency  which  bore  sway  during  the  minority  of  Queen 
Mary  Stuart  the  reform  party  had  opportunity  to  gain  strength.  The  leader 
and  the  impetuous  but  eloquent  preacher  of  this  party  was  John  Knox 
(d.  1572),  whose  vigor  hud  been  acquired  amid  the  flames  of  persecution  and 
tlie  toils  of  the  galleys,  and  who  had  learned  to  despise  the  terrors  as  well  as 
the  pleasures  of  the  world,  {a)  After  the  marriage  of  Mary  with  the  Dau- 
phin of  France  the  regency  attempted,  with  the  aid  of  French  troops  to  over- 
throw the  Reformation,  and  to  enforce,  the  hereditary  claims  of  the  queen 
upon  the  English  crown.  The  Reformed  party  then  collected  together  and 
formed  themselves  into  a  Congregation  of  Christ  at  Edinburgh  (1557),  and 
with  Elizabeth's  assistance  obtained  an  act  of  Parliament  (1560)  by  which  the 
people  received  a  Calvinistic  Reformation,  (b)  and  the  nobles  the  greater  part 
of  the  property  of  the  Chui-ch.  But  in  the  season  of  its  triumph  Protestant- 
ism sought  to  persecute  its  enemies  ;  it  sometimes  cost  a  person  his  property, 
and  even  his  life,  to  attend  a  mass,  and  a  pious  vandalism  wreaked  its  fury 
upon  the  monuments  of  the  Church.  After  the  death  of  her  husband  Mary 
returned  to  her  own  hereditary  dominions  (1561).  The  frivolous  manners  of 
this  beautiful  queen's  court  were  an  abomination  to  the  stern  Calvinists,  anc. 
Knox  went  to  meet  her  as  the  ancient  prophet  did  the  idolatrous  queen,  and 
remained  unmoved  by  her  tears.  Finally  she  awoke  the  flames  of  civil  war, 
not  so  much  by  her  secret  machinations  against  the  Reformation  as  by  her 
criminal  passions.  Failing  to  accomplish  her  purposes  by  such  means  she 
now  cast  herself  into  the  fatal  arms  of  Elizabeth,  (c)  The  crown  was  placed 
upon  the  head  of  her  son,  James  VI.  (1567),  the  leaders  of  the  Reformation 
were  made  regents  during  his  minority,  and  a  Presbyterian  form  of  ecclesias- 
tical government  was  every  where  adopted  (1592). 


a)  Smetoniux,  Vita  Kn.  Edinb.  1579.  4.  Tli.  JfcCrie.  Life  of  J.  Kn.  E.linb.  ISll.  2  vols.  &  often, 
[ancinnart.  (in  Calv.  Lib.  vol.  III.)  1S3S.  S.]  Im  Ausz.  v.  Planck,  Gott  1817.  G.  Weber,  J.  Kn.  u. 
d.  schott  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S42.  H.  4.) 

I)  Cont  Scoticana  I.  in  yiewei/er  p  Lis.  340ss.  &  First  Book  of  Discipline. 

o)  F.  V.  Raumer,  E.izabeth  u.  M.via  Stuart  Lps.  1S36.  [IT.  G.  Bell,  Lifo  of  Marj,  Queen  of 
Scots.  Lond.  1540.  3  ed.  S.  P.  F.  Tytler,  Inquiry  into  the  Evidence,  ic.  Lond.  1790.  2  .,'s.  Vfhita- 
Ic^'e  Vind.  &  Miss  Binger'a  Life] 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  REFOPvM.    §  SU.  JAMES  I.    CHARLES  L  425 

§  304.   Great  Britain  under  the  Stuarts. 

Rushtcorth,  Hist.  Collections.  lClS-44.  Lond.  1T82.  6  vols.  JTarris,  H.  of  James  I.  Lond.  1754.  4 
and  H.  of  Charles  I.  Lond.  ITS?.  4.  Guizot,  H.  de  larcvol.  d'Angleterre.  [Hist  of  tlie  Eng.  Rev.  of 
lG-10,  from  the  Fr.  of  Giiizot.  Lond.  1S45.  S.]  Par.  1826.  3  ed.  1S41.  2  vols.  &  Collection  des  Mcmoires 
relatifi  ä  la  Rev.  Par.  1S23.  2  vols.  Mamuhuj,  H.  of  Engl.  vol.  L  cap.  1.  [J.  JL  Jewe,  Court  of  Engl 
under  the  Stuarts.  Lond.  1S4C.  4  vols.  S.  II.  Vaughan,  H.  of  Engl,  under  the  Stu.-irts  &  Common- 
wealth. 1C03-SS.  Lond.  1S40.  2  vols.] 

Mary's  son  was  also  Elizabetli's  lieir,  James  I.  of  England.  Utterly  disap- 
pointing the  hopes  he  had  raised  among  the  Presbyterians,  he  appointed  bish- 
ops as  the  instruments  of  an  arbitrary  monarchy  in  Scotland,  was  increasingly 
bitter  even  to  the  last  toward  the  riule  strictness  of  the  Puritans,  but  was  mild 
in  his  opposition  to  the  Catholics,  in  proportion  as  they  swore  that  the  pope 
had  no  power  to  depose  princes,  nor  absolve  subjects  from  their  allegiance. 
The  discovery  of  a  plot  formed  by  some  Catholics  for  blowing  up  the  Parlia- 
ment (1G05},  filled  the  people  with  consternation  and  hatred.  Charles  I.  in- 
herited his  father's  inclinations  and  aversions.  The  opposition  of  the  Puritans 
which  had  already  been  increased  by  persecution,  and  been  directed  to  the 
inferior  regard  shown  in  the  Old  Testament  to  worldly  monarchy,  was  aroused 
to  the  highest  extreme  by  prelatical  sermons  upon  the  superiority  of  a  mon- 
arch to  all  laws,  and  upon  the  duty  of  unconditional  submission  to  his  au- 
thority. The  king  made  an  effort  to  govern  Avithout  his  Parliament,  married 
a  Catholic  princess,  who  imagined  herself  a  modern  Esther,  and  gave  to  the 
Scottish  Church  a  liturgy  which  the  people  abhorred  as  they  would  have  done 
a  service  to  Banl.  The  Scots  now  formed  a  league  in  behalf  of  the  true  re- 
ligion and  the  freedom  of  the  kingdom  (Covenant,  1G38).  The  king  was 
obliged  to  convene  the  Parliament  (1040)  to  obtain  money  for  the  war  against 
them,  but  the  representatives  of  an  enraged  people,  exasperated  by  still  fur- 
ther thoughtless  oppo.sition,  impeached  the  royal  counsellors,  entered  into  the 
Solemn  League  of  the  Scots,  and  when  threatened  by  the  king  raised  an 
army,  which,  in  spite  of  many  defeats,  soon  became  irresistible  in  consequence 
of  its  religious  enthusiasm  and  moral  discipline.  The  Irish  Catholics,  relying 
upon  the  reputed  inclinations  of  the  king,  made  preparations  for  a  general  mas- 
sacre of  the  Protestants  among  them  (IG-il).  The  Puritans,  with  their  Old 
Testament  style  of  preaching,  maintained  their  ascendency  in  Parliament, 
while  the  Independents  were  most  numerous  in  the  army,  but  both  were 
agreed  in  their  opposition  to  all  papal  abominations,  and  in  their  derivation 
of  all  power  from  God  and  his  people.  A  select  number  of  pious  and  intel- 
ligent clergymen  were  assembled  by  the  Parliament  to  consult  with  a  smaller 
number  from  its  own  body  with  resjiect  to  a  new  ecclesiastical  organization. 
This  Westminster  Sijnod  (IG-iG— i9)  in  connection  with  a  few  conmiissioners 
from  the  Scottish  Church,  after  long  debates  between  Presbyterians,  Inde- 
pendents, and  those  who  would  have  the  Church  governed  by  the  civil  pow- 
ers (Erastians),  finally  adopted  a  Puritanic  order  of  worship,  a  Presbyterian 
form  of  Church  government,  and  a  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith  with  two 
Catechisms.  The  seats  of  tlie  bishops  in  the  House  of  Lords  had  been  va- 
cated, and  their  othce  was  now  abolished,  the  revenues  of  the  Church  prop- 
erty were  consumed  in  these  difficult  times,  principally  for  political  purposes, 
and  with  a  few  alterations  in  favor  of  the  civil  powers  the  acts  of  the  Svnod 


42G  MdKKUN  CllfUCIl  IIISTOIIV.    I'lOIt.  v.    a.  D.  I.'i.MCJS. 

wero  prodainu-(l  ns  laws.  Only  in  the  Scottish  Church,  however,  have  Iha 
■\Vestminstur  Standards  hccn  thoroughly  received,  for  in  England  their  enforce- 
ment was  oi>i)osed  hy  the  growing  ascendency  of  the  army,  (a)  Archbishop 
Laud  who  had  refused  all  connection  with  the  pope  as  long  as  liome  re- 
mained as  it  was,  but  who  had  been  unable  to  recognize  him  as  Antichrist, 
now  iusccndod  the  scaflbld  (10-45),  and  was  soon  followed  by  his  sovereign, 
with  a  fortitude  and  divine  resignation  which  has  since  given  him  the  name 
of  a  martyr  king  (Jan.  30,  1649).  Cromwell,  an  Independent,  though  as  a 
ruler  favorable  to  a  Presbyterian  constitution,  in  the  mean  time  obtained  the 
mastery  of  the  revolution  which  had  b«rne  him  into  power,  and  gradually 
advanced  from  the  fanaticism  of  faith  and  freedom  to  the  cunning  selüshnes? 
of  a  tyrant,  (i) 

Feaxce. 

I.  (Seiranns)  Cinintr.  de  statu  rel.  et  roip.  in  regno  Gal.  Gen.  1570-80.  5  vols.  (Beza)  II.  ecc.  des 
L'gl.  K-f.  1521-03.  Antv.  1530.  3  vols.  Ueijnier  de  la  Planche,  II.  de  Tfistat  do  France,  sous  Franr.  II. 
publ.  p.  Mennechet,  Par.  1S36.  2  vols.  Davila,  II.  delle  guerre  civ.  di  Franci.x  1559 -9S.  Yen.  1630.  4. 
&  often.  (Benoist)  U.  de  I'^diL  de  Nantes.  Delft.  1693s.  5  vols.  4.  De  Thou  (p.  853).— Eecueil  do 
Lcttres  missives  de  Henri  IV.,  publie  par  Berger  de  Xivrey,  vol.  I.  (1502-84.)  Par.  1S43.  [6^.  P.  R. 
James,  Life  of  Henry  IV.  Lond.  1847.  3  vols.  8.  Lord  Mahon,  Lifo  of  Louis  Pr.  of  Conde,  New 
Yorlc.  1843.  12.  Anon.  Life  of  Louis  of  Bourbon,  Pr.  of  Conde,  from  the  French.  Lond.  1093.  2  vols. 
8.  Maimbourg,  II.  of  the  League,  from  the  Fr.  by  Drijden,  Lond.  1084.  8.  Ranke,  Civil  wars  and 
Monarchy  in  France  in  the  10th  &  17th  centt  Lond.  1852.  2  vols.  8.  J/.  Cantelnau,  Mom.  of  Fran- 
cis II.  &  Charles  IX.  from  the  Fr.  Lond.  1724.  f.  R.  de  Bouille,  A.  des  Dues  de  Guise,  Par.  1549.  2 
voK  8.     Blackwood's  Mag.  Apr.  1S50.  (Eclec.  M.ig.  Dec.  1S50.)  ] 

II.  Lacretelle,  II.  de  France,  pendant  les  guerres  de  rel.  Par.  ISlSss.  4  vols.  A.  L.  ITernnann, 
Fr.  Eel.  u.  Bürgerkriege  im  IG  Jahrh.  Lps.  1823.  .ff/'o?CHiH£;,  II.  of  the  Huguenots.  Lond.  1829.  2  vols. 
Capefgue,  H.  de  la  Ref.  de  la  ligue  et  du  regne  de  Henri  IV.  Pav.  lS34s.  8  vols.  L.  Ranke,  franz. 
Gessh.  im  10.  u.  17.  Jhh.  Stuttg.  1852.  vol.  L  {Mrs.  Marsh,  H.  of  the  Prot.  Eef.  in  France,  Philad. 
1351.  2  vols.  12.  JS.  Smedley,  II.  of  the  Eef.  in  France,  New  York.  3  vols.  12.  Ch.  Weiss.  U.  of  the 
Prot  Eef.  in  France.  Lond.  1854  2  vols.  12.  &  with  an  Append,  by  IT.  W.  Ilerhert,  New  York.  1SÖ4. 
2  vols.  12.     G.  de  Feiice,  II.  of  the  Protestmts  of  France,  from  the  Fr.  Lond.  1353.  2  vols.  S.] 

§  3G5.     Night  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

The  rise  and  fall  of  the  sects  in  the  Southern  provinces,  a  liberal  adminis- 
tration of  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  an  extensive  cultivation  of  polite  literature, 
had  prepared  the  "way  for  the  entrance  of  Protestantism  into  France.  The 
hearts  of  the  first  converts  to  it  were  gained  by  Luther's  writings,  but  the  first 
churches  in  France  were  established  by  her  own  sons,  Calvin  and  Beza.  The 
appropriate  business  of  the  Sorbonne  was  not  neglected,  and  Luther's  seditious 
writings  were  condemned  in  due  season.  («)  Francis  I.  sometimes  thought 
of  eflfecting  a  peaceable  reformation,  and  even  invited  Melancthon  to  come 
to  him  for  that  purpose.    But  the  policy  of  the  French  court  at  that  period 

a)  Pnrltanorura  Librl  Symb.  ed.  Nieraeyer.  Lps.  1840.  Sack.  (p.  424.)  vol.  II.  p.  Olss.  K.  G.  v. 
Riullof,  d.  Westminster  Syn.  (Zeitsch.  C  hist  Th.  1S50.  H.  2.)  [W.  Jf.  HeÜierington,  Hist  of  the 
Westm.  iVssom.  New  York.  1843.  12.] 

I)  Oliver  CromiceU's  Life,  Letters  &  Speeches,  by  T.  Carlyle,  Lond.  1S45.  2  vols.  [J.  JT.  M 
D'Auhigne,  The  Protector,  a  Vindication,  New  York.  1848.  12.  Harris,  Life  of  O.  C.  Lond.  1762.  S 
J.  T.  Ueadley,  Life  of  0.  C.  New  York.  1848.  'i'i.'\—Yillemain,  Gesch.  Cromw.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  BerK 
Lps.  ISSO. 

a)  Determin.  Theol.  Faa  P.iris.  super  doctr.  Luth.  d.  15.  Apr.  1521.  [Gerdes,  II.  Eof.  Monumna 
p.  lOss  ]    MttancVi.  Apol.  adv.  furios  P.aris  theologastror.  deer.  Vit  1521. 


CHAP.  III.  EUROPEAN  EEFOEM.  §  365.  FRANCE.  BEZA.        427 

inilnced  it  to  favor  the  Protestants  in  Germany,  and  to  burn  tliem,  especially 
the  "Wahlenses,  in  great  numbers  (1545)  in  France,  (b)  Besides,  although 
Melancthon  freely  consented  to  the  king's  proposal,  Luther  was  suspicious  of 
it,  and  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  a  reformation  in  which  the  spirit  of 
Erasmus,  and  not  a  love  of  the  gospel  prevailed,  (c)  The  French  court  was 
also  influenced,  not  merely  by  its  zeal  for  religion,  but  by  its  political  fears 
and  hatred  of  a  sect  whicli  denounced  as  capital  olTences  crimes  unblushingly 
practised  in  the  royal  palace.  But  in  spite  of  persecutions,  sometimes  proba- 
bly produced  by  enthusiastic  violations  of  Cathclic  feelings,  the  Huguenots 
increased,  especially  in  the  south,  and  united  themselves  together  at  a  Gene 
ral  Synod  in  Paris  (1559).  The  Confession  of  Faith  which  they  there  adopted 
was  Calvinistic,  and  their  ecclesiastical  constituti(m  was  representative,  com- 
bining independent  congregations  and  a  united  general  Church,  (d)  !Many  of 
the  nobility  of  the  kingdom,  the  Bourbons,  with  the  title  of  King  of  Navarre, 
and  the  noble  Chatillons,  ranged  themselves  at  the  head  of  this  party,  and  its 
political  power  became  formidable.  During  the  reigns  of  two  successive 
kings,  whose  intellectual  inferiority  rendered  a  regency  always  indispensable 
(after  1559),  their  mother,  Catharine  de  Medici^  held  the  actual  reins  of  au- 
thority, while  the  Dukes  of  Guise  supported  by  the  Catholics,  and  the  princes 
of  Bourbon  b}-  the  Huguenots,  contended  for  the  regency.  In  the  strife  of 
these  leaders  the  queen-mother  found  the  necessary  condition  of  her  supre- 
macy. At  the  religious  conference  of  Poissy  (15G1),  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembled  court,  Beza  succeeded  in  truly  and  brilliantly  defending  the  new 
faith  against  the  whole  prelatic  strength  of  France,  {e)  In  the  edict  of  Janu- 
ary (1562)  the  Huguenots  obtained  the  right  to  hold  public  worship  any  where 
except  in  the  principal  cities.  (/)  But  this  privilege  was  regarded  as  an 
abomination  by  the  city  of  Paris  and  the  Catholic  population  generally,  and 
was  derided  with  sanguinary  violence  by  the  Duke  of  Guise.  During  the 
same  year,  therefore,  hostilities  were  commenced  with  all  the  aggravations  of 
a  civil  and  religious  war,  and  were  three  times  renewed  after  as  many  treaties 
of  pence.  The  Catholic  governmental  party  were  assisted  by  Spanish  and  papal 
troops,  and  the  Reformed  by  English  gold  and  German  blood,  {g)  Finally,  at 
the  peace  of  St.  Germain  (1570)  the  Huguenots  were  guaranteed  the  posses- 
sion of  freedom  of  conscience,  a  degree  of  publicity  in  religious  worship,  equal 
political  privileges,  and  a  few  fortified  towns  as  securities  for  the  future.  In 
token  of  a  complete  reconciliation  the  king's  sister  was  given  in  marriage  to 
Henry  of  Kararre.  All  the  Protestant  leaders  were  invited  to  Paris  to  cele- 
brate the  nui)tials.  Tliere,  on  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572,  the  queen- 
mother  gave  the  signal  lor  a  massacre  which  had  long  been  the  subject  of 
conversation,  but  was  then  resolved  upon  under  the  imi)ulse  of  the  moment. 
During  this  fatal  night  twenty  thou.saud  Huguenots,  with  the  brave  General 


h)  Corp.  Rff.  vol.  II.  p.  741.  855.  879.  904«.    Strohd  M.-l.  Ruf  nach  Frankr.  NOrnb.  1794.     C 
Sdimidt,  (1.  Unions-Versftclio  Frnnz  I.  (ZoltHili.  f.  lilsu  Th.  1350.  II.  I.) 

c)  II.  de  la  persecution  ct  .saccngenient  du  pouplo  de  Mörlndul  et  de  CabriCres  et  autres  clrcoa- 
»olsiiis  appelt«  Vaudols.  1550.    Beza,  I,  853S. 

d)  üiemeyer,  Col.  p.  311s9.        e)  JBatim,  Beza  vol.  II.  p.  145ss. 
/)  Bt'iioht  vol.  I. :  Recuell  d'E'Ilta  p.  Isä« 

p)  F.  II'.  BiH-thvUI,  DeutÄclil.  u.  d.  Ilugon.  lS4<ä.  voL  L 


428  MODEBN  CIIÜKCH  IIISTOlir.    riCK.  V.    A.  n.  IS'.T-lfrJS. 

CoJi<j/nj  were  iminlorcfl,  jjrescnting  a  horrid  earnest  of  tlio  future  revolution 
A  To  Douin  was  sung  nt  Komo  by  the  order  of  Gregory  XIII.  in  honor  of 
this  extormiuation  of  Christ's  enemies.  (A) 

§  360.     Edict  of  Nantes. 

Tlioso  wlio  had  escaped  the  massacre  now  armed  themselves  for  vengeance 
with  the  courage  of  despair,  and  once  more  conquered  from  their  enemies  a 
recognition  of  their  rights  (ISTG).  Ilenry  of  Navarre,  who  had  been  spared, 
and  compelled  to  deny  his  faith,  assumed  the  position  which  naturally  be- 
longed to  him,  and  became  the  leader  of  the  Huguenots.  But  the  Guises,  in 
alliance  with  Philip  II.,  now  formed  a  Holy  Leaijue,  in  which  a  majority  of 
the  nobles  and  people  swore  that  they  would  exterminate  the  heretics. 
Charles  IX.  died  under  the  torture  of  terrible  dreams  (1574).  Henry  III.  was 
compelled  to  violate  the  treaty  of  peace,  but  fimxlly,  disgusted  with  the  tyranny 
of  the  Holy  League,  he  had  Ilenry ^  Duke  of  Guise,  the  Gideon  of  Catholic 
France,  assassinated,  and  the  Cardinal  of  Guise  executed,  fled  before  the  fury 
of  the  Catholic  populace  to  the  camp  of  the  King  of  Navarre,  was  excom- 
municated by  the  pope,  and  was  at  last  assassinated  by  the  Dominican,  Clem 
ent  (1589),  By  this  death  of  the  last  of  the  house  of  Valois  the  throne  de- 
scended by  inheritance  to  Henry  of  Navarre,  whose  title  had  been  declared 
invalid  by  the  pope  and  the  league.  After  many  severe  struggles  to  gain  pos- 
session of  his  royal  rights,  and  finding  that  he  could  never  hope  to  give  peace 
to  his  subjects  so  long  as  the  greater  portion  of  them  regarded  liim  as  a  here- 
tic, Ilenry  IV.  concluded  that  France  was  worth  the  offering  of  a  mass  (1593). 
As  soon,  however,  as  his  kingdom  became  settled,  he  secured  to  his  real  com- 
panions in  faith  by  the  irrevocable  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)  freedom  of  reli- 
gious faith,  the  public  worship  of  God  with  only  a  few  trifling  restrictions,  all 
their  rights  as  citizens,  and  great  privileges  as  an  organized  political  corpora- 
tion, {a)  They  Avere  indeed  to  pay  tithes  to  the  established  Church,  but  were 
to  be  free  from  all  kinds  of  episcopal  jurisdiction.  Although  these  conces- 
sions did  not  completely  satisfy  even  the  Huguenots,  it  required  the  whole 
royal  power  to  enforce  compliance  with  the  edict  among  the  magistrates,  and 
in  the  provinces  opposed  to  it.  But  just  as  France  had  begun  to  enjoy  the 
highest  prosperity  under  his  administration,  just  as  he  was  about  to  execute 
the  most  enlightened  schemes  for  the  permanent  pacification  of  Europe, 
Henry  fell  beneath  the  dagger  of  Ravaillac  (May  14,  1610).  The  peaceful 
sons  of  the  old  Huguenot  heroes  were  finally  driven  to  insurrection  by  a 
series  of  violations  of  tbeir  rights,  and  Cardinal  EicTielieii  by  the  power  of 
his  intellect  overthrew  all  opposition,  and  disarmed  them  as  a  political  party. 
At  the  same  time,  by  an  act  of  amnesty  at  Nismcs  (1C29),  he  secured  to  them 
all  those  ecclesiastical  rights  which  had  been  guaranteed  in  the  Edict  of 
Nantes ;  but  by  various  persecutions  and  frequent  apostasies  the  reformed 


h)  Audin^  n.  de  la  S.  BarthÄlemy.  Par.  1S26.  Wachler.  d.  Blnthoclizeit  Lps.  (1326.)  lS2a 
Asainst  CspeHgue:  Iianl:e:  hist  polit  Zeitsch.  1S;35.  vol.  II.  St.  3.  &  Franz.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  2G9äs 
ir  G.  &>lil,iii,  Frankr.  il  d.  Banliolomäasnaclit.  (Eaumer's  hist.  Tascheub.  1S54.) 

a)  JBenoM,  Monn.  p.  62ss.  * 


CHAP.  III.    EUROPEAN  EEFOEM.    §  3C7.  SPAXIAED3.    ITALIANS.  429 

Church  was  reduced  to  not  more  tlian  half  the  strength  which  it  possessed 
before  the  night  of  St.  Bartholomew,  (b) 

§  3G7.     Spain  and  Italy. 

M.  Geddes,  Martjrologlum  eor.  qui  in  Ilisp.  etc.  {3£oiittem.  Dss.  ail  H.  ecc.  Alt.  1738.  p.  663.) 
/?.  Conaalvi,  Eelat.  de  inartL  Prot  in  Hisp.  {Gerden,  Serin,  vol.  IV.  P.  II.)  M'Crie.  H.  of  the  pro- 
eress  &  suppression  of  the  Eeform.  in  Spain.  Edinb.  1S29.  Adolfo  de  Castro,  II.  de  los  Protes- 
tantes  Espanolos.  Cadiz.  1S51.  [Tlio  Spanish  Protestants  and  tlieir  persecution  under  Pliilip  II.,  from 
the  Spanish  of  Pe  Castro,  by  T.  Parker.  Lon<L  1S.V2.  8.  R.  WaUon,  Philip  II.  of  Spain.  New  York. 
ISIS.  S  ]—Gerdesii,  Spec  Ital.  rcforinatae.  L.  B.  17C5.  4.  M'Crie,  IL  of  the  progress  ic  sui>pr.  of  the 
Eef.  in  Italy.  Edinb.  1S27.  C.  F.  Leopold,  ü.  d.  Ursachen  d.  Euf.  u.  deren  Verfall  in  Ital.  (Zeitsch. 
t  hist  Th.  1S43.  11.  2.) 

In  the  train  of  the  emperor  the  seeds  of  the  Reformation  were  conveyed 
to  Spain,  where  they  were  cherished  perhaps  even  by  some  who  surrounded 
his  dying  bed,  (n)  and  certainly  were  received  with  the  highest  enthusiasm,  in 
some  instances  from  a  patriotic  resistance  to  the  inquisition,  but  in  others 
from  a  profound  religious  feeling,  which  found  sati.sfaction  in  the  reformed 
doctrine  of  justification.  But  Catholicism,  espepially  the  worship  of  the 
saints,  is  deeply  rooted  in  the  obstinate  spirit  of  the  Spanish  people.  Purity 
of  faith  is  as  highly  valued  by  a  Spaniard  as  purity  of  blood,  and  he  would 
not  scruple  to  imbrue  his  hands  in  the  blood  of  a  brother  who  had  apostatiied 
from  the  faith,  {h)  Martyrdom  therefore  had  no  terrors,  and  when  Philip 
had  exhausted  the  immense  resources  of  his  empire  in  endeavoring  to  put  down 
the  religious  revolution  among  other  nations,  the  inquisition  effectually  silenced 
the  arguments  of  Protestantism  by  throwing  into  prison  and  there  putting  to 
death  all  persons  suspected  of  heresy,  or  by  the  popular  pageantry  of  an  auto 
da  fe.  In  Italy,  the  contempt  into  whicli  the  clergy  had  fallen,  and  the  ex- 
clusive engagement  of  worldly  men  in  the  studies  of  polite  literature,  had 
produced  a  spirit  which  hailed  the  movement  in  Germany  with  great  joy.  Bv 
means  of  literary  societies  of  Protestants  connected  with  the  foreign  armies 
in  their  midst,  and  of  translations  of  the  writings  of  the  Reformers  generally 
under  assumed  names,  individual  friends  or  congregations  were  gained  in 
nearly  all  the  principal  towns,  and  especially  in  Ferrara,  under  the  protection 
of  the  heroic  Duchess  of  Este,  a  daughter  of  the  King  of  France,  {c)  Oppor- 
tunities, however,  were  found  for  the  indulgence  of  evangelical /<;<//« j7«  in  the 
Old  Church,  {d)  or  they  were  divided  among  themselves  by  controversies  re- 
specting the  Lord's  Supper,  and  by  the  conduct  of  those  who  were  hostile  to 
all  ecclesiastical  systems,  and  therefore  wished  to  destroy  or  at  least  encroach 
upon  that  portion  of  the  Catholio  faith  which  was  retained  by  the  reformers. 
Moreover  none  but  the  middle  classes  in  Italy  were  ever  sincerely  devoted  to 
the  cause  of  liberty,  and  tlio  spirituality  of  the  German  and  French  Protes- 
tants could  never  be  very  püi)ular  among  a  people  so  fond  of  those  arts  which 

h)  TzscJUrner,  de  causls  linpcdltao  In  Franco2;.iI.  .«acrorum  publ.  emendstionls.  (0pp.  Lps.  1329. 
p.  81S.) 

[ii)   TTm.  Stirling,  Cloister  life  of  Charles  V.  Lond.  1S52.  S.] 

h)  Claude  Senarde,  Illst  vera  do  morte  Jo.  Dlazli.  1546.  (Gerdesii  Serin.  anUquar.  vol.  VIIL 
IM.)    Corp.  Eef.  vol.  VI.  p.  1189. 

c)  KHlstor.  Archiv.  1S24.  P.  4.  p.  Is.    E.  Munch,  K.  v  Est«.  Aach.  ISSlss.  2  vols. 

d)  Del  beueflclo  di  Cristo  about  1540.  A  often,     niederer,  Nachrr.  vol.  IV.  p.  121.  235s3. 


430  MODERN  CIIORCH  IIISTOUV.    I'EU.  V.    A.  I).  ir.lT-1649. 

are  ndilrosscd  (.'xclnsively  to  tlio  outward  sense.  "When  tlierefore  tho  dangoi 
was  jiercoived  at  Konie,  and  an  inriiiisitorial  tribunal  with  formidablo  powers 
was  apitointed  tlicro  (1542),  many  fled  beyond  tbe  Alj)«,  and  others  recanted 
and  rehipsed  into  tlioiigjitlessncss,  inditForence,  or  even  insanity.  (/)  Dreading 
tho  olo(]uence  of  martyrdom,  the  inquisition  struck  terror  into  tho  hearts  of 
the  peoi)le  rather  by  imprisonment,  by  consignment  to  the  galleys,  and  by 
Bccrct  executions.  It  was  only  in  Calabria  that  the  members  of  a  few  churches 
of  tiie  Waldenscs  were  hunted  to  death  like  wild  beasts  (loGOj.  Near  the  end 
of  the  sixteenth  century  all  vestiges  of  Protestant  communities  in  Italy  were 
completely  ohlitcratod.  Among  those  who  fled  to  foreign  countries  were  some 
highly  honored  divines  and  prelates,  who,  with  few  exceptions,  spent  their 
lives  in  great  unhappiness.  (/) 


CIIAr.  IV.— FANATICS  AND  ULTRAISTS  OF  TIIE  REFORMATION. 

Schlmselbiirg  (p.  402.)  H.  TT  Erhknm,  Gesch.  d.  prot.  Sekton  im  Zeita.  d.  Ref.  Ilainb.  1*4S.— 
iTaffen(p.  360.)  vol.  III. 

§  368.  General  Relations  of  the  Eeformation. 
While  some  who  anticipated  and  co-operated  in  effecting  the  Reformation 
finally  shrunk  from  its  results,  in  the  midst  of  the  general  commotions  which 
then  took  place,  and  the  liberty  which  aU  enjoyed,  many  individuals  of  difter- 
ent  dispositions  wished  to  share  in  the  privileges  of  the  new  Church  who 
exceeded  either  the  true  limits  of  Protestantism,  or  at  least  those  which  the 
popular  mind  could  then  tolerate.  These  extreme  characters  tlie  reformed 
churches  with  one  common  spirit  violently  rejected.  What  Calvin  sanctioned 
by  a  dark  deed,  Melancthon  praised.  («)  Luther  remarked  that  the  most 
deadly  acts  of  the  inquisition  might  thus  be  justified,  and  that  after  all,  the 
hangmen  were  the  most  learned  doctors.  (5)  In  this  way  the  maxim  was 
gradually  formed,  that  errorists  should  be  silenced,  and  that  obstinate  here- 
tics should  not  indeed  be  put  to  death,  but  confined,  and  sent  out  of  the  coun- 
try. Philip  alone,  among  the  princes,  was  disposed  to  recognize  the  right  of 
all  men  to  liberty  of  conscience,  and  that  persons  of  another  faith  may  pos- 
sess the  essentials  of  true  piety,  (c) 

e)  C.  L.  Rcth,  Fr.  Spieras  Lebensende,  Nürnb.  1829. 

/)  E.  g.  Schlosser  (p.  402.  nt.  t.)  C.  Schmidt,  Tie  de  Pierre  M.irtyr  Terniigli.  Strasb.  lS:i5.  4.  F 
Meyer,  die  ev.  Gemeinde  in  Locarno,  ihre  Auswand,  nach  Zürich  u.  weitere  Schicks.  Zur.  lS36s.  2  vols. 

«)  Ciilcini  Defcnslo  orth.  fidei  e.  errores  Serueti,  ubi  ostenditur,  haereticos  jure  gladii  coercendos 
esse.  s.  1.  1554  Corp.  Ref.  vol.  YIII.  p.  362.  [Stelling,  Ilist.  of  the  Church,  vol.  II.  p.  12S.  Spirit 
of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  III.  p.  615.  Bib.  Ecpertory,  vol.  VIII.  p.  ST.  B'fza,  Life  of  Calv.  eiL  by  Sihson, 
note  c     Henry,  Life  of  C.  vol.  II.  p.  219.] 

h)  De  Weite  vol.  II.  p.  622.  Walch  vol.  lY.  p.  759.  X.  374.  XV.  IGSo.  XVI.  64.  Yet  see  Di 
Wette  vol.  III.  p.  49S.  Y.  95.    Walch  vol.  XIII.  p.  442s. 

<•■)  Brief  an  .Joh.  Friedrich  d.  Mittlern  v.  7.  Marz.  1D59.  (^Salig.  vol.  III.  p.  4S6ss.  WetzIarscUe 
Beltrr.  vol.  XI.  p.  304ss. 


CHAr.  IT.    ULTRAISTS.    §  369.  ANABAPTISTS.  43 1 

§  309.     Anabaptists  as  Fanatics. 

I  Justus  Jfenius:  d.  'WloilcrteufriT  Lcro  vnd  jreholmn.  a.  II.  S.  wiiiitflogt.  M.  Vorr.  Luth.  "Witt 
1Ö80.  and  Ton  d.  Geist  d.  WT.  Witt.  l.'>44.  4.  If.  Bullinger,  d.  WT.  vrsprung,  furganp:,  Sectcn.  Zur. 
l.'jßii.  4. — Newe  Zeitung  v.  d.  WT.  zu  Münssti-r.  (Mit  Luth.  Torr.  a.  Melanditli.  Proiiosltiones.)  Numb. 
I5S5.  4.  Ordn.  d.  WT.  zu  M.  1535.  4.  If.  Dorpius,  wartiafftigd  bist,  wio  das  Ev.  zu  M.  angefangen 
vnd  durch  d.  WT.  verst'iret  wider  Ruff;rehört  bat,  (Witt.)  1530.  4.  M.igdeb.  1S47.  IT.  a  Kerssen- 
t/'oec^-,  anabapt.  fiiroris  bist  narralio.  1504-73.  (defective:  J/e/iCite«,  Scrr.  Germ.  vol.  III.  a  poor 
trans. :  Gesell  d.  WT.  zu  M.  1771.  4.) 

II.  ir.  J.  IT.  OiU,  .\nn.  anabaptistici.  Bas.  1072.  4.  T.  Krohn,  WT.  vorn,  in  Niederdcntscb.  (Ilof- 
nianniancr.)  Lps.  17.'xS.  V.  A.  ^YinUr,  Goscb.  d.  bai.  WT.  Munch.  ISuD.  //  Jochmus,  Gesch.  d. 
KRcform  zu  M.  u.  ihres  Unterganges  durch  d.  WT.  Münst  1S25.  J.  Ifuxt,  Ge.'Jcb.  d.  WT. 
Münst  lS3fi.  O.  A.  Corneliux,  i\o  fontib.  quibus  in  Hist,  Beditionis  Mon.  viri  doetl  usi  sunt  Mon 
1S50.    K.  Ilase,  d.  Keich  d.  WT.  (Ner.o  Propheten.) 

"Wliilc  the  Reformers  justified  their  opposition  to  the  papacy  bj'  appealing 
to  the  Scriptures,  or  to  clear  ami  manifest  reasons,  it  was  not  surprising  that 
other.«,  on  tho  contrary,  decidedly  arrogated  to  themselves  as  individuals 
Avhat  the  Church  claimed  for  herself  in  general,  and  that  fanatical  persons 
mistook  their  own  passionate  impulses  for  divine  inspirations.  Their  rejec- 
tion of  infiint  baptism,  in  consistency  with  the  Protestant  doctrine  of  faith, 
and  on  account  of  its  want  of  Scrii)tural  authority,  together  with  their  con- 
sequent repetition  of  the  baptism  of  adult  believers,  became  the  distinctive 
badge  of  their  party.  These  Anabaptists,  who  made  their  first  appearance  at 
Zwichau  and  Wittenberg  (1521),  were  nearly  all  put  to  death  in  the  Peasants' 
war,  but  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country,  a  class  of  enthusiasts  resem- 
bling them,  but  very  unlike  each  other  in  moral  and  religious  character,  be- 
came the  pioneers  and  freebooters  of  the  Reformation.  Some  of  them  were 
persons  who  had  renounced  the  world,  and  otliers  Avere  the  slaves  of  their 
own  lusts ;  to  some  of  them  marriage  was  only  an  ideal  religious  communion 
of  spirit,  to  otliers  it  was  resolved  into  a  general  community  of  wives  ;  some 
did  not  difler  from  the  reformers  with  respect  to  doctrine,  but  others  rejected 
original  sin  and  the  natural  bondage  of  the  will,  denied  that  we  are  to  be 
justified  by  the  merits  of  Christ  alone,  or  that  we  can  partake  of  his  flesh, 
and  maintained  that  our  Lord's  body  was  from  heaven,  and  not  begotten  by 
tho  virgin.  As  they  acknowledged  no  call  but  that  Avhich  came  directly 
from  God  within  them,  they  despised  tho  ministerial  ofiico  in  tho  Church, 
and  though  they  denounced  all  historical  record-s,  they  justilied  themselves  by 
isolated  passages  of  tho  Bible  for  overthrowing  all  existing  relations  in  social 
life,  la  their  assumed  character  of  men  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  they 
were  of  course  exalted  above  all  law,  and  frequently  exhibited  a  spirit  of 
rebellion  against  every  kind  of  government.  Hence,  among  both  Catholics 
and  Protestants  it  was  tliought  right  to  punish  tliem  even  witli  death.  In 
Mäiis(e)\  where  the  Preformation  and  civic  liberty  had  obtained  the  ascend- 
ency by  rather  violent  measures  (153'2),  some  Anabaptists  from  the  Nether- 
lands having  driven  out  all  who  opposed  them,  formed  a  theocratic  Democra- 
cy (Feb.,  1534),  which  was  to  be  tho  commencement  of  Christ's  promised 
kingdom  on  earth.  Matthiescn  was  regarded  by  them  as  the  i)rophet  Enoch, 
and  nflcr  his  heroic  deatli,  Bockelson  was  received  by  them  as  tiie  king  of  the 
world.  Prophets  were  sent  abroad  in  cver^-  direction,  a  kind  of  community 
of  goods  and  [)olygamy  were  introduct'd  among  them,  and  the  most  sau 


432  Mt'DKKN  ciiurxii  iii.'^Top.v.   rKi:.  v.   a.  d.  isir-ieis. 

guinnr}'  proceedings  Avcro  enacted  under  a  pretended  divine  inspiration,  until, 
after  a  courageous  defence,  Munster  was  conquered  by  the  neighboring 
princes  (Juno  *24th,  1525).  Their  disorderly  conduct  was  then  arrested  by 
the  sword,  find  flic  mithority  of  the  hierarchy  and  of  the  nobility  was  re- 
established. 

g  370.     The  Atmhfqjtlsts  as  an  Onlerhj  Community.     Collegianta. 

Menno  Sinu  FundainentHm,  together  with  some  otlicr  unimportant  small  works.  1575.  0pp. 
Amst.  1C40.  Comp.  Archiv,  f.  KGosch.  1S14.  vol.  II.  li.  K.  lioosen,  Menno  S.  Lps.  1S4S.  J.  C. 
Jehring,  gründl.  II.  v.  den  Taufgcs.  b.  1C15.)  from  the  Dutch  by  £.  voti  Gent.)  Jena.  1720.— /T! 
.Sc7(y>»,  11.  Christianorum,  qui  Menaonitao  appellantur.  Amst  1723.  and  II.  Menn.  plenior  dcductio. 
lb.  1729.  O.  L.  V.  Ueüstcilz  and  F.  Wuilzeck;  ßeitrr.  z.  Kenntn.  d.  taufges.  Gemeinden.  Brsl.  182158. 
2  vols.  A.  Iluminger,  das  Rel.  K.  u.  Schulwesen  d.  Menn.  Speyer.  1S31.— t/i  Wiggera,  d.  Taufgea. 
in  d.  rfalz.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Tb.  1S4S.  II.  Z.—Iiues,  gegenw.  Zust.  d.  Menn.  u.  Colleg.  Jen.  1743.  Ar- 
chiv, f.  KG.  1S14  vol.  I.  Part  S. 

The  misfortunes  and  extravagances  of  the  Anabaptists  of  Munster  com- 
pelled those  who  survived  either  partially  to  distrust  their  chtinis  to  infallibil- 
ity and  their  hopes  of  a  secular  kingdom,  or  to  throw  themselves  upon  the  ex- 
pectation of  an  advent  of  Christ  in  the  future.  These  scattered,  divided  and 
dispirited  communities  were  collected  into  small  congregations  in  various 
parts  of  the  Netherlands  and  on  the  German  sea-coasts,  by  the  pious  dili- 
gence of  Menno  Simon,  who  had  formerly  been  a  priest  (d.  1561).  Under 
the  name  of  Assemblies  of  the  Saints,  they  adopted  a  rigid  discipline,  re- 
jected all  oaths,  war,  lawsuits,  and  divorce  except  for  adultery,  and  prac- 
tised the  washing  of  feet  as  a  sacred  ordinance ;  and  though  they  obeyed 
the  authorities,  they  contended  that  it  did  not  become  a  successor  of  Christ 
to  exercise  worldly  jurisdiction.  Public  toleration  was  conceded  to  them  in 
the  Netherlands  when  the  liberty  of  those  provinces  was  obtained,  and  grad- 
ually it  was  allowed  them  in  England  and  Germany,  But  even  during 
Menno's  life  they  became  divided  on  the  subject  of  the  rigidity  of  excommu- 
nication into  the  Pure  and  the  Gross,  or  on  the  doctrine  of  election  into 
Calvinists  and  Arrainians.  "With  the  latter  class  the  Collcgiants  became 
united  more  particularly  in  Ehynsburg.  This  sect  sprung  up  about  1G20, 
when  the  Arminian  clergy  were  excommunicated,  and  three  brothers  of  the 
name  of  Kodde,  ruling  elders  of  more  than  ordinary  proficiency  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, collected  such  as  were  of  the  same  fliith  with  themselves  into  assem- 
blies for  prayer  (Collegia).  They  rejected  all  ecclesiastical  offices  for  religious 
instruction,  and  demanded  a  severity  of  morals  such  as  prevailed  in  the 
primitive  Church,  but  they  were  almost  indifferent  with  respect  to  ecclesias- 
tical articles  of  faith.  Hence  persons  of  very  different  sentiments  were  to  be 
found  among  them,  but  the  association  by  which  their  congregations  were 
united  was  not  dissolved  until  some  time  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

§  371.     Antitrinitarians. 

Ch.  Sand,  Bibl.  Antitrr.  Freist  (Amst)  16S4.  F.  S.  Bock,  Hist  Antitrr.  Socinianor.  Lps.  et  Ee- 
giom  1774SS.  2  vols.    F.  TrechseC,  M.  Servet  u.  s.  Vorgänger.  Ileidelb.  1S39. 

The  fellowship  of  the  Reformers  with  the  Church  was  shown  by  their 
inviolable  attachment  to  the  ancient  Catholic  symbols.    But  those  in  various 


CHAP.  IV.     ULTRAIST9.     §  371.  ANTITRINITABIÄN8.     SERVETL'S.  43S 

sonntrics,  and  esi)ecially  in  Italy,  who  were  secretly  opposed  to  all  ecclesias- 
tical creeds,  indulged  the  hope  that  they  would  find  an  asylum  in  countries 
possessing  the  Reformation.  Some  of  these,  therefore,  in  the  name  of  the 
Scriptures  or  of  intellectual  freedom,  claimed  the  right  to  reject  any  ecclesi- 
astical doctrines,  and  especially  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  it  had  been 
taught  in  the  Church,  or  in  an  Anabaptist  spirit  uttered  opinions  respecting 
this  right  from  a  professed  divine  inspiration.  The  reformers,  howevei,  has- 
tened as  specdil}^  as  possible  to  deny  all  fcllowshij»  with  such  heretics,  by  a 
sentence  which  adjudged  such  persons  to  a  capital  punislmient.  John  Denck 
thought  he  discovered  in  the  abundant  love  which  Christ  produced  by  his 
agency  before  he  came  into  the  world,  and  which  ho  typically  represented,  a 
state  of  exaltation  above  the  Scriptures  and  all  laws,  and  yet  led  to  the  pre- 
cise course  of  conduct  which  they  required.  His  education  in  polite  litera- 
ture did  not  raise  liim  above  the  secret  practice  of  anabaptism,  in  which  he 
thought  seven  evil  spirits  were  abjured,  and  seven  good  spirits  were  received 
by  the  believer.  lie  was  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the  equality  of  the  Son 
with  the  Father  as  a  real  idolatry,  but  the  principal  point  on  which  his  feel- 
ings were  enlisted,  was  one  in  wliich  he  maintained  tliat  an  eternal  hell  was 
inconsistent  with  the  divine  mercy,  lie  was  merely  expelled  from  the  sphere 
of  his  activity  in  the  cities  of  Upper  Germany,  and  escaped  martyrdom  as  a 
heretic  by  an  early  death  (1528).  ('/)  lUtzcr.  a  learned  friend  of  Zwingle  and 
a  popular  poet,  was,  while  full  of  expressions  of  repentance,  beheaded  at  Con- 
stance for  his  assertion  of  the  imity  of  God  (1529),  althougli  he  was  also 
convicted  of  holding  Anabaptist  sentiments  and  of  adulterous  conduct,  {h) 
Servetus,  a  native  of  Aragon,  and  a  man  of  extensive  acquirements  but  of  a 
restless  disposition,  taught  that  the  Deity  was  the  real  essence  of  all  things ; 
that  the  world  in  all  its  forms  is  actually  nothing;  that  the  Trinity  is  only  a 
revelation  of  the  great  First  Cause  in  the  form  of  tlio  light  and  the  word 
finally  completed  in  the  incarnation ;  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit  is  merely  a 
mode  in  which  God  communicates  himself  to  created  beings.  He  therefore 
derided  the  Trinity  held  by  the  Church  as  a  three-headed  Cerberus,  and 
thought  himself  destined  to  bo  the  restorer  of  Christianity.  He  was  burned 
by  tho  Catholics  in  effigy,  and  by  the  Protestants  in  realitj',  at  Geneva 
(1553).  ((■)  Camjjanus^  who  appealed  ivo\\\  the  whole  world  to  tlie  apostles, 
and  described  the  Son  in  accordance  witli  Arian  views,  and  tho  Spirit  as  only 
the  influence  by  which  man  was  redeemed  and  assimilated  to  God,  died  in 
prison  at  Cleves  (about  1578).  (</)  Gciiiilis,  a  Calabrian,  completed  the  doc- 
trine of  three  Gods  of  unequal  rank,  which  had  been  advanced  by  Grihahlo^ 

a)  Vom  Gesetz  O.  (?.  I.  et  a.)  Gelstl.  BlumengBrtl.  (6  small  Trcatifcg  by  Denck.)  Amst.  16S0.— 
Ihtgen  vol.  III.  p.  275ss.    I/eberle,  J.  Denck  u.  ^  nüclil.  v.  Ocsctz.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1851.  H.  Is.) 

h)  J.  J.  Ilreitinger,  Anccd.  <le  L.  Iletzero.  (Museum  Ilelv.  1751.  vol.  VI.)  Dietrich,  In  U.  Tub. 
Ztltsch.  1S34.  II.  4. 

c)  Dliill.  <le  Trin.  (ILipen.)  1532.  Chrisllnnlsnil  roslllutlo.  (Vien.)  155''.— Rolatlon  «lu  procOs 
criiiiinal  intent6  il  Geneve  centre  M.  Servet,  redigöo  d'lipri'S  Ics  doouments  origliiaux  par  A.  HiUiet, 
Gen.  1S44.  Culrini  fldelis  expos,  errornm  Serv.  s.  I.  1554. — JfoH/ifim,  Hist.  Sorv.  Illmst  1727.  4. 
and  Neue  Nacbr.  v.  A  Arzto  Serv.  lllmst  1750.  5.  IMicrlf,  Sirv.  Trln.  u.  Chrlstol.  (Tub.  Zeitscb. 
1540.  II.  2.)  Biiiir,  luoicinisk.  vol.  III.  p.  4C<.s.  fTK  /f.  Vrummonil,  Life  of  Sorvetus.  Lond.  1S43. 
12.    n.  Wright,  Apol.  for  Sorv.  Lond.  ISHS.  12.     Ilenrij,  Life  of  Calv.  vol.  II.  and  as  in  §  368.  nt.  a.] 

d)  Sdielhorn,  do  Camp,  (.\nioeiiltt  liter,  vol.  XI.) 

28 


434  MODKP.N  CllUItCII  IHSTORT.     PER.  V.     A.  I).  ISIT-IWS. 

ft  Iwinicfl  jurist,  \>y  iimiiitnitiinf,'  that  tlie  Son  was  anotlicr  God  of  tlie  sarnt 
nature,  Imt  derived  IVoni  tlie  Fatlicr.  He  saved  liis  life  by  a  reeantatlon,  an 
occlcsinstii-al  i)enancc,  and  an  act  of  perjury  at  Geneva,  but  lost  it  at  Berne, 
as  Iio  tli()iif,'lit,  in  lionor  of  tlio  Father  (1560).  (e)  David  Joris,  a  painter 
from  Delft,  wIjo  had  before  been  highly  esteemed  as  a  prophet  in  the  new 
kinf^dom  at  Munster,  taught  that  the  Trinity  was  merely  a  revelation  of 
God  in  tliree  ditferent  ages  of  the  world,  and  assembled  together  Anabap- 
tists of  nil  kinds,  with  the  promise  that  they  should  take  possession  of  the 
earth  ns  the  Israelites  did  of  Canaan  in  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  had 
made  its  appearance  in  him.  He  was  whipped  and  outlawed,  but  found  an 
honorable  asylum  under  an  assumed  name  at  Basle  (d.  1556).  (/)  Others 
took  refuge  in  Poland,  and  were  there  at  first  known  under  the  common 
name  of  Dissidents,  but  were,  after  15G5,  expelled  from  the  Refonaed  Church 
as  Unitarians.  They  were  not  entirely  free  from  persecution,  but  through 
the  favor  of  some  powerful  supporters  they  obtained  a  general  centre  for 
their  body  at  liacau  (1509).  {g)  In  Transylvania  a  pubhc  recognition  of  the 
Unitarians  was  obtained  (1571)  by  the  influence  of  the  Piedmontese  Blan- 
drata,  the  private  physician  of  the  prince.  Jesus  was  honored  by  this  sect 
simply  as  a  man,  but  one  who  was  richly  endowed  by  God  and  exalted  for 
dominion  over  the  whole  world.  Adoration  was  paid  to  him  by  most  of 
them,  and  those  who  refused  this  were  persecuted.  (A) 

§  3T2.     Socinians. 

I.  Bib!.  fratru:n  Folcn.  Irenop.  (Ainst.)  165G.  S  vdIs.  f.  Ch.  Ostorodt,  Unterrichtung  v.  d 
Ilauptp.  (1.  cbr.  R.  Eak.  ICOi  and  oft.  Catech.  Eacov.  (10(i9.  12.  and  oft.  Poln.  1605.)  ed.  Oeder, 
Frcf.  1739.  Wissowatius,  Eel.  rationalis.  16S5.  Amst.  1708.  Stan.  Lulieniecii,  U.  ref.  Pol. 
Freist  16S5. 

II.  Sudcleus,  de  orig.  Socinian.  Jen.  1725.  4.  Ziegler.  Lehrbg.  d.  F.  Soc.  (Henke,  N.  Mag.  vol. 
IV.  p.  201SS.)  E.  Bengel.  Ideen  z.  Erkl.  d.  Soc.  Lehrbgr.  (Tub.  Mag.  St.  14s«.)  0.  Fock.  der  So- 
ciniani.^mus  in  der  Gesamiutcntw.  d.  cbristl.  Geistes,  nacb  s.  hist.  Verl.iuf.  \i.  Lelirbegr.  Kiel  1S47. 
2  Abth. 

Laelixis  Socinvs,  belonging  to  the  noble  family  of  the  Sozini  of  Siena, 
spent  his  time,  after  1547,  in  reformed  countries  in  the  character  of  an 
inquiring  but  sceptical  man  of  letters,  under  the  advice  and  toleration  of  the 
reformers,  and  highly  esteemed  for  his  honesty  and  intelligence  (d.  1562).  (a) 
It  was  by  his  nephew  and  heir,  Faustus  Sociniis  (d.  1G04),  that  the  Unitarians 
in  Poland,  with  whom  he  became  connected,  became  organized  as  a  commu- 


e)  B.  Aretius,  Val.  Gentilis  justo  capitis  supplicio  affecti  H.  Gen.  1667.  4    Gent  impietatnm  ex- 

plicalio  exactis  Senatus  Genev.  c.  praof  Th.  Bezae,  Gen.  1567.  4. 

/)  T  Wonderhoek,  1542.  4.  1555.  f.— Hist.  Dav.  Jovis  d.  Erzketzers,  durcb  d.  Univ.  Basel.  Bas. 
1ö"j9.  4.  H.  vitae  Dav.  Georgii  baeresiarcbae,  conscr.  ab  ipsius  gencro,  Xie.  Blesdikio,  ed.  J.  Jie- 
viiis,  Daventr.  1642.  12     Jetiseniun,  aufgedeckte  Larve  Dav.  Georgii.  Kiel.  1670.  4. 

O)  Catccliesis  et  Conf.  fldei  coetus  per  Pol.  congregati  in  nomine  J.  C.  Cracov.  1574  12.  known  a? 
tbe  1.  Eacovian  Catecbism. 

A)  Blati  1r.  Conf.  Antitr.  c.  rcfutatione  Flacii,  cd.  Henke,  Illmst  1794.  (0pp.  acad.  p.  24.x) 
lleb<frU,  a.  d.  Lehren  v.  Bland.  (Tub.  Zeitscbr.  1S40.  11.  4.)— Summa  univ.  lb.  cbr.  sec.  Unitarios 
Claudlop.  17S7.    (lioaenmulUr,  in  Stäudlin's  u.  Tzsch.  .\rcbiv.  f.  KGcsch.  vol.  L  U.  1.) 

a)  Ch.  F.  lUgen,  Vita  L.  Socini.  Lps.  1S14.  Symbolae  ad  vit  et  doct  L.  S.  ill.  Lps.  3  P. 
1S26-14.  4.  0;W?j.  L.  Soc.  (Basl.  wiss.  Zeitscbr.  IS 24.  vol.  II.  P.  3.  p  llSis.)  F.  Trechsd,  Lelic 
roiinl  11.  die  Aniitrinitarior  sr.  Zeit  Heideib.  1844. 


CHAr.  IV.    ULTEAISTS.    §  STi.  SOCINIANS.    §  878.  SCHWENCKFELD.        435 

Dity,  and  received  a  complete  system  of  doctrine.  {1}  Tbc  principal  article 
of  this  was  an  attempt  at  an  accommodation  between  different  parties  by  tbe 
doctrine,  that  although  Jesus  was  born  a  mere  man,  he  was  nevertheless 
without  any  earthly  father,  and  was  wonderfully  endowed  by  God,  was 
taken  up  into  heaven,  and  as  the  reward  of  his  life  Avas  deified,  that  he 
miglit  be  a  mediator,  to  bring  man,  alienated  from  God  by  sin,  to  the  knowl- 
edge and  grace  of  God,  and  that  he  might  reign  as  the  king  of  his  people  in 
all  periods  of  time.  As  man  is  destitute  of  any  natural  knowledge  of  God, 
divine  revelation  is  made  to  correspond  with  the  laws  of  his  mind.  The 
Socinian  explanations  of  the  New  Testament  were  therefore  frequently  of  a 
bold  and  novel  character,  but  conformed  to  the  prejudices  of  a  hmited  un- 
derstanding, and  the  ethical  system  adopted  was  more  of  a  social  than  of  a 
religious  nature.  Christianity  was  viewed  on  the  whole  as  a  moral  redemp- 
tion by  our  own  eüurts.  The  connection  with  the  Anabapti.sts,  which  Socinus 
found  already  formed,  was  very  soon  broken  otf.  Socinianism  was  the  extreme 
of  opposition  to  popery,  and  was  never  a  true  pulsation,  but  the  feverish  ex- 
citement of  the  Protestant  Church  when  it  was  sinking  into  a  chill  ortho- 
doxy. Its  advocates  were  never  regarded  by  the  Protestants  as  CiirLstians, 
and  it  was  only  in  Altorf,  near  the  commencement  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, that  they  .'succeeded  in  forming  an  organised  party.  Even  this  Avas 
soon  suppressed.  A  few  literary  men,  especially  among  the  Arminians,  have 
been  obliged  to  defend  themselves  against  tbe  reproach  of  Socinianism.  (c) 
In  Poland,  the  attack  upon  Protestantism  was  most  ferocious  against  the  So- 
ciuians.  In  1638  they  lost  possession  of  Racau,  where  the  Polish  nobility 
had  been  educated,  and  in  1058  they  were  entirely  exterminated  under  the 
ostensible  charge  of  being  traitors  to  the  government.  ('/)  The  exiled  con- 
gregations found  refuge  under  the  great  Elector,  and  individuals  took  up  their 
residence  in  the  Xetherlands,  but  the  proper  time  for  Socinianism  as  a  sect 
was  now  past. 

§  373.     Caspar  Schicenchfeld  of  Osshig.     Sebastian  Francl-. 

Forllis  writings,  see  WaMi,  Bibl.  theol.  Tli.  II.  p.  67ss.  furze  Lebensb.  Sdnv.  without  place.  1697. 
nut  Naclir.  v.  Iscliw.  samt  Anzalil  sr.  Schrr.  Trcnzl.  1744.  Dio  wesentl.  Leliro  dc."  lU-rrn  C.  Schw. 
VI.  Br.  Glaubenssrenosseii.  Brsl.  1770.  {Jahne)  Dankb.  Erin,  an  il.  Schwonkfeldor  zu  riiilailelplii.i,  Gürl. 
1810. —  Wigaml,  de  SchweiikfeUlianisino.  Lps.  15SC.  4.  Erhkum,  p.  X)1iS.—Fratnk:  I'aradu.xu  2S0 
d.  i.  Wundtrrtd.  aus  d.  II.  S.  (Ulm.  15-34.)  4.  IJaum  d.  Wiss.  Gules  u.  Biscs.  Ulm.  1M4.  4.  Dio 
Guldin  Arch.  Augsb.  153S.  f.  Das  vcrbüllisehicrt  mit  tibun  Sigeln  verschlosfne  Bucli.  (Ibid.)  1630. 
t—S.  Th.  WalJ,  do  vita  scrlptis  et  syst  myst  S.  Francl.  Erl.  1798.  4.  K.  am  Ende,  kleine  Nachlese 
zu  d.  unvollst  Xaclirr.  v.  S.  Fr.  NOrnb.  1790.  4.  mit  2.  Forts?.  179S-99.  //,igen  voL  111.  p.  814.<s. 
Erbkam,  p.  2Süs3.     C.  T.  Kuim,  d.  Bef.  d.  Beichsst  Ulm.  btuttg.  IbSl.  p.  'iC'Jss. 

As  the  Reformation  found  salvation  only  in  the  Scriptures  but  by  means 
of  a  true  and  saving  faitli,  the  latter,  when  it  was  especially  ardent,  some- 
times rose  against  the  narrowue-s  and  uncertainty  of  all  merely  external 


I)  Opp.  Ircnop.  1G5G.  2  vols.  f.  (Przi/pcoviiiK)  Vila  F.  S.  1G80.  4.  before  0pp.  Soc.  U.  Bibl.  ftnt 
Tolonorum.     tS„ulnii)i.  Mem.  of  the  Life  of  V.  ».  Lt«nd.  1777. 

c)  n<i7)ib<ic/i,  Einl.  in  d.  B.  Streif,  d.  ev.  K.  mit  d.  So;.  Cub.  1753.  2  vols.  4.  Ztltner,  II.  Crypto- 
Boeinisml  Altorflnaft  Acad,  infesti.  Lpis.  1729.  2  vols.  4. 

(/)  I'roditiones  Arianoriiiii  patriae  suae  sub  tempus  belli  SuecicL  1057.  4.  On  the  other  side:  Lu- 
lietiiecii  Memoriale  in  causa  Fratnitu  L'nilar.  Stetini.  10."i9. 


43G  MtPDKKN  (Ml  neu  niHTor.v.   tki:.  v.  a.  d.  1517-1049. 

Scripture.  Tlic  confidenco  -which  was  thus  produced  in  an  immediate  and 
liviuf,'  coininunion  with  Christ  is  well  illustrated  by  the  case  of  Schwenclrfeld 
((!.  1561 ).  in  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Lignitz,  he  formed  a  centre  of  influ- 
ence in  behalf  of  tlio  Ilcformation  in  Sile.sia,  and  (even  in  1525)  was  on 
terms  of  personal  intercourse  Avith  Luther.  lie,  however,  came  gradually  to 
the  conclusion,  that  although  Luther  was  correct  in  opposing  the  i)apacy,  the 
new  kingdom  proposed  by  the  reformers  was  to  be  wholly  conformed  to  the 
outward  letter,  and  therefore  was  not  likely  to  afford  much  assistance  in  the 
Christian  life.  On  his  banishment  from  Silesia  ho  betook  himself  to  Suabia 
(1528),  where  ho  maintained  a  friendly  intercourse  with  the  Protestant 
princes,  and  a  violent  controversy  with  the  Protestant  theologians.  By  the 
latter  he  was  held  up  as  the  chief  of  all  fanatics,  but  he  seems  to  have  propa- 
gated his  principles  Avithout  attempting  to  found  an  independent  party.  The 
main  points  of  his  system,  in  addition  to  all  kinds  of  strange  sentiments 
respecting  the  deification  of  Christ's  flesh  for  us,  that  it  might  be  the  food 
of  our  souls  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  respecting  Christ's  death  as  a  penalty 
paid  to  Satan  for  man,  {a)  were  his  exclusive  regard  for  sincere  piety  in  the 
heart  by  means  of  a  gracious  incarnation  of  Jesus  Christ  within  us,  and  a  con- 
sequent indifl'erence  to  the  mere  letter  of  the  Scripture  or  the  visible  Church. 
A  few  followers  and  congregations,  especially  in  North  America,  have  pre- 
served some  true  memorials  of  him  untU  the  present  time.  (V)  "With  similar 
views,  but  with  more  learning  and  moderation,  Thamerus  (d.  1569)  has  de- 
fended the  redeemed  and  divinely  enlightened  conscience  in  opposition  to  a 
reliance  upon  the  sacred  letter.  He  was  therefore  obliged  to  fall  out  with 
the  reformers,  and  thereby  proved  that  the  Catholic  doctrine  on  this  subject 
was  more  consistent  with  sound  common  sense  than  the  Protestantism  of 
that  period,  {c)  The  idea  that  God  is  continually  making  revelations  to  all 
believers,  was  not  by  any  means  incredible  to  enlightened  human  reason. 
The  principal  champion  for  this  doctrine  was  Seh.  Francl;  originally  from 
Woerd  (Donauwoerth,  d,  at  Basle  about  1543),  successively  a  priest,  a  Lu- 
theran pi-eacher,  a  soap  manufacturer,  a  learned  printer,  and  always  a  popuhu' 
writer.  (»/)  He  found  edification  in  the  apparent  contradictions  and  obscure 
passages  of  the  Scriptures,  the  letter  of  which  he  regarded  as  the  sword  of 
Antichrist  by  which  the  Christian  is  slain,  and  yet  the  sacred  pyx  in  which 
the  true  Christ  is  conveyed  to  men.  He  allowed  himself  to  believe  nothing 
except  on  the  united  testimony  of  his  own  heart  and  conscience,  and  he  pro- 
fessed subjection  to  no  master  but  himself.  He  was  acquainted  with  ancient 
philosophy,  was  familiar  with  the  mysticism  of  the  middle  ages,  and  de- 
scribed the  Deity  as  the  everlasting  essence,  which  needed  not  the  existence 
of  any  creature,  and  yet  pervaded  and  acted  through  all  created  forms.  The 
will  of  man,  however,  being  free,  may  either  be  governed  by  the  divine 
nature  within  him,  or  may  pervert  this  nature  to  unhallowed  objects.    "When- 

a)  G.  L.  ITahn,  Scbw.  Sententia  de  Chr.  persona  et  opere.  Trat  1S17. 

[li)  J.  Schult;,  in  Uist  of  Ilel.  Denominaticns  in  U.  S.  (Harrisburg.  1S49.  S.)  p.  557.] 

c)  .4.  Xeonder,  T^beoh.  Thamer,  d.  Eepraes.  u.  Vorgänger  modemer  Geistesrichtang.  Brl.  1S42. 

d)  Vom  Laster  d.  Trunkenh.  1531.  4.  Chronica,  Zejtbueb  u.  Geschycbtbibcl.  Strassb.  löSl.  i 
Cosmographie  o.  Weltbucb.  1534  f.  Sprüchworter,  Scbune  Weisen,  Herrliche  Clugreden  u.  Hoff 
sprach,  yrnkf.  1541.  and  oft. 


CnAP.  IV.  ULTRAISTS.  §  373.  FRANCE.  437 

ever  he  passively  submits  to  it,  God  becomes  man  ia  bim.  Thus  in  Socrates, 
.n  Christ,  and  in  others,  "what  has  been  concealed,  unexpressed,  and  even 
unpossessed  in  many,  becomes  manifest,  and  God  becomes  dependent  in  the 
flesh  that  man  may  become  deified  in  following  him  on  the  way  to  the  cross. 
Franck  was  driven  out  of  Strasbourg  and  Ulm,  and  the  Landgrave  and  Me- 
lancthon  (f)  uttered  ■warnings  against  him  as  the  deviKs  special  and  fiivorite 
blasphemer.  (./")  lie  thouglit  the  papacy  so  worn  out  in  the  hands  of  the 
devil,  that  when  Satanic  influences  could  find  no  concealment  behind  St. 
Peter's  chair,  a  new  papacy  had  been  established  as  speedily  as  possible. 
The  Christianity  which  he  endeavored  to  promote  was  to  be  free  from  all 
restraints,  from  sectarian  policy,  from  factious  strife,  and  indeed  from  all  ex- 
ternal things.  But  so  completely  did  he  fall  out  with  the  ruling  spirits  of 
his  age,  that  no  course  remained  for  him  but  with  them  to  wait  patiently  for 
the  approaching  end  of  this  world,  while  within  himself  the  shores  of  a  new 
world  were  rising  on  his  view. 


CHAP,  v.— CONDITION  AND  RESULTS  OF  PPvOTESTANTISM. 

Uundeshagen,  d.  dcutsclie  Protestantism.  Frkf.  (1S4C-47.)  1850.  D.  Schenkel,  d.  Wcson  d.  Pro- 
test a.  d.  QueUcn  d.  Ket  Zeita.  SchafTli.  lS40ss.  3  vols. 

§  374.     Protestantism  as  a  Principle. 

The  object  of  tlie  reformers  was  to  return  to  the  purity  of  the  apostolic 
Church,  and  to  remove  the  abuses  which  had  become  almost  universal  dur- 
ing subsequent  centuries,  especially  on  the  subject  of  justification  by  works 
and  the  deification  of  creatures.  They  therefore  maintained  that  the  word 
of  God  was  the  only  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  that  human  nature  ii 
so  corrupt  that  it  can  attain  salvation  only  by  the  merits  of  Christ,  appropri- 
ated by  a  faith  wrought  by  divine  power,  (a)  The  struggle  after  freedom 
was  regarded  as  a  subordinate  matter,  and  as  a  general  thing  was  very  little 
a  subject  of  attention.  But  as  justification  by  faith  was  a  transaction  which 
took  place  entirely  between  Clirist  and  tlic  heart  of  tlie  believer  himself,  and 
they  were  obliged  to  oppose  the  claim  of  the  existing  Church  to  infallibility 
and  the  exclusive  power  of  saving  men,  and  as  the  new  Church  could  claim 
no  such  power  while  struggling  against  the  positive  right,  it  laid  hold  of  that 
which  is  eternal  and  abstract.  The  ideal  of  a  perfect  Cliurch  was  therefore 
proposed,  in  which  the  ditlereut  churches  were  variously  reiireseuted  in  pro- 
portion to  their  faitli,  although  no  one  of  them  was  ever  perfect.  This  invisi- 
ble Church  tlierefore  embraced  all  true  believers  in  all  i)laces  on  earth.  {!>) 
The  idea  of  Protestantism  was  in  this  way  unconsciously  developed.  The 
term  itself  was  of  a  later  origin,  drawn  from  a  prominent  individual  fact 

<•)  C.  Jief.  vol.  III.  p.  0S5ss.  ivitli  the  subscriptions  of  the  divines  assembled  at  Smalcald  Id  1540. 

/)  Lutli.  in  Walch  vol.  XIV.  p.  3M. 

a)  A.  Dorner,  d.  Prinoip.  iinsrer  Kirche  nach  d.  Innern  Vorh.  sr.  zwei  Seiten.  Kiel.  lS-11.  D. 
eckenkel,  d.  Pr.  d.  Prot  Mit  bea  Benichts.  d.  neuesten  Verliandl.  ScIiafTh.  Is5'2. 

?')  The  essential  idea  is  found  in  :  Apol.  Confenn.  Aug.  Art  IV.  Watch  vol.  XX.  p.  18S1.  The 
,-err  words:  Zicingli,  brevis  Expositio,  art  do  Ecclc^ia.  Calv.  Inst  IV,  1.  7. 


438  moi)i:i:n'  cmmcii  iiistoky.   I'kk.  v.   a.  d.  1!;it-ic4\ 

nn<l  nfiplied  to  a  f.'rcat  f,'onenil  Mca.  On  tlie  one  liand,  it  imi)lics  a  continual 
j)r(»test  apiiiist  tlio  extravagant  claims  of  Catholicism,  and  on  the  other  an 
ncknowk'dpincnt  of  a  common  nniversal  Cliristianity  -wherever  a  heart  ia 
found  in  connection  with  Christ.  It  likewise  claims  to  he  the  Christianity 
of  the  heart  and  of  freedom.  80  far,  however,  were  the  reformers  from  per- 
ceiving tliis  in  the  midst  of  the  excitement  of  their  internal  and  exterHal 
conflicts  of  foith,  that  from  the  time  of  the  convent  of  Berg  and  the  Synod 
of  Dordrecht,  the  Protestant  Chtirch  appears  only  like  a  purified  form  of 
Catliolicism.  In  various  ways  it  practically  represented  itself  as  infallible, 
and  even  expressly  claimed  that  there  was  no  salvation  ont  of  itself.  ('•)  In 
its  doctrinal  statements  respecting  man's  natural  state,  it  wore  the  aspect  of 
a  Christianity  of  bondage.  In  both  Churches  of  the  Reformation  the  Pro- 
testant principle  was  realized  at  first  in  the  highest  degree,  in  accordance 
with  the  type  shown  in  the  character  of  their  respective  fonnders.  In  the 
Reformed  Church  it  appeared  in  the  form  of  the  ascendency  of  a  vigorous 
understanding,  requiring  an  unconditional  return  to  the  forms  of  primitive 
Christianity.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  it  took  the  form  of  a  predominant 
profound  feeling,  and  recognized  an  historical  development  in  the  Church. 
In  the  first  place,  the  disagreement  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  which  was  determined  by  this  diflference  in  original  character,  could 
hardly  fail  in  producing  the  precise  disagreement  which  afterwards  followed 
with  respect  to  the  two  natures  of  Christ.  Then  the  different  political  throes 
which  attended  the  birth  of  the  respective  Churches,  were  evidently  detei*- 
mined  by  the  ethical  character  of  each.  The  Lutheran  nations  were  disposed 
to  leave  even  their  earthly  affairs  in  the  hands  of  the  all-controlling  God- 
man,  while  the  Reformed  with  bold  activity  set  about  the  completion  of  the 
work  of  their  heavenly  King.  In  these  diversities  we  may  discover  the 
ground  for  the  difference  of  aims  which  is  discoverable  in  these  Churches ; 
the  Lutheran  fixes  its  eye  principally  upon  the  eternal  salvation  of  man, 
while  the  ultimate  object  of  the  Reformed  is  the  glory  of  God.  This  differ- 
ence, however,  is  rapidly  vanishing,  (d) 

§  375.    Morals. 

The  doctrine  of  salvation  by  faith  was  opposed  to  that  of  dependence 
upon  works,  and  the  idea  of  Christian  fi-eedom  was  in  direct  hostility  to  that 
of  the  depression  of  the  intellect  by  human  enactments.  The  simplicity  and 
absolute  character  of  the  moral  law  was  secured  when  evangelical  counsels 
were  regarded  as  only  the  non-essential  means  by  which  its  objects  Avere  to 

c)  Zicingl.  do  vera  et  falsa  rel.  (0pp.  vol.  II.  p.  192.)  On  the  other  hand  :  CaJr.  Instt  1.  IT.  c.  2. 
§  \i.— Moser,  Corp.  jiir.  ev.  Lüt.  1783.  vol.  II.  p.  S95.  Comp.  A.  K.  Zeitnng.  1S31.  N.  ISO.  1532. 
N.  122. 153-3.  N.  20s.  130. 

d)  J.  TichUr,  de  indole  sacr.  emendatlonis  a  Zw.  institut-ie  recte  aestimanda.  Traj.  1S2T.  J/. 
Gobel,  rel.  Eijenthuml.  d,  luth.  u.  ref.  K.  Bonn.  1S3T.  J.  P.  Lange,  welche  Geltung  gebührt  d. 
Eigenthüml.  d.  ref.  K.  Zur.  1S41.  Eagenlach,  d.  ref.  K.  in  Bez.  a  Vcrfiiss.  u.  Cult.  Schaffh.  1S42. 
K.  Strubel,  ü.  d.  l'ntersch.  d.  luth.  u.  ref.  K.  (Zeitsch.  f.  luth.  Th.  1S42.  II.  3.)  Zi/ro.  z  Charakter  d 
ref  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S4;3.  11.  3.)  Merle  D'Auhigne,  Luther  n.  Calvin,  [transl.  in  D'Aub.  and.hii 
writings,  Kow  York.  1S46.]— .1.  SchtceUer,  GLehre  d.  ref  K.  1844.  vol.  I.  p.  Tss.  S^luieckenh-urger 
In  Stud.  u.  KrIt.  1S47.  II.  4.  and  TheoL  Jahrbb.  1S4S.  II.  1. 


CHAP.  V.    PROTESTANTISM.    §  375.  MORALS.  439 

oe  attaineil.  The  reformers  endeavored,  by  means  of  German  and  Latin 
popular  books  and  schools  on  an  ecclesUxstical  basis,  to  educate  a  people  "who 
could  appreciate  and  act  upon  Protestant  principles,  (a)  In  consequence 
of  the  unwonted  freedom  proclaimed  at  the  Ilefurniation,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded that  the  seeds  of  "wild  passions  already  so"wn  "wero  made  suddenly  to 
spring  up.  By  the  prominence  given  to  original  sin,  in  comparison  "with 
which  particular  temptations  and  sins  were  looked  upon  as  of  inferior  im- 
portance, the  moral  power  of  Protestantism  certainly  became  much  less  than 
we  should  have  expected  from  so  great  a  religious  revolution,  (fi)  It  must 
also  be  remarked,  that  mere  orthodo.xy  more  and  more  constantly  took  the 
place  of  a  living  faith ;  and  in  the  low  state  of  education  which  tlien  jjre- 
vailed,  there  was  great  danger  tliat  the  high  ground  taken  respecting  works, 
and  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  predestination,  would  lead  to  an  easy  kind  of 
religious  practice.  It  is  true  that  Luther  at  one  time  spoke  of  Germany  as 
worse  than  Sodom,  and  mourned  that  he  spoke  the  German  language ;  Me- 
lancthon  deplored  that  all  the  waters  of  the  Elbe  were  not  enough  for  tears 
to  weep  over  the  unfortunate  dissensions  of  the  Reformation ;  and  the  re- 
formers generally,  in  view  of  these  evils,  gave  way  to  the  presentiment  that 
the  end  of  the  world  was  near.  It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that 
Luther  -was  at  that  time  angry  that  the  Reformation  had  just  been  abused  to 
those  selfish  purposes  which  are  never  wanting  in  tlie  midst  of  such  revolu- 
tions ;  that  he  applied  to  his  age  the  same  rule  he  was  accustomed  to  use 
with  respect  to  his  own  heart,  and  in  liis  monastic  conlinement  looked  upon 
the  luxury  naturally  springing  from  the  increased  wealtii  acquired  by  the 
middle  classes  on  the  discovery  of  America  as  a  crime  ;  nor  should  we  for- 
get that  Melancthon  sometimes  shrunk  back  from  the  very  mental  conflicts 
which  had  been  conjured  up  by  his  own  power.  At  all  events,  it  was  not 
long  before  the  Church  took  upon  itself  the  work  of  controlling  public 
morals.  Among  the  Lutherans,  it  is  true,  this  was  attempted  without  any 
thorougli  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline,  but  by  means  of  exhcjrtations, 
monitory  lectures,  and  excommunication,  not  unfrequently  mingled  Avith  nmch 
passion.  ('■)  In  both  Churches  there  was  an  occasional  reference  to  the 
power  of  punishment  possessed  by  the  civil  authorities.  A  domestic  and 
ecclesiastical  system  of  morality  was  thus  established,  of  so  rigid  a  character, 
I  hat  when  compared  with  the  facility  possessed  in  the  Catholic  Church  of 
alternating  between  sinful  pleasures  and  penitential  exercises,  it  appeared  to 
liave  j)roduce(l,  in  connection  with  j)rofuund  religious  8{)irituality,  a  severe, 
sometimes  a  gloomy  and  a  restless  disposition.  Such  was  particularly  the 
case  in  the  French  and  Scotch  Churches,  and  an  extreme  form  of  it  was  de- 
veloped among  the  Puritans.  The  Sabbath  was  observed  with  scrupulous 
exactness,  and  many  things  before  regarded  as  discretionary  or  innocent  were 
now  treated  as  sins.    On  the  other  hand,  we  have  the  single  fact  of  the  big- 

a)  De  constituendis  scliolis  Lutli.  libor,  jirROcedlt  i/fl.  iirnofatin.  Has.  1524.  ( Walch  vol.  X.  p. 
582.)  F.  IL  ikhuUi;  Gcsch.  d.  katecli.  lli-l  Uiiterr.  unU-r.  d.  I'rot  Hal.  1S02.  A.  Schdffer,  de  I'ln- 
fluctice  de  LuHi.  siir  I'ediication  dii  pcuplo.  Pur.  1S.')8. 

J/)  K  Sarceriiis,  v.  jlierlichcr  Vbitalion.  Elsl.  1555.  4.  Comp.  Engelhardt  In  Zcltscli.  f.  bist  Th 
liSO.  11.  1. 

c)  E.  g.  A.  Muaculiin,  v.  i>ludr!c)iton  Iloscntoufcl.  Friikf.  (,1550.)  1557. 


440  MODKUN  Clin:«  II  IIISTOKV.     I'Ki:.  V.     A.  I).  1.V.:-1WB. 

lunv  (if  the  T,;m(I;,'nivo,  for  tlio  secret  consummation  of  -which  Luther  and 
his  folleii^'ues  ^'r!iiitü<l  a  dispensation.  Tliis  was  done  hy  liim  for  tlic  pur- 
pose of  avoidin«,'  a  still  greater  evil,  and  was  justified  by  a  reference  to  the 
divine  dispensation  in  belialf  of  Alirahani,  and  to  the  papal  license  given  to 
the  fount  of  Gleichen.  It  was,  however,  done  with  too  little  care  for  the 
interests  of  the  Church,  and  proved  a  stumbling-block  which  was  harshly 
used  against  liim,  and  was  even  abused  in  public  for  justifying  a  barbarous 
polygamy.  ('/)  No  divorces  were  allowed  except  for  adultery,  and  yet  by 
otlicial  and  entire  separation  of  the  parties  they  prepared  the  way  for  further 
concessions.  (<)  The  approbation  which  the  reformers  gave  to  the  assassina- 
tion of  tyrants,  proceeded  in  Melancthon's  case  from  the  influence  of  his 
ecclesiastical  and  classical  studies,  and  in  Luther's  case  from  the  views  of 
right  which  prevailed  among  the  ancient  Germans,  and  a  manly  self- 
respect.  (/)  The  whole  fanciful  system  of  faith  in  magic  and  in  Satanic 
influences  remained  undisturbed  and  possibly  even  more  distinctly  prominent, 
in  consequence  of  the  poetic  manner  in  which  Luther  involuntarily  described 
his  conflicts  with  the  devil.  But  even  before  the  movements  connected  with 
the  Reformation  were  over,  important  efforts  were  made  to  construct  a  sci- 
entific system  of  ethics,  in  which  the  virtues  were  classified  in  the  usual 
ancient  and  theological  form,  but  springing  out  of  a  justifying  faith.  The 
extreme  excitement  against  Osiander's  doctrines  (§  347)  was  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  especially  unfavorable  to  a  further  investigation  of  such  subjects,  (ff) 

§  376,  Laic. 
The  reformers  maintained  merely  the  ordinary  view  of  law,  according  to 
which  the  power  of  the  state  was  entirely  separated  from  that  of  the  Church, 
and  Luther  even  boasted  that  he  had  kept  them  from  being  perilously  confound- 
ed, (a)  But  with  a  full  consciousness  of  the  result,  they  went  back  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  apostolic  Church,  derived  the  whole  authority  of  all  ecclesiastical 
officers  from  the  local  churches,  and  would  allow  no  one  but  God,  (h)  and  least 
of  all  the  princes,  of  whom  Luther  had  a  very  poor  opinion,  (c)  to  have  do- 
minion over  souls.  In  the  constitution  of  the  Hessian  Church,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  form  an  equal  balance  between  the  independence  of  the  particu- 
lar congregations  and  the  unity  of  the  provincial  established  Church  (§  329). 
Luther  had  doubts  whether  any  artificial  legislation  could  form  a  people 
adapted  to  such  a  state  of  things.  ('/)  His  favorite  idea  of  a  Church  was  not 
one  in  which  the  popular  element  was  highest,  but  one  in  which  every  indi- 
vidual was  looked  upon  as  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,  (t)     But    in  one 

d)  De  Wette  vol.  V.  p.  236ss.     C.  liff.  vol.  III.  p.  &19.     I/ej^pe,  urk.  Beitrr.  z.  Gescb.  d.  Doppel- 
»he  d.  Landgr.  (Zeitseh.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S52.  II.  2.) 

*)  Merkwürd.  Khefall,  initeeth.  v.  Selnvarz.  (Zeitsch.  f.  thür.  Gesch.  1S53.  IT.  2.) 
/)  Ströbel.  Misoell.  vol.  I.  p.  ITO.     Ukett  vol.  II.  p.  46.     Walc?i  vol.  XXII.  p.  2151s. 

0)  reniitoriiis,  d.  virt.  ehr.  1.  III.  Nor.  1529.    P.  r.  EiUen,  Ethik.  Witt.  1571.    Comp.  Pelt  ic 
Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S4S.  H.  2.    Sdncorz,  Ibid.  1S50.  II.  1.    A.  Sc/itceUer,  Ibid.  II.  Iss. 

<i)  Coli/.  Aug.  II,  7.     M\ikh  vul.  X.  p.  lOiis.—Sckeiikel,  ü.  d.  urspr.  Verh.  d.  K.  z.  S;a.ile  a.  d 
3cblete  der.  ev.  Prot.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S50.  11.  Is.-) 

1)  Art.  Smalc.  p.  3523.    De  Wette  vol.  IV.  p.  100.     Wulch  vol.  X.  p.  452.  469. 
c)  Ibid.  p.  4611.        rf)  Sehr,  an  d.  Landgrafen  in  Pichter,  KVerf.  (nt  /.)  p.  40s. 

e)  WaUh  vol.  X.  p.  271s. 


CHAP.  V.     PKOTESTAXTISM.     §  3Td.  LAW.     STATE.  441 

case  the  limits,  and  in  another  the  power  itself,  showed  that  in  actual 
practice  both  views  were  impracticable  in  their  full  extent.  In  arranging 
the  powers  of  the  Cliurch,  however,  Luther  always  had  his  eye  exclusively 
upon  the  spiritual  interest.  In  the  empire,  the  Church  could  be  represented 
only  by  the  imperial  states  ;  and  in  the  hope  that  the  legal  bishops  would  at 
some  time  become  reconciled  to  the  Church,  the  superior  ecclesiastical  oflSces 
in  Germany  remained  vacant.  For  the  time  being,  therefore,  the  princes  and 
magistrates  from  love  to  the  Church  performed  the  functic^ns  of  the  highest  ec- 
clesiastical offices  as  provisional  bishops,  though  with  the  counsel  of  distin- 
guished doctors  and  the  aid  of  the  provincial  states.  Consistories,  composed 
of  civil  officers  and  clergy,  wore  instituted  (after  1539)  principally  for  jurisdic- 
tion over  causes  connected  with  marriage,  excommunication,  and  processes  in 
which  clergymen  were  concerned.  The  government  of  each  provincial 
Church  gradually  fell  of  itself  into  their  hands,  responsible  only  to  the  civil 
authorities,  so  that  the  actual  legal  system  became  directly  the  reverse  of  the 
legal  principle  originally  proposed.  (/)  Even  then  Luther  had  cause  to  sigh 
over  the  bishojiric  of  the  court,  without  any  spiritual  character,  and  some- 
times particular  divines,  when  oppressed,  reminded  the  princes  that  Christ 
had  not  delivered  his  people  from  papal  bondage  merely  to  make  them  slaves 
to  the  PoUtici.  (ß)  But  the  actual  condition  of  things  was  soon  justified  on 
legal  principles  by  various  learned  men,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  transfer 
of  the  episcopal  power  to  the  hands  of  orthodox  princes  by  virtue  of  the 
Keligious  Peace  (Episcopal  system).  (//)  The  congregations  included  in  the 
district  of  each  imperial  state  constituted  a  distinct  provincial  Church.  And 
yet  from  their  opposition  to  the  Catholic  imperial  Church,  and  from  their 
possession  of  a  common  creed,  the  Protestant  states  even  after  the  dissolution 
of  the  League  of  Smalkald,  regarded  themselves  especially  in  the  general  diet 
as  a  single  political  ecclesiastical  corporation,  and  the  provincial  churches, 
although  some  of  them  might  be  beyond  the  limits  of  the  empire,  were 
looked  upon  as  constituting  a  single  evangelical  Church,  joined  together  by 
mutual  sympathy  in  love  and  conflicts.  The  Reformed  Church  received  a 
republican  constitution  in  consequence  of  the  peculiar  mode  of  its  origin,  and 
tlie  country  in  Avhich  it  was  formed.  Its  basis  consisted  of  a  system  of 
synods  composed  of  clergymen  and  elders,  in  a  regular  ascending  series  up 
to  the  highest  assembly.  This  system,  however,  was  never  fully  carried  out 
except  in  the  French  and  Scottish  cliurches,  and  even  in  them  tlio  co-oi)tation 
of  the  elders  and  the  choice  of  the  ministers  were  necessary  through  the 
higher  synods,  the  congregations  having  only  the  right  of  a  rejection.  In 
the  German  Reformed  churches  the  Presbyteries  gave  Avay  before  the  Con- 
sistories of  the  governments,  (i)  and  in  the  Lutheran  churches  of  the  "Lower 

/)  W<ikhi>.  1900.  /..  niiftter.  (\.  e\:  KOrdnungcn  des  10.  Jalirli.  T.rl.  ISIC.  2  vols.  4.  Ihid. 
Gesdi.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  in  Doutschl.  Lps.  1S51. 

i7)  De  )V,tf^vol  III.  p.  590.  Kiiculty  fit  Jcnn,  ICCl :  ä(/(V  vol.  III.  p.  C-l,'.  Fac.  nt  Wittenb. 
JG3S:  Consil.  The..l.  Vit  Frof.  1G64.  f.  P.  II.  p.  V.'9. 

7()  M.  Sl<jifiii!n\  Tract,  de  jurisd.  P.cist.  (1C09.)  1C23.  4.  Esp.  Carpzov. 

?■)  Toi5s  li\s  synodos  nali()iia\ix  dos  rgl.  nf.  do  Franco,  par  .it/moii.  Have.  1710.  2  vol.«.  4.  Ebrard^ 
Entst  u.  erste  Entwickl.  d.  Prosl>.  Vcrf.  d.  rcf.  K.  Frankr.  (Zoitscli.  f.  hist  Th.  1S49.  H.  2.)  A.  Gfn\- 
lei%\  d.  scliott  Nationalk.  nach  ge^'einv.  Wrt  Hutnb.  1844/>.  2  vol»,     fkick,  (p.  424.)    //.  c.  Mühhr, 


442  MOKI-.KN  ClirüCII  IIISTOUY.     I'Ki;.  V.     A.  I).  1M7-1M3. 

Rliino  n  synodal  (•(institution  wiis  iircsorvod.  (/)  TIkj  iilan  of  iirescrving  the 
cxtoriial  unity  of  tlio  Clinrch  by  a  representation  from  all  ])ortion.s  of  it 
throii"li  llic  »Synod  of  Dort,  failed  in  consequence  of  the  method  taken  for 
the  composition  of  tliat  body,  and  tiio  dissensions  which  prevailed  among 
its  nicmberp.  The  Churches  of  tlio  several  nations  were  therefore  only 
spiritHally  connected  with  one  another.  The  royal  supremacy  in  the  Angli- 
can Church  was  limited  by  the  popular  branch  of  the  states.  The  legal 
Hvnods  of  the  sujjerior  and  inferior  clergy  (Convocations)  were  indeed  inteu- 
tionallv  kept  without  much  influence,  and  finally  were  entirely  neglected,  but 
the  ecclesiastical  legislation  was  consequently  transf;jrred  to  the  Parliament. 
The  actual  administration  of  ecclesiastical  atlairs  remained  in  the  hands  of  tho 
bishops,  who  were  made  dependent  upon  tho  crown  by  its  power  to  nominate 
and  transfer  them,  and  by  the  inadequate  revenues  of  their  dioceses.  (/)  In 
Sweden  also  the  king  remained  the  head  of  the  Church,  and  the  legisla- 
tive passed  from  tho  national  council  (after  1598)  to  the  general  diet,  among 
whose  spiritual  states  sat  not  only  bishops,  but  representative  pastors.  The 
administration  of  the  episcopal  dioceses  was  performed  by  consistories  under 
the  presidency  of  the  bishops.  The  affairs  of  each  congregation  were  admin- 
istered by  biennial  assemblies  (Sockenstämen)  of  all  the  taxable  members  of 
the  congregation  under  the  direction  of  these  consistories,  (m)  The  canon 
laAV,  in  spite  of  Luther's  WTath  against  the  jurists,  continued  to  be  in  fact 
tho  basis  of  the  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence,  and  the  most  important  proceed- 
ings wore  gradually,  and  often  in  a  confused  manner,  conformed  to  it. — A 
popular  feeling  was  developed  during  the  Reformation  which  at  one  time 
threatened  to  subvert  every  form  of  political  institutions.  "When  the  hier- 
archy had  been  stripped  of  its  sacred  privileges,  every  immunity  appeared  to 
hang  in  suspense,  and  nothing  was  left  as  the  ground  of  right  but  every  indi- 
vidual's independent  character.  Luther  never  hesitated  to  abuse  those  princes 
who  opi)Osed  him,  and  not  unfrequently  reminded  even  the  evangelical 
princes  that  the  country  and  the  people  belonged  not  to  them,  but  that  they 
belonged  to  the  country  and  the  people,  (n)  Hence,  in  many  of  the  imperial 
cities  the  municipal  corporations  obtained  the  ascendency  as  soon  as  the 
Reformation  was  introduced,  and  the  republic  was  confirmed  in  the  Swiss 
Confederacy  and  commenced  in  the  Netherlands.  The  nobility,  the  peas- 
ants, and  the  burgesses,  endeavored  successively  in  the  name  of  tho  gospel  to 
overthrow  the  existing  forms  of  government,  (o)  In  France  the  Huguenots 
contemplated  the  establishment  of  a  free  state,  (2^)  ^"^  ii  England  the  legiti- 

Gesch.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  in  d.  Mark  Brandonb.  Weim.  1S46.— IT.  F.  Jacobson,  Grunde  d.  Verschiedonb. 
d.  luth.  n.  ref.  KVerf.  (Deutsche  Ztitscli.  f.  clir.  Wiss.  1S52.  N.  49ss.) 

k)  K.  V.  Oven,  d.  I'resbyt.  u.  Synodalverf.  in  Berg,  Jülich,  Cleve.  Essen.  1S29.  Jacobson,  Gesch. 
d.  Quellen  d.  cv.  KReclits  d.  prov.  Ebeinl.  u.  AVestpb.  Künigsb.  1S44. 

I)  J.  L.  Funk,  Organisir.  d.  engl.  Staalsk.  gcscbichll.  Altona.  lS-29.  C.  Schotll,  d.  Convocatioc 
1  engl.  K.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Tb.  1553.  H.  1.) 

ni)  F.  M'.  r.  Schuhert,%c\\\\:  KVerf.  Greifsw.  1S21.  2  vols.  A.  G.  i'nof«,  Eigcnthümücbkeitor 
i.  schw.  KVorC  Stiittg.  1S52. 

n)   Walch  vol.  X.  p.  4CS.  XXII,  214Cs. 

o)  §  825.  BarthoUl,  Jürgen  AVollenwober  v.  Lübeck.  {liaumer,  hist  Tascbcnb.  1S35.)  C".  F 
WiiiTii,  <L  polit,  Beziehungen  Heinrichs  VIII.  zu  M.  Meyer  u.  J.  WüIIenwever.  Hanib.  1S62.  4 

P)  Cap'-.figuf,  H.  de  la  Hit.  vol.  IL  p.  105.  G.  Weber,  gescb.  Darst.  d.  CUvinifm.  im  Verb,  i 
Sla.1t  in  Genf  u.  Frank-  lUidelb.  1*30. 


CHAP.  V.    PROTESTANTISM.    §  3T6.  STATE.    §  377.  CLEEGT.  443 

male  king  was  condemned  by  the  Parliament  in  the  midst  of  psalm-.<;inging 
and  prayer  to  mount  the  scalFold.  On  the  other  hand,  the  theological  scru- 
ples of  the  reformers  led  them  to  respect  as  a  providential  blessing  the  per- 
gonal character  of  their  rulers,  the  people  were  exhorted  to  the  duty  of 
Christian  obedience  in  every  thing  consistent  Avith  faith,  and  the  practical 
energies  which  had  been  developed  among  the  people  were  restrained.  (<?) 
Tlie  powers  of  the  clergy  and  the  rights  attending  the  possession  of  the 
Clnirch  property,  were  e.xercised  by  the  political  magistrates,  and  dependent 
ofllcers  now  filled  jjlaces  which  had  been  occupied  by  an  iiidejtendent  corpo- 
ration, llence,  where  the  princes  allowed  the  lleformation  to  have  its 
course,  their  power  was  almost  universally  increased  by  it.  Accordingly  in 
Denmark  the  monarchy  became  absolute,  while  in  Sweden,  after  the  king 
had  broken  the  independent  power  of  tlie  bishops,  the  crown  was  endan- 
gered by  the  aggressions  of  a  haughty  aristocracy. 

§  377.     The  Clerrjy  and  Church  Property. 

During  tlie  Reformation  the  principle  was  generally  adopted  that  all 
Christians  belonged  to  the  priestly  order.  Accordingly,  while  it  was  conceded 
that  the  ministerial  office  was  instituted  by  Christ,  it  was  maintained  that  each 
minister  was  individually  to  receive  his  commission  from  the  congregation  as 
its  servant,  and  that  ordination  was  only  a  solemn  call  to  this  duty,  (a)  Lu- 
ther's remark,  however,  that  the  spiritual  order  was  nothing,  and  that  God 
was  about  to  root  out  the  stupid  clergy,  (h)  belongs  to  the  period  when  he 
was  engaged  in  the  work  of  demolition.  The  principle  generally  received 
was  that  every  congregation  had  tlie  riglit  to  choose  its  own  pastor,  although 
in  the  Lutheran  Church,  especially,  the  right  of  patronage  was  respected,  and 
as  far  as  it  was  exercised  by  the  bishops,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  con- 
sistories, leaving  to  the  congregations  a  right  seldom  of  much  avail,  of  de- 
clining the  person  appointed.  On  the  principle  that  among  the  ministers  of 
the  word  of  God  tliere  could  bo  no  hierarchical  organization  by  divine  right, 
tlie  priestly  functions  and  privileges  of  the  bishops  became  common  to  all  pas- 
tors, (f)  except  the  right  of  excommunication,  which  was  at  first  questioned, 
and  then  gradually  was  assumed  by  the  consistories.  The  Episcopal  office,  as 
a  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority,  was  rejected  by  the  Reformed  Church,  but 
in  England  after  1588  it  was  again  defended  as  a  divine  institution,  («Z)  and 
among  the  Lutlierans  the  opinion  became  general  that  this  primitive  regula- 
tion should  nut  be  abolislied  without  urgent  necessity,  and  Mchuicthun  tliought 
that  a  tyranny  more  intolerable  than  the  former  domination  would  result  from 
the  overthrow  of  the  episcopal  rule.  (<)  It  has,  however,  been  looked  upon 
as  an  evangelical  sentiment  that  as  a  sjiiritual  otficer  a  bishop  should  renounce 
all  civil  jurisdiction.     By  the  operation  of  various  political  circumstances 


q)  Comp.  p.  877.   Wrong  Explnn.  in  Iftigen  vol.  III.  p.  110.  151. 

a)  Luther:    Walcli  vol.  X.  p.  301s.  1S33.  lS57s9.  XIX.  1544.  V.  1509.— (7.  Ifarltts,  K.  n.  Amt 
aach  luth.  Lctire.  Stullg.  1S53. 

I)  Do  Wetto  vol.  II.  p.  074.        c)  Art.  Sinal,:  p.  3.'523% 

(0  Xiel,  Gesch.  (L  Purit  vol.  I.  p.  605ss.     [XeaU,  U.  of  the  Pur.  (Ori-.  Engl.  eJ.'J  vol.  I.  p.  30Tss.] 

e)  Corp.  lief.  vol.  II.  pp.  334.  341. 


Ml  MoDKUN  ciirKCii  ni.sToi:v.  tki:.  v.   a.  d.  imt-iws. 

Episcopncy  lias  in  fnct  hecotne  entirely  extinct  among  the  German  churches. 
In  ft  fi'W  instftncos  the  prelatic  office  remains  witli  the  states,  for  the  Protes- 
tant l)isli(>i)s  of  Lower  Germany  who  possess  sovereign  powers,  rest  their  claims 
wliolly  upon  the  fact  that  certain  princely  houses  have  acquired  episcopal  ter- 
ritories under  the  title  of  hishops.  (/)  Superintendents  in  Lutheran  countries 
(p.  882)  were  regarded,  after  the  formation  of  the  consistories,  merely  as  sub- 
ordinate officers  for  the  supervision,  and  in  general  for  the  ordination  of  the  pas- 
tors. Although  the  clergy  are  generally  Avitliout  political  privileges,  and  have 
sulTercd  much  during  some  of  the  religious  dissensions  from  arhitrary  power, 
they  exercise  great  personal  influence,  and  they  have  frequently,  to  their  own 
peril,  asserted  their  right  publicly  to  inflict  ecclesiastical  punishments  upon 
their  supreme  rulers,  (g)  A  general  desire  was  exhibited  among  all  classes 
during  this  period  to  obtain  a  share  of  the  property  of  the  Church.  Immense 
wealth  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  princes  and  nobility,  while  the  people  ob- 
tained their  portion  by  withholding  the  titlies  and  rents  which  formerly 
belonged  to  the  clergy.  Even  in  Switzerland  the  sacred  vessels  were  sent  to 
the  mint  or  to  the  market,  and  Calvin  himself  was  unable  to  save  the  property 
of  the  Church.  {K)  In  some  countries,  especially  in  Germany,  a  portion  of 
this  wealth  was  used  in  the  endowment  of  benevolent  or  literary  institutions ; 
but  so  little  were  the  pastors  and  teachers  of  schools  provided  for  from  this 
great  inheritance,  that  Luther  could  not  sufficiently  lament  their  miserable 
condition.  (/)  But  even  then  he  had  occasion  to  remark  that  destitute  as  they 
■were  of  real  estate,  they  were  despised  and  cheated  by  the  rude  rabble,  and 
especially  by  every  young  squire  and  petty  tax  collector  in  the  land.  (Jc) 
"Whatever  remnant  of  ecclesiastical  property  had  been  saved  from  this  general 
pillage  was  generally  administered  by  the  agents  of  the  government,  by  whom 
it  was  used  for  civil  purposes  whenever  a  pressing  necessity  or  cupidity  dic- 
tated, and  the  real  estate  was  frequently  squandered  in  the  payment  of  rents. 
The  convents  doubtless  "well  deserved  their  fate,  but  with  the  exception  of  a 
few  foundations  for  the  nobility,  which  were  of  no  advantage  to  the  Church, 
their  general  dissolution  was  rather  a  destruction  than  a  reform,  and  robbed 
innocence  or  penitence  of  an  asylum  provided  for  them  by  the  piety  of  for- 
mer times. 

§378.     PulUc  Worship  and  Art. 

Bibl.  Agendor.  edit,  by  König,  Zelle  1T26.  4.  Dio  ev.  KOrdn.  v.  Kicliter  (p.  441.  ut./)  Eisen- 
»chmid,  Gesch.  d.  KGebräucho  d.  Prot  Lps.  1795.  J.  L.  Funk,  Geist  u.  Form  d.  v.  Lutli.  angeordn. 
Kultus.  Brl.  1S19.  T.  Klie/oth,  d.  urspr.  Gottesdieustordn.  in  d.  deut  K.  luth.  Bekenntn.  ihre  De- 
struct  u.  Eef.  Kostock.  1847.— t^  Gefcken,  ü.  d.  verscbiedne  Eintb.  d.  Deeal.  u.  d.  Einfluss  drs.  a.  d, 
Cultus.  ilamb.  1S.3S.  C.  Grueneisen,  de  Protestantismo  artibus  liaud  infesto.  Stuttg.  1SS9.  4  [Lind- 
«K.V,  Sketches  of  the  Hist  of  Chr.  Art  Lond.  IS  J6.  .3  vols.  S.  C.  Burnet/,  Gen.  Uist  of  Music.  Lond. 
17S9.  4  vols  4.  J.  Ifaicf-ius,  Gen.  Hist  of  the  Science  &  Practice  of  Music,  Lond.  1770.  5  vols.  4, 
Burney  &  Hawkins,  abridged  by  T.  £usli/,  Lond.  1S19.  2  vols.  8.  Ji.  North,  Memoirs  of  Music 
Lond.  1S46.  4.] 

The  Reformed  Churches  conformed  strictly  to  the  simple  style  of  devotion 

/)  Walch  vol.  XVL  p.  1664.  Apol.  Conf.  p.  204.  Henke  on  YlUers,  p.  505ss.  A.  Xicoloeiu\ 
ilc  hisch.  Würde  in  Preussens  ev.  K.  Künigsb.  18-34. 

g)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  lS96ss.  XIIL  12S3.  Comp.  Hutterus  red.  7  ed.  p.  SlSs. 

ft)  BalUngir,  vol.  I.  p.  122.  3S4.    Einnj,  Calvin,  vol.  IL  p.  2Sss. 

0  De  Wette  vol.  111.  p.  13öss.  160.       k)  Walcli  vol.  IL  p.  925.  XI.  2532.  XIII.  31s. 


CHAP.  V.    PEOTESTANTISM.    §  STS.  PUB.  -WORSHIP.    ART.  445 

which  prevailed  in  the  days  of  the  apostles.  The  Lutheran  mode  of  worship 
was  gradnally  developed  from  the  old  Roman  ritual  used  in  the  mass,  hut 
modified  by  the  principles  and  practice  of  the  reformers.  According  to  these, 
the  services  of  the  house  of  God  were  not  for  God  alone ;  the  evangelical  ser- 
mon ought  to  he  the  principal  part  of  them,  the  native  language  of  a  people 
was  for  them  the  most  sacred,  and  the  congregation  should  take  an  active 
part  in  the  exercises,  (a)  "When  Luther  published  an  order  for  divine  wor- 
ship (1526)  he  took  particular  care  that  no  one  should  regard  any  part  of  it 
:is  indispensable  or  universally  binding,  so  that  Christian  liberty  should  be 
thereby  abridged,  (h)  In  the  Lutheran  Church  the  practice  of  private  con- 
fession even  of  individual  sins  was  retained,  but  only  as  a  voluntary  matter 
when  any  one  needed  it,  and  for  ignorant  people,  (c)  Instead  of  daily  masses 
and  the  singing  of  the  hours,  many  Protestants  had  bible-lessons  appointed, 
and  in  Geneva  meetings  for  free  religious  conference  (congregations)  were 
held.  The  sacred  festivals  were  so  reduced  as  to  commemorate  none  but  the 
most  important  events  in  sacred  history,  and  only  a  few  of  the  national 
churches  continued  to  celebrate  days  in  honor  of  Mary  and  the  apostles. 
Days  of  fasting  were  occasionally  ai)pointed,  and  an  annual  festival  for  com- 
memorating the  Reformation  was  observed  first  in  Saxony,  in  1G88.  The  Re- 
formed Church,  with  a  decidedly  iconoclastic  spirit,  removed  from  their  places 
of  public  worship  all  statues,  pictures,  and  works  of  art,  regarding  them  as 
inconsistent  with  the  requirements  of  the  word  of  God.  Having  destroyed 
nearly  all  its  organs,  it  received  a  scriptural  psalmody,  and  the  tender  melodies 
used  to  accompany  it  from  the  French,  (jl)  Luther  had  no  idea  that  the 
proper  influence  of  the  gospel  was  to  destroy  all  the  refinements  of  art.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  was  anxious  that  all  the  arts,  and  particularly  music,  should 
be  enlisted  in  the  service  of  Ilim  who  had  created  them,  (e)  Albert  Durer 
was  still  moved  by  Luther's  spirit,  and  the  faithful  Lucas  Cranach  Avas  the 
painter  of  the  Reformation.  (/)  All  the  monuments  of  art  which  had  been 
collected  b^'  the  Catholics  of  earlier  times  in  the  Church  of  St.  Lawrence  in 
Nuremberg,  were  preserved  Avithout  injury  by  tlio  Protestants.  As  long  as 
Protestantism  felt  placed  in  an  attitude  of  special  hostility  to  Catholicism,  its 
influence  was  unquestionably  adverse  to  the  imitative  arts,  since  it  deprived 
them  of  their  legendary  stores,  allowed  of  no  statues  or  pictures  in  the 
churches,  except  such  as  were  strictly  illustrative  of  scriptural  history,  and 
even  when  contending  against  the  Iconoclasts  Luther  was  willing  to  give  up 
the  pictures,  (j/)  The  more  magnificent  the  Gothic  structure,  the  less  was  it 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  preaching.  It  is,  however,  to  Luther  that  we  are 
principally  indebted  for  the  popular  character  of  sacred  music.  The  hymns  of 
the  ancient  Church  were  reproduced,  and  together  with  the  songs  which 
gushed  from  his  own  heart,  he  sent  them  forth  among  the  Gernuiu  churchca 

«)  Wa!ch  vol.  X.  p.  262SS.       6)  Ibid.  p.  266ss.    Apol.  Con/,  p.  151. 

c)  Con/.  Aug.  art  11.     Wnlch  vol.  XX.  p.  GO.  XVII,  2143. 

d)  Bullinger,  vol.  I.  p.  13l!>.  175.  2G5.  41S.— //«-/iri/,  Calvin,  vol.  I.  p.  ICOs,  u.  Bell.  p.  C7ss.     //.  A. 
Daniel,  Code.x  liliirs.  ccc.  unlv.  in  opit,  reilncttis  Vol.  III.  Lps.  1S51. 

e)  Walch  vol.  X.  p.  172:3.    Do  Welle  vol.  IV.  p.  ISl. 

/)  Stark,  Durcr  (p.  30G.)  p.  671s.     cVi,  Sc/iiic/ian.t.  L.  Cranaclid.  Atlteru  Leben  u.  Werke.  Lps. 
.851.  2  vols.       0)  Walcli  vol  XX.  p.  80a 


446  MODKUN  cnuKcn  irisronv.   rnn.  v.   a.  d.  isit-kws. 

in  II  stream  of  sacred  poetry,  expressive  of  all  the  profound  fecllnffs  of  the 
Christian  lienrt,  and  combining  all  the  deep  tones  of  the  Christian  epirit. 
"When  these  songs  were  collected  by  a  pious  literary  man  in  Kome  they  seemed 
to  liim  like  the  pages  of  a  great  lyrical  epic  poem  which  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tiiiu  jjoitry  had  composed  in  the  course  of  many  centuries.  Iluns  Walter 
assisted  I>uther  in  giving  a  poimlar  character  to  church  music  as  a  choral  for 
tlic  congregation.  This  was  a  kind  of  music  derived  from  the  old  ecclesias- 
tical harmonics  combined  with  some  popular  melodies,  in  Avhich  a  scientific 
choir  were  only  leaders  to  the  assembly,  and  in  which  pieces  similar  to  mo- 
tets were  interwoven.  (A)  Even  the  master-song^  as  it  flourished  at  that  time, 
especially  in  Protestant  cities,  was  directed  to  biblical  subjects,  to  which  in- 
deed the  principal  singing  was  expressly  confined,  (i) 

§  379.     Humanistic  Education  and  Holy  Scriptures.     Cont.  from  §  28-i. 

G.  W.  Meyer,  Gesch.  d.  Schrlfterkl.  s.  Wiederherst.  d.  Wlss.  Gott  1802ss.  5  vols.   E.  Reusi,  Oesch. 
d.  ir.  Schrr.  N.  T.  2  ed.  Braunschw.  1858.  p.  521ss. 

In  every  instance  in  which  the  profound  feelings  of  an  educated  people 
came  under  the  power  of  the  Reformation,  an  original  religious  literature  and 
a  series  of  successful  polemic  writings  were  produced.  A  considerable  amount 
of  scriptural  commentary  and  historical  investigation  were  indispensable  for 
laying  a  foundation  for  the  Reformation,  and  to  vindicate  its  necessity.  Yet 
though  it  was  commenced  when  the  human  mind  was  in  a  process  of  the 
liveliest  development,  it  was  not  merely  no  assistance,  but  rather  a  restraint 
apon  that  development,  on  account  of  the  exclusively  religions,  and  among 
the  Epigonoi  of  the  Reformation,  the  contracted  dogmatic  interest  which 
prevailed.  Luther's  quarrel  with  Erasmus  was  only  a  prelude  of  the  rupture 
between  modern  orthodoxy  and  humanistic  learning,  Avhich  was  for  a  while 
postponed  by  Melancthon  and  his  school,  but  which  was  ultimately  unavoid- 
able. («)  Luther,  it  is  true,  placed  a  high  estimate  upon  the  languages,  but 
it  was  only  for  the  sake  of  their  utility  in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures. 
These  Scriptures  being  the  only  source  of  all  Christian  truth,  it  was  neces- 
sary first  to  understand  them  by  means  derived  from  themselves,  and  then  to 
secure  them  against  the  arbitrary  methods  of  the  allegorical  interpreters,  (b) 
Luther  lived  on  terms  of  familiar  equality  with  the  sacred  writers,  and  on 
this  account  their  most  delicate  shades  of  meaning  seem  never  to  have  es- 
caped him,  so  that  frequently  we  have  their  discourse  with  nothing  but  his 


li)  Luth.  geistl.  Lieder  ncbst  Singwoisen.  ed.  by  C.  v.  Winterfeld,  Lps.  1S40.  4.  Liith.  geistl.  Lie- 
der ni.  <L  zu  s.  Lebzeiten  gebriiuchl.  Slngweisen.  ed.  by  Ph.  Wackernagel,  Stutts.  1&4S.  ^.—{Bunsai) 
Vorsuch  e.  allg.  ev.  Gcsang-u.  GebeÜ)Uchs.  Hamb.  1S33.  G.  r.  Tuclter,  Schutz  d.  ev.  KGes.  im 
1.  Jabrh.  d.  Ref.  Lps.  1S4S.  2  vols.  G.  Stipp,  unverfälschter  Liedersegen.  Brl.  (ISöl.)  1S52.— ^rtwi- 
liiivh,  L.  Verdienste  um  d.  KGes.  Ilamb.  1S13.  W^wkerjuiiiel,  d.  deutsche  KLied.  v^  Luth.  b.  Blau- 
ror.  Stuttg.  1S40.  4.— C.  v.  Winter/elcl,  d.  cr.  KGesang.  u.  s.  Verb.  z.  Kunst  d.  Tonsatzes.  Lps.  lS4Sss. 
8  vols.  4. 

0  Gorvinus,  Gesch.  d.  poet  Nation.  Lit  vol.  IL  p.  2G5. 

n)  Only  onesiile:  De  non  contemncndis  stndiis  hunianioribus  future  theolo^ro  max.  necessariii 
cltror.  viror.  ad  Eob.  Ilessum  Epp.  Lutheri,  Mel..  P.  Mose'.Iani  etc.  Erph.  1523.  Jictitke  vol.  V.  Cap 
S.    Proofs  for  the  other  view  in  Ilagtn  vol.  III.  p.  2Css. 

h)  CarUtaJii  Concl.  c  Ecc.  23  ct  47.     Walo'.i  vol.  XVIIL  p.  1002.  XXII.  p.  lOS.'ss. 


CnAP.  V.    PROTESTANTISM.    §  379.  SCRIPTURES.    §  380.  THEOSOPIIY.        447 

manner,  (r)  In  Calvin's  concise  exposition«,  especially  of  the  epistles  of  Poul, 
■^ve  have  expressions  of  the  most  profound  religions  feeling,  and  those  things 
■which  must  be  presupposed  for  the  understanding  of  the  inspired  writers,  to 
gether  with  a  wonderful  skill  in  the  natural  development  of  thoughts.  (J) 
2Ielanct]ion's  commentaries  exhibit  in  a  still  higher  degree  the  predominance 
of  the  rhetorical  and  dogmatic  over  the  grammatical  character.  Beza  was 
more  rigid  in  his  views,  and  more  conversant  with  theological  learning,  but 
he  devoted  his  attention  princiiiall}-  to  a  defence  of  the  oriental  and  inspired 
cliaracter  of  the  sacred  volume,  in  opposition  to  the  classical  but  superficial 
objections  of  the  blunt  Zwinglian,  Castellio.  (e)  Flacim  endeavored  to  lay 
down  precise  rules  for  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures.  He  maintained 
that  the  divine  word  is  to  be  explained  by  every  means  derived  from  human 
science,  but  in  subserviency  to  the  fear  of  God  ;  that  nothing  must  be  so  in- 
terpreted as  to  become  inconsistent  with  the  analogy  of  faitii,  i.  e.,  the  sum 
of  Christianity  founded  upon  clear  passages  of  Scripture,  by  which  he  proba- 
bly means  Lutheranism,  and  that  the  allegorical  method  is  admissible  onl^ 
when  the  literal  sense  would  be  immoral,  unreasonable,  or  useless.  (/)  After 
the  bold  doubts  suggested  by  Luther  and  Carolstadt,  respecting  some  parts  of 
the  canon,  there  were  no  disputes  on  that  subject  except  with  the  Catholics, 
on' the  manner  of  its  composition.  The  controversies  carried  on  with  regard 
to  the  origin  of  the  iNIasorctic  points,  and  the  purity  of  the  Greek  language 
in  the  New  Testament,  show  that  philological  studies  were  obliged  to  contend 
with  powerful  prejudices.  But  after  the  establishment  of  the  Church  but  lit- 
tle attention  was  bestowed  upon  the  original  basis  on  which  it  was  constructed, 
in  consequence  of  a  decided  preference  for  dogmatic  disputes.  Grotius  was 
the  only  one  who,  as  a  pious  humanist,  seems  to  have  made  any  attempts  to 
render  the  Scriptures  intelligible  to  his  contemporaries,  (g) 

§  380.     Philosophy  and  Theosophy.     Mysticism  and  Practical  Christianity. 

Kromaijer,  de  Weigelianismo,  Eosae-Crucianismo  et  Paracels.  Lps.  16G9.  Colherg,  platon.  licr- 
iiiet.  (,'liii^tciith.  Frkf.  u.  Lps.  1C90.  2  vols.  F.  DdiUsch,  d.  naturiiliil.  Mysltc.  iniicrh.  d.  lutli.  K. 
(Zoitscli.  f.  lutli.  Til.  1S41.  II.  3.)  ^^.  Ctirriere,  die  pliil.  Weltanschauung  d.  liiforniationszcit  Stnttg. 
1S4T.  [//.  Ilallam,  II.  of  Lit  New  York.  1S47.  Enßtld'g  Abridgment  of  üruckcr's  II.  of  Phil. 
Lond.  liai.  2. vols.  4.]    K.  F.  A.  ScheUing,  Prot.  u.  Phil.  Il.imb.  ISIS. 

Tlie  reformers  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  philosopln',  and  felt  embit- 
tered toward  it  on  account  of  its  connection  with  Scholasticism,  (a)  It  was 
only  by  means  of  Melancthon's  Clas.s-Book  and  the  academic  corporation 
which  existed  at  that  time,  that  a  formal  philosoi)hic  science,  derived  from 
former  times  and  founded  principally  upon  Aristotle,  was  propagated  in  the 
Protestant  schools  as  the  handmaid  of  Tlioology.    The  speculations  of  Giordano 


t')  Especially  upon  Genesis,  the  Psalms,  and  the  Ep  to  the  Galatlans, 

(I)  Lately  published  by  Tlwluck  since  ]b>:31  in  2d  edit.  Comp,  an  edit,  of  Miscell.  writings,  by 
tlis  same  author,  vol.  II.  p.  .S3i«s. 

e)  FmhhUii,  Sub.  Ca-^tollio.  Frkf.  IT.').'». 

/)  Clavis  Sc.  S.  IJas.  1507.  Jen.  167 1.  2  vols.  &.  often. 

g)  Annott.  in  V.  T.  Par.  1G44.  ed.  Doede-lein,  Hal.  lT7.'>s.  3  vols.  4.  Ar.nolL  in  X.  T.  AmsL 
I641s}.  2  vols,  f  ed.  Witidheitn,  Hal.  17C0.  2  Th.  4. 

a)  J.  <th  Ehicich.  do  varia  Arist.  in  .>iclioli-i  Protest,  fortuiia  (p.  02i1.  before  hia  rdit,  of  Lauuoi) 
Ueercn,  Fol-vn  d.  U'.-f  f  Phil.  (üef.  Ulm.  1>19.  p.  114.)  o'liip.  (JMe,  Melanctli.  \\  112. 


448  MoDi.uN  ciii-nni  iiistop.y.   pek.  v.   a.  i*.  isn-ici«. 

Bruno  Willi  respect  to  tho  all-uniting  and  all-embracing  divinity  were  mis- 
understood at  Wittenberg,  and  ho  liimself  was  burnt  at  Rome  (1000).  (^') 
Manv  endeavored  to  solve  the  mystery  of  tho  divine  nature  and  of  tho 
world's  organization  by  subtle  glances  into  tho  depths  of  their  own  nature«. 
J'ltracclxii.i,  a  Swiss  physician  (d.  1541),  gave  to  these  efforts  a  wild  and  tor- 
tuous form  of  expression  in  images  drawn  from  nature,  and  terms  derived 
from  alchemy.  "Without  regard  to  tho  personal  objects  which  he  prosecuted 
in  an  emi)irical  manner,  we  find  that  he  opposed  the  learned  traditions  of  that 
])criod  by  lively  exhibitions  of  real  nature,  and  that  his  philosophy  aimed  to 
contemidate  God  as  he  exists  in  tho  depths  of  nature,  as  he  is  in  himself,  and 
in  his  return  to  himself,  (c)  Valentine  Weigel  (d.  1588),  much  esteemed  as  a 
devout  pastor  in  Tschopau,  in  his  posthumous  theosophic  writings,  maintained 
that  all  outward  ecclesiastical  systems  are  of  no  value  when  compared  with 
tlie  internal  Spirit  which  God  gives  to  men,  and  represented  the  doctrines  of 
the  Church  merely  as  allegories  by  which  the  hidden  relations  of  God  and 
the  universe  are  made  known,  {d)  This  style  of  speculation  became  com- 
pletely developed  in  the  works  of  Jacob  Boehme  (d.  1624),  the  shoemaker  of 
Cioerlitz,  as  tlie  tranquil,  pious  heart  and  penetrating  mind  of  the  German 
philosopher  endeavored  to  express  through  his  uncouth  language  and  limited 
education,  in  a  natural  imagery  which  is  sometimes  quite  insipid  and  some- 
times highly  poetic,  or  in  ecclesiastical  forms,  his  conception  of  the  early 
dawn  and  the  most  hidden  qualities  of  things,  of  the  process  by  which  man 
is  exalted  from  the  terrible  power  of  nature  to  the  bright  kingdom  of  love, 
and  of  the  infinitely  calm  First  Cause,  by  whose  blessedness  he  was  at  par- 
ticular moments  delightfully  filled.  All  existence,  even  the  divine,  appeared 
to  him  an  everlasting  progress  through  various  opposite  forces.  Being  per- 
secuted by  the  pastor  of  his  own  city,  he  obtained  toleration  from  the  con- 
sistory in  Dresden.  His  followers  love  frequently  to  contrast  the  exuberance 
of  his  pious  spirituality  with  the  formal  dependence  of  the  Church  upon  the 
outward  letter  of  the  Scriptures.  The  literary  position  which  should  be 
assigned  to  him  is  one  Avliich  belongs  to  the  most  modern  school  of  poetry 
and  philosophy,  of  which  he  may  properly  be  regarded  as  the  prophet,  (e) 
Arndt  (d.  at  Celle,  1621),  on  the  other  hand,  did  much  to  promote  internal 
Christianity  in  the  spirit  of  the  popular  mysticism  of  former  times.  (/)    That 

b)  Jordani  Bmni  Scripta  in  unum  corpus  red.  G/rörer,  Stuttg.  1S34  [(7.  Barthtimes,  J.  Bm- 
no.  Par.  1S4S.  2  vols.  8.    See  Brit  Q.  Eev.  (Eel.  Mag.)  July,  1S19.] 

c)  Scbrr.  Bas  ir)S9s?.  11  vols.  4.  Rixner  u.  Siler,  Leben  u.  Lehren  berühmter  Physiker.  1S29. 
P,  1.  //.  A.  Prett,  (1.  Theol.  d.  Par.  in  Auszug.  Brl.  1S49.  2L  M.  Lessing,  Par.  s.  Leben  u.  Denken. 
BrL  1S39. 

d)  K.  u.  Uauspostill.  Neust  (Magd.)  1611.  1618.  Captnra  anrea,  d.  guldne  Griff  d.  i.  Anl.  alle 
Dinge  ohne  Irrth.  zu  erkennen.  IGIS.  4.  comp.  ll'tifcA,  Eiul.  in  d.  K.  Streit  d.  luth.  K  vol.  IV. 
!>.  102SSS. 

t)  Werke  durch  Gechtel,  Ainst  (16S2.  2  vols.  4.)  1730.  6  vols,  durch  Schiebler,  Lps.  ISSlss.  6  vols. 
Stuttg.  lS35ss.  4  vols.  Leben  by  A.  t.  Franckenherg,  prefixed  to  the  Werken.  A.  E.  Umbreit,  J. 
B.  lldlb.  1SS5.  J.  Ilamberger,  d.  Lehre  des  deutschen  Phil,  in  syst  Ausz.  Munich.  1844.  ir.  Z. 
WuUen,  J.  B.  Leben  u.  Lehre.  Stuttg.  1836.  Tholuck,  J.  B.  vor  d.  Dresd.  OConsist  (Deutsche 
Zeltsch.  t  Chr.  Wiss.  1852.  N.  25.) 

/)  Vier  Bücher  v.  wahren  Chnstenth.  p.  1605. 1.  compl.  ed.  Magd.  1609.  [Philad.  1842.  8.]  Paradies- 
GärtL  voller  ehr.  Tugenden.  1612.  and  often.  F.  Arndt,  J.  Arndt  Brl.  1833.  A.  Wildenhahji, 
J.  Arndt,  Lps.  1847.  2  vols.     IT.  L.  Pertz,  de  J.  Ar.  ejusquc  Ubris  de  vero  Christ  Kann.  1S52.  4. 


CHAP.  V.     PBOTESTANTISM.    ARNDT.    MUELLEE.    ANDEEAE.  44S 

he  might  satisfy  tliose  avIio  were  starving  around  him,  he  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  the  discovery  of  tlie  philosopher's  stone.  He  was  at  one  time  de- 
posed for  tlie  martyr  zeal  which  he  showed  in  behalf  of  exorcism,  and  from 
a  fear  of  the  action  of  a  living  spirit  lie  was  accused  by  the  orthodox  divines 
of  some  of  the  current  heresies.  ((/)  But  during  the  dreary  period  of  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  even  down  to  our  own  times,  he  did  much  to  promote 
a  mild,  consoling  and  practical  form  of  Christianity  among  the  people.  With 
much  more  spirit,  Umry  Mueller  (d.  1075),  in  opposition  to  the  dumb  eccle- 
siastical idols  of  his  time,  proclaimed  in  Rostock  the  riches  of  divine  love 
which  are  found  in  Christianity.  (/<)  In  ojjposition  to  an  age  which  in  its 
zeal  for  Lutheranism  had  begun  to  lose  sight  of  Christianity,  Joh.  Yal.  An- 
dreae  (d.  1054),  with  an  atfectionate  spirit  but  with  satirical  humor,  after 
consecrating  himself  to  Christ,  took  a  stand  against  the  perverse  follies  of  the 
day.  (i)  The  first  of  the  treatises  professing  to  be  by  Christian  Rosenkreuz, 
an  allegorical  and  mythical  personage,  respecting  a  secret  society  for  the  sub- 
jugation of  nature  and  the  spiritual  world  hy  magical  arts,  was  unquestion- 
ably by  him,  and  the  two  others  must  have  proceeded  at  least  from  a  circle 
in  intimate  connection  with  him.  They  were  doubtless  designed  to  be  a  fan- 
ciful satire  upon  a  peculiar  tendency  of  that  period,  to  which,  however,  they 
have  contributed  assistance  when  read  as  a  serious  history  by  persons  inclined 
to  such  fully,  (/i)  The  real  object  of  Andreae,  however,  was  to  overthrow 
the  idols  of  literature  and  rehgion,  and  to  set  up  the  primitive  Christ  in  their 
stead,  (J)  and  in  the  distant  future  he  behold  the  ideal  of  a  Christian  state,  a 
colony  of  Arudt's  Jerusalem,  in  Avhich  a  community  of  goods  anfl  universal 
felicity  based  upon  morality  would  combine  an  education  for  an  earthly  state 
with  another  for  heaven.  (?«)  The  mystic  theological  tendency  which  pre- 
vailed especially  in  Rostock  and  Strasbourg,  originated  in  an  attempt  to  adhere 
to  the  Christianity  of  the  heart  and  life,  in  opposition  to  one  which  had  be- 
come torpid  in  the  spell  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  and  other  magical  creeds. 

(/)  Luc.  Oslander,  theol.  Bedenken  u.  clir.  trenherz.  Erin.  Tub.  1624. 

h)  Goistl.  Er(inickstunden,  the  last  by  liii^sicurm,  K.itzeb.  (IS'28.)  1S31.  Iliranil.  Licboskufs,  last 
eil.  by  FUdler,  Lps.  1S31.  and  others.  Comp.  Arnold,  vol.  I.  p.  9:54. 

i)  Andr.  Vita  ab  ip'o  conscr.  ed.  liheinwald,  IJcr.  1849.  (Uebors.  In  Scybold's  Selbstbiogr.  Win- 
tortli.  1799.  vol.  II.)  If:  Ifosshach,  Andr.  n.  s.  Zcita.  Brl.  1S19.— vlnrfr.  Dictgn.  with  Pracf.  by  Her- 
der, Lps.  17S6.  J/.  P.  Burk,  Verz.  aller  Schrr.  Andr.  Tub.  1793.  Andr.  entlarvter  Apnp,  nebst 
Beltr.  z.  KGcsch.  d.  10.  u.  17.  Jahrh.  by  C.  T.  Piipst,  Lps.  1S27.  Die  Cbristenburg  v.  Andr.  ed.  by 
0.  Grüneinen,  Lps.  1S3G. 

k)  Chyniischo  Hochzeit  Christlanl  P.osenkr.  a.  1459.  (after  1602.)  Strasb.  ICIO.  Fama  fraternita- 
tls  d.  liibl.  O.  d.  Itoscnkrcuzcr.  (Kilo.)  Cas.s.  1614.  To  the  2  ed.  of  Cas«.  1615.  is  added  DIo  Confession 
der  Brüdersch.  B.  C.  Both  with  the  lat  orig.  of  the  Conf  (ed.  by  J.  F.  r.  Mfijfr.)  Krkf.  1S27.— 6'.  E 
Guhrauer,  w.  d.  Verf.  u.  urspr.  Sinn  d.  Fama  Fniternlt.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S52.  H.  2.) 

I)  Invitatio  .id.  fraternit.  I.  II.  Arg.  1616s.  Christ,  societatis  Idea.  Tub.  1620.  Vita  ed.  liheimc. 
p.  100.  Ep.  ad  Comenlum.  {Comen.  Opp.  Amst  165T.  \\  2^i.) 

»«)  Beipubl.  Chr1>tiano  politanao  descriptlo.  Arg.  1619.  12.  Guhrauer,  der  erste  deutsche  Staats- 
roman.  (/Vufc,  deutsches  Museum.  1S52.  N.  2i)  comp  Arnold,  vol.  L  p^  1114s8 


w'l 


lüO  MODKUN  (  IllltCir  IIISTOltV.     VV.W.  V.     A.  D.  lM7-lMa 

CHAP.  VI.— Tin:  JiOMAX  catholic  church. 

Siir/tl,  Pit/lart'-lnl,  (p.  '.V>9.)  Vllr*  ft  res  putno  Ponllflciiin  Rom.  et  Cardd.  nnrtoribii»  Cuioonio 
Cabrfni  Viitorello.  Üoui.  IftJO.  f.  L.  liitnke,  A.  nan.  IMpste,  ihro  KIrclic  u.  Ihr.  Staat  Im  16.  u. 
17.  .lalirli.  l!rl.  (ISiS-Js-s.)  isy".-*».  3  vols.  IhfeU,  ü.  d.  Schicksale  d.  K.  s.  d.  Trldenllnum.  (Tub. 
QunrUlscli.  1S4C.  II.  1.) 

§  381.     The  Popes  in  the  J{/e  of  the  Reformat i&n^  till  1.58.5. 

Onufrio  Panvini,  I*Iatln.a  rcstitutiis  c.  ndditionc.  Pontt  a  SIxto  IV.  n.sqiie  ad  riiim  IV.  Yen. 
15C2.  4.  and  often.  A.  du  Chesne,  II.  des  Paiics  I'nr.  IC-JG.  f.  cont.  (till  Paul  V.)  p.  Fr.  du  Chenne, 
Par.  1053.  2  vols.  f.  Itambach,  Ilist  d.  Päpste,  (cont.  by  Bower,  10th  vol.)  Magd.  1779s.  2 
Abschn.  4.  [/?.  I'lntina,  Lives  of  the  Popes  from  the  time  of  Christ  to  Sl.xtus  IV.  transl.  and  cont 
till  1GS5.)  by  P.  liycaiU,  Lond.  1GS5.  f.  Uoicer's  Lives  of  the  Popes  till  175*,  cont.  by  S.  II.  Cox 
till  now.  2  ed.  New  York.  1835.  3  vols.  8.] 

During  the  contests  between  France  and  Spain  for  the  possession  of  Italy, 
Leo  X.  forinetl  an  alliance  with  the  emperor,  and  died  exulting  over  their 
common  victory  (Dec.  1st,  1521),  and  with  the  reputation  of  having  ex- 
hausted the  revenues  of  three  pontificates.  Hadrian  VI.  (1522-23),  of 
Utrecht,  an  ardent  literary  man,  but  with  no  taste  for  art  and  poetry,  a  pre- 
ceptor of  tlie  emperor,  and  twice  regent  of  Spain,  though  regarding  his  pos- 
session of  sovereign  authority  as  the  most  unfortunate  circumstance  of  his 
life,  came  to  the  papal  chair  entirely  unacquainted  with  Roman  affairs,  or  the 
various  intrigues  of  that  period  with  respect  to  Italy,  and  became  most  pain- 
fully conscious  of  the  dependence  of  even  the  best  of  men  upon  the  times  in 
which  they  live.  The  efforts  he  put  forth  for  the  deliverance  of  Rhodes 
from  the  fiands  of  the  Turks  were  utterly  unsuccessful,  and  he  finally  died 
under  the  burden  of  his  official  duties.  (")  Clement  VIT.  (1523-34),  a  natu- 
ral son  of  Julian  de  Medici,  made  an  earnest  but  ineffectual  effort  for  the 
independence  of  Italy  (p.  381).  Rome  was  once  more  plundered  by  the  bar- 
barians, and  the  vicar  of  Christ  was  obliged  to  pay  dearly  for  the  procession 
which  the  emperor  contrived  for  his  liberation.  He  was,  however,  success- 
ful in  his  policy  of  employing  the  imperial  forces  to  secure  the  possession  of 
Florence  as  an  inheritance  of  his  family,  and  in  elevating  his  niece  to  the 
throne  of  France,  (h)  Faul  TIT.  (Farneso,  1534-49)  was  him-^olf  acquainted 
with  polite  literature,  and  honored  it  in  others;  he  adorned  the  city  of  Rome 
with  many  works  of  art,  exhausted  his  resources  in  unfortunate  schemes  to 
acquire  principalities  for  his  sons  and  grandsons,  and  by  subsidies  against  the 
Protestants  laid  the  foundation  for  the  load  of  debt  under  which  the  States 
of  the  Church  have  since  groaned.  He  soon,  however,  became  alarmed  at 
tlie  sudden  success  of  the  emperor,  and  subsequently,  as  fiir  as  was  possible 
for  a  pope,  he  acted  in  political  concert  with  the  Protestants.  He  appointed 
to  the  office  of  cardinal  men  of  profound  piety,  and  committed  to  their  hands 
the  duty  of  forming  a  plan  for  the  reformation  of  the  Church.  They  repre- 
sented the  papacy  as  the  true  so'arce  of  aU  abuses,  and  proposed  measures 
against  the  secularization  of  ecclesiastical  offices  and  endowments,  and  against 
the  incompetency  and  immorality  of  the  clergy.  Such  a  plan  the  cardinals 
concluded  should  be  introduced,  only  very  gradually,  and  with  great  secrecy. 

a)  Bidgrapliies  by  Giovio  »nd  others  in  Burmann.  (p.  374.) 

b)  ZicjUr.  11.  Clem.  (SchMorn,  Amoenn.  II.  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  210.) 


CHAP.  VI.    CAXn.  CHURCH.    §  3S1.  JCLIU3  III.    PAUL  IV.    PIUS  IV.        451 

The  knowledge  of  it,  liowever,  was  betrayed  to  the  Protestants,  -was  pub- 
Jished  by  them  to  sliow  how  much  even  their  adversaries  had  conceded,  and 
was  commented  upon  by  Lutlier  with  unreasonable  raillery,  and  the  pope 
found  it  better  to  introduce  the  inquisition  instead  of  the  Keformation.  (c) 
Julius  HI.  (Del  Monte,  1550-55),  with  an  impudent  affectation  of  modesty, 
attempted  to  justify  his  elevation  of  the  keeper  of  his  monkeys  to  the  dig- 
nity of  a  cardinal,  and  although  abundantly  competent  to  the  duties  of  his 
station,  spent  tlie  whole  period  of  his  pontiticate  in  enjoying  himself  in  his  beau- 
tiful villa.  There  was,  liowever,  a  party  continually  becoming  more  power- 
ful, which  was  convinced  that  the  Church  could  never  be  delivered  but  by 
piety  and  a  rigid  morality.  Their  first  choice  full  upon  Marcdlus  IL  (1555), 
but  ho  was  destined  by  Providence  barely  to  make  his  appearance  in  the 
papal  chair.  («Z)  I?aul  IV.  (Caraffa,  1555-59)  brought  to  the  throne  the 
gloomy  seventy  of  an  octogenarian  monk,  and  was  inflexibly  strict  toward 
himself,  toward  others,  and  even  toward  his  guilty  nephews,  but  proved  him- 
self a  terrible  enemy  to  heretics,  and  gathered  around  himself  a  .4iadow  of  the 
ancient  hierarchy.  For  a  while  his  patriotic  feelings  obtained  the  ma.stery, 
and  induced  him  to  form  an  alliance  with  France  to  effect  the  liberation  of  Icalv 
fi-om  the  poAver  of  Spain.  A  heretic  infantry  defended  Rome  against  a  Catholic 
army,  and  nothing  but  Philip's  piety  toward  his  Church  prompted  him  to  grant 
the  pope  an  honorable  peace.  On  the  day  he  died,  his  statue  was  mutilated 
by  the  people,  and  the  house  of  the  inquisition  was  reduced  to  aslic.s.  (e) 
Pius  IV.  (Medici  of  Milan,  1559-G5),  condescending  and  pleasant  as  ho  wa.s 
by  nature,  allowed  all  the  measures  adopted  by  his  predecessor  to  remain  in 
force,  established  the  papal  authority  by  his  moderation  and  conciliatory  con- 
duct toward  the  princes,  conceded  the  use  of  the  cup  in  Austria  as  far  as  the 
German  princes  and  bishops  thought  it  needful  for  their  country,  and  sus- 
tained the  heroic  efforts  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  for  the  deliverance  of 
Malta.  (/)  The  Dominican  Pius  V.  (Ghi.'-lieri,  150<j-72),  a  pious  judge  in 
all  matters  connected  with  morality  and  heresy,  realized  as  much  as  possible 
in  the  court  and  the  Church  generally,  the  ideal  of  the  rigidly  devout  party, 
encouraged  the  violent  and  sanguinary  measures  then  adopted  against  the 
Protestants,  and  assisted  in  gaining  the  naval  victory  of  Lepanto  against  the 
Turks.  (.'/)  Grcfjory  XIII.  (Buoncompagno,  1572-85)  established  learned  eccle- 
siastical scliools  especially  for  mi>sions,  corrected  the  book  of  canon  law  by  ap- 
peals to  the  original  authorities  (p.  280 j,  and  the  ecclesi;istical  and  civil  was 
made  to  harmonize  with  the  solar  year.  (A)   In  consequence  of  his  attempt  to 

(■)  (A.  .'A.  Qiiirini)  imngo  «pt.  Pontlflcis  cxpressa  In  geslls  P.  III.  Eriv.  17-15.  4.  On  the  otlier 
svic:  KieUino.Y.f.  iXe  po^tls  P.  Lps.  1747.  4.  MifUu'iti.'Ef).  II.  de  eiiiendanda  Ecc.  Tur.  174S. 
M'ulih  vol.  XVI.  p.  2394.-;.'<.  cf.  Bulla  üifornmt.  PniiH  III.  ad  lll>t.  Cone.  Ttid.  porllnons,  concopta, 
noil  viilgala,  ed.  (V((mwjj,  Ilavn.  1S.'?0.  4.  [Nccojeity  of  Kvf.  prosontecl  to  tlie  Diot  of  Spcyor,  Leiter 
of  Paul  in.  to  CliarU-s  V..  and  Calvin'.s  neinnrks.  tran;.!.  by  Jieveridge,  I'ldlad.  1SJ5.  15.] 

d)  P.  I'jUdori  do  vita  Marc.  II.  coiiiiiii'niar.  IJoiii.  1744.  4. 

e)  A.  Ctiraccioli,  Col.  lil-t.  do  vita  P.  IV.  Col.  1G12.  4.  /'.  Jftiffii  Disqq.  bist  de  P.  IV.  inculpata 
Vitiu  Neap.  1C72.  f.     BioimiU>.  Storia  dl  Paolo  IV.  IJoin.  174S.  2  vols.  4. 

/)  Lfonardi  Or.  do  laudlb.  PU  IV.  Pad.  Isr.V 

(7)  //.  CalMHt,  Vila  del  P.  Plo  V.  Koin.  15M'..  4.  J.  A.  Gnhutii  de  vit-a  Pli  V.  Rom.  1C05.  f. 
(Acta  SS.  Muj.  Th.  L  p.  616.)  A.  Bzovii  P.  V.  Rom.  1C72.  I  P.  A.  Moffei,  Vita  dl  S.  Pio.  Veil 
1712.  4.     Mend/iam,  Lifo  of  S.  Pius  V.  Lond.  1.S35. 

Ä)  Comp.  F.  Piper,  Gesch.  d.  Osterfestes  s.  d.  Kalenderriforni.  BrI.  1845. 


452  MODKIJN  CIICKCII  IIISTOKV.     I'EK.  V.     A.  D.  1.M7-1649. 

rcliovo  tlio  finances  of  tlio  state  by  restoring  long-forgotten  feudal  tenurei? 
which  ho  had  no  power  to  enforce,  ho  revived  old  x>arty  diswensions,  and 
increa.«ed  the  niiinbor  of  tlio  banditti  until  they  openly  took  the  field  as  ai 
organized  army.  (/) 

§  .382.     Ignatius  dc  Loyola,  1491-156G. 

I.  Hihadenelra,  (according  to  the  nccount  of  Consalvus)  Vita  Ignat  Neap.  1572.  and  often. 
Jfiiß'i,  (nccordlng  to  the  account  of  rolanciis)  de  vita  et  iiioilb.  Ignat.  L.  Roui.  15S5.  4.  and  often. 
Cf.  Acta  S3.  Jul.  vol.  VII.  p.  409. 

II.  Btruhours,  Vlo  de  S.  Ignace.  Par.  (1679.  4.)  16S0.  trans,  by  Ilaza-Eadlitz.  Vien.  IS.3.5.  Genelli, 
Leben  d.  h.  Ign.  v.  L.  Innspr.  1847.— //n?i«,  Leben  I.  L.  Eost.  1721.  I".  Koi-tüm,  Entstehungs- 
pesch.  (L  J.  O.  Mannli.  1S43.  [/.  Taylor,  Loyola  and  Jesuitism  in  its  Kudiments.  Lond.  1S49.  S.  E. 
Vi'.  Grinßeld,  Hist,  of  the  Jesuits.  Lond.  1863.  8.  T.  J.  Buna,  Gesch.  d.  Ordens,  d.  J.  only  Part  L  la 
published.  Lps.  1853.] 

Don  Inigo  de  Loyola,  a  native  of  the  mountains  in  the  Basque  provinces 
of  Spain,  was  thrown  upon  a  sick-bed  in  consequence  of  severe  wounds  re- 
ceived during  the  heroic  defence  of  Pampeluna  (1521),  and  while  reading 
the  history  of  the  saints,  became  filled  with  a  longing  to  acquire,  like  St. 
Francis,  a  glorious  crown  in  heaven  by  earthly  suflTerings.  Having  been 
betrothed  as  a  spiritual  Amadis  to  the  Holy  Virgin,  he  endeavored  by  ex- 
treme self-denials  and  temptations  to  acquire  an  education  and  sphere  of 
activity  worthy  of  such  a  knighthood.  With  six  companions  in  the  Church 
of  the  Virgin  Mary  at  Montmartre  (1534),  besides  taking  the  ordinary  monas- 
tic TOWS,  he  solemnly  pledged  himself  to  take  care  of  himself,  to  minister  to 
pilgrims,  to  seek  the  conversion  of  the  Saracens,  and  to  receive  Avith  the 
most  confiding  obedience  every  command  which  the  Holy  Father  might 
impose  with  respect  to  any  sphere  of  duty.  After  much  reflection,  Paul 
III.  (1540)  granted  this  Society  of  Jesus,  which  at  first  consisted  of  but  sixty 
members,  his  permission  to  devote  themselves  as  a  community  to  the  ad- 
•\ancement  of  the  soul  in  the  Christian  life  and  faith,  and  as  a  military  com- 
pany to  the  extension  of  Christian  truth.  («)  Ignatius  was  elected  the  first 
general  of  the  order,  and  he  obtained  for  it  (1545)  all  the  privileges  of  the 
mendicant  friars.  He  soon  saw  it  extending  into  all  parts  of  Europe,  and 
under  the  conduct  of  Xavier,  developing  its  operations  for  the  conversion  of 
the  heathen  beyond  the  ocean.  The  mind  of  Ignatius  was  somewhat  con- 
tracted, but  he  possessed  an  indomitable  will,  and  his  whole  life  was  spent  in 
the  relief  of  the  sick,  the  instruction  of  chUdren,  and  the  care  of  souls.  He 
endeavored  always  to  keep  his  mind  so  occupied  with  spiritual  exercises,  that 
his  religious  feelings  and  his  imagination  were  in  continual  excitement,  and 
yet  were  firmly  held  in  a  given  direction,  {b) 

i)  Jf.  A.  Ciappi,  Comp,  delle  attioni  e  s.  vita  di  Gr.  Eom.  (1591.)  1596.  4,  J.  Bomj^lani  IT.  pon- 
tif.  Gr.  Dill.  1685.    Mafei,  Ann.  Gr.  Koni.  1742.  2  vols.  4. 

o)  Litt,  apost.,  quibus  institutio,  confirm,  et  vnria  privill.  continentur  S.  J.  Antv.  1635. 

h)  Exercitia  spiritu.ilia  S.  P.  Ign.  Loyolae  Antv.  1688.  and  often.  I  ond.  1S3S.  Directorium  ir 
exerc.  spir.  Antv.  1688. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CIIÜECn.    §  SS3.  JESUITIs.M.  453 

§  383.    Jesuitism. 

I.  Constitutiones  Soc  Jesu.  (Rom.  1583.)  Antu.  1C35.  (Corpus  Institutornm  S.J.  Antu  1T02.  2 
Tols.  4.)  Institufum  S.  J.  Prag.  1757.  2  vols.  4.  Hist  S.  J.  auctore  Orlandino.  (Rom.  1C15.)  Sac- 
chino,  Posntio,  Juvencio,  Cordava.  Antu.  1620.  1750.  C  vols.  f. 

II.  Ilist  de  la  comp,  de  Jesus.  Par.  1740.  4  vols,  and  often.  Hist  Elirentempel  d.  Gesell.  J. 
Vien.  \^\.—Ii.  C.  Dnlli's,  11.  of  the  Jesuits.  Lend.  ISIC.  2  vols.  Mit  ErI.  (v.  F.  v.  Kerz.)  Düsseid. 
IS20.  2  vols.  u.  Naclitr.  MQnoIi.  1521.— .9.  Suoenheim,  Gesch.  d.  Jes.  In  Deutschl.  FrW.  l^S.  2  vols.— 
n.  Honpiniani  II.  Jesuitica.  (Tig.  1619.)  Gen.  1670.  f.  Ilarenherg,  pragm.  Gesch.  d.  O.  d.  J.  Hal. 
1760.  2  vols.  {Adelung)  Vrs.  e.  Gesch.  d.  J.  Brl.  u.  Hal.  1769s.  2  vols.  P.  P.  Wo'f,  allg.  Gesch.  d.  J. 
(Zur.  17S9si)  Lps.  1803.  4  vols.  Spittler,  ü.  Gesch.  u.  Verf.  d.  J.  O.  Lps.  1S17.  [Cretineau  Joly,  Hist 
rel.  pol.  et  lit  de  la  Comp.  d.  J.  Par.  1S46.  2  ed.  6  vols.  12.  A.  SteinmeU,  Hist  of  J.  from  the  Germ. 
Philad.  1S40.  2  vols,  liavaiffiian,  Life  and  Inst  of  J.  New  York.  12.  K  Dvller,  J.  as  they  vrere 
and  are,  fioni  the  Germ.  Lond.  1845.  12.  W.  II.  Pule,  Celebrated  Jesuits,  Xa\ier,  Laynez,  Garnctt, 
Bellarmine,  Schall,  .and  Gruber.  Lond.  1S53.  S.  Michelet  &  Qainet,  The  J.  from  the  Fr.  New  York. 
1842.  12.    J.  Poynder,  IL  of  the  J.  Lond.  1S16.  2  vols.  Svo.] 

A  few  sagacious  and  enthusiastic  spirits  connected  "with  the  order,  -well 
undei-stood  the  peculiar  wants  of  the  age,  and  by  a  dexterous  adaptation  of 
it  to  these,  even  under  the  administration  of  its  second  General  Lainez  (d. 
156-1),  it  became  conscious  of  its  general  power  to  maintain  the  cause  of  the 
hierarchy  against  Protestantism,  whether  within  or  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Roman  Church.  Before  any  could  become  members,  they  were  required  to 
pass  through  a  novitiate,  in  which  they  were  severely  and  appropriately 
tested.  Of  the  actual  members,  some  were  called  scholastics,  others  coadju- 
tors, secular  or  spiritual,  and  only  a  few  choice  spirits  reached  the  perfect 
dignity  of  the  Professed.  From  the  latter  were  chosen  the  principal  officers, 
the  Superiors,  and  the  Provincials,  constituting  a  well  organized  train  of 
authorities  up  to  the  General  of  the  Order  in  Rome  with  his  assistant  Coun- 
cil. Every  individual  was  powerful  in  his  appropriate  sphere,  but  in  every 
act  he  was  closely  watched  and  guarded  lest  he  should  transcend  his  proper 
limits.  So  perfect  was  the  obedience  inculcated  by  a  long  course  of  disci- 
pline, and  strengthened  by  every  spiritual  means,  that  with  the  exception  of 
some  internal  storms,  a  single  arbitrary  but  inflexible  will  controlled  every 
movement  of  the  order  in  all  parts  of  the  world.  And  yet,  although  each 
individual  possessed  no  more  will  of  his  own  than  the  particular  members  of 
the  human  bod}',  he  expected  to  be  placed  in  precisely  that  position  ia  which 
his  talents  would  be  best  developed  for  the  common  benefit,  in  exercises  of 
monastic  devotion,  in  literary  and  scientific  pursuits,  in  the  secular  life  of 
courts,  or  in  strange  adventures  and  eminent  offices  among  savage  nations. 
All  became  accustomed  to  regard  the  order  as  their  only  home,  and  their 
superiors  as  their  only  jiroviilence.  The  movements  of  this  order  wore  not 
impeded  by  the  clumsy  machinery  of  ancient  monasticism,  for  it  had  at  ita 
command  all  kinds  of  ecclesiastical  dispensations,  and  as  a  third  kind  of 
monasticism,  completely  restored  to  the  various  occupations  of  the  world,  it 
entered  into  every  relation  of  social  and  secular  life.  ('/)  At  the  close  of  the 
century  in  which  it  was  established,  by  the  multitude  of  its  members  engngod 
in  the  instruction  of  youth,  and  ai)pointed  to  be  the  guardians  of  princes,  it 
had  become  the  most  imj)ortant  power  in  the  Catholic  Church.  The  Jesuitg 
also  endeavored  to  become  proficient  in  every  kind  of  intellectual  cultivation, 

a)  IL  V.  Orclh,  d.  Wesen  d.  Jes.  Orden?,  p.  IsO^. 


4.")  1  M()I>i:kn  ciiukch  iiisToijy.   tei:.  v.   a.  d.  ]M7-ic43. 

lis  tlio  only  wiiy  f«>  <«I)t:iin  nsceiidcncy  in  tlio  -world  of  mind.  But  although 
they  had  aiMoiiK  tlicin  a  inultitiide  of  learned  men  in  every  department  of  lit- 
erature, the  curse  of  their  strufrglo  against  human  freedtjin  rested  upon 
tliein,  and  not  a  single  great  work  was  given  hy  them  to  the  world.  Full 
of  pomp  as  their  churches  generally  were,  very  little  genuine  taste,  and 
scarcely  any  true  Avorks  of  art,  were  to  be  seen,  and  they  seemed  like  post- 
humous sons  of  their  parent  Catholicism.  They  gave  their  countenance  to 
every  fantastic  and  gloomy  superstition,  though  it  must  be  conceded  that  it 
was  a  Jesuit  Avhose  tender  spirit  moved  him  to  be  the  first  to  arouse  the 
peojde  by  his  awakening  appeals  against  the  abominations  of  the  trials  of  the 
witches.  Qi)  lu  spite  of  the  ill-will  of  the  other  orders,  and  the  suspicions 
of  some  governments,  public  sentiment  in  Catholic  countries  was  in  their 
Itivor.  But  in  their  efforts  to  become  all  things  to  all  men,  and  to  make  the 
way  of  salvation  easy,  some  of  them  indulged  in  an  inconsiderate  boldness  of 
assertion,  which  was  not  properly  rebuked  by  their  leaders,  and  thus  their 
enemies  found  occasion  for  accusing  them  of  maintaining  the  hierarchical 
vieAvs  of  former  times  (p.  334)  respecting  the  inferior  importance  of  ordinary 
duties  in  comparison  with  the  attainment  of  a  supreme  object,  of  putting 
forth  general  maxims  dangerous  to  the  security  of  all  laws,  and  of  composing 
a  science  of  casuistry,  in  which  pedantry  and  frivolity  were  equally  conspicu- 
ous, but  Avhich  seriously  impaired  the  inviolability  of  the  moral  law.  (c) 

§  384.     The  Council  of  Trent.     Dec.  13,  lö^^-Dec.  4,  1563. 

I.  Canones  et  doer.  C.  Tiid.  Kom.  1564  4  and  ofL  ed.  Jod.  le  Plat,  Lov.  1770  4.  Lps.  1SÖ2.  Aca 
S.  Congr.  Card.  Cone.  Trid.  interpretum  Eesolutiones  et  Congtitt  Pontif.  rccentiores  ad  jus  eommnne 
spect  cd.  Aem.  L.  liichter,  Lps.  1SÖ3.  [Canons  and  Decrees  of  the  CEcumen.  Council  of  Trent, 
transl.  by  J.  Watevworth,  with  Essays  on  the  Hist,  of  the  Council.  Lond.  1S4S.  S.]— (/".  et  J.  du  Puij) 
Instructions  et  missives  des  Eois  de  France  et  de  leurs  Ambass.  et  autres  aetes  concern,  le  Cone,  de 
Tr.  Par.  (1007.)  ed.  4  1654  4  Lett,  et  Memoires  de  Fr.  de  Vargas,  etc.  trad.  p.  J/,  de  Vagsor, 
Anist.  1099.  lat.  fee.  Schra7nm,  Brunsv.  1704  4.  Monn.  ad  Hist.  C.  Tr.  spect  anipliss.  Col.  op.  Jvd. 
le  Plat,  Lov.  17S1-7.  7  vols.  4  G.J.  Planck,  Anecdota  ad  II.  C.  Tr.  Gott  1791-lSlS.  25.  TtacQ.  J. 
Mendham,  Memoirs  of  the  Council  of  Trent  Lond.  1S34  4  Acta  C.  Tr.  ab  a.  1562.  a  Galr.  Car- 
dinale  Paleotto  descr.  ed.  Mendham,  Lond.  1S42.  [The  Council  of  Tr.  and  its  proceedings.  (Pres. 
Board  of  Publ.)  Philad.  1S35.  IS.] 

II.  Sarjn,  PaUavicini  (p.  859.)  {P.  P.  Sarpi,  H.  of  the  C.  of  Tr.  transl.  by  A.  Prent,  Lond. 
1676.  f.  P.  S.  Pallarlcini,  II.  du  Cone,  du  Trente.  Montrouge.  1S44.  3  vols.  S.]  Comp.  J.  A'.  Prisckar, 
Beurtb.  d.  Controversen  Sarpi's  u.  Pall.  Tub.  1S4;3.  2  vols.  L.  Ell.  du  Pin,  II.  du  C.  de  Trente. 
Brnx.  1721.  2  vols.  4.  Sallff,  vollst  Hist,  des  Tr.  Cone.  Hal.  1741ss.  3  vols.  4.  J.  J/.  Gösdd,  Gesch. 
rt.  C.  z.  Tr.  Eatisb.  1S40.  2  vols.  Wessejiherg  (p.  277.)  vol.  III.  IV.  J.  T.  L.  Dam,  Geseh.  d.  Tr.  C. 
.Ten.  1840.  [Buvgener,  Hist,  of  C.  of  Trent  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1S52.  &  A.  L.  Richter,  Canons 
and  Decrees  of  t!ie  C.  of  Trent  Berl.  1S53.  9.] 

The  general  council  long  called  for  by  the  nations  of  Europe  to  restore 
peace  to  the  Church,  and  to  reform  its  abuses  by  a  process  accordant  with 
legal  fonns,  was  finally  convened  by  Faul  III.    The  objects  expressed  in  the 

I)  (Fr.  Spee)  Cantio  criminalis  s.  de  process,  c.  sagas.  Eint  1631.  Fret  1032.  and  often. 

<■)  Kspecially  afler  T7i.  Sanclies,  de  Sacramento  matrim.  Gen.  1592.  3  vols,  and  oft  A.  de  E'-co- 
f'«»',  L,  Theol.  moralis,  24  S.  J.  Doctoribus  reseratus.  Lugd.  1646.  and  oft — Satire:  Monüa  x>rivata 
S.  J.  Xotobirgae  (Krakau).  1012.  and  oft— J/  C/ifmnltiits,  Theol.  Jesuvitar.  praec.  cipp.  Lps.  lioO. 
Doctrinne  Jcsuitar.  praec.  capp.  confutata.  Eupellae  ed.  2.  15i4.  {C.  Scioppiiis)  Anatomia  S.  J.  lC3-\ 
4  (A":  i^<!r/-(iii/0  LaMoraledes  Jes.  extraito  de  leurs  livres.  Mons.  1009.  3  vols.  12.  J.  Ellendur/, 
d.  Moral  u.  Politik  d.  J.  Darmst  1S40.— Defence :  J.  B.  Leu,  Beitrr.  z.Würdlg.  d.  J.  0.  (after  Mahler  ) 
Luc.  1S40.    F.  J.  Buss,  Die  Gescllsch.  J.  Mainz.  1S53.  Abth.  I. 


CHAP.  Tl.    CATH.  Clirr.Cir.    §  3^  COUNCIL  OF  TEENT.  455 

terms  of  the  call  were  to  exterminate  heretics,  and  to  secure  definitively  the 
internal  unity  of  the  Church,  in  the  Romish  sense  of  these  terms.  It  was 
opened  at  Trent  just  as  war  had  been  declared  against  the  Protestants,  but 
after  the  emperor's  victories,  tlie  pope  saw  that  the  imperial  influence  was 
greater  in  a  council  assembled  in  a  German  territory  than  that  of  tlie  Holy 
Spirit.  The  place  of  meeting  was  therefore  clianged  to  Bologna  (lo-iTj,  un- 
der the  pretence  of  danger  from  a  pestilence,  and  wlien  the  imperial  bishops 
still  remained  at  Trent,  it  was  adjourned  to  1548.  Julius  III.  so  far  yielded 
to  the  threats  and  promises  of  the  emperor,  that  he  ordered  the  synod  to 
continue  its  sessions  at  Trent  on  May  1,  1551.  Some  Protestant  delegates 
had  already  arrived,  and  others  were  on  their  way,  when  for  fear  of  Maurice 
of  Saxony,  the  assembly  adjourned  April  28th,  1552,  for  two  years.  It  was 
not,  however,  reassembled  until  by  order  of  Pius  IV.,  Jan.  8,  15G2.  The 
order  of  business  for  tlie  assembly,  after  every  thing  that  could  produce  any 
recollection  of  Basle  was  set  aside,  was  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  pre- 
siding legates.  The  twenty-five  sessions  were  merely  public  solemnities,  at 
which  the  decrees  debated  and  prepared  in  the  committees  were  openly  pro- 
claimed. The  decrees  were  passed  by  a  majority  of  the  bishops  and  generals 
of  orders  present  at  the  time,  of  whicli  tlie  Italians  were  more  numerous 
than  all  the  other  nations  together.  The  opposition,  especially  of  the  French 
and  Spanish  bishops,  became  sometimes  very  formidable,  and  by  these  the  de- 
mands of  the  Protestant  deputies  were  welcomed  with  much  favor,  (fi) 
Even  the  fimdameutal  doctrines  of  the  Protestants  respecting  the  Scriptures 
and  justification,  or  views  consistent  witli  them,  found  some  to  advocate 
them,  (//)  and  the  emperor,  with  the  Frencli  king,  made  important  demands 
for  a  reformation  ;  but  when  this  liberal  party  was  seen  to  have  become 
Protestant,  or  were  frightened  by  finding  themselves  tending  toward  that 
result,  the  papal  party  by  treaties  with  the  courts  and  with  individual  pre- 
lates obtained  a  complete  victory,  (r)  Decrees  respecting  doctrines,  and  de- 
crees for  the  reformation  of  the  Cliurcli,  were  after  the  fourth  session 
published  alternately.  Tlie  former  contained  a  revision  of  the  previous  sys- 
tems of  doctrine,  and  as  far  as  the  dogmas  of  the  middle  ages  advocated  by 
the  different  theological  schools  could  be  made  to  harmckuize,  they  were 
stamped  with  the  seal  of  infallibility,  and  most  of  the  Protestant  deviations 
from  them  were  condemned.  In  the  decrees  for  reformation,  many  salutary 
rules  were  adopted  for  the  government  and  discipline  of  the  Church,  and 
many  canons  of  tlie  ancient  Churcli  were  revived.  These  decrees  were  all 
confirmed  by  Pius  IV.,  who  reserved  to  himsell'  the  pap;d  prerogative  of  ex- 
plaining tliem  as  he  pleased.  The  Synod  of  Trent  was  accepted  uncondition- 
ally by  most  of  the  Italian  States,  by  Portugal,  Poland,  and  the  emperor ;  and 
with  a  reservation  of  the  royal  i)rerogatives  by  Spain,  Naples,  and  Belgium  ; 
with  some  exceptions  by  Switzerland  and  Hungary;  and  only  so  far  as  re- 
ejjccts  doctrines  by  France.  (</) 

d)  Vargas,  Lett  et  Mem.  p.  46S».     Weasenbero,  vol.  I  IL  p.  811  ss. 

b)  Sirpi  1.  II.  p.  249s?.  322s3.    Pallaviciui  VIII,  11.  4.    I/onnai/r,  Taschenb.  f.  vatcil.  Gesell 
,832.  p.  130s.S.        c)  Jianke,  Päpste,  vol.  I.  p.  83-3s3. 

d)  Couroi/er,  11.  lU-  l.i  reception  du  C.  de  Treiite.  Amst  1756. 


156  Mt)DERN  CMURCII  IIISTOKV.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  I.MT-IMS. 

§  385.     Sixtus  V.     April  2,1,  Ibm-Aufj.  27,  1590. 

Jlohnr'/l,  Sl.vtl  V.  gcsta  qiilnqiionnallii.  Rom.  IIJOO.  4.  Lett,  Vita  dl  Sisto  V.  I.osamia.  1(509.  3 
Til.  Inter  III  J!  vols.  nn<l  often,  esfi.  In  Kr.  Par.  1702.  2  vols.  Defended  with  a  pnrtl-.in  Hplrlt  by  C. 
T^mpenti,  ator\a  dclla  vlt«  e  gestc  dl  Sisto  V.  Rom.  1705.  2  vols.  4.  Comp.  Itnuke,  Rupstc.  vol. 
III.  p.  817.-S. 

Ft'lix  Porctti  made  Lis  way  from  the  herd  to  the  throne  by  liis  i)ious  zeal 
as  a  Fraiifi^icnii,  a  preacher,  and  an  inquisitor,  and  when  a  cardinal  under  the 
name  of  Montalto  (after  1576),  by  an  humble  deportment  and  a  complete 
renunciation  of  his  natural  and  impetuous  love  of  command.  The  stylo  in 
which  this  contrast  between  his  earlier  and  his  later  life  is  mentioned  in 
popular  accounts,  only  shows  by  what  qualities  and  conduct  the  people  of  that 
period  generally  believed  that  the  triple  crown  could  best  be  won.  Having 
attained  this  highest  point  of  his  ambition,  Su'tiis  V.  thought  that  nothing 
was  impossible  for  him,  and  while  grasping  with  his  utmost  power  every 
thing  actual  and  possible,  he  busied  himself  with  the  most  fantastic  and  stu- 
pendous plans.  The  utmost  that  human  power  and  sagacity  could  do  was 
accompli.shed  by  him  in  maintaining  the  papal  authority,  in  opposition  to 
princes  who  were  either  contending  for  the  Reformation,  or  had  already 
made  peace  with  its  friends.  Instead  of  vainly  attempting  to  put  down  here- 
tics, he  concluded  that  he  might  profitably  make  use  of  them  in  firmly  bind- 
ing the  Catholic  kings  to  the  interests  of  the  papal  see.  But  in  the  contest 
between  France  and  Spain,  he  saw  only  a  contention  between  the  milder  and 
the  more  rigid  parties  in  the  great  Catholic  body  itself,  and  hence  his  atten 
tion  was  distracted  and  his  practical  energy  was  enfeebled.  Under  his  direc 
tion  the  banditti  were  completely  destroyed  ;  by  the  exercise  of  an  inexorable 
and  almost  barbarous  severity  the  authority  of  law  Avas  re-established  in  his 
territories ;  a  wise  system  was  put  in  practice  for  the  support  of  the  poor ; 
industry  was  awakened  ;  the  Vatican  library  attained  a  magnificent  size;  vari 
ous  works  in  biblical  literature  were  printed  ;  the  printing-press  in  the  Vati- 
can for  tlie  publication  of  all  that  has  reached  us  from  the  ancient  Church, 
beginning  with  the  Scriptures,  was  established  ;  the  vast  works  of  antiquity 
were  rescued  from  their  rubbish,  as  far  at  least  as  they  could  become  useful 
in  illustrating  t^e  triumphs  of  the  cross ;  and,  although  he  placed  by  the  side 
of  these  many  new  edifices  not  unworthy  of  the  association,  and  even  en- 
riched his  relatives,  he  left  behind  him  a  vast  treasure  in  the  castle  of  St. 
Angelo,  from  loans  and  an  increased  sale  of  offices,  to  be  used  by  his  success- 
ors only  in  circumstances  strictly  defined.  Ilis  government  was  not  accord- 
ing to  the  taste  of  the  Roman  peojde,  and  the  Jesuits,  whom  he  hated,  did 
much  to  curtail  his  reputation,  if  not  his  life.  But  so  profound  and  so  poetic 
Avas  the  impression  which  he  produced  upon  his  contemporaries,  that  even  in 
his  own  age  his  hopes,  his  achievements,  and  his  fortunes  became  incorpo- 
rated in  various  forms  among  the  legends  of  the  people. 

§  386.     Popes  of  the  Seventeenth  Century. 

Clement  VIII.  (Aldobrandini,  1592-1605)  was  in  the  sight  of  God  and 
man  a  priest  of  exti-aordinary  piety  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense  of  that  word 
In  epito  of  the  opposition  of  the  rigidly  Catholic  party,  with  a  wise  ostenta- 


CHAP.  VI.    CATir.  CllüUCir.    §386.  CLEMENT  VIII,    PAUL  V.    GREGORY  XV.    457 

tion  lie  absolved  Henry  IV.  from  papal  excommunication,  and  thereby  formed 
a  needful  counterbalance  to  the  oppressive  friendship  of  Spain.  lie  was 
obliged  to  act  with  zeal  against  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  yet  toward  indi- 
vidual Protestants  he  exhibited  many  tokens  of  personal  friendship.  His 
influence  upon  France,  Spain,  and  Savoy  was  that  of  a  prince  of  peace ;  but 
when  the  true  house  of  Este  had  become  extinct,  he  took  possession  of  Fer- 
rara  as  an  escheated  fief,  by  military  force,  preceded  by  the  terrors  of  an  ex- 
communication. By  such  means  a  termination  was  given  to  the  exercise  of 
arbitrary  power  in  Ferrara,  but  with  it  also  ceased  the  cheerful  splendor  of  a 
court  adorned  by  knights,  art,  and  literature,  (fi)  Paul  V.  (Borghese,  1605-21) 
regarded  himself  as  the  appointed  instrument  of  the  Holy  Gliost  to  render 
the  decretals  of  his  predecessors  equal  in  authority  to  divine  laws,  in  an  age 
which  he  misunderstood.  This  produced  many  disagreements  between  him 
and  the  ditierent  Italian  states,  respecting  the  limits  of  jurisdiction  possessed 
by  the  spiritual  courts.  With  Venice,  where  the  power  of  the  state  was  held 
in  the  highest  esteem,  this  controversy  proceeded  to  an  open  rupture  when  the 
pope  demanded  that  certain  clergymen  who  had  been  condemned  for  some 
capital  offences,  should  be  delivered  up  to  him,  and  that  a  law  should  be  re- 
pealed by  which  an  increase  of  the  property  of  the  Church  in  real  estate  was 
forbidden.  The  Venetian  senate  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  and  the 
territories  under  their  control  were  placed  under  an  interdict  (Ajiril  17, 1606). 
The  papal  ban  was  declared  by  Venice  to  be  unjust,  and  therefore  void.  The 
Servite,  Paolo  Sarpi^  an  intelligent  and  higlily  educated  man,  and  of  rigid 
Catholic  piety  with  respect  to  his  mode  of  life,  justified  tlie  republic  in  the 
eyes  of  foreign  nations,  and  quieted  tlie  minds  of  the  Venetian  people  by 
strengthening  a  consciousness  of  their  rights.  When  the  pope  therefore  saw 
that  his  interdict  was  despised,  and  that  Ferrara  was  in  peril,  he  was  obliged 
to  avail  himself  of  the  mediation  of  France  to  effect  a  peace,  leaving  the 
rights  of  the  republic  unimpaired  (1607).  (h)  He  was  more  successful  in 
laying  a  permanent  basis  for  the  wealth  of  his  own  family,  by  the  destruction 
of  the  unfortunate  house  of  Cenci.  Sarpi  was  included  in  the  stipulations  of 
the  peace,  and  altliough  well  acquainted  with  the  ordinary  practice  of  the 
lloman  curia,  he  continued  with  all  tlie  lawful  means  which  history  aftbrds, 
to  protest,  like  another  Paul  withstanding  Peter,  against  the  arbitrary  aggres- 
sions of  the  pope  upon  the  liberties  of  the  Church  and  state  (d.  1G23).  {<:)  On 
tlie  other  hand  the  pope  had  himself  saluted  as  tlie  Vicar  of  God,  and  the 
valiant  preserver  of  the  papal  omnipotence.  ('/)  Gregory  XV.  (Ludovisi, 
1021-28),  who  always  lived  on  the  liriiik  of  the  grave,  gave  a  permanent 
form  to  tlie  rules  by  whicli  tlie  election  and  consecration  of  the  pope  should 


a)  Lettre»  du  Card.  (TOssnt.  Pnr.  1027.  f.  Ainst.  1732.  5  vols.  Les  ainbossades  du  Card,  au  Per- 
"on.  Par.  1623.  f.— /"..  Wadding,  Vita  Cleiii.  VUyRoiii.  1723.  4. 

h)  Interdlctl  Veneti  II.  auct.  Paulo  Siirpl  c.vltal.  Cnulabr.  1726.  4.  C()nlriiv.  iiUi-r  P.  M.  et  Vene- 
tos acta  et  scrr.  ex  ital.     In  villa  San  Yinceiitiuna  1607. 

c)  Ojiere  (w  itli  his  Vita  by  Fiibjeuzin).  Yen.  1677.  T)  vols.  12.  Grhellini  (Meniorie  aneddote. 
tra:isl.  into  Genn.  by  Le  Bret,  \'\m.  1761.)  del  gcnio  dl  Era  Paolo.  Ven.  17S5.  {Fontaniiii,  Storii' 
aroana  di  Era  Paolo.  Ven.  1S03.)  Bianchi-Giovini,  Blogr.  di  Era  P.  Ziirli:o.  Mid,.  2  vols.  E.  Jliincft, 
Era  P.  Sarr)i.  CarL'^r.  183S. 

d)  Bsovii  Paulus  V  Bur^hesiu.';.  Rom.  1624. 


158  M(M)i:i:n  ciidkcii  iiistokv.   i-ki:.  v.   a.  }>.  imt-iw^. 

honcofortli  bo  condnctod,  (e)  canonized  the  founders  of  the  order  of  the 
Jesuit.M,  wlioso  pupil  lie  had  l)ccri,  mado  a  powerful  effort  to  maintain  the  Ger- 
man war,  and  rocoived  tlio  J'ahitiiio  library  as  his  share  of  the  booty.  (/) 
Urhan  VJJf.  (Harbcrini,  1028-44),  a]tiiouf,'li  fully  conscious  of  his  eminent 
difjnity  and  talents,  Avas  contented  with  the  i)rosocution  of  such  designs  as 
belonged  to  him  in  the  character  of  an  Italian  prince,  the  construction  of  a 
few  forts,  and  tlio  conduct  of  an  inglorious  war  against  the  house  of  the  Far- 
nose.  For  a  while  his  policy  was  favorable  to  the  cause  of  the  Protestant 
powers,  and  the  rigid  Catholics  complained  that  the  pope  stood  as  cold  as  ice 
in  the  midst  of  the  conflagration  of  churches  and  monasteries.  But  he  pro- 
tested against  the  compulsory  concessions  mado  at  the  treaty  of  Prague,  main- 
tained the  most  rigid  system  of  Catholicism,  and  gave  the  final  form  to  the 
bull  In  coena  Domini  (p.  311),  in  which  nearly  all  the  claims  of  the  mediaeval 
hierarchy  are  advanced,  and  not  only  Saracens,  pirates,  and  princes  who  im- 
pose arbitrary  taxes,  but  Lutherans,  Zwinglians,  and  Calvinists,  were  anathe- 
matized, {g) 

§  387.     Law  and  Politicul  delations. 

It  was  principally  through  the  labors  of  some  learned  Jesuits  that  the 
ideas  of  the  middle  ages  were  now  reduced  to  a  regular  theocratic  system  of 
policy,  the  fundamental  principle  of  which  was  that  the  state  is  to  the  church 
what  the  body  is  to  the  soul.  It  was  contended  that  although  this  body  lives 
in  accordance  with  its  own  laws,  it  should  nevertheless  be  subservient  to  the 
great  objects  of  the  soul,  and  in  extreme  cases  should  be  sacrificed  for  the  sal- 
vation of  the  soul.  It  was  also  conceded  that  the  royal  poAver  is  not  derived 
from  the  pope,  and  is  not  subject  to  him,  and  yet  where  the  salvation  of  the 
soul  demands  such  a  sacrifice,  the  pope  has  a  right  to  depose  even  kings,  and 
the  inquisition  is  authorized  to  take  away  their  lives,  since  every  earthly 
power  loses  its  rights  when  they  are  abused  for  the  injury  of  religion.  Ac- 
cording to  this  system  the  sacerdotal  power  was  committed  to  a  distinct  order 
of  men  by  God,  and  the  royal  power  Avas  derived  from  the  people,  so  that 
the  advocates  of  this  system  carried  out  the  doctrine  of  the  sovereignty  of 
the  people  to  its  extreme  results.  («)  Not  only  individual  Jesuits  taught  that 
it  was  laAvful  and  even  pleasing  to  God  to  slay  a  tyi'annical  king,  but  even  the 
Sorbonne  decided  (1589)  that  the  French  people  ought  to  have  no  scruples 
of  conscience  in  taking  up  arms  against  their  king,  (b)  This  Avas,  it  is  true, 
intended  to  express  a  decision  on  a  particular  case,  and  was  directed  only 
against  those  kings  AA'ho  threatened  the  interests  of  Catholicism.  But  the 
majesty  of  even  Catholic  kings  was  made  to  depend  upon  religious  considera- 


e)  IngoU.  Caeremoniale  ritns  olectionis  Eom.  Pont.  Kom.  1621.  Liinadoro,  Eelazione  delta  corte 
dl  lioma.  Eom.  c<l.  5.  1S24.  2  vols.  12. 

f)  Aug.  Theiner,  Schenkung  der  Heldelb.  Bibl.  u.  Hire  Versend,  n.-ich  Rom.  Munch.  1S44. 

(7)  r.ullar.  Horn.  vol.  IV.  p.  llSss.  Le  Bret  (p.  311.)  1.  2.  vol.  2  ed.  1772.— .S  Simonin,  Sylvae  Ui^ 
banianae  s.  gesta  Urb.  Antu.  1G37. 

(i)  J.  Jlariana,  de  Uege  et  Eegis  institatione  1.  III.  Tolet.  159S.  &  often.  BelUirmin,  de  pote» 
Ute  Summ!  Ponfif.  in  temporal.  Eom.  1610.  &  often.  Sut/res,  Def.  fidei  cath.  .idv.  anglic.  sectae  er 
lores.  Conimb.  1C13.  &  often. 

b)  Eesponsum  facult.iti-  theol  rarisieiisis.    (Additions  an  Journal  de  Henry  III.  vol.  I.  p.  317.) 


CHAP.  VI.   CATii.  cnuRcn.   §  ss:.  law.   political  kelatioks.       459 

tions,  and  under  the  sway  of  a  king  whom  the  pope  had  approved,  this  same 
Sorbonne  condemned  the  very  doctrine  (1594)  which  had  produced  the  vio- 
lent death  of  two  kings  of  France.  (<•)  Wherever  Protestantism  maintained  its 
existence  under  the  government  of  Catholic  princes,  the  power  of  the  sove- 
reign was  limited  by  the  states,  but  no  sooner  did  Catholicism  obtain  the 
victory  than  he  was  freed  from  all  such  restraints.  In  Venice  a  system  of 
])olitical  science  was  composed  without  reference  to  religious  creeds.  (iT) 
When  Paul  IV.  pronounced  the  election  of  the  emperor  invalid,  because  it 
had  been  held  without  his  mediation,  and  by  heretical  princes,  he  perceived 
tliat  the  Iworaan  authority  in  sucli  matters  was  despised  by  every  one  in  Ger- 
many, whether  belonging  to  the  new  or  to  the  old  religion,  (c)  and  the  imperial 
coronation  has  ever  since  been  a  high  festival,  whicli  in  the  view  of  the  na- 
tion had  no  relation  to  Rome.  The  popes  were  well  aware  that  their  cause 
could  not  then  dispense  with  the  favor  of  the  ^^rinces ;  and  although  they  still 
derived  regular  revenues  from  the  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  offices,  in- 
stead of  drawing  money  from  the  princes,  these  princes  received  large  sums 
from  the  hand  of  the  popes.  By  such  subsidies  for  maintaining  the  contest 
against  the  Protestants,  and  by  immerous  gifts  for  the  establishment  of  rela- 
tives, the  debts  of  the  Roman  court  finally  became  so  enormous,  that  under 
Ui'ban  VIII.  they  amounted  to  thirty  millions  of  scudi,  and  half  the  papal 
revenues  were  consumed  in  the  payment  of  the  interest.  (/)  This  burden, 
however,  by  an  artificial  system  of  finance  w;i3  rendered  not  unacceptable  to 
many  wealthy  persons,  and  a  vast  influence  was  acquired,  since  it  now  be- 
came the  interest  of  independent  men  of  wealth  to  sustain  the  papacy.  The 
pope  looked  upon  himself  as  far  superior  to  any  council,  to  whose  decisions  he 
paid  deference  merely  from  his  own  free  grace.  lie  maintained  that  even 
in  doubtful  matters  the  Church  was  bound  to  regard  him  as  infallible,  that  it 
might  not  act  against  conscience  when  going  against  his  decision,  (ß)  The 
ai)pointment  of  nearly  all  prelates  depended  upon  tlie  will  of  the  princes,  and 
the  consent  of  the  pope.  It  was  in  the  German  bishoprics  that  the  influence 
of  the  emperor  was  the  least,  but  the  popes  generally  found  it  expedient  to 
considt  the  wishes  of  the  German  princes  in  the  appointment  of  their  younger 
sons.  In  the  new  form  of  their  oath  the  bishops  were  obliged  to  swear  obe- 
dience to  the  papacy  rather  than  to  the  Church,  and  that  they  would  perse- 
cute heretics  to  the  utmost  of  their  jjower.  (7/)  In  most  of  the  principal 
cities  ])ermanent  nunciatures  were  formed,  with  high  plenipotentiary  powers» 
that  through  them  the  influence  of  tiie  papacy  miglit  become  as  it  were  uni- 
versal.    The  Gallican  Church  alone  kept  itself  aloof  from  these  agencies.  (/) 

c)  Argentre  (p.  251.)  vol.  II.  p.  4S4. 

d)  Comp. ./  C.  de  Junge,  NoiU'rland  en  Vonetlo.  Gravorili.ig.  1S52. 

e)  Dr.  Sehl  In  Gol(l.^<  pol.  P.ek-lislifindl.  vol.  V.  p.  1C7. 
/)  lianke,  Pfipste.  vol.  III.  p.  lOss 

g)  PiiUttvicini,  XIII,  16.  Le  Plat,  Monn.  ad  11.  C.  Tri  1.  vul.  VI.  p.  SOGss.  BeUarm.  do  Row 
P. int.  IV,  5. 

h)  From  the  Pontißcale  Rom<tnxim,  Roinnc  1595.  In  Eichhorn,  KRcclit.  vol.  I.  p.  592s. — (Pait 
UnHtrauch)  Abli.  ii.  d.  Kid,  welchen  dio  dt.  ülsohöfe  abzulösen  haben.  Vlen.  1731. 

i)  (F.  V.  Mofter)  Gesch.  d.  Nuntien  in  Deutj*chl.  Frkf.  ITSS.  2  vols.  (Wii.lonfeld)  Entwickl.  d.  Dis- 
f.ens-ii.  Nuntiaturstroitiijk.  (Bonn.)  178S.  4.  L.  Snell,  Gesch.  d.  Einführ.  d.  Nunt.  in  d.  Schwell. 
Bad.  1?I7. 


inO  MOPKRN  CllUUCir  lIISTdUV.     VVAl.  V.     A.  D.  I.MT-IMS. 

Tho  Roman  court  also  began  now  to  bestow  as  a  matter  of  grace,  and  for  a 
definite  period  (facnitatcs  qninqncnnales),  especially  upon  the  German  bisb- 
ojjs,  fho  rifjlit  to  grant,  as  tho  missionary  interests  of  their  present  and  pro- 
spective dioccso!?  Hcemed  to  require  them,  dispensations  of  marriage,  and  ex- 
emptions from  Catliolic  appointments,  (k) 

§  388.     Great  Change  in  the  Character  of  Catholicism. 

In  the  struggle  then  going  forward  new  attachments  for  the  Church  began 
to  bo  developed,  and  tlio  hierarchy  discovered  that  their  salvation  depended 
I)rincipally  upon  religious  considerations.  Hence  some  of  tho  worst  abuses  in 
the  administration  of  tho  Church  were  removed,  indulgences  were  no  longer 
exposed  for  sale,  {a)  it  was  found  to  be  useless  to  threaten  any  one  with  the 
papal  ban,  and  it  was  only  in  Eome  that  excommunication  was  sometimes 
resorted  to  as  an  assistance  to  the  police.  By  a  very  gradual  enforcement  of 
the  Tridentine  decrees,  the  clergy  were  compelled  to  live  respectable  lives. 
In  the  principal  sees  of  the  Church,  their  wovldliness  was  now  exchanged  for 
a  solemn  and  imposing  splendor,  piety  generally  took  the  form  of  a  sentimen- 
tal devotion,  and  as  those  who  were  known  to  possess  it  bad  reason  to  expect 
the  blessings  of  fortune  and  ecclesiastical  honors,  we  may  suppose  that  selfish 
views  and  artifice  were  sometimes  mingled  with  it.  That  which  had  for- 
merly been  done  in  the  Church  with  no  thought  of  opposition,  now  fre- 
quently brought  upon  the  actors  a  high  degree  of  suspicion  and  persecution. 
The  same  clergy  to  whom  Gerson  had  once  been  a  leader,  now  refused  to 
tolerate  Richer,  who  sought  to  find  in  the  liberties  of  the  GaUican  Church 
protection  for  not  only  the  rights  of  the  state,  but  also  for  those  of  the  gene- 
ral Church,  which  he  claimed  to  be  subject  to  the  Son  of  God  as  its  only 
supreme  monarch.  He  was  compelled  to  recant  his  opinion  by  Eichelieu's 
assassins,  and  in  the  midst  of  his  persecutions  died  (1G31).  (Ji)  Galilei  (d. 
1G38)  was  obliged  solemnly  to  retract  his  assertion  that  the  earth  moves 
around  the  sun.  (c)  The  Humanists  were  compelled  to  give  way  before  the 
inquisition,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  bad  sprung  up  in  favor  of  antiquity 
was  unable  to  maintain  its  ground  against  the  rising  spirit  in  behalf  of  the 
Church.  The  instruction  of  youth  in  the  higher  departments  of  learning 
was  now  in  the  hands  of  the  Jesuits,  who  regulated  it  by  the  strictest  rules, 
gave  it  almost  exclusively  a  spiritual  direction,  and  confined  the  intellect 
witliin  certain  definite  limits.  From  a  dislike  to  the  universities,  the  hier- 
archy began  to  prefer  that  the  clergy  should  be  educated  in  episcopal  semi- 
naries.   The  control  which  the  inquisition  possessed  over  books  made  them 

V)  0.  Mejer,  d.  ri.m.  Curie.  (Richter  u.  Jacobs.  Zeitsoll.  f.  Kecbt  u.  Polit.  d.  K.  1S47.  p.  212s.) 
Hid.  Propaganda,  vol.  II.  p.  210ss. 

a)  Comp.  Pescheck;  klrchongesch.  Miscell.  (Zeitscli.  f.  bist.  Th.  18.59.  P.  8.) 

i)  Dc  ccc.  et  pol.  potestate.  Par.  1611.  and  ot^  Apologia  pro  Gersonio,  denuo  L.  B.  1G70.  4.— 
Baillet.  la  vie  d'Edmond  Kielier.  Doct.  de  Sorbonne  Liege.  171-1. 

c)  Paulus,  Gal.  Kampf,  f.  d.  Uationalism.  (Beitrr.  z.  Dogmen-,  K.  u.  Ref.  Gesch.  1S87.  p.  824ss.) 
UiJinU-e.  z.  Gesch.  Gal.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  lSo2.  P.  1.  p.  245.)  Derb.  Stuhl  gegen  Gal.  (Hist  pol.  BL 
1S41.  vol.  VIT.  P.  T-10.)  [Life  of  Gal.  in  Lib.  of  Useful  Knowl.  pp.  53-61.  Lond.  1533.  12.  Life  of 
Gul  Galilei,  &c  Boston.  1S;}2.  12.  £>.  £reicslei;  Martyrs  of  Science.  Lond.  1S41.  8.  Edinb.  Eer.  (ir 
Eclectic  Mag.  Oct.  1S44.)  April,  1S44.   Art  Martyrs  of  Science.] 


CUAr.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH.    §3SS.  FRANCIS  OF  SALES.    BORROMEO.        4G1 

more  powerful  in  Southern  Europe  than  they  could  be  by  any  punishments 
they  could  inflict.  The  censorship  was  rendered  complete  by  the  index  of 
prohibited  books,  the  number  of  wliich  was  swelled  by  the  well-contested 
rivalry  between  the  Roman  and  the  Spanish  inquisitions  (after  1.558).  The 
works  of  Catholic  and  classical  writers  were  given  to  the  world  in  mutilated 
editions.  Personal  solicitude  for  the  faith  and  ignorance  far  exceeded  the 
limits  which  the  necessities  of  Catholicism  required.  (J)  This  dread  of  intel- 
lectual activity  produced  a  passionate,  servile,  and  malignant  spirit  on  the 
I)art  of  the  hierarchy.  The  religion  of  tlie  common  people,  however,  still 
remained  sincere ;  and  although  persons  were  often  canonized  for  political  rea- 
sons, and  for  their  large  fees,  many  genuine  saints  were  found  in  the  humble 
walks  of  life.  Francis  of  Sales,  Bishop  of  Geneva  (d.  1622),  by  the  popular 
cordiality  of  his  mysticism,  which  called  on  men  to  renounce  their  own  wills 
even  when  directed  to  beneficence,  and  by  an  earnestness  which  concerned 
itself  with  notliing  but  religion,  was  more  efficient  in  the  edification  of  be- 
lievers than  in  the  conversion  of  heretics,  (e)  The  Castilian  Theresa  (d. 
1582),  after  passing  through  many  temptations  to  worldly  pleasure,  and 
many  sufferings,  had  her  heart  pierced  as  it  were  with  the  arrows  of  divine 
love,  possessed  inetfable  enjoyments  during  her  seasons  of  ecstasy,  and  spent 
her  life  in  bringing  the  female  department  of  the  Carmelite  order  to  the 
severe  discipline  of  ancient  times.  (/)  Carlo  Borromco  (d.  1587),  a  relative 
and  favorite  of  the  pope,  was  elevated  even  when  a  youth  to  the  see  of  St. 
Ambrose,  possessed  great  influence  in  the  papal  court,  and  at  the  Council  of 
Trent,  was  full  of  zeal  against  the  .heretics  on  the  southern  declivities  of  the 
Alps,  although  he  relied  entirely  npon  the  power  of  the  divine  word.  By  his 
gentleness  and  strictness  he  bestowed  great  blessings  upon  his  native  province, 
and  his  lofty  form  appears  to  look  down  npon  it  even  now  in  the  act  of  bless- 
ing and  guarding  it.  (y)  But  even  that  older  form  of  Catholicism  which  had 
prevailed  in  the  time  of  the  Councils  of  Constance  and  Basle,  could  not  be 
entirely  extinguished,  for  it  bore  a  prominent  part  in  the  religious  changes 
which  then  took  place,  and  in  the  reformations  conducted  by  the  partisans  of 
Catholicism.  The  former  tendency  was  represented  by  Ilenry  IV.,  and  the 
latter  by  Philip  II.,  not  on  account  of  the  accidental  qualities  Avhich  be- 
longed to  the  character  of  those  individuals,  but  because  each  of  them  was 
like  the  summit  of  a  mountain,  the  most  prominent  among  his  people. 

(T)  Indi'X  cxpurgatorius.  Antu.  1571.  Arg.  1W9.  Indices  librr.  proliibitoruin  et  expurfrandor. 
16G7.  and  others.  [The  Vatican  Index  Expurg.  ed.  by  li.  Gibbings,  Dubl.  1*37.  12.]  Daii.  Francus, 
Usq.  de  I'apisL  indicc.  libb.  proh.  Lp3.  1CS4.  4.  Mendham,  The  literary  pt)licy  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  exlilbitcd,  in  an  account  of  Uer  damnatory  catalogues  or  indexes.  Ed.  2.  Lond.  1S30.  [This 
■work  is  also  embraced  in  Jfendham'a  Index  of  Proh.  Books,  by  order  of  Greg.  XVI.  Lond.  1S40.] 

e)  Oeuvres  de  S.  /V.  de  ^^ules,  Par.  1iS4.  16  vol.s.  Jinxidry,  Suppl.  aux  ocuvres.  Lyon.  ISUJG. — 
Leben  v.  C.  A.  Sales,  1Ö34  Maraollier,  1747.  Reusing,  ISIS.  F.  U.  (Tub.  theol.  Quartalschr.  1S4-2. 
P.  1.) 

/)  Schrr.  d.  h.  Tlicr.  v.  Jesu,  ed.  by  Gaüiu  ScJiwah,  Sulzb.  ISSls.  5  vols.  Act»  9.  Ther.  ill.  a.  J. 
Vaiideitnoere,  1S46.  f. 

g)  0pp.  Milan.  175S.  5  vols.  f.  Godeau,  la  vie  de  Ch.  B.  Par.  1T4T.  Sailer,  d.  h.  Karl.  Austsb. 
iS24.  Giussavo,  Leben  d.  h.  K.  B.  from  the  Ital.  v.  Klitsche,  Augpsb.  1836«.  8  vols.  Dierenger,  d.  it 
Borom.  u.  d.  KVerbess.  sr,  Zeit,  Köln.  lS4ö, 


4G2  MODKUN  CIIIKCII   IIISTdKY.     I'Ki:.  V.     A.  D.  1517-104'^. 

§  389.     Fratcrniliesfor  Instruction  and  Charity. 
Auhfi-ti  Miniei  Kcgiiltto  ot  Constitt  Clericorum  In  congregat.  vlvcntlnm.  Antv.  1688.  4. 

TIio  pniftifc  of  orfTjanizing  public  orders  had  been  found  to  be  of  great 
iriiportanco  in  promoting  objects  of  general  utility  in  the  Church.  A  few 
Iwuuiati  i)relates  associated  themselves  together  to  effect  a  reform  among  the 
clergy  (1524).  They  resolved  to  spend  their  time  in  the  performance  of 
pious  services,  not  for  reward,  nor  for  the  collection  of  alms,  but  depending 
on  such  voluntary  offerings  as  might  be  sent  them  by  Providence.  When 
one  of  their  number,  the  Bishop  of  Theate,  had  become  Pope  Paul  IV.,  these 
Thcaiincs^  in  the  capacity  of  preachers,  missionaries,  and  attendants  on  the 
sick,  became  almost  exclusively  a  seminary  in  wliich  the  superior  clergj'  were 
trained,  {ii)  Philip  of  Keri^  whose  peculiar  inclinations  led  him  to  spend  his 
daj's  in  clmrches  and  hospitals,  and  among  children,  and  his  nights  in  tlie 
catacombs,  formed  in  Eome  (1548)  a  fraternity  for  religious  duties,  and  rely- 
ing upon  the  assistance  of  God  and  of  pious  people,  he  erected  a  large  hospi- 
tal, in  the  oratory  of  which  (Oratorium)  books  of  a  devotional  character 
were  read  and  explained.  From  this  establishment  proceeded  the  Fathers  of 
the  Oratory^  an  association  of  clergymen  for  mutual  edification,  but  not 
bound  by  formal  vows.  The  French  Oratory  of  Jesus  was  a  simihir  institu- 
tion established  for  the  reformation  of  the  clergy  (1011)  by  Peter  de  BcruJIc, 
a  man  who  in  an  elevated  earthly  position  sought  to  attain  the  extreme  per- 
fection Avhich  belongs  not  to  this  world,  (h)  After  the  publication  of  the 
decree  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  requiring  all  independent  monasteries  to 
unite  themselves  into  congregations  for  mutual  supervision,  a  few  French 
monasteries  formed  an  association  (after  1618)  for  the  restoration  of  the  rule 
of  St.  Benedict,  and  with  this  congregation  most  of  the  French  Benedictines 
became  connected,  in  compliance  with  the  expressed  wishes  of  Cardinal 
Richelieu.  This  society,  which  received  the  name  of  St.  Maicrus,  a  disciple 
of  Benedict,  devoted  its  efforts  to  the  instruction  of  youth  and  the  advance- 
ment of  solid  learning.  The  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  soon  after  directed  their 
exertions  in  the  same  channel.  Both  orders,  in  consequence  of  the  leisure 
aitd  freedom  from  care  which  they  afforded  to  their  learned  men,  and  the 
combination  of  various  powers  which  they  could  effect,  have  accomplished 
immense  benefits  for  the  cause  of  historical  learning.  Among  their  members 
were  found  some  whose  names  have  been  renowned  in  the  literary  world, 
and  who  for  their  litcrar}-  success  and  zeal  have  been  models  for  all  succeed- 
ing ages.  {(■)  Among  the  Minorites,  the  popular  character  of  a  mendicant 
order  was  revised  (1528)  by  Matteo  de  Bassi,  apparently  for  no  other  purpose 
than  to  restore  the  genuine  costume  of  St.  Francis.     Even  the  old  spirit  of 

a)  CaJ.  Tliienaei  Vita  Col.  1612.  (Acta  SS.  Auar.  vol.  II.  p.  249.) 

J»)  £.(/-on.  Ann.  ad  a.  57.  N.  162.  Instituta  Congrear.  Rom.  1612.  A.  GallonUix.Wta  P.  Xcrii. 
Mog.  1002.  lliileit  de  Cerisy,  Tie  du  Card.  BeruUe.  Par.  1040.  4.  Taharaud,  II.  de  P.  de  Birr. 
Par.  1S17.  2  vols. 

<•)  Constitt  pro  directione  regiminis  Congr.  S.  M.iuri.  Par.  1C46.  {Ilaudiqnet)  II.  du  vi-n.  dorn. 
Didier  de  la  Cour.  Kcformateur  des  Ben.  Par.  1772.— (Ttiwüi,  II.  lit  de  la  congr.  de  S.  Maur.  Pur. 
.720.  4.  Brux.  1770.  4.  with  Anra.  (v.  Mensel.)  Frkf.  u.  L.  1773s.  2  vols.  J.  G.  Ihrbst :  Yerdionste 
d.  Mauriner  um  die  Wiss.  (Tüb.  Quartalschr.  1S;3;3.  P.  Is.)  Die  liter.  Leistungen  d.  Fr.snz.  OraL 
(Tub  Quartalscbr.  1835.  P.  8.) 


CHAP.  VI.   c.vTir.  church.   §  359.  capuchins,   uhsulixes.          463 

the  Franciscans  was  aroused.  Occhino^  the  vicar-general  of  the  order,  and  a 
preacher  of  repentance  in  Italy,  having  vainly  endeavored  to  satisfy  his  mind 
by  self-denials,  Avliose  austerity  continually  became  more  severe,  finally  -went 
over  to  the  Protestants  (1542),  and  even  beyond  them  in  their  peculiar  doc- 
trines. The  Capuchins,  liowever,  continued  to  show  a  spirit,  prepared  for 
the  boldest  sacrifices,  for  the  cultivation  and  employment  of  which  the  Rom- 
ish Church  offers  such  facilities.  They  were  now  also  furnished  with  a  gene- 
ral exclusively  for  their  order  (1G19).  (iT)  Angela  of  Brescia  (d.  1540),  one  of 
those  souls  which  move  on  earth  as  angels  of  consolation,  established  in 
honor  of  St.  Ursula  an  order  of  virgins  devoted  to  acts  of  charity  and  kind- 
ness in  the  doTuestic  circle.  The  Ursidines  also  became  subject  to  a  monastic 
constitution  (1G12),  and  undertook  the  education  of  children  of  their  own 
sex.  Francis  of  Sales,  by  the  agency  of  his  friend  Francisca  of  Chantal,  so 
remarkable  for  her  vigorous  and  glowing  heart,  founded  the  order  of  the 
Visitants  (1610-18,  Ordo  de  visitatione  Mariae  Virginis),  which  thought  that 
in  the  visitation  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  might  be  found  a  type  of  the  manner 
in  which  all  virgin  souls  should  wait  for  the  visit  of  their  heavenly  spouse. 
The  Piarists,  founded  by  Joseph  Calasauza  (d.  1048),  a  Sjjaiiiard  then  resid- 
ing at  Rome,  soon  became  tbe  rivals  of  the  Jesuits  as  the  fathers  of  the 
religious  schools,  (e)  John  di  Die  (d.  1550),  a  poor  man  and  a  native  of  Por- 
tugal, was  constrained  by  his  sympathy  for  the  distressed  to  found  an  order 
fur  the  relief  of  such  as  were  sick  and  poor,  without  regard  to  ditferences  of 
faith.  Its  members  Avere  known  in  Spain  as  Brethren  of  Hospitality,  in 
France  as  Brethren  of  Christian  Love,  and  in  Germany  as  the  brethren  of 
Mercy.  Vincent  de  Paula,  by  birth  belonging  to  the  common  people,  at  one 
time  a  slave  in  Tunis,  and  a  man  who  sympathized  with  all  the  ills  to  which 
the  human  soul  or  body  is  subject,  founded  (1G24)  the  congregation  of  the 
Priests  of  the  ^fission  (Lazarists),  the  object  of  which  Avas  to  convey  Chris- 
tianity with  all  its  blessings  to  the  neglected  cla-sses  of  Cbristendom,  and  at 
the  same  time  to  constitute  a  school  friendly  to  the  Jesuits,  and  for  the  im- 
I)roveuient  of  the  French  clergj-.  "While  a  cimfessor  for  the  widow  Le  Gras, 
he  also  instituted  the  society  of  the  Sisto's  of  Mercy  (Filles  do  la  charite, 
grises),  into  whose  gentle  hands  the  French  people  have  committed  the  care 
of  their  sick  and  poor.  (/')  In  connection  with  these  various  societies  may 
also  be  mentioned  those  as.sociations  of  brethren  and  sisters  to  which  per- 
sons of  all  classes,  especially  in  the  Italian  cities,  belong,  who  still  remained 
in  the  ordinary  walks  of  secular  life,  but  according  to  a  prescribed  rule  suc- 
cessively and  generallj'  in  a  deep  disguise,  from  no  motive  but  a  regard  for 
the  will  of  God  perform  all  needful  offices  for  pilgrims,  the  sick  and  the  dead. 

(/)  Acta  SS.  Mnj.  vol.  IV.  p.  2S3sa.  lioverio,  Ann.  Ord.  MIn.  qui  Capuclnl,  etc.  Lnp.l.  B.  1632s9. 
3  vols.  f.  M.  a  Tiiyio.  Riillar.  O.  Ciipp.  noiii.  1740s8.  7  vols.  t.—OccJdiio,  Dialog  XXX.  15a.«.  15CS. 
Mc('ric,  Hist,  of  K.f.  in  It.  p.  lS."a<.  MOiss.     Trechurl,  L.  Sozlnl.  p.  2'?ss.  2o2ss, 

e)  (Sei//<-'>()  Ordensrcgi-ln  d.  I'inristcn.  Hi.l.  1TS3.  2  vols. 

/)  Leben  il.  H.  Vine.  \>y  Ahelly,  Par.  IGfit.  Cullft,  Nancy.  174''.  Stolherg,i  ed.  Vienna.  1^10. 
Schmieder.  (Kv.  K.  Z.  1S32.  N.  778s.)  Orsitti,  Par.  l'^42.  Gobillon,  Vlo  do  M.  do  Gras.  Pur. 
1C7G.  (Clemens  lirentiino)  Die  bnrm.  Scliwestern  in  Pozug  a.  Armen-  n.  Krankonpf.  Cobl.  1S3I. 
Comp.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S30.  N.  22ss.  1S:J8.  N.  1S.S.  FUmhmauH,(\.  Wirken  d.  barinb.  Scliw.  In  Wiea 
Vienna.  1S39. 


4(il  m<)I»i;i:n  ciirucii  iiisrnuv.    it.i:.  v.    a.  d.  i.'ii7-;64s. 

§  .390.     The  Fine  Arts. 

l.ltorntiiro  In  $  2i'iT.  Kiiglfi;  Oc«^li.  «1.  Mai.  vol.  II.  Glareanun,  Doilocachordon.  Ba*.  1547. 
Orrhert,  do  rantii  ct  innsloi».  S.  Ulaa  1774.  2  vols.  4.  Itochlitz,  Oriin<llini>>n  zu  e.  Gesch.  A.  Go- 
sanspiiiin».  f.  KIrohc,  kc  (ITir.  Froundo  d.  Tonk.  vol.  IV.  Lps.  lb.32.)  KienceUer,  Gesch.  d.  our. 
ahendl.  MiislU.  Lps.  (IS.^^.)  1S47.  4. 

It  lias  been  tlio  interest  of  the  Catholics  of  modern  times  to  favor  the 
ar^s.  Tlie  imitative  arts  had  however,  at  this  time,  reached  the  highest  point 
to  which  tliey  Avere  destined  to  rise,  and  the  unrestrained  power  of  genius 
found  no  motives  to  return  to  its  eftbrts  in  tliat  direction.  Comggio^  with 
an  overflowing  heart  and  a  magic  richness  of  coloring,  and  Titian,  with  all 
the  splendors  of  nature  itself,  painted  also  scenes  from  sacred  history,  (a) 
Both  of  them,  however,  did  homage  without  restraint  at  the  altar  of  sensu- 
ous beauty.  The  revival  of  art  in  the  school  of  Bologna  was  influenced 
indeed  by  anatomical  studies  and  learned  attempts  to  imitate  antique  models, 
and  yet  it  was  pervaded  by  the  ecclesiastical  spirit.  The  noble  Caracci  with 
his  bold  grandeur,  Domenichino  with  his  gloomy  fervor,  and  Guido  lieni 
with  his  enthusiastic  earnestness,  presented  to  the  world  the  conceptions  and 
forms  of  the  Church,  while  Poussin  painted  not  only  the  ancient  marble 
figures  as  saints,  but  even  landscapes  seriously  and  solemnly  as  if  they  had 
been  for  a  divine  temple.  The  hardy  natural  simplicity  of  the  N'etherlandic, 
and  the  yet  unbroken  enthusiasm  uf  the  Spanish  national  character,  raised 
the  imitative  arts  of  the  17th  century  to  the  brilliant  eminence  which  they 
had  formerly  attained :  Eubens  made  use  of  sacred  things  to  represent  most 
skilfully  the  energy  of  passion  and  an  exuberant  sensuous  life,  in  his  effort 
to  adorn  the  sepulchral  chapel  of  his  family  ;  and  MurilJo,  the  painter  of  the 
Catholic  foith,  and  yet  distinguished  for  his  spirited  conformity  to  nature, 
presents  even  those  sacred  things  which  he  adored  with  rapturous  devotion 
sometimes  in  the  most  natural  attractions  and  sometimes  in  the  most  un- 
earthly and  fanatical  forms.  The  plastic  arts  sought  to  renew  their  infancy 
by  waxlike  imitations  of  the  ungraceful  forms  of  nature.  By  such  means, 
Bernini  with  astonishing  skill  destroyed  the  taste  of  his  contemporaries,  and 
the  Christian  character  of  these  arts.  It  was  at  such  a  period  that  a  Barle- 
rini,  then  on  the  papal  throne,  thought  he  could  add  to  his  reputation  by  dis- 
figuring the  Pantheon,  which  he  despoiled  of  the  ornaments  which  had 
been  spared  by  so  many  barbarians,  that  he  might  cast  them  (1632)  into  can- 
nons and  an  ill-contrived  high  altar  for  the  church  of  St.  Peter.  The  poetry 
of  Italy  was  generally  tedious  and  of  a  moralizing  strain,  until  Torquato 
Tusso  (d.  1595),  a  genuine  poet,  though  slightly  addicted  to  the  same  style, 
celebrated  the  great  change  which  had  recently  taken  place  in  Catholicism  in 
his  account  of  the  exploits  of  the  middle  ages,  (h)  Borne  on  by  the  medi- 
aeval spirit  which  still  survived  among  his  people,  Calderon  (d.  1687),  in  his 
sacred  plays  for  festive  seasons  (p.  302),  has  brought  forward  the  mysteries 
of  Christianity  in  a  poetic  dress,  and  celebrated  Christian  heroism  and  all 

[a)  A  life  of  Correggio  and  Parmeg.  Lond.  1823.  8.  J.  KorOicoU,  Life  of  Titian.  Lond.  1830 
1  Tols.  8.] 

[6)  R.  Jfilman,  Life  of  Tasso.  New  ed.  Lond.  1S82.  2  vols.  S.  SUmondi,  H.  of  Lit  vol  L 
p.  277SS.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATU.  CnUECn.    §  390.  PALE3TRINA-    ALLEGRI.    NEEI.        4Gc 

that  then  remained  of  it  as  in  a  waking  dream,  (c)  Modern  music  first  attained 
the  character  of  an  art  by  which  the  devout  lioart  gives  utterance  to  its  emo- 
tions, in  the  Church  of  the  fourtcent.li  century  in  the  Netherlands.  Its  style 
was  at  that  time  serious,  grand,  and  full  of  expression  only  when  taken  as  a 
whole ;  and  as  the  Church  would  not  renounce  the  few  melodies  which  had 
long  been  nsed,  art  was  obliged  to  exert  its  powers  on  the  harmonies  by 
wliich  they  were  embellished.  The  consequence  was  that  many  imitators 
adopted  an  artiticial,  dry,  and  learned  kind  of  nuisio,  which  derived  all  its 
life  from  some  secular  airs  mingled  with  them.  (<!)  The  Synod  of  Trent  en- 
treated the  pope  that  he  would  devise  some  jjlan  by  which  this  state  of  things 
might  be  improved.  Marcellus  II.  accordingly  disclosed  his  views  to  an 
enthusiastic  young  man,  and  soon  after  under  the  papacy  of  Paul  IV.,  Pales- 
trina  presented  to  the  world  his  Missa  MarcelU  (1555).  This  was  the 
commencement  of  a  revolution  in  sacred  music,  wliich  by  his  influence  be- 
came simple,  thoughtful,  aspiring,  sincere,  and  noble,  but  destitute  of  pas- 
sion and  tenderness.  {()  The  most  spiritual  of  all  arts,  it  raised  the  heart 
into  immediate  communion  with  the  intiuite,  and  while  celebrating  the 
mystery  of  the  divine  sacrifice  in  the  different  parts  of  the  Mass  to  which 
it  especially  was  set,  it  found  opportunity  to  express,  and  to  elevate  by  its 
various  combinations  of  sounds,  every  kind  of  Christian  feeling.  The  centre 
of  this  school  was  the  papal  chapel,  and  its  last  creative  master  was  Gregorio 
AUcgri  (d.  1652),  whose  Miserere,  composed  for  a  double  choir,  expresses 
with  Avonderful  simplicity  all  the  calm  and  profound  sufferings  of  a  Christian 
heart  beneath  the  Saviour's  cross.  (/)  The  Opera  was  invented  (about  1600) 
by  certain  persons  belonging  to  the  Academy  of  the  Medici,  while  attempting 
in  an  antique  style  to  represent  the  ancient  drama.  This  secular  yet  serious 
and  dignified  style  of  music  delighted  all  classes.  While  the  old  ecclesiasti- 
cal style  was  struggling  in  Rome  to  maintain  its  ground  against  this  inno- 
vation, the  school  of  music  founded  by  Xeri  began  to  perform  in  the  Orato- 
rium pieces  relating  to  subjects  from  sacred  history.  In  this  waj'  came  into 
existence  the  Oratorio^  intermediate  between  the  ancient  and  modern  styles 
of  music,  and  more  distinctly  expressive  of  precise  characters  and  situations, 
more  agreeable  in  its  melodies,  and  richer  in  its  instrumental  accompani- 
ments, {(j) 

§  391.  The  Sacred  Scriptures.  Cont.  from  §  286,  38C. 
The  Complutcnsian  Polyglott  was  followed  by  other  similar  attempts  of  a 
literary  character,  with  the  aid  of  a  larger  number  of  ancient  versions.  The 
Greek  text  by  liobert  Stephens  (Est.ienne),  («)  and  after  him,  almost  acciden- 
tally, the  beautiful  impressions  from  the  oftico  of  the  Elzevirs,  {?>)  on  the  basis 
of  the  edition  of  Erasmus  or  of  the  Comjilutensian  Polyglott,  were  now 
established  as  an  article  of  faith  in  both  Churches  (Textus  receptus).    Many 


[o)  Ili'J.  vol.  II.  p.  816s.]        (i)  Jf<insi  voL  XXIX.  p.  lOT. 
<f)  Bitini,  Mciiiorie  doUa  vita  Jl  O.  T.  da  I'slcst.  Rom.  1S2S.  2  vol.».  1. 

/)  X.  WiHemaii,  ü.  d.  In  d.  piipsU.  Kapollo  übl.  I.ttiirglo  d.  ftlllcn  Woche.  A.  d.  Kngl.  v.  Axtnger, 
Augsb.  1840.     [The  Onioos  of  Holy  Week.  LomL  Svo.] 
£7)  Fink-  in  Zeitscli.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S42.  H.  &. 
a)  Par.  154C.  16.     E.*pccially  1550.  f.  (cd,  roylna.)        l>)  Liigd.  B.  1C24.  12.  and  oft 

80 


4G0  M(H)Ki:\  CllHUCir  HISTOltY.   PEK.  v.     a.  U.  1M7-164'?. 

nlso  att(Mii|>lc(l  to  (.•.xpoiiiid  the  Scriptures,  but  with  iio  peculiarities  of  theit 
own  thev  ffenerally  (lei)eü(le(l  wliolly  cither  upon  Erasmus  or  tlic  fatliers. 
Not  only  were  tlio  views  of  divine  inspiration  entertained  by  the  ancient 
Church  expressly  disregarded  by  the  Jesuits  of  the  Netlierlands  Tafter  1585), 
but  oven  the  statements  and  ordinary  intelligence  of  the  Scriptural  writers 
were  impeached.  The  shock  which  the  Protestantism  of  that  period  received 
from  such  expressions,  encouraged  many  men  to  make  known  the  more 
recent  results  of  the  scientific  studies  of  a  liberal  school,  (r)  Luther's  Bible 
was  extensively  circulated  imder  the  name  of  his  enemies.  {<])  After  many 
animated  discussions  in  the  Synod  of  Trent,  the  object  of  which  was  to  avoid 
all  dependence  upon  grammarians,  and  to  secure  themselves  from  the  attacks 
of  Protestants,  the  Vulgate  was  declared  to  be  authentic  for  all  sermons 
and  expositions  of  Scripture.  This  ambiguous  decision  has  been  explained 
by  learned  Catholics  generally  to  mean  simply  that  this  translation  was  pre- 
ferable to  all  others,  {e)  Such  a  decree,  however,  never  became  effectual, 
until  in  an  official  edition  the  various  and  corrupt  readings  of  this  version 
were  partially  removed.  Sixtus  V.  took  charge  of  this  work  (1590),  and  by 
virtue  of  his  plenary  apostolic  power  pronounced  it  authentic  and  unchange- 
able. From  the  haste,  however,  with  which  it  had  been  accompjlished,  it 
soon  became  necessary  that  a  new  edition  with  important  emendations  should 
be  prepared  under  the  authority  of  Clement  VIII.  (1592).  The  merit  of  hav- 
ing perceived  these,  and  of  making  improvements  with  regard  to  some  other 
errors  in  the  work,  was  not  readily  acknowledged  by  Protestants,  but  all 
were  convinced  that  such  measures  were  infallible  in  matters  of  faith.  (/) 

§  392.  Laics  Eespecting  Doctrines  and  Internal  Theological  Controversies. 
The  doctrinal  decrees  of  the  Synod  of  Trent,  the  partial  vagueness  of 
which  was  doubtless  a  matter  of  design,  were  generally  acknowledged  to  be 
the  standard  of  Catholic  orthodoxy.  The  phraseology  used  in  the  Frofessio 
Fidei  Tridenti7ia,  a  confession  published  by  Pius  IV.  (156-x),  and  intended  to 
be  binding  upon  all  candidates  for  the  clerical  ofl3ce  or  for  academical  honors, 
was  strictly  conformed  to  the  language  used  in  those  decrees,  (a)  Pius  V. 
published  the  Catechismus  Eomanns  (1566),  not  so  much  for  popuLir  instruc- 
tion as  for  the  direction  of  pastors  while  engaged  in  that  work.  Both  these 
creeds  presented  some  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Tridentlne  articles  in  a  more 
definite  form,  and  although  they  have  been  opposed  in  some  quarters,  they 
have  in  practice  been  received  as  authority.  The  essential  nature  of  Protes- 
tantism was  assailed  by  the  Synod  of  Trent  only  so  far  as  the  interpretation 
of  the  Scriptures  was  made  to  depend  upon  the  decision  of  the  Church,  and 

c)  Rich.  Simon,  Hist,  crit  du  texte  du  N.  T.  c.  23. 

d)  {W,ilch  vol.  XXI.  p.  311.)  N.  T.  by  Eraser,  Lps.  1527.  11.  S.  by  Dietcnberger,  Mentz.  1534 
by  Eck.  Ingoist.  153T.— (?.  W.  Panzer.  Gesell,  d.  n.in.  k.itli.  dt  Bibeli'ibers.  Numb.  ITSl.  4. 

<■)  Scss.  IV.  Deer.  2.  [Landoii,  Man  of  Councils,  p.  CO'.]— L.  v.  Ess.  Doctorum  oath.  Tridentlnj 
circa  Vulg.  dcereti  sensuni  testantium  Hist.  Salisb.  1816.  Grats,  ü.  d.  Grunzen  d.  Freib.  in  ErkL  d. 
II.  S.  EUw.  ISIT. 

/)  Th.  Jam^,  Bellum  papale  s.  concordia  discors  Sixti  V.  et  Clem.  VIII.  Lend.  (ICOO.  4)  16SS. 
[James,  Ou  the  Corruptions  of  Scripture,  Councils  and  Fathers.  (Lond.  1S4S.  3  ed.)  p.  ITlss.] 
Sclioelliorn,  Amoenn.  P.  IV.  p.  433ss. 

a)  G.  C.  F.  Jfohnike,  uk.  Gesch.  d.  rrof.  Fidei  Trid.  Greifsw.  1822. 


CHAP,  YL    CATH.  CHURCIL    §  592.  TQEOLOGY.    CONTEOVEESIES.         467 

the  authority  of  tradition  is  made  equivalent  to  tliat  of  the  Scriptures.  The 
most  important  principle  it  proposed  in  opposition  to  the  Protestantism  of 
that  period,  was  one  which  referred  to  the  doctrine  of  justification.  Even 
among  the  prelates  themselves  there  was  a  pious  and  respectable  party  favor- 
able to  the  views  of  the  Protestants  on  this  subject.  (J/)  Hence,  after  pro- 
tracted debates,  justification  was  declared  to  be  a  gracious  state  prepared  for 
by  the  Iluly  Ghost  and  the  co-operation  of  the  sinner  himself,  and  is  essen- 
tially advanced  by  works  performed  in  obedience  to  the  Church.  Hence  the 
doctrine  which  declared  that  man  is  justified  only  by  a  foith  wrouglit  wholly 
by  God,  could  be  condemned  with  much  consistency.  (<•)  The  dispute  be- 
tween the  Thomists  and  the  Scotists  on  the  subject  of  original  sin  and  divine 
grace,  was  not  and  could  not  be  decided  at  that  time,  since  the  controversy 
maintained  by  those  schools  had  now  become  a  controversy  between  the  two 
orders  of  mendicant  friars,  and  the  deviation  of  the  whole  Church  from  the 
principles  of  Angustinism  rendered  it  indispensable  that  indefinite  forms  of 
expression  should  be  used.  But  when  the  cfTurts  of  Protestants  had  suc- 
ceeded in  directing  the  thoughts  of  the  Church  toward  these  delicate  points, 
and  the  Jesuits,  in  consistency  with  the  moral  system  of  their  school,  had 
adopted  the  views  of  the  Scotists,  the  dangerous  proximity  of  this  dispute  to 
the  dread  abyss  of  Protestantism  could  not  deter  men  from  engaging  in  it  in 
many  ways.  The  Franciscans  succeeded  in  obtaining  a  danmatory  bull  of 
Pius  V.  (15G7),  which  was  afterwards  confirmed  by  Gregory  XHI.  (1579), 
upon  seventy-nine  dangerous  propositions  extracted  from  the  writings  of 
Bajtis,  a  professor  of  Lou  vain,  who  had  abandoned  scholasticism  and  had 
turned  his  attention  to  a  scriptural  and  Augustinian  Christianity,  (cf)  This  de- 
cree, however,  never  affected  his  personal  standing  in  the  Church.  The 
theological  faculty  of  Louvain  defended  themselves  by  an  aggressive  move- 
ment (after  1587),  and  condemned  thirtj'-four  propositions  opposed  to  the 
essential  doctrines  of  Augustine,  and  to  the  absolute  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, from  the  writings  of  the  Jesuits  Less  and  Ilarncl.  Sixtus  V.  endeavored 
to  allay  the  growing  strife  by  an  absolute  command  that  each  party  should 
cease  agitating  the  subject  (1588).  But  a  general  controversy  between  the 
rival  schools  of  the  Dominicans  and  the  Jesuits  had  already  commenced  in 
Spain  in  consequence  of  a  Pelagian  Avork  intended  as  conciliatory  by  the 
Jesuit  Molina.  (<)  Pressed  by  complaints  from  all  parties,  Clement  VHI. 
called  together  a  congregation  (1597)  for  tiie  full  decision  of  the  question, 
"  In  what  way  is  the  assistance  of  divine  grace  concerned  in  the  conversion 
of  the  sinner  ?  "  When  both  parties  had  submitted  their  respective  views  in 
the  most  circumstantial  manner  before  this  tribunal,  Paul  V.  dismissed  (1607) 
the  congregation,  worn  out  h}'  protracted  labors,  with  the  promise  tliat  a  de- 
cision should  be  given  as  soon  as  convenient,  and  commanded  both  jiarties  to 
maintain  perpetual  silence  on  the  subject.  (/) 

h)  Ranke,  Papste,  vol.  I.  p.  199s«.  IGOss. 
c)  Sess.  VI.  Deer,  dc  Justif.  [London,  p.  010.] 

rf)  Bujl  0pp.  Col.  1G96.  4.     Du  Chesiie,  11.  du  Bajnnismo.  Douay,  1731.  4. 
e)  Liberi  arb.  c.  gratia«»  donis,  div.  pracsciciitia,  praedest.  ct  reprobat,  concordia.  Olyssip.  1588« 
.  Antu.  1595.  4. 

/)  Aiiff.  le  Blanc  {Serry),  IF.  congrogr.  de  aiixilii*  gratiao.  Ant.  1709.  f. 


468  MODKBX  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PKR.  V.    A.  D.  1517-105. 

5  3!)3      EitortH  lU  L'econcUiation,  and  Controversies  with  the  Protestant». 
C.  W.  Uering,  Gesch.  d.  kirctil.  Unlonsvereuche.  Lpz.  1836-8.  2  vol.». 

Even  when  the  popes  began  to  despair  of  victory,  they  would  admit  of 
110  compromise  with  the  Protestants  for  fear  that  the  whole  Church  might 
tliercby  become  infected  with  the  spirit  of  the  Keformation.  («)  But  as  the 
rr()te,«taiit  Church  had  gone  in  some  respects  to  an  extreme,  and  as  the 
Catliolic  Church  still  needed  reform,  and  as  the  former  appeared  only  another 
form  of  tlie  latter,  a  hope  was  entertained  that  a  reconciliation  might  be 
eüccted  which  would  be  eminently  beneficial  to  both  j^arties.  With  this 
view  Ferdinand  I.  requested  two  learned  men  whose  feelings  were  friendly  to 
the  object,  to  draw  up  articles  of  accommodation  and  agreement.  Cassander, 
always  an  apostle  of  peace,  conceded  that  the  Scriptures  were  the  only  au- 
thority for  proving  any  doctrine,  and  thought  that  he  might  find  a  point  of 
agreement  for  the  one-sided  views  of  both  parties  in  the  doctrine  of  justifi- 
cation by  faith  and  works.  He  was  anxious  to  preserve  the  hierarchy,  but 
was  willing  to  give  up  its  abuses,  together  with  a  multitude  of  evils  which 
had  grown  up  in  a  long  course  of  time,  or  things  which,  like  celibacy,  had 
once  been  beneficial,  but  were  now  antiquated.  Wizel,  Avhen  a  youth,  had 
been  a  zealous  preacher  of  the  Lutheran  gospel,  which,  however,  he  re- 
nounced (1531),  because  he  regarded  its  doctrine  of  justification  as  injurious 
to  Christian  practice,  and  he  was  anxious  to  preach  nothing  but  the  gospel 
of  Christ.  He  afterwards  preached  as  a  priest,  though  married,  in  the  for- 
saken Church  at  Eisleben,  in  behalf  of  the  Catholic  cause,  and  with  many 
complaints  against  Luther.  At  a  still  later  period  he  sat  in  a  council  of 
Catholic  prelates,  in  which  he  still  clung  firmly  to  the  hope  that  by  follow- 
ing the  path  which  Erasmus  had  pursued,  renouncing  all  scholastic  subtleties 
and  papal  abuses,  by  purifying  the  Church  and  returning  to  the  Scriptures, 
all  Christendom  might  once  more  become  united  around  its  common  Lord 
Christ.  (&)  But  although  at  these  rehgious  conferences  an  agreement  often 
seemed  just  at  hand,  and  failed  only  because  of  the  obstinacy  of  some  individ- 
uals, it  was  evident  from  the  peculiar  nature  and  historical  necessity  of  such  a 
religion  as  Protestantism,  that  all  these  negotiations  must  fail.  In  the  Ger- 
man conferences  the  principal  topics  of  discussion  were  original  sin  and  jus- 
tification, though  after  the  Synod  of  Trent  the  subject  of  the  sole  authority 
of  the  Scriptures  was  most  prominent.  The  Protestants  reproached  the 
Catholics  with  having  departed  from  the  Scriptures  and  from  Christ,  and  the 
Catholics,  on  the  other  hand,  reproached  the  Protestants  with  having  de- 
l)arted  from  the  Church,  Avith  being  revolutionary  in  their  tendencies,  and 
yet  contending  that  the  will  was  not  free,  and  Avith  being  afraid  of  good 
works.  Catholicism  was  assailed  in  the  most  earnest  manner  by  Chemnitz^ 
and  Protestantism  by  Bellarmine,  (c)     The  principal  subjects  debated  by 

ii)  Comp.  VTegsenherg,  Kirchenwers.  vol.  III.  p.  lOSss.  p.  295. 

V)  G.  Cass,  de  artic.  rel.  inter  CathoUcos  et  Trotestantes  controversls  ad  Ferd.  I.  et  Max.  II.  Con 
sultatto.  Col.  156G.  ed.  K  Grotius,  Lugd.  1642.  G.  Vic.  Via  regia.  CoL  (about)  1564.  ed.  Conring 
HolmsL  1650.  4.  Both :  ed.  Conring,  Helnist,  1C69.  A.—StroheU  Beitrr.  vol.  II.  St  Is.  A.  Xeander 
do  G.  Vicello.  Ber.  1S39.  4.    Also  his  Das  Eine  u.  Mannichf.  d.  chr.  Leben.  Brl.  1S40.  p.  16I.ss. 

c)  Ch^mnitii  Examen  Concilii  Trid.  15653S.  4  vols.  ed.  G.  C.  Joannis.  Frcf.  1707.  f.  and  often 
Bellannini  Dsp.  de  controv  chr.  fidei  adv.  hujus  temp,  haereticos.  Rom.  15Slss.  S  vols.  f.  and  often 


CUAP.  VI.  CAXn.  CIIÜECII.     I  393.  ATTEMPTS  AT  UNION.  469 

these  able  disputants,  however,  were  particular  doctrines  and  usages.  The 
authorities  to  which  the  Protestant  appealed  were  generally  the  literal  mean- 
ing of  the  Scriptures  and  facts  in  the  past  history  of  the  Church,  to  which 
the  Catholic  usually  replied  by  appealing  to  the  reasonable  fitness  of  things 
and  primitive  usage.  Flacius  and  Gerhard  delighted  in  pointing  out  traces 
of  Protestantism  in  former  times,  that  so  they  might  overcome  the  Catholic 
Church  with  its  own  weapons.  (</)  Zealous  partisans,  like  Xihus,  soon  dis- 
posed of  the  whole  subject  by  contending  that  the  pai'ty  which  could  show 
a  prescriptive  right  of  possession  should  bo  victorious.  (')  The  doctrine  of 
the  Lord's  Supper,  as  it  was  maintained  in  both  Churches,  gave  much  occasion 
on  account  of  its  supernatural  sensuousnes.«,  on  the  one  side  to  ridicule  for 
the  scholastic  subtilty  of  its  form,  (/)  and  on  the  other  to  a  rude  kind  of  poetry 
for  its  strange  figurative  language,  (y)  But  this  controversy  with  Scriptural 
weapons,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Catholics,  was  nothing  but  a  faint 
reflection  of  the  extremely  animated  personal  exertions  made  for  the  same 
general  object.  With  the  restoration  of  the  Catholic  Church  sprung  up  the 
hoi)e  that  it  was  about  to  recover  all  it  had  lost.  The  liberal  party  in  that 
Church,  as  it  had  not  yet  entirely  discarded  the  Protestant  spirit,  might 
easily  have  tolerated  that  spirit  in  a  more  distinct  form  by  its  side.  The 
more  zealous  party,  on  the  other  hand,  from  its  very  nature  could  allow  of 
no  terms  in  its  opposition,  and  although  its  efforts  were  at  that  time  directed 
not  so  much  to  the  persecution  as  to  the  conversion  of  their  opponents,  its 
adherents  were  resolved  to  go  to  any  extremes,  and  to  demand  every  thing. 
Vast  plans  were  formed  for  future  action.  Once  more  the  papacy  felt  that 
it  was  destined  to  conquer  the  world.  Intellect  and  eloquence,  craft  and 
force,  were  put  in  requisition.  The  first  object  was  to  win  those  who  were 
still  undecided,  and  the  next  was  to  overthrow  Protestantism  in  countries 
where  Catholicism  was  in  the  ascendant,  or  at  least  where  tbe  govern- 
ment still  remained  in  the  hands  of  Catholics.  In  both  these  objects  they 
were  to  a  considerable  extent  successful,  in  consequence  of  the  prodigious 
activity  of  the  Jesuits.  But  not  only  were  large  masses  of  people  induced 
to  change  their  connections,  but  many  individuals  passed  over  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  and  as  long  as  the  lines  of  separation  continued  indistinct,  and 
when  hopes  previously  formed  were  disappointed,  conversions  were  not 
infrequent  on  either  side,  (h)  Verger  his,  the  papal  legate  in  Germany,  when 
he  attemi)ted  to  combat  Lutlier's  spirit,  was  himself  carried  away  by  it.  (i) 
To  act  upon  Protestant  communities,  young  men  were  selected  from  their 
midst  and  imbued  with  all  the  enthusiasm  of  Catholic  proselytism,  and  other 

(l)  Flacius  (p.  388)  Gerhard  (§  85.3).        e)  Are  nova.  Ilildesh.  1632.  4. 

/)  (C  G.  IMder)  Mus  c.vcntcratiis,  per  frntrcm  Wilh.  do  Stullg.,  OrJ.  Minoriitn.  Tub.  1593.  4. 
Lps.  1677. 12. 

g)  Forer,  Bellum  iibiquisticuin.  Dill.  1627.  12.  (Alter  n.  neuer  Katzenkrieg  v.  d.  Ubiquität 
Ingnlst.  1629.  12.)  Nothw.  Vertlield.  d.  h.  nini.  P.eiclis  cv.  Cliurff.  u.  Stände  Aug.-ipfels,durch  d.  hierzu 
verordn.  Tlicdlosen.  Lpz.  162S.  4.  Brill  a.  d.  ev.  Augapf.  1629.  4.  Ev.  Brilleiiputzer.  Lps.  1C29.  4. 
(Andreae)  Wer  li.it  das  Kal.  in's  Aug  gesclilagen  ?  1)111.  1629.  4. 

h)  F.  W.  Ph.  V.  Amvxoii,  Gallerio  d.  denkwQrd.  Personen,  welche  im  IC.  IT.  u.  13.  Jnlirh.  v.  d 
(•=.  zur  kath.  Kirche  übergetreten  eiiid.  Erl.  1*33. 

«)  E.  T.  Ptrthcl,  Or.  pri)  P.  P.  Vergerio.  Jen.  1«42.  F.  IT.  Süiönhuth,  V.  Bischof  v.  Capo  d"Istrin. 
(Stui  d.  ev.  Geistl.  WwrL  1S12.  vol.  XIV.  P.  1.) 


470  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PKIi.  V.    A.  I).  151T-1C43. 

principloti  wliidi  were  fi»im(l  in  tho  Catholic  system.  But  the  most  strcnuoui 
efforts  ^vl  TO  iniulo  tc  iniUience  tho  Protestant  princes,  TV'ho  were  assailed  öo 
tho  Olio  hand  by  all  tho  arts  of  seduction,  and  on  tho  other  by  the  weapons 
of  assassination  and  of  insurrection.  (/) 

§  394.      I'he  rvopuganda. 

I.  Ercctlo  S.  Consrcgatlonis  dcSdp  cnth.  propaganda.  (Bullar.  Hum.  Th.  III.  p.  42]5.s.)— Eullarium 
Pnntlf.  Ö.  Con?r.  de  prop.  fide.  Roin.  1S39-41.  5  vols.  4— II.  Jiayeri  II.  Con-.T.  de  prop.  fide,  licgiom. 
lT-21.  4.  Otto  Mejer,  d.  Prop.,  ihre  Provinzen  u.  ihr  Recht.  Mit  bes.  Ifücks.  a.  Deutschl.  Gott 
13023.  2  vols. 

I.  Lett,  cdifiantes  et  cnrienses  ecrites  des  Missions  etrangtres.  Par.  (1717-76.  84  vols.)  17S0-3.  26 
vol.s. — Brown,  II.  of  the  prop,  of  Chr.  among  the  heathen  since  the  Ref.  Lond.  1814.  2  vols.  P.  Witt- 
mann.  d.  llorrlichk.  d.  K.  in  ihren  Miss.  s.  d.  Glaubensspalt.  Augsb.  lS41s9.  2  vols.  Ilenrion,  IL 
giin.  des  Miss.  cath.  Par.  lS4Gs.  2  vols.  4. 

There  was  no  Church  but  the  Koman  which  had  means,  opportunity,  and 
willing  instruments  in  the  monks  for  establishing  churches  beyond  the  ocean. 
All  efibrts  to  extend  religion  among  unbelievers,  or  to  recover  apostates  who 
were  looked  upon  as  for  ever  belonging  by  right  of  baptism  to  the  papacy,  («) 
Avere  directed  and  sustained  by  the  Congregation  de  propaganda  fide  (1622) 
in  Eome.  "With  this  was  connected  the  College  of  the  Propaganda  (1C27),  an 
institution  admirably  fitted  by  the  gradual  addition  of  a  number  of  endow- 
ments, for  training  the  children  of  the  Catholic  Church  to  be  missionaries  to 
all  nations.  The  idea  of  this  institution  had  been  already  realized  by  Ignatius 
in  the  organization  of  his  Collegium  Germanicum  (1552)  for  the  education 
of  a  priesthood  favorable  to  Eome,  and  to  act  upon  the  German  nation.  (5) 
After  its  model  colleges  have  been  established  at  Rome  for  other  nations,  so 
that  on  the  festival  of  the  Three  Kings  the  praise  of  God  is  there  sung  by 
the  Church  as  it  was  on  the  primitive  Pentecost,  in  the  languages  of  many 
nations. 

§  395.     East  Indies. 

The  communication  and  investigation  of  original  authorities  was  commenced  by  Jones,  Cote- 
brooke,  A.  W.  Schlegel,  Bopp,  Rammohnn-Roy,  Rosen,  Lassen,  and  Brockhaus.  For  general  views : 
P.  V.  Bohlen,  d.  alte  Indien  m.  Rucks,  auf  Aegypten.  Königsb.  1S.30.  2  vols.  Th.  Benfey,  Indien  in 
d.  Hall.  Encykl.  II.  vol.  XVIL  Both  in  Zeller's  Jahrb.  1S46.  P.  Z.—J.  P.  Jfofei,  Historiae  Indie. 
1.  XII.  (Flor.  15SS.  f.)  Antu.  1605.  La  Croze,  U.  du  Christ  des  Indes.  Haye.  1724.  2  vols,  with  Ann», 
v.  Bohnstedt,  Hal.  u.  L.  1737gs.  2  vols.  Korhert,  Mem.  hist,  sur  les  miss,  des  Jesuites  aux  Indes 
orient,  ed.  8.  Besanf.  1747.  2  vols.  Paulini  a  S.  Barihol.  India  or.  chr.  Rom.  1794.  4.  [A  Voyage 
to  tho  E.  I.  with  an  account,  &c.  with  add.  by  Förster,  and  transl.  by  Johnston,  Lond.  ISOO.]  Jf. 
Müllbauer,  Gesch.  d.  kath.  Miss,  in  Ostind.  b.  Mitte  d.  18.  Jhh.  Munich.  lSö2.—  Th.  Yeates,  Indian 
Church's  History.  Lond.  ISIS.  J.  Hough,  Hist,  of  Christ,  in  India.  Lond.  1*39.  2  vols.  [W.  ^Vard, 
View  of  the  Hist.  Lit.  and  Rel.  of  the  Hindoos.  Hartf.  1S24.  12.  II.  H.  Wilson,  Vishnu  Purana,  or 
Hindu  Myth,  and  Trad.  Lond.  1840.  4.  C.  Coleman,  Myth,  of  the  Hindoos.  Lond.  1S32.  4  Bjorn- 
sterna,  Theogony  of  the  Hindoos,  &c.  Lond.  1345.  S.  IL  li.  IMsington,  Hindu  Philosophy,  from 
the  Tamil,  with  notes,  &c.  New  Haven.  1S54.  S.] 

In  India  the  gospel  met  with  a  mild,  imaginative,  and  visionary  people, 
with  minds  conversant  with  the  infinite,  though  actually  existing  among  the 

X-)  E.  g.  lianke  H.  of  the  Popes,  vol.  II.  p.  105s.  comp.  452. 
a)  Mejer  vol.  I.  p.  lOes. 

V)  J.  Cordara,  YoU.  Germanici  et  Huiij.  Hist  Rom.  1770.  f.  Das  deutsche  Collegium  In  Rom. 
Lp&  1S43. 


CHAP.  TL    CATII.  CHURCH.    §  395.  EAST  INDIES.    BEAILMANISM.  471 

ruins  of  primitive  civilization.  For  nearly  a  thousand  years  they  had  been 
the  victims  of  servitude,  first  under  Mohammedan  despots,  and  afterwards 
under  a  company  of  Christian  merchants,  during  which  they  had  become 
cowardly,  fawning,  and  indolent  in  thoir  natures.  They  however  remained 
remarkable  for  their  powers  of  endurance,  fearless  and  stubborn  in  matters 
connected  with  their  religion,  and  filled  with  recollections  of  their  former 
glory.  The  Brahmins  were  probably  a  foreign  race,  who  at  some  former 
period  had  descended  from  the  Himalayan  mountains,  and  being  superior 
to  the  natives,  had  introduced  among  them  the  refinements  of  religion.  Ac- 
commodating themselves  to  an  organization  which  they  found  among  the 
people,  they  secured  enormous  privileges  for  themselves  by  an  unequal  appor- 
tionment of  the  intellectual  advantages  they  brought  among  the  graduated 
castes.  In  their  own  and  in  the  people's  estimation,  they  were  equal  to  the 
gods,  Avhile  the  Parias  were  regarded  as  beneath  the  brutes.  The  limits  of 
caste,  by  which  the  fate  of  every  individual  was  almost  unalterably  fixed 
according  to  his  merits,  were  supposed  to  have  been  assigned  by  the  Creator, 
so  that  what  was  lawful  in  one  caste  was  a  capital  offence  in  another.  All 
the  laws,  the  literature,  and  the  arts,  which  existed  among  the  people,  were 
traced  back  originally  to  the  sacred  writings  (Vedas),  which  were  said  to 
have  been  reduced  to  writing  long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  as  they  flowed 
from  the  lips  of  Brahma.  Brahmanisin  Avas  originally  a  benignant  deifica- 
tion of  nature.  In  a  philosophical  sense,  Brahma  is  the  essence  of  all  exist- 
ence, his  only  attribute  is  infinity,  and  every  thing  possessing  individuality 
and  a  finite  nature  springs  from  Maya^  Appearance,  or  Illusion.  The  incon- 
sistency between  this  original  sense  and  its  i)hilosophical  meaning  may  be 
seen  in  the  delicate  recou  which  is  felt  by  the  people  from  all  contact  with 
nature.  The  higher  castes  therefore  eat  no  flesh,  but  the  intercourse  of  the 
sexes  is  looked  upon  as  pure,  and  the  services  of  the  temples  are  connected 
with  the  indulgence  of  the  vilest  lust,  and  yet  the  perfection  of  human  wis- 
dom is  supposed  to  be  an  escape  from  the  illusion  of  the  finite,  and  an  utter 
loss  of  all  personal  consciousness.  By  contemjjlation  and  self-denials,  carried 
sometimes  to  the  extreme  of  suicidal  self-tortures,  man  is  elevated  until  he 
becomes  a  god.  Their  system  of  religion,  perhaps  a  combination  of  several 
different  national  religions,  when  fully  developed,  teaches  that  the  original 
Brahm  manifests  himself  as  Brahma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva — in  other  words,  as 
the  Creation,  the  Development,  and  the  Reabsorption  of  all  things.  Hence 
sometimes  one  and  sometimes  another  of  this  Trimurti  is  regarded  as  su- 
preme. According  to  their  epic  legend,  Yinlinu'^s  Deity,  regarded  as  the 
divine  life  of  nature,  has  frequently  become  incarnate,  at  one  time  as  a  beast, 
at  another  as  a  man  born  of  a  virgin,  in  the  fonn  of  Rama  contending  witli 
giants,  in  that  of  Krishna  as  a  prince  of  peace  crowned  as  a  victor,  and 
finally  he  will  yet  appear  in  that  of  IuiUi\  on  a  white  steed,  for  the  removal 
of  all  sin.  But  at  the  close  of  the  Avorld,  Jüihi,  the  great  destroyer,  will  ap- 
pear and  swallow  up  every  thing,  and  last  of  all  even  the  three  supreme  gods 
themselves,  so  that  the  essence  of  Brahma  will  exist  once  more  alone.  The 
ppace  between  the  chief  gods  aTid  men  is  filled,  as  it  were  symbolically,  with 
a  kingdom  of  inferior  and  fanciful  divinities.     The  popular  faith  has  regarded 


172  MODERN  CIIL-UCH  HISTORY.    PER.  V.    A.  D.  IKK-IMS. 

all  tlioso  as  notiinl  persons,  and  tlie  dinputc  between  diflerent  parties  with 
respect  to  the  claims  of  Vishnu  or  Siva  to  the  supreme  power  has  been 
aggravatc<l  by  tho  explanations  of  the  sages  and  the  embellishments  of  the 
poets,  until  the  spiritual  world  has  become  peopled  with  a  wonderfully  van- 
oua  and  confused  race  of  beings,  which  have  been  divided  into  numerous 
sects.  Tiio  greatest  contrasts  were  here  exhibited.  A  monkey  was  some- 
times deilied  by  the  side  of  a  god  who  was  so  spiritualized  and  so  great,  that 
thought  itself  was  too  insignificant  to  conceive  of  him,  and  yet  some  many- 
limbed  monster  was  supposed  to  contain  and  to  represent  him.  This  faith, 
which  at  one  time  converted  the  rocky  mountains  into  temples,  had  so 
thoroughly  pervaded  every  relation  of  the  popular  life,  and  was  so  firmly 
incorporated  with  the  prejudices  even  of  the  Parias,  that  although  the  Chri» 
tian  preachers  presented  many  points  of  doctrine  which  corresponded  with 
it,  no  great  results  could  for  a  long  time  bo  expected  from  their  labors.  Bishops 
were  appointed  by  the  Portuguese  to  take  the  charge  of  their  possessions  in 
the  East,  but  no  congregations  were  collected  there  until  Francis  Xatier 
(after  1542),  with  all  the  enthusiasm  which  his  great  success  inspired,  per- 
formed extraordinary  acts  of  piety  among  them,  and  baptized  probably  <i 
humh-ed  thousand  Parias  and  outcasts,  {a)  To  preserve'thesc  in  the  faith, 
however,  it  was  found  necessary  to  use  the  labors  of  the  inquisition  (1560). 
The  first  labor  of  this  court  was  directed  to  the  extirpation  of  a  few  congre- 
gations of  the  Christiana  of  St.  Thomas^  which  had  maintained  an  existence 
there  in  the  same  condition  in  which  they  had  been  formed  as  a  part  of  the 
Syrian  Church  of  the  fifth  century.  These  Christians,  however,  in  the  popu- 
lar organization  of  the  Hindoo  people,  had  been  embraced  in  the  warrior 
caste.  The  name  of  Nestorius  was  also  once  more  solemnly  anathematized 
in  India.  The  Jesuit  Nohili  (after  1606),  in  the  character  of  a  Christian 
Brahmin,  was  not  altogether  without  success  in  his  appeals  to  the  higher 
castes,  {b)  The  Islam  of  the  early  conquerors  was  too  simple  and  powerful 
to  be  overcome  without  a  desperate  struggle.  Still  the  efi'orts  of  the  Great 
Mogul  Älhar  to  establish  a  religion  of  reason  (after  1578),  produced  a  much 
greater  approximation  to  the  religion  of  the  Jesuits.  In  IGIO,  three  imperial 
princes  mounted  on  white  elephants  rode  to  the  place  where  they  were  bap- 
tized.   Victory,  however,  stiU  remained  on  the  side  of  Mohammed. 

§  396.     Japan. 

After  the  researches  of  Joinville,  Buchanan,  Klaproth,  Mackenzie,  Colebrooke,  and  Ritter :  Gt"u- 
Ver,  Art.  Japan  in  d.  Hall.  Encykl.  II.  vol.  XIII.  p.  830ss.  comp.  Benfey,  Ibid.  vol.  XVII.  p.  194ss 
P.  de  Bohlen,  de  Buddhaisml  orig.  et  aetate.  Regiom.  1S27.  J.  J.  Schmidt,  (Memoires  do  I'Acad. 
imperiale  de  Pctersb.  1830.  vol.  II.  Liv.  2.  8.  1S;32.  vol.  II.  Liv.  1.)  Keumann,  Tilgerfohrten  Buddb. 
Priester.  (Zeitscli.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S38.  SL  2.)  A.  Wuttke,  de  Buddhalstar.  disciplinar.  Vrat.  1S4S.— 
Kiiempfer,  Beschr.  v.  Japan,  hrsq.  v.  Dohm.  Lemg.  17T7.  2  vols.  4.  [II.  of  J.ipan,  Anc.  and  Pr.  State 
of  tlie  Gov.  &e,  transl.  by  Schenchzer,  from  tlie  Germ,  of  Kaemp/er,  Lond.  17-27.  2  vols,  f.]  P.  de 
Charl^cuix,  II.  du  Christ  dans  I'Emp.  du  Japon.  Rom.  1712ss.  8  vols,  par  M.  D.  L.  G.  Par.  1S36.  2 


a)  Fr.  Xaverii  Epp.  1.  IV.  Par.  1631.  12.  Briifo  d.  li.  F.  v.  X.  übers,  u.  erkl.  v.  J.  Burg,  Neu- 
•wled  18-36.  Ilor.  Tiireelini,  de  vita  Xav.  Rom.  1594.  and  often.  [Duboh,  Letters  on  Chr.  in  Ind 
Lond.  S.  witli  ToicnUi/s  (I.ond.  1S24.  S.)  and  Ifough'»  (Lond.  1S25.  12.)  Replies  to  Dubois.] 

h)  PlaM  {Xorbert),  Mi-m.  hist.  s\ir  les  affiiir.  de.s  Jus.  Lisb.  176G.  7  vols.  4. 


CHAP.  VI.    CA.TIL  CnUPXir.    §396.  JAPAN.    BUDDHISM.  473 

rols.  Crasaet,  H.  de  Tegl.  de  Japan.  Par.  1715.  4.  Augsb.  173S.  t—Stäudlin,  ü.  d.  Verwandlfch.  d. 
Lamalschcn  Kel.  m.  d.  clir.  (Archiv,  t  KGescli.  ISli  vol.  L  St  3.)  [C.  McFarlane,  Geog.  and  Uist 
Ace.  of  Japan.  New  York.  1S52.  8.  T.  Wells,  J.  and  the  Japanese.  New  York.  1S52.  P.  F.  v.  Sie- 
lold.  Manners  and  Customs  <if  the  Japanese.  New  York,  1S40.  12.  Goloicnin,  Mem.  of  Captivity  in 
J.  Lend.  1S52.  2  vols.  8.  2  ed.] 

When  Xatier  reached  Japan,  he  found  that  the  Christian  Church  had 
been  imitated  by  the  devil,  for  already  bells,  rosaries,  celibacy,  monasticism, 
a  hierarchy,  and  apparently  a  spiritual  monarch  were  there.  The  primitive 
religion  of  the  country  was  a  mythical  worship  of  nature,  prompted  by  a 
lively  glow  of  sensuous  pleasure.  But  for  a  long  time  the  predominant  reli- 
gion had  been  a  Buddhism  which  had  been  introduced  from  abroad.  About 
six  hundred  years  before  Christ,  in  Magadha,  a  province  of  India,  arose  Gau 
tama  surnamed  Buddha^  i.  c,  the  Wise,  who  enlisted  with  much  zeal  in  the 
work  of  reforming  his  countrymen.  By  his  wisdom  and  self-denials  he  be- 
came an  incarnation  of  the  Deity,  according  to  the  sacred  legends,  the  eighth 
incarnation  of  Vishnu  by  Mnya  in  the  form  of  a  pure  virgin.  In  this  incar- 
nation, the  system  of  the  world  attained  a  self-consciousness.  As  he  pro- 
claimed the  universal  brotherhood  of  man,  the  system  of  caste  was  discarded 
by  him,  but  in  its  stead  was  gradually  introduced  a  hierarchy,  the  existing 
head  of  which  was  always  honored  as  an  incarnate  divinity.  The  spirit 
inculcated  by  Buddhism  is  mild  and  humane,  since  it  requires  that  its  fol- 
lowers should  sympathize  with  the  sufferings  of  every  living  thing,  and 
instead  of  demanding  bloody  sacrifices,  it  calls  upon  them  to  sacrifice  them- 
selves for  the  good  of  others.  Still  the  fundamental  principle  of  this  religion, 
that  the  higher  life  can  be  attained  only  by  a  liberation  of  ourselves  from  all 
the  illusion  of  a  personal  existence,  imposes  the  necessity  of  severe  and  cruel 
struggles.  The  natural  development,  therefore,  of  this  principle,  is  a  lifeless 
and  haughty  system  of  religion,  in  which  the  highest  merit  is  attached  to 
human  efforts,  {n^  About  a  hundred  years  after  Christ,  Buddhism  was  per- 
secuted by  the  Brahmans,  and  after  a  protracted  struggle  was  expelled  from 
its  native  country.  It  soon,  however,  became  the  religion  of  nearly  all  the 
neighboring  nations,  from  whose  peculiar  characters  it  received  many  modi- 
fications. In  Japan,  Xavier  adopted,  though  in  a  higher  and  modified  sense, 
every  thing  in  Buddhism  which  was  considered  holy,  as  a  part  of  the  faith 
which  he  preached,  and  consequently  soon  succeeded  in  establishing  a  church. 
But  in  his  eagerness  to  penetrate  still  farther  into  heathen  countries,  this 
Apostle  of  the  Indies  died  foon  after  on  his  way  to  China  (1552).  Under 
the  discction  of  the  Jesuits,  a  most  splendid  ecclesiastical  establishment  was 
formed  in  Japan,  and  hopes  Avere  entertained  that  the  whole  nation  would 
soon  become  subject  to  its  sway.  But  in  consequence  of  some  immoralities 
on  the  part  of  the  European  residents,  and  the  suspicion  that  Christianity  was 
only  the  precursor  of  foreign  dominion,  a  series  of  8;inguinary  jiorsecutions 
(after  1587)  was  commenced.  Thousands  even  of  the  native  inliabitants  died 
as  martyrs  for  the  new  faith.     About  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 

[<7)  E.  Bunion/,  Introd.  a  Vlllst.  dii  Huddlilsme  Indien.  Par.  ISJ.").  vol.  I.  4.  7?.  Ä  iriirdt/,  Man- 
»1.11  of  Buddhism,  itr.  I.oiul.  IsVj.  S.  A'.  Cji/kdii,  Mi^-t  and  Dort,  of  Bniliihl<m.  I-ond.  1S20.  f.  C. 
F.  yeiimann,  Catechism  of  tlie  Shanmns,  or  Ij»ws  of  the  Bud.  Prle.sts.  (Orient.  Transl.  Fund.) 
Lond.  1S32.  S.] 


474  Mnl.KKN  CHUliCH  IIISTOIIY.     I'KK.  V.     A.  J).  ISIT-IC^S. 

every  vcstifjc  of  Cliristianity  was  obliterated  from  the  country,  and  all  intc 
course  with  forul^uers  in  Jajian  was  strictly  prohibited. 

§  397.     China. 

jV,  Trii/iiut,  (le  clir.  cxpcd.  opud.  Sinas  ex  comm.  Kiccii.  Au;;.  1C15.  4.  anil  ofusn.  J.  A.  Schall^ 
Kolnllo  do  Initio  et  prof;,  inissionis  Soc.  J.  npud  Cliincnscs.  Vien.  1G6S.  Kat.  Iü72.  Mit  Aniii.  v.  Mmi 
>'V0>  Vlon.  IS.'U.  Du  //tilile,  Desc.  do  rEirij).  de  la  Chine.  Par.  1730.  3  vols.  4  Uebers.  m.  Moslieim's 
Vorr.  Kost.  1743.  4  vols.  4.— For  the  recent  investigations,  see  Journal  Asiatique.  Abel-Ilemusat, 
MC'lanBos  asiat.  Par.  1S258.  2  vols.  Nouv.  Melanges.  Par.  1S29».  2  vols.  Sttihr,  chia.  P.ei(disrcl.  Brl. 
1S35.  u.  rel.  Systeme  d.  Or.  p.  9ss.  Neumann,  d.  Natur-  u.  P.el.  Phil.  d.  Chin.  Nach  d.  W.  d. 
Tschuhi.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S37.  P.  1.)  [Histories  and  Accounts  of  China  by  T.  Tliorntwi,  (Lond. 
1S44.  2  V.  S.)  C.  Guklaff,  (New  York.  1S3S.  1  v.  8.)  II.  ßfurraij,  (Edinb.  3  v.  12.  Iä86.)  J.  I'.  Daviis, 
(New  York.  1S34.  2  v.  12.)  J.  Kidd,  (Lond.  1841.  8.)  and  K  Williams,  (New  York.  1S4S.  8.)] 

In  the  extreme  East,  the  Europeans  found  an  innumerable  people,  whoso 
historical  accounts  went  as  far  back  as  those  of  the  Jews,  and  who  regarded 
themselves  as  the  centre  of  the  world.  Nearly  all  the  mechanical  arts  which 
had  recently  been  discovered  in  Europe,  were  found  to  have  been  in  exist» 
ence  among  them  from  a  remote  antiquity,  in  connection  with  a  rigid  system 
of  civilization  which  had  for  thousands  of  years  successively  overcome  all 
their  conquerors.  The  state  was  organized  strictly  as  a  single  great  family, 
and  all  power  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperor,  though  limited  by  an  inviola- 
ble usage  and  an  aristocracy  of  learning.  The  consciousness  of  individual 
freedom  with  respect  to  moral  conduct  had  never  yet  been  awakened  among 
the  people.  Three  forms  of  religion  existed  there  side  by  side  in  peace.  The 
first  was  the  primitive  religion  of  the  empire,  of  which  Confucius  (Kong-fu- 
Dsü)  was  honored  as  the  founder.  This  was  a  simple  adoration  and  worship 
of  the  heavens  regarded  as  a  power  of  nature,  and  of  certain  genii  supposed 
to  be  subject  to  the  emperor,  together  with  a  devout  and  well-arranged  sys- 
tem of  moral  conduct.  («)  The  second  was  the  doctrine  of  Tao,  a  system 
which  directed  men  to  adore  the  original  source  of  reason,  revealed  and 
incarnate  on  earth,  {b)  but  degenerated  into  a  system  of  idolatry  and  magic. 
The  third  was  the  worship  of  Buddha  (Fo-tho),  a  religion  which  hpd  been 
more  recently  introduced  among  the  people,  but  unsustained  especially  in  the 
interior  provinces  by  a  powerful  hierarchy.  The  account  of  divine  things 
which  these  religions  gave  was  intelligent  and  candid,  but  without  religious 
enthusiasm,  and  bore  no  traces  of  fanaticism  except  with  reference  to  the 
customary  rules  of  civility  towards  the  gods  and  the  dead,  and  with  respect 
to  the  etiquette  of  social  life.  As  the  natives  regarded  every  thing  foreign  with 
extreme  contempt,  the  Christian  missionaries  who  followed  in  the  Ift&m  of 
commerce  were  at  first  totally  unsuccessful  in  every  attempt  to  convert  them. 
The  respect  of  the  people  was  however  finally  secured  when  they  discovered 
the  superiority  of  the  missionaries  in  mathematical  science,  the  principles  of 
which  were  immediately  appreciated.  The  Jesuit  Iiicci  (1582-1610)  obtained 
high  distinction  among  the  people  as  an  astronomer,  and  the  favor  of  the  im- 

a)  Schott,  Werke  d.  chin.  Welsen  Kong-fü-Dsü.  Hal.  1826.  6  vols.  Con/ucii  Chi  King,  ed, 
Mohl,  Stuttg.  li.SO. 

h)  Le  Tao-te-Kinsr,  ou  le  livro  do  la  raison  supröme,  par  T.antne^t,  tradnit  aveo  une  version  latina 
•t  lo  te.^te  oliinois,  par  O.  GauViier,  Par.  1838.  [-4.  Ljungatedt,  Port  Settl.  and  Missions  in  Cbin^ 
Boston,  1S30.  8.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CUCRCH.    §  89S.  WEST  INDIES.    PARAGUAY.  475 

perial  court,  (c)  After  this  the  Jesuits  established  numerous  congregation?, 
built  churches,  and  translated  the  Scriptures,  and  even  the  Suiuma  of  St. 
Tlioina«,  but  with  a  careful  accommodation  to  the  religious  customs  and 
manners  of  the  people.  When  reproached  for  this  by  the  Dominicans  at 
Home,  they  defended  themselves  on  tlio  ground  that  it  was  indispensable  to 
their  success,  and  was  as  innocent  as  the  apostles'  conformity  to  the  Jewish 
1.1W.  Q7) 

§  398.      West  IiicUes.     Cord,  from  §  290. 

Gonzalez  cTAvila,  Tlieatro  ecc.  do  las  iglesias  do  las  Indias.  Madr.  IWDss.  2  vols.  Bourgoing, 
Vertus  des  missionairs  ou  II.  des  miss.  d'Anier.  Par.  1G54.  2  vols.  G.  £uluß,  I'Anicrica  un  tempo 
Bpagnuola  sotto  Taspetto  religioso  (till  1843).  Ancon.  1S45.  3  vols.  Comp.  Puppig,  Indien  in  d.  Hall. 
Eucykl.  II.  vol.  XVII.  esp.  p.  3Slss. — L.  A.  Muratori,  Christianesimo  fclice  nolle  missionc  nel  Para- 
guai.  Ven.  1743.  2  vols.  4.  (Abstract:  Relat  des  miss,  du  P.  Par.  1754.)  Chailermje,  H.  du  P.  Par. 
1756.  3  vols.  4.  Nurem.  17GS.  Pauke'a  Reise  in  d.  Miss,  nach  P.  edit  by  Frost,  Vien.  1S29.  In  an 
unfriendly  spirit:  Ibagnez,  Regno  Giesuitlco  del  P.  Lissab.  1770.  Uebers.  v.  Le  Bret,  Kiiln.  (Lps.) 
1774.  {R.  Suutheij,  Tale  of  Pf.r.iguay.  Lond.  r2iiio.  Ibid.  II.  of  Brazil.  Lond.  Isl0.-19.  3  vols.  4. 
Ahhe  Raynal,  Phil,  and  Pol.  Hist  of  the  Settl.  and  Trade  of  Europeans  in  the  W.  I.  from  the  French 
by  J.  JuBtamond,  Lond.  17S7.  12.  Views  of  the  Planting  of  Colonies  and  Missions  In  Me.\ioo  and 
Peru  may  be  found  in  the  works  of  Preseott,  Bemal  Diaz,  (transl.  by.  M.  Keatinge,  Lond.  ISOO.  4.) 
De  Solis,  (transl.  by  Turcnsend,  Lond.  1724.)  Jiobertaon'a  America,  and  other  works.] 

In  Brazil,  baptism  was  administered  to  prisoners  while  dying,  and 
wherever  it  could  be  performed  under  the  protection  of  the  Portuguese 
arms.  A  splendid  ecclesiastical  establishment  was  immediately  formed  in 
every  country  conquered  by  the  Spaniards.  But  although  the  natives  were 
generally  protected  by  the  laws  and  defended  against  the  colonists  by  the 
monks,  they  were  hastening  rapidly  to  extinction.  Even  where  they  were 
subjugated  to  the  Spanish  yoke  and  Christianized  (Indios  aldeidados),  they 
did  not  renounce,  but  continued  at  the  same  time  the  Avorship  of  their  an- 
cient gods.  The  inquisition,  however,  took  care  that  the  outward  semblance 
of  Ciiristianity  was  maintained.  AVith  an  heroic  courage,  the  Jesuits  and  Ca- 
puchins pressed  forward  into  the  ojien  primitive  forests  of  the  country,  and 
along  with  the  gospel,  carried  in  their  most  simple  and  cheerful  form  the 
blessings  of  civilization.  But  when  the  Jesuits  urged  at  Madrid,  that  the 
great  obstacle  to  the  progress  of  Christianity  among  the  nations,  was  the 
cruelties  and  evil  examples  of  the  Spaniards,  they  obtained  permission  to 
establish  Christian  colonies  among  the  Indians  who  were  as  yet  independent, 
and  which  no  Spaniard  was  to  enter  without  their  permission.  Such  was 
the  origin  of  the  republic  of  I'araijitaij  (after  1610),  governed  by  the  Jesuits 
in  a  patriarchal  style.  The  converted  savages  were  treated  as  children,  but 
as  pious  and  happy  children,  and  although  much  wealth  was  derived  by  tho 
order  from  the  country  under  its  subjection,  tho  prosperity  and  happiness  of 
the  people  was  entirely  tho  fruit  of  its  exertions. 

c)  WerthHm,  Ricci.  (Pletz,  neue  theol.  Zeitech.  1S33.  P.  3.) 

d)  Platel,  (p.  472.)  La  moral  pratiijue  des  Jos.  lG69s«.  vols.  II.  VI.  VII. 


476  MODKUN  ciiuncii  msToitv.   teu.  v.   a.  d.  isu-iws. 

CHAP.   VII.— THE   THIRTY  YEARS'   WAR. 

The  orl^,'.  niithorltleg  for  tho  Hist  it  tlie  80  yrs.  War.  (Monetibl.  d.  Allg.  Zollg.  ISi'Ss.  Dec  Jaa 
Jimo.)— /^"(/«/y,  fl.  K.  Mnj.  ii.  d.  h.  Eelclis  Acta  puU.  (Frkf.  1C2K».)  Tub.  HSÜss.  17  vols,  t 
(Pttppu*)  K|itt.  ror.  OtTin.  1(;17-13.  c.  anlmndvv.  J.  G.  Boehm,  Lps.  1760.  Tlieatruin  Kurop.  Krkt 
17.Sßss.  vol.  I. -IV.  K hevenhiUer,  (p.  S(>S.)—SchiUer,  Oesch.  d.  drelss.  Kr.  Lps.  17Ü1.  2  vols  and  oft. 
FortKi'S-  V.  WoUmann,  Lps.  1809.  2  vols.  [Thirty  Years'  War,  from  tho  Germ,  of  Sclilllcr  by  A.  J. 
IK  Jforrisnn,  New  York.  1S47.  12.]  A'.  A.  Menzel,  Gesch.  d.  drel-s.  Kr.  (Gesch.  d.  Deutsch,  vol. 
Vlt-g.)  IJrsl.  1S35-0.  3  vols.  SiJHl,  d.  Rel.  Kr.  in  Deutschl.  Ilamb.  lS40s.  2  vols.  /'.  W.  BartholiJ, 
Oesch.  d.  deutschen  Kr.  v.  Tode  G.  Ad.  an.  Stuttg.  18428S.  2  vols.  [Jfenzel'a  Hist  of  Germany  Las 
been  transl.  by  3frs.  G.  Jforrocke,  Lond.  1848.  3  vols.  12.  See  also  KoMrauadCa  Hist  of  Germ, 
and  Col.  MitcheWs  Life  of  Wallcnstein.] 

§  399.  Occasions. 
The  Catholic  and  Protestant  parties  in  Germany  continued  to  stand  in  an 
antagonistic  and  threatening  attitude  with  respect  to  each  otlier.  The  house 
of  Ilapsburg,  the  head  of  the  Catholic  party,  by  the  vast  extent  of  territory 
which  it  had  acquired,  became,  in  fact,  dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  Europe, 
but  its  power  was  thus  far  restrained  by  its  divisions  at  home  and  its  intel- 
lectual inferiority.  In  Bavaria,  and  in  most  of  the  prelatical  countries,  Pro- 
testantism, which  had  been  in  the  ascendant  about  the  middle,  was  nearly 
suppressed  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  That  which  had  been 
found  impossible  to  be  accomplished  among  the  people,  the  Jesuits  attempted 
among  the  princes.  Jacob.^  Margrave  of  Baden  (1590),  and  Wolßjang  "Wil- 
liam, Count  Palatine  of  Neuburg  (1614),  proclaimed  themselves  converts  to 
tho  Catholic  Church.  («)  In  consequence  of  tho  early  deatli  of  the  Mar- 
gravine, the  conversion  of  the  former  was  attended  by  no  important  results 
among  his  subjects,  and  the  Count  Palatine's  own  confessor  was  stiU  a  de- 
fender of  Protestantism.  Political  reasons  were  doubtless  the  reason  for  the 
conversion  of  the  count  himself,  but  by  means  of  it  a  country  previously  sup- 
posed to  be  lost  became  open  to  the  eftbrts  of  the  papacy.  The  ecclesiastical 
reservation  was  respected  according  to  the  will  of  those  who  for  the  time 
had  possession  of  tho  government.  Hence  nearly  all  the  property  of  the 
Clmrch  in  Northern  Germany  and  Suabia  fell  gradually  into  the  hands  of 
the  Protestant  princes,  or  was  administered  by  Protestant  bishops  as  electoral 
princes.  But  when  the  Elector  GehharJ,  High  Steward  of  Cologne  (after 
1577),  who  had  always  been  unfriendly  to  the  Catholic  party,  gave  himseh 
up  to  his  passion  for  Agnes  of  Mansfeld,  and  sought  to  legalize  his  forced 
marriage  with  her  in  the  Reformed  Church,  he  was  deposed  by  the  pope,  the 
Bishop  of  Liege,  a  Bavarian  prince,  Avas  elected  by  the  chapter  in  his  place, 
and  he  was  abandoned  even  by  the  Lutherans  (1583).  (I)  Sentence  of  pro- 
scription was  pronounced  by  the  imperial  aulic  council  upon  Donaincijrt?i,  for 
improper  treatment  of  a  Catholic  procession,  and  not  only  was  the  decree 
enforced  by  Bavaria,  but  Protestantism  itself  was  violently  oppressed,  and 
the  liberty  of  the  imperial  cities  was  impaired  (1607).    In  view  of  the  dan- 

n)  Unsere  .Jacobs,  M.  v.  B.  christl.  erhebl.  u.  -wohlfundirte  Motiven,  warum  wir  a.  Trieb  uns. 
Gewiss,  d.  luth.  Lehre  verlassen,  durch  Jo.  PUtoritnn,  Cüln.  I59I.  4.  Eeihiinj,  Muri  argillati  civit 
sanctae  h.  e.  rel.  cath.  fundamenta,  quibus  insistcns  Wolf|i.  C.  Pal.  in  civit  sanctam  faustum  pede» 
intulit  Col.  1615.  4.  l'ebers.  v.  Vetter,  Col.  1G15.  4. 

t)  J.  D.  Koeler,  de  actis  et  fatis  Gebb.  Tr.  Altorf.  1723.  4.  F.  W.  Barthold,  G.  Tr.  v.  Waldbur? 
lEaunier's  bist.  Taschonb.  1840.) 


CHAP.  YII.    THIRTY  TEARS'  -WAR.     §  390.  CAUSES.     §  400.  BOHEM.  WAR.      477 

ger,  the  Elector  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate  induced  a  few  Protestant  states 
to  form  a  Union  (1608).  In  opposition  to  this,  Maximilian  of  Bavaria,  a  man 
of  a  powertnl  and  practical  intellect,  whose  interest  was  identified  with  the 
success  of  the  Catholic  cause,  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  a  league  com- 
posed of  the  ecclesiastical  princes,  {c)  Saxony,  as  the  representative  of 
Lutheranism,  took  sides  with  the  emperor.  As  long  as  the  Jesuits  kept  the 
question  of  the  religious  peace  in  a  state  of  suspense,  the  Union  refused  at 
the  Diet  of  liatisbon  (1613)  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  majority  in  all 
matters  connected  with  religion,  and  when  their  comjilaints  were  not  attend- 
ed to,  the  members  of  it  withdrew  entirely  from  the  diet. 

§  400.     The  Bohemian  War.     Cont.  from  §  357. 

Müller,  fünf  Bücher  v.  Böhm.  Kr.  Drsd.  1840.    HicIUer,  v.  Bühmen-Auft-uhrs  o.  d.  dreiss.  Kr. 
Ursachen  u.  Beginn.  Erf.  1844.— C.  A.  Peacheck,  Gesch.  d.  Gegenref.  In  Bubonen.  Drsd.  1844.  2  vols. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  heir-apparent  to  his  throne,  the  Emperor 
Matthias  ventured  to  oppress  individuals  among  the  Bohemians,  or  allowed 
the  Catholic  land  proprietors  to  do  so.  A  petition  was  therefore  presented 
to  the  emperor  on  this  subject,  by  the  Utraquists.  Uis  answer,  however,  was 
of  a  threatening  character.  Two  imperial  counsellors,  supposed  to  be  the 
authors  of  this,  were  thrown  from  a  window  of  the  castle  in  Prague,  and 
the  members  of  the  diet  favorable  to  the  Utraquists  seized  the  reins  of  gov- 
ernment. Ferdinand  IL,  a  pupil  of  the  Jesuits,  and  resolved  to  venture 
every  thing  to  bring  about  the  triumph  of  Catholicism,  had  already  sup- 
pressed by  a  quiet  exercise  of  power  the  Protestantism  which  liad  been  pre- 
dominant in  his  patrimonial  inheritance  of  Carinthia  and  Styria,  when  on  the 
death  of  Matthias  he  was  crowned  emperor  at  Frankfort.  ('/)  The  Bohe- 
mians pronounced  him  an  enemy  to  the  liberties  and  religion  of  their  country, 
and  declared  that  he  had  forfeited  the  throne  (Aug.  17,  1619).  They  then 
chose  Frederic  V.  of  the  Palatinate  for  their  king.  The  League  took  up 
arms  in  behalf  of  Ferdinand,  while  the  Union  and  Saxony,  from  motives  of 
prudence  and  from  a  rigid  adherence  to  tlie  strict  principles  of  Lutheranism, 
remained  inactive.  Frederic  knew  nothing  of  royalty  except  how  to  enjoy 
its  pleasures ;  whatever  j)0wer  he  possessed  in  Bohemia  was  destroyed  at  the 
battle  of  the  White  Mountain  near  Prague  (Nov.  8,  1620),  and  the  conversion 
of  Bohemia  was  effected  by  the  Jesuits  and  the  soldiers  from  Lichtenstein. 
The  Bohemian  literature  was  committed  to  the  flames  by  the  commission  for 
the  reformation  of  the  people.  John  of  Xepomul;  who  had  once  been  the 
archbishop's  vicar  and  confidant  in  a  hierarchical  controversy  with  King 
Wenccslaus,  and  had  been  thrown  during  a  fit  of  passion  by  that  king  into 
the  river  from  the  bridge  of  the  Muldau  (13113),  now  became  the  national 
saint  of  the  new  Catholic  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  The  legend  of  his  death 
was  intentionally  enlarged,  and  ho  was  looked  upon  as  the  martyr  foi 
the  seal  of  confession.  The  qualities  and  incidents  which  history  has 
attributed  to  John  IIuss  were  now  transferred  to  this  saint  of  tlio  bridge,  that 


e)  K.  M.  V.  Arethi,  Gescli.  Maxim.  I.  I'(i.<sau  1S42.  f.  2  vols. 

a)  F.  Harter,  Gesch.  K.  Perd.  II.  u.  sr.  Eltern  b.  z.  Krunuug  in  Fr.-4nkf.  Scbaffh.  1850.  4  vols. 


478  MoDKUN  ciiUKCn  iiisTOKV.   ri:i:.  v.   a.  d.  im7-icis. 

tlio  iiii'Miorv  lit"  the  ixf'DriiRT  (>[iisti  r  Juiij  might  be  cITaccd  Iroiii  the  iniudä 
of  I  hi-  people.  (/') 

§  401.     The  German  War. 

Tiio  ciiipcror  was  resolved  to  destroy  Frederic  V.  even  as  a  prince  of  the 
eini)ire,  and  it  was  principally  for  this  reason  that  he  now  kept  up  and 
strengthened  his  army.  The  otRce  of  elector  in  the  Palatinate  was  given  to 
Bavaria  (1 023).  In  all  his  patrimonial  Austrian  possessions  the  Protestant 
religion  was  entirely  suppressed.  The  Duke  of  Savoy  had  long  since  (1C02) 
consumed  the  revenues  from  the  sale  of  the  Jubilee  indulgences,  in  maintain- 
ing free  companies  for  surprising  the  army  of  the  Peformed  Church,  and  the 
people  of  Geneva  merely  instituted  an  annual  thanksgiving  in  commemora- 
tion of  his  fiiilure  (rescalade).  But  in  the  Valteline,  on  the  Italian  border, 
the  Catholics  murdered  their  reformed  fellow-countrymen  (July,  1G20),  and 
Spanish  and  Austrian  troops  took  possession  of  the  country,  as  well  as  of  some 
parts  of  the  Gray  League,  (a)  "When  all  opposition  in  Germany  had  been  put 
down  by  AVallenstein,  the  emperor  proclaimed  the  Fdict  of  Ji'estit'itio»,  (h) 
that  it  might  be  an  authentic  explanation  of  the  Religious  Peace.  According 
to  this,  all  those  foundations  belonging  to  the  Catholic  Church  Avhich  had 
been  confiscated  since  the  Treaty  of  Passau  were  to  be  restored,  the  Calvin- 
ists  were  excluded  from  the  privileges  granted  in  the  Religious  Peace,  and 
Catholic  states  were  not  to  be  impeded  in  their  ettorts  to  convert  their  sub- 
jects. The  violent  proceedings  which  ensued  during  the  execution  of  tliis 
edict  "were  followed  by  others  of  still  greater  violence,  until  Protestantism 
appeared  once  more  on  the  point  of  utter  extinction,  (c)  But  just  at  this 
critical  moment  the  Catholic  powers  began  to  contend  among  themselves. 
France  and  Rome  became  alarmed  at  the  formidable  power  of  the  house  of 
Hapsburg.  Wallensteiu  reminded  the  pope  that  Rome  had  not  been  plun- 
dered for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  and  a  passage  into  Germany  Avas  opened 
by  France  for  Gustavus  Adolphus  (June  2-i,  1630),  who  both  from  policy  and 
religion  espoused  the  cause  of  Protestantism,  and  re-established  it  by  his 
bold  military  exploits,  (d)  After  his  heroic  death  (Nov.  6, 1032)  the  war  was 
maintained  by  the  Swedish  generals,  who  were  secretly  supported  by  Riche- 
lieu. They,  however,  held  out  with  great  difficulty,  since  by  the  treaty  of 
Prague  (1035)  the  Elector  of  Saxony  once  more  forsook  not  only  the  com- 
mon cause,  but  even  the  foreign  policy  of  Protestantism,  until  France  openly 
came  to  their  support.  Neither  party  can  be  said  to  have  been  successful, 
and  Germany  was  desolated  by  a  civil  and  religious  war,  by  no  means  na- 

6)  Tlie  first  Altar  in  1621.  Canonization  in  1629.  Life  In  Jo.  Nop.  by  the  Jesuit  Balbi  about 
16T0.  (Acta  SS.  Maj.  vol.  III.  p.  667.)  The  history:  Prhel,  Gesch.  "Wenzels,  vol.  I.  p.  266.  Urktin- 
donb.  p.  loo.  ISlss.  The  exjjedient  of  two  persons  called  Jo.  of  :s'ep.  was  resorted  to  even  in  Acta 
SS.  p.  G70.  673. 

a)  {Cp.  Waser.)  Veltlinisch  Blutbad.  Zur.  1621.  4.    De  Porta,  Uist.  ref.  Ecc.  Rhact  II.  p.  SSOss. 

h)  Londorp.  Th.  III.  p.  1047. 

c)  Ciiriiffa  de  Germ,  sacra  rcstaurata.  Col.  1639. 

rf)  Erinnerungen  nn  G.  A.  Eigenhäudige  Einl.  z.  Gesch.  s.  Lcb.  ed.  by  niihs,  Hal.  1S06.  Ptifen. 
dor/,  Ciniiitr.  dc  rcb.  Sncc.  ab  exped.L  G.  .\.  Ultraj.  16S6.  Frcf.  1707.  f.  J.  F.  Gfrdrer.  Gesch.  G.  A. 
o.  sr.  Zeit.  Stnttg.  (1S:}7-JS.)  1S53.  Geijer,  Gesch.  v.  Schw.  vol.  III.  ITeising.  G.  A.  in  Deutschi.  Brl 
1<46.     r  T  Il.irU,  Lifo  of  G.  A.  Loml  1759.  2  vols.  A.    J.  F.  Ilollings,  Life  of  G.  A.  Lend.  1S3S.  12.] 


CHAP.  VII.    THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR.    §  402.  PEACE  OF  WESTPHALIA.        479 

tional  in  its  objects,  but  equivocal  ia  its  nature  and  prosecuted  by  the  leader.^ 
for  various  subordinate  ends. 

§  402.     The  Peace  of  Westphalia. 

I.  Instnimcntnin  P.  W.  ed.  Beminger,  Monast,  164S.  Jfeiern.,  Gott.  \'At.—A.  Adami  Arcana 
P.  "\V.  Frcf.  KiOS.  4.  ed.  Meiern,  Gott  173T.  4.  Memolres  de  M.  D.  {CI.  du  Jf-sme  d'Araur.)  Col. 
Gren.  1674.   J.  G.  v.  Meiern,  Acta  P.  W.  publica.  Ilann.  ITiMss.  6  vols.  f.  ni.  Registtr.  G.itt  1740.  f— 

II.  Putter,  Geist  d.  W.  F.  Gott  179.5.  Senkenherg,  Darst  d.  W.  F.  Frkf.  1SC4.  WuHmann,  Gcscli. 
d.  W.  F.  Lpz.  ISOSs.  2  vols. 

Those  wbo  had  commenced  the  war  did  not  live  to  witness  its  concliLsion. 
Austria  was  compelled  to  acknowledge  tliat  Protestantism  and  Germany 
■were  not  to  be  overcome  by  violence.  With  a  formidable  desperation  the 
people  of  the  different  nations  demanded  peace.  After  many  tedious  and  in- 
tricate negotiations  at  Munster  and  Osnabrück,  a  peace  was  concluded  in 
October,  1048,  to  be  henceforth  a  fundamental  law  of  the  German  nation. 
Under  the  guarantee  of  France  and  Sweden,  Bavaria  retained,  besides  the 
electoral  dignity,  the  Upper  Palatinate,  and  an  eighth  electorate  was  formed 
for  the  Lower  Palatinate,  which  was  now  restored.  France  and  Sweden  were 
recompensed  for  their  trouble  by  certain  territories  of  the  empire.  All  dam- 
ages were  compensated  by  means  of  the  secularized  property  of  the  Church. 
The  right  of  each  state  of  the  empire  to  form  alliances  with  foreign  powers, 
provided  it  was  not  in  opposition  to  the  emperor  and  the  empire,  was  fonnally 
acknowledged.  With  respect  to  the  controversy  between  the  twochurches, 
the  five  articles  of  the  Deed  of  Osnaburg  were  adopted,  in  which  the  jirinci- 
ple  of  a  complete  legal  equality  of  both  parties  witli  respect  to  each  other, 
was  assumed,  and  all  ecclesiastical  and  political  protests  were  rejected  :  '•  Tlic 
Religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  shall  be  inviolably  kept  by  each.  In  all  impe- 
rial courts  and  deputations  the  number  of  members  from  each  religious  party 
sliall  be  equal.  In  the  Imperial  Diet,  if  the  two  religious  parties  differ  from 
each  other,  nothing  shall  be  decided  by  a  majority  of  votes  but  by  com- 
promise. With  respect  to  ecclesiastical  property  the  possessions  of  all  i)ar- 
ties  shall  be  decided  by  the  state  of  affairs,  on  the  1st  of  January,  1624. 
Wherever  a  free  exercise  of  religion  Avas  publicly  tolerated  in  that  normal 
year  it  shall  be  continued,  but  where  this  was  not  tlie  case  liberty  of  domes- 
tic worship  shall  be  permitted.  The  relations  of  the  Reformed  Church  to- 
ward the  Catholics  are  established  on  pnmiids  similar  to  tliose  of  the  churches 
professing  tlie  Augsburg  Confession.  Put  tlie  legal  relations  of  tlie  two  Pro- 
testant parties  toward  each  otlier  to  continue  precisely  as  they  were  at  that 
time,  whether  settled  by  treaty  or  by  usage.  A  prince  who  may  go  over 
from  one  Protestant  party  to  the  other,  may  grant  religious  toleration  to  those 
who  belong  to  the  same  creed  with  hinjself,  but  ho  shall  allow  tlie  established 
Ciiurch  to  remain  unmolested."  The  evangelical  Hungarians  had  received 
support  from  Rakoczy  of  Transylvania,  and  in  the  treaty  of  Linz  (1G43)  had 
secured  the  restoration  of  their  ecclesiastical  rights.  The  Silesian  princijali- 
ties,  but  none  of  the  other  Austrian  patrimonial  state.«,  were  included  in  the 
provisions  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia.  Through  the  mediation  of  Venice 
and  France,  at  the  treaty  of  Milan  (1630_)  the  Gray  League  recovered  its 
Italian  possessions,  but  with  the  stipulation  that  the  Protestants  should  bo 


480  MiiItKIiN  CnUECH  inSTOKY.     I'Ki:.  V.    A.  D.  15:7-lC4a 

o.Tclnded.  A  pcnoo  wifliont  a  ^^'""ine  reconciliation  was  thus  concluded  for 
ovcrv  piirt  of  Kuropc,  and  tlio  balance  of  power  between  the  Catholic  and 
Trotostant  Churc-hcs  was  secured  by  the  imperial  constitution,  but  the  cm- 
I)irc  was  divided  and  sacrificed  to  foreign  influences. 


CHAP.  VIII.    THE  ORIENTAL  CHURCH. 

Criisiiiti.  (p.  356  )  Leo  All.  (p.  355.)  li.  Simon,  II.  crit.  des  dograes  et  controv.  des  chretleiis  or. 
Trevou.t.  1711.  I/eineccius,  Abbild  d.  iiltern  u.  neuern  gr.  K.  Lps.  1711.  4.  M.le  Quien,  Oriens  chr. 
Par.  1740.  3  vols.  f.  Llbri  symb.  Ecc.  or.  ed.  J.  Kimmel,  Jen.  1843.  Appendix  LL.  symb.  ed.  Weiss- 
enborn,  Jen.  1850.  [J.  M.  Neale,  II.  of  the  Holy  Eastern  Church.  Lend.  1850.  2  vols.  8.  T.  SinilK, 
Greek  Church,  its  Docc.  &  Kites.  Lond.  1680.  8.  John  Covill,  Some  Account  of  the  Greelc  Church. 
Lond.  1722.  f  ] 

§  403.     Connections  with  Protestants. 

A  Greek  translation  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  (a)  and  a  letter  of  salu- 
tation to  JoasapTi  II.  (b)  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  was  sent  by  Me- 
lancthon,  by  the  hands  of  a  Greek,  but  no  reply  was  ever  received.  By 
means  of  a  preacher  connected  with  an  embassy  at  Constantinople,  the  theo- 
logian of  Tubingen  was  induced  to  send  another  translation  to  the  Patriarch 
Jeremias  II.  (1574).  The  answer  of  that  prelate  was  written  in  accordance 
with  the  very  strictest  forms  of  Greek  orthodoxy,  and  as  it  expressed  a  desire 
that  the  correspondence,  if  agreeable  to  them,  should  have  no  further  dis- 
cussion of  doctrines,  but  be  confined  to  an  exchange  of  friendly  civilities,  the 
intercourse  was  broken  off  (1581).  (c)  Cyrilliis  Lucaris,  a  native  of  Candia, 
who  had  been  educated  at  Padua,  formed  connections  when  in  Lithuania 
with  reformed  clergymen,  which  were  continued  by  means  of  Dutch  and 
English  ambassadors  after  he  became  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (1602)  and  sub- 
sequently of  Constantinople  (1621).  To  prevent  the  further  progress  of  the 
Roman  Church,  and  to  infuse  new  life  into  the  formal  worship  of  his  own 
Church,  he  formed  an  alliance  with  the  young  Church  of  the  West,  and  even 
transmitted  to  Geneva  the  form  of  a  Calvinistic  Confession  of  Faith,  (d) 
This  was  enough,  without  the  subsequent  efforts  of  the  Jesuits,  to  excite  the 
Greek  bishops  against  him.  On  the  ordinary  accusation  of  high  treason  he 
was  strangled  (1638),  {e)  and  the  Oriental  patriarchs  execrated  his  memory.  (/) 

a)  'E|o/io\o7Tj(Tiv  TTjj  op^o^o^ov  irlffrews.    Basil.  1559. 
I)  Corp.  lief.  vol.  IX.  p.  921. 

c)  Acta  et  scrr.  TlicoU.  Wirt  et  Patr.  Const  Tit  15S4.  4  f.  Schnurrer,  de  actis  inter  Tub.  TheoU. 
et  Patrr.  Const  (Orr.  acaiL  ed.  Paulas.  Tub.  1828.) 

d)  'AvaTo\iKri  diJLo\oyla  rrjs  XP-  iriirTfws.     Gen.  (lat  1629.  Kimmel  p  24.)  16-33. 

e)  Aymon,  Monumcns  authent  de  la  rel.  des  Grecs.  Ilaye.  1703.  4.  Th.  Smith,  Collect  de  Cyr. 
Luc  Loud.  1707.  BohnsUdt,  de  Cyr.  Luc  IlaL  1729.  4.  Mohnike,  Cyr.  Luc  (Stud.  xi.  Krit.  1SS2.  P. 
8.)    TiceiiUn  Cyr.  Luc.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1850.  N.  39äs.) 

/)  Kimmel,  p.  39S.  403.  825. 


CHAP.  Vlir.    ORIENTAL  CnURCn.    §404.  RUSSIA.  4SI 

§  404.     TTie  Russian  Church. 

For  Lit  see  §  232.  Strahl,  Beitrr.  z.  rii*«!.  KGesch.  Hal.  1827.  vol.  I.  Ullmann  i.  Strahl.  (Stud. 
n.  Krit,  1S31.  P.  2.)  If.  J.  Schmitt,  krlt  Gesch.  d.  neujr.  u.  d.  ra.=a.  K.  Mayence  lS4n.  A.  X  -V«. 
raicieff,  H.  of  the  Cliurch  of  Eus.sia,  transl.  (in  Russian.  Petersb.  1833.)  by  Blackmore,  0.xf.  1S42. 
[P.  Rycaut,  The  present  State  of  the  Arm.  &  Greek  Churches.  Lond.  1679.  8.] 

In  the  course  of  political  development  the  Russian  Church  necessarily 
became  independent  of  the  see  of  Constantinople.  As  the  Patriarch  Jere- 
mias  was  much  embarrassed  for  want  of  funds,  it  was  not  difficult  to  obtain 
his  consent  that  a  patriarch  should  bo  appointed  for  Moscow,  as  the  third 
Rome  (1580).  (a)  The  Russian  patriarchs  were  however  obliged,  until  the 
middle  of  the  seventeenth  century,  to  obtain  confirmation  at  Constantinople. 
The  Roman  Church,  ever  since  the  time  of  Gregory,  has  had  its  eye  upon  a 
union  with  the  Russian  Church.  A  hope  of  such  a  union  was  encouraged  by 
the  Tzar  Iwan  Wasiljeiciisch,  as  he  was  anxious  to  obtain  the  assistance  of 
the  emperor  and  the  mediation  of  the  pope  in  an  unsuccessful  war  which  ho 
was  carrying  on  against  the  Poles  (1581).  But  in  spite  of  the  artful  policy 
of  the  Jesuit  Fosxcvino,  (l)  the  hope  became  extinguished  in  proportion  as  the 
necessities  of  the  Tzar  diminished.  The  efforts  of  that  emissary  were,  how- 
ever, more  successful  in  some  Russian  province^,  which  fell  with  Lithuania 
into  the  hands  of  the  Poles.  Michael  Jiahosa,  the  Metropolitan  of  Kiew,  to- 
gether with  a  portion  of  the  clergy,  at  the  Synod  of  Brzesc  (1590),  saomitted 
to  the  pope,  hoping  they  might  share  the  advantages  of  the  Catholic  clergy, 
and  save  the  orthodox  Church  from  the  apostasy  which  had  commenced 
among  the  nobility.  The  Union  was  effected  in  conformity  with  the  agree- 
ment which  had  been  formed  at  Florence,  with  a  great  respect  at  first  for  old 
ancestral  usages,  (c)  But  gradually  the  forms  of  worship  became  latinized 
through  the  influence  of  the  Roman  monks,  who  entered  the  convents  be- 
longing to  the  Union,  while  all  those  churches  which  did  not  enter  that  con- 
nection sunk  under  the  temptations  and  persecutions  to  which  they  were  sub- 
jected. To  confirm  the  views  and  feelings  of  the  Oriental  Church  in 
opposition  to  the  encroachments  of  Roman  and  Protestant  elements,  a  Rus- 
sian catechism  was  conipo.sod  (lG-12)  by  Petrus  Mogilas  the  orthodox  Metro- 
politan of  Kiew,  and  was  confirmed  by  all  the  associated  patriarchs  of  the 
Greek  Church,  as  the  confession  of  the  Oriental  Catholic  Church.  In  this, 
the  doctrines  of  the  Church  are  simply  presented  in  the  manner  and  stylo  of 
the  ancient  Church  ;  but  in  accordance  also  with  the  latest  developments  they 
had  gradually  attained,  and  as  the  reception  of  it  was  ranked  among  the  three 
cardinal  theological  virtues,  it  has  become  prominent  in  the  practical  system 
of  the  Clnirch.  ('/)  The  accession  of  the  fal.-<o  Demetrius  to  the  throne  of  the 
Tzars  was  favored  by  the  Poles  on  the  ground  of  its  being  a  Catholic  enter- 
prise, and  failed  at  Moscow  (1006)  principally  for  the  same  reason.  (<•)     Ger- 

a)  Karamiin  vol.  IX.  p.  ISl.        h)  AnL  Poasfvini  Mosoovla.  (Vllri.  15S6.)  Antu.  15S7. 
f)  Jura  ct  i)rivilcgia  genti  Ruthcnao  catli.  a  M.  Pontiflcibus  Poloiiiaeiiuo  Ro? Ibus  cooccssa.  Leml> 
17S7. 

d)  'OpSo5o|oj  S/jLoKoyta  .Tijs  jriVrtoiy  rrj?  «od.  Kai  airoor.  ikkX.  ttJs  acaro^  Krjs. 
(Kitnmel  p.  56.) 

e)  Cilli,  U.  di  Moscovia.  p.  llss.  G.  F.  MueUfr,  Saminl.  russ.  Gosclilcliten.  Petersb  1732ss.  vol.  Y. 
Karamsin  vol.  X.  p.  lOOss.  [M.  Moriinco,  The  Russ.  Impostors  or  The  False  Demetrius.  Lond.  1S52.  S.] 

n 


482  MODEUN  CÜUUCII  HISTORY     PER.  V.    A.  I>.  1517-1049. 

mftn  colonists,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catliolic,  .sometimes  gntorcd  Russia,  and 
enjoyed  full  liberty  with  respect  to  private  religion,  but  seldom  possessed  the 
privilege  of  holding  public  worship.  (/) 

§  405.     Äbyssinians  and  Maronitcs. 

Job.  Lu'lnlfl  ir.  aetliloplca.  Frcf.  ICSI.  f.  &  Cint.  ad  11.  aeth.  Frcf.  1C91.  f.  VeynHere  de  la  Croce, 
IT.  (lu  Chr.  «rKthiople  et  d'Arrnenle.  Ilaye.  173S.  Danz.  1740.  Comp.  C.  IK  Inenherg,  Abess.  n.  d.  er. 
Mission,  bcarb.  v.  C.  J.  Mtzsch,  Bonn.  1S44.  2  voii.— Schnurrer,  de  Ecc.  Maronitica.  Tub.  ISlOs.  2 
P.  4.  (Archiv,  f.  KOeseh.  vol.  I.  sect.  1.)  N.  Marad,  Notice  bi.st.  sur  I'origine  de  la  nation  Mar.  ft 
sur  ses  rapports  avoc  la  France.  Par.  134^1.     [J.  Ludolphus,  II.  of  Ethiopia.  Lond.  1C30.  f.] 

The  attempt  made  by  the  Roman  Church  to  make  up  for  its  losses  in  the 
"West  by  a  reconciliation  with  the  Oriental  churches,  was  encouraged  for  only 
transitory  and  selfish  purposes,  or  was  used  to  conceal  real  designs.  The  only 
country  which  appeared  to  come  up  to  a  sincere  union  with  the  Roman 
Cliurch  was  Abyssinia.  As  a  Christian  land,  this  country  had  been  almost 
forgotten  by  European  nations,  and  the  Jnd.aizing  Christianity  which  once 
prevailed  there  had  now  sunk  so  low  as  to  be  nothing  more  than  a  system  of 
magic.  The  Emperor  Seltam  Seghecl  was  induced,  by  his  peculiar  relations  to 
the  Portuguese,  to  break  off  the  connection  of  the  Abyssinian  Church  with 
the  Coptic  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  (1621),  and  to  accept  of  a  Jesuit  from 
Rome  as  the  patriarch  of  that  Church.  But  the  displeasure  created  by  this 
movement  was  so  much  increased  by  the  influence  of  the  hermits  and  monks 
that  it  soon  amounted  to  an  insurrection,  during  which  the  Jesuits  were  ban- 
ished, and  all  connection  with  Rome  was  broken  off  (163-4).  The  Maronites 
Btill  remained  in  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  as  the  possession  of 
their  own  patriarch,  the  use  of  their  sacred  language,  the  marriage  of  their 
priests,  the  reception  of  the  cup  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  their  other  sacred 
usages,  had  been  conceded  to  them.  Their  college  at  Rome  (after  1584)  be- 
came an  emporium  for  all  kinds  of  Syrian  and  Western  learning. 

/)  J.  C.  Grot,  Beraerkungou  ii.  d.  Eel.  Freih.  d.  Ausländer  im  russ,  Reich.  Petersb.  u.  Lpz.  1797» 


//; 


// 


SIXTH    PERIOD. 


FKOM  THE  TE.VCE  OF  WEäTni.VLI.V  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

I.  Acta  lii*torico-ecc.  Wcim.  1736-58.  24  vols.  Ndv.i  Acta  hist  ecc  W.  1T5S-73.  12  toIs.  Act« 
hl5t.  ecc.  nostri  temp.  W.  UT-i-ST.  12  vols.  Rep.  d.  nst.  KGcsch.  (Inde-t  to  all  the  preceding.)  W. 
1790.  Acten,  Urkunden  n  Nachr.  z.  nst  KGesch.  W.  17S9-93.  5  vols.  Neueste  Rol.  Gesch.  cd.  by 
Walch,  Lemg.  1771-S:3.  9  vols.  Fortge?.  v.  Plunck,  L.  17S7-93.  3  vols.  Le  Bret,  Mag.  d.  Staaten-u. 
KGesch.  Ulm.  1771-S3.  10  vols.  (KOster.)  Die  nst.  Rel.  Bogebenheiten.  Giess.  177S-95.  IS  vols.  Uenke  : 
Archiv,  f.  d.  nst.  KGesch.  ■Wciui.  1794-9.  6  vols.  Rel.  Annal.  Brnschw.  1800-2.  6  St  ii.  Beitrr.  z.  nst 
Gesch.  d.  Rel.  Brl.  180G.  2  vols.  Archiv,  f  alte  n.  neue  KGesch.  ed.  by  Stdudlin.  w.  Tz^ichirner  L. 
1813-22.  5  vols.  Vater,  Anbau  z.  nst.  KG.  Brl.  lS20ss.  2  vols.  Sldudlin,  Tzschirner  u,  Vater,  Kllist. 
Archiv.  Hal.  1S23-6.  4  vols.  Acta  hist  ecc.  Saec  XIX.  (1835.  86.  37.)  ed.  by  RhHmcnld.  Hamb. 
1S3S-40.— Archives  du  ChrHianisme.  Gen.  et  Par.  since  1817.  Allg.  KZeitung,  Darinst  ed.  by  E.  Zim- 
mermann since  1822,  by  A'.  Zimmermann  u.  BreUchneider  since  1833,  by  Palmer  since  18Ö0,  and 
by  Schenkel  since  1853.  Ev.  KZeitnng.  Brl.  ed.  by  Ifengstenherg  ixacc  1827.  Zeitsclir.  f.  hist.  Theol. 
Lpz.  ed.  by  Illgen  .«^inco  1832.  v.  J^iedner  since  1846.  Berliner  allg.  KZeitung,  ed.  by  liheinicald 
since  1839.  v.  Brun-«.  1840. — June  1853.  Among  the  polit  journals,  especially  the  Augsb.  allg.  and  the 
Lelp.sic,  more  recently  Deutsche,  allg.  Zeitung. 

IL  J.  Ä.  V.  Einem,  KGesch.  d.  IS.  Jahrh.  Lps.  (177Css.)  1782ss.  3  vols.  J.  R.  Schlegel,  KGesch. 
d.  18.  Jhh.  Ileilb.  1784ss.  2  vols,  a  v.  Fraas.  3  vols.  1  Abth.  (Both  as  Uebcrs.  u.  Forts,  v.  of  Moshcim.) 
/'.  J.  V.  Ilutli,  KGesch.  d.  18  Jhh.  Augsb.  lS07ss.  2  vols.  Unparth.  KGesch.  A.  u.  N.  T.  v.  TTeinsiits 
&  oth.  Jen.  1735-60,  2-4  vols.  ITagenhach :  Wesen  u.  Gesch.  d.  Ref.  4  vols.  Lps.  1839,  Die  KGesch. 
d.  18.  lu  19.  Jahrh.  Lps.  (1842s.)  lS43s.  2  xo\s>.—nuhiano.  Continuation  de  I'llist  de  IVgl.  de  Berault- 
Bercastel,  1721-1830.  Par.  1836.  4  vols.  Neueste  Gesch.  d.  IC  Chr.  18li0-33.  from  the  Ital.  8  ed.  Augsb. 
(1382SS.  1836 )  1841.  6  vols.  F.  A.  Scharpf,  Vorless.  ü.  neueste  KGesch.  (since  1789.)  Freib.  1852.— 
Gregoire,  11.  de  Sectes  religieuses  depuis  le  commencement  du  Steele  dernier.  Par.  (1810.  2  vols.) 
lS28ss.  5  vols.  In  tlie  abstract  by  Tsschirner  (.\rcliiv.  f.  KGesch.  1813.  vol.  I.  St  Is.)  Stüudlin. 
Wiggers.  (p.  5.)— K  O.  Schlosser,  Gesch.  d.  18  Jahrh.  u.  d.  19.  b.  z.  Sturz  d.  franz.  Kaiserr.  .lleiillb. 
1836-44.  5  vols,  till  1797.  (The  general  view  of  1823  is  nnised  In  the  1st  &  2d  vol.  of  the  3d  ed.  1S43.) 
[Sclilonser's  Hist  of  the  IStli  and  a  part  of  the  19th  centt  has  been  transl.  by  D.  Davidson,  Lend. 
1840.  6  vols.  8.  Wm.  Russell,  Alison,  De  Koch,  Lord  John  Russell,  ami  Raumer,  have  written  His- 
tories of  Europe  diiring  this  period.] 

§  40G.     General  Vieic. 

As  the  violence  of  the  struggles  occasioned  by  the  Reformation  wa:^  now 
much  abated,  tlic  secular  tendency  of  the  public  life  wliicli  had  already  be- 
come prominent  in  the  departments  of  art  and  literature,  now  extended  its 
influence  wherever  it  could  properly  find  place.  The  efforts  of  public  men 
were  at  first  confined  to  the  enterprises  of  the  princes  to  maintain  tlie  balance 
of  power,  i.  e.,  each  state  gained  as  largo  conquests  as  the  power  and  jealousy 
of  other  states  would  permit.  The  result  of  those  contests  was  tlie  division 
of  the  Southern  States  of  Europe  between  the  two  Ilou.ses  of  JIapsburg  and 
Bourbon,  the  violent  interference  of  Russia  in  all  the  national  .'isserablies  of 
"Western  Europe,  the  intellectual  and  military  elevation  of  Prussia,  the  naval 
supremacy  of  Great  Britain,  and  tiie  partition  of  Poland.     But  the  struggle 


4S4  MODKiiN  cniKni  iiisTout    van.  vi.   a.  d.  io»s-1858. 

for  iintional  liln-rticH  which  liiid  commencod  in  England  and  tlie  Netherland» 
Hiuinltanoously  witli  tiio  liulonnation,  became,  tliroiigh  the  influence  of  tho 
North  American  Kovolution,  the  grand  idea  of  the  age,  and  by  means  of  the 
French  liovohition  the  central  point  of  all  public  affairs.  The  Church  waa 
dee])ly  aflectcd  by  these  convulsions,  no  longer,  however,  as  the  first,  but  only 
as  the  second  of  those  powers  which  were  involved  in  these  popular  move- 
ments. Its  work  now  was  to  assist  the  people,  sympathize  with  them,  and 
administer  consolation.  Indeed,  within  its  own  pale  was  completed  the  same 
struggle  which  was  reserved  for  the  whole  world,  a  conflict  between  religious 
independence  and  ancestral  usages.  Three  great  periods  are  distinctly 
marked  out  by  tho  great  crisis  of  this  struggle ;  tho  supplanting  of  ancient 
usages  until  near  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  overthrow  of 
t(.e  existing  state  of  things  until  1814,  and  the  renewal  of  the  struggle  in  its 
most  earnest  form  and  tho  commeueeraent  of  an  adjustment  of  aftairs  until 
1853.  Still  the  mathematical  limits  assigned  to  intellectual  influences  could 
not  bo  more  important  than  the  active  elements  originated  during  this  pe- 
riod,  or  those  which  attained  to  a  complete  sphere  of  activity.  Both  the 
original  forms  of  tho  Western  Church  passed  through  this  contest,  not  so 
much  in  conflict  with  each  other  as  each  by  themselves,  struggling  with  their 
own  internal  forces.  Germany  was  the  special  battle-field  of  Protestantism, 
and  France  of  Catholicism. 


CHAP.  I.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHUPvCH  UNTIL  1750. 

§  407.     German  Orthodoxy. 

Among  those  who  belonged  to  the  school  of  the  strictest  faith  there  were 
still  some  persons  of  eminence  who  showed  that  they  were  truly  sincere  in 
their  efforts  to  live  a  life  of  piety.  An  example  of  an  excellent  Christian 
prince  was  especially  presented  in  the  life  of  Ernest  the  Pious  (1601-75), 
who,  with  a  royal  solicitude  Avorthy  of  St.  Louis,  healed  the  wounds  inflicted 
on  his  people  during  the  thirty  years'  war ;  and  not  only  in  the  spirit  of  his 
theologians,  but  in  the  higher  spirit  of  an  apostle,  labored  afitctionately  for 
the  welfare  of  the  Church  at  home  and  abroad,  (a)  His  brother,  John  Fred- 
eric, on  the  other  hand,  who  doubted  the  existence  of  a  God,  but  believed 
in  that  of  the  devil,  in  consequence  of  the  secret  rancor  and  proselyting  zeal 
of  the  theologians,  fell  a  victim  to  the  darkest  influences  of  the  popular  faith 
(1628),  (b)  rivalling  even  that  of  the  Catholic  countries  of  that  period,  in  its 
zeal  for  burning  witches.  Paul  Gerhardt  (d.  1676),  who  committed  his  way 
to  God,  and  betook  himself  to  foreign  countries,  because  his  tender  conscience 
would  not  allow  him  to  remain  in  Berlin,  where  his  Lutheranism  was  in  dan- 
ger, was  the  first  of  a  vast  chorus  of  harmonious  voices  to  express  the  emo- 

a)  Gelbkf,  Ilerziig  Ernst  A.  Fr.  Gotha  1810.  8  vols.  comp.  ITunnitts,  Consultatio,  ob  und  wie  mar 
die  in  d.  luUi.  K.  schwebenden  K.  Streitigk.  beilegen  möge.  Lüb.  (1632.)  163S. 
h)  &  liöse,  Joh.  Friedrich  VI.  Neust  iS2T. 


CHAP.  I.  EVANG.  CnURCII.    §407.  P.  GERHARDT.  485 

tions  of  the  Christian  heart  in  all  its  relations  to  God,  by  popular  hymns,  (c) 
But  the  German  Protestantism  of  that  period  gave  forth  its  sublimest  utter- 
ance in  the  severe,  but  harmonious  and  seraphic  music  of  John  Sebastian 
Bach  (d.  1750),  the  chorister  of  Leipsic.  Though  contented  in  the  contracted 
sphere  of  domestic  life,  ho  longed  correctly  to  convey  to  others  the  unuttera- 
ble feelings  which  Avcre  struggling  in  his  own  heart.  The  Passion-Oratorios 
which  he  composed  were  the  direct  offspring  of  the  Protestant  mode  of  wor- 
ship. Contemporary  with  him  was  Handel  (d.  175'J),  whose  ambition  was 
displayed  both  in  private  life,  and  in  the  style  of  his  art,  whoso  works  are  of 
the  richest  and  most  brilliant  character,  and  in  whose  celebration  of  the  Mes- 
siah was  employed  an  array  of  musical  instruments  which  had  never  before 
been  collected.  Both  composers  lived  in  seclusion,  but  were  highly  honored 
during  their  lives,  {d)  In  consequence  of  the  war,  however,  and  the  exclu- 
sive prevalence  of  an  orthodoxy  confined  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  standards, 
there  was  nothing  whatever  of  literature,  or  of  its  popular  elements  during 
this  period.  The  theology  of  the  Form  of  Concord  was  developed  entirely 
iu  a  controversial  style  with  reference  to  opposing  systems,  and  might  be 
called  a  new  scholasticism,  without  the  philosophical  acuteness  of  the  old. 
This  orthodoxy  may  have  been  the  language  of  sincere  I)iety,  but  it  was  vio- 
lently maintained  by  means  of  a  contracted  education,  by  an  unscientific 
course  of  instruction,  by  oaths,  and  by  censorships.  As  every  deviation  from 
it  was  closely  watched  and  threatened,  all  intellectual  movements  became 
constrained,  and  were  animated  only  when  engaged  in  controversy,  and  in 
accusations  for  heresy.  Even  Calovius,  Koenig,  and  Quenstedt,  who  were 
leaders,  only  transcribed  the  jiroductions  of  their  predecessors,  and  of  each 
other.  But  with  all  their  subfilties  one  can  scarceh*  refrain  from  thinking 
that  they  have  described  God  very  much  like  some  mighty  Lutheran  pastor 
who  is  obliged  to  save  his  honor  by  blows.  (<')  The  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures was  actually  felt  only  through  certain  passages  much  used  in  contro- 
versy, the  explanation  of  which  was  firmly  settled  by  each  party  for  itself. 
The  pure  and  powerful  prose  Avhich  Luther  had  used  wa.s  forgotten,  men  of 
learning  wrote  in  a  tolerable  Latin,  and  the  sermons,  though  .sometimes  pow- 
erful, unrestrained,  and  alarming,  were  generally  disputatious,  allegorical, 
insipid,  pedantic,  or  ordinary.  (./')  Orthodoxy,  and  the  most  unwearied  eccle- 
siasticism,  were  compatible  with  a  worldly  spirit  and  the  rudest  manners. 
The  zealots  for  orthodoxy  assailed  each  other  with  reference  to  some  atten- 
uated definitions  of  subjects  which  lay  beyond  the  bounds  of  human  knowl- 
edge, {g)  and  the  exhortation  to  unity  in  essentials,  freedom  in  no n -essentials, 
and  charity  in  both,  was  only  as  a  voice  in  the  desert.  (A) 

c)  E.  G.  Roth,  p.  G.  Lps.  1829.  /;.  ('.  Langheckei;  Leben  it  I^-M.n.  P.  G.  nrl.  1841.  0.  Sc/itOz, 
r.  G.  geistl.  Andachten.  Hrl.  1S42. 

(J)  Forkfl,  1  eben  J.  S.  Hnclis.  Lp«.  1804.  4.  [C.  Burney,  Memoirs  of  Ilnndel,  and  also  by  the 
game,  Gen.  HisL  of  Music,  Lond.  177(5-89.  4  Vdls.  8.,  condensed  by  T.  liuHhy,  Lond.  1819.  2  vols.  8.] 

e)  Ifarimann,  v.  Seogen-sprechen.  NCirnb.  1G80.  p.  158.  ISO. 

/)  Schiller,  Gesch.  d.  Gcschtrvicks  Im  Pred.  llftl.  M^i.  vol.  I.  p.  IrtSss. 

g)  A.  Tltoluck:  D.  Gel^t  d.  luth.  Theologen  Wilt  Im  17.  Jhli.  limb.  KV2.  D.  akad.  Leben  A  17 
Jhli.  Hal.  1^53. 

h)  F.  Lücke,  ü.  Alter,  Verf.  urspr.  Form  IL  Sinn  dos  kirelil  FriedeMK-[)ruclic«,  OötL  li.'jO. 


ISO  Mmdkrn  cinrucri  msTonv.   rtit.  vi.   a.  d.  iG4s-i>%a 

§408.     George  Calixtus.     158G-1CÖ0. 

Dk  «nil»«  liodlcrni  «xUI  plillos.  ct  sollfloe  erudlt.  llelmst  IßlO.  Epit  Theol.  Itlm.  1019.  A  often, 
Omimcrcll  llliT.  C'alixt  Fiw.  1-3.  c<I.  K  Ilenk-o,  Ilal.  .Jen.  Marb.  lS.3.3-40.— Ca^.r/j  U.  syncretlstlca 
;I.  I.  clir.  Iti'il.Miken  Ü.  d.  llebon  KKricilcn.  1CS2  conflsclrt.  (Oless.)  1CS5.  4.  MnlUr,  Ciinbria  litor. 
Jlafn.  irn.  f.  Til.  HI.  p.  i21ss.  E.  Ifenke,  A.  Univ.  llelmst.  tm  16  Jhli.  Ilnl.  \<iVi.  —  Wiili-h,  K.  Srr. 
vol.  I.  p.  2l6ss.  IV,  fifiCss.  Planck,  Oesch.  d.  prot.  Th.  t.  d.  Konkordicnf.  p.  9<)ss.  //  SclnnUJ,  Oescti. 
\.  xyiikret  streltlj,'k.  in  d.  Ztlt  d.  Cul.  Erl.  1S46.     W.  Gas»,  Cal.  u.  d.  Synkrct.  Brl.  ^'yir,. 

Tho  University  of  JTelmstadt  had  been  accidentally  exempted  from  the 
operation  of  the  Form  of  Concord,  (§  351,)  and  hy  the  jirotection  which  ite 
princes  had  atl'orded  it,  it  became  for  a  long  time  an  asylum  for  the  Ilnmanists. 
Ilero  contemptuous  language  with  respect  to  human  reason  and  philosophy, 
such  as  was  ventured  upon  by  Daniel  Hoffmann,  was  punished  as  an  offence 
against  the  philosophical  faculty,  (a)  From  this  school  sprung  Calixtus,  an 
upright  and  extensively  educated  man,  who,  for  nearly  half  a  century  was  a 
professor  in  Ilelm.stadt,  where,  in  the  spirit  of  Melancthon,  he  sought  in  tho 
historical  method  for  a  more  unfettered  form  of  theology.  By  his  doctrine 
of  the  necessity  of  good  works,  by  his  separation  of  ethics  from  theology, 
and  by  his  assertion  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  not  plainly  revealed 
in  the  Old  Testament,  suspicions  of  his  orthodoxy  were  awakened,  first 
among  his  pupils  at  Koenigsberg,  and  finally  led  to  a  denial  of  an  honorable 
burial  to  his  lifeless  remains.  He  endeavored  to  strengthen  the  power  of  tho 
Protestants  in  Thorn  by  a  fraternal  connection  with  the  members  of  the  Re- 
formed Church  (p.  420.)  He  was  regarded  by  the  Catholics  as  their  most 
sagacious  opponent,  and  the  whole  Catholic  Church  of  Germany  was  invited 
by  him  to  escape  from  the  power  of  the  pope.  But  he  had  become  ac- 
quainted with  a  Christianity  unfettered  by  the  subtleties  of  the  Form  of  Con- 
cord, and  made  known  in  the  Scriptures,  in  the  primitive  Church,  and  in 
Christian  experience.  Conscious  that  he  had  thus  attained  a  universal  Chris- 
tianity, he  demanded  that  the  various  churches  should  recognize  it,  and 
thought  that  they  might  once  more  be  united,  or  at  least  might  mutually  tole- 
rate each  other,  if  they  could  all  be  induced  to  return  to  the  oecumenical 
symbols  and  laws  of  the  first  five  centuries.  This  plan  was  called  by  the  zeal- 
ous Lutherans  Syncretism.  Caloviits,  an  exasperated  but  honest  watchman 
of  Zion,  with  his  colleagues  in  Luther's  chair,  furiously  and  indefatigably  as- 
sailed this  heresy  of  one  whom  they  regarded  as  a  papist  and  Mameluke,  who 
should  be  cut  off  from  the  body  of  the  Church  by  a  new  creed,  (b)  But 
Helmstadt  adhered  to  its  beloved  instructor,  he  was  also  protected  by  his 
prince,  and  Jena  protested  against  the  unreasonable  reproaches  of  his  adver- 
saries, (c)  These  reproaches  were  supposed  to  be  justified  by  his  assertion 
that  tho  Reformation  was  merely  a  particular  mode  of  return  to  the  ancient 
Church,  and  by  the  references  made  to  him  by  many  then  going  over  to  the 

<7)  De  Deo  et  Chr.  Hlmst,  l.'>93.  On  tho  other  hand:  J.  Martini  Ternunft-'piesel,  d.  i  Bericht, 
«MS  (1.  Vft.  Sftmmt  drs.  Perfection,  Phil.  scy.  "Witt,  ICIS. — G.  Thomaaius,  de  controv.  Ilufmanniana. 
ErU  l*^t4. 

I)  Consensus  repetitus  fldoi  vere  Luthoran.ie.  165Ö.  (Consilia  tlieol.  Wittenb.  Frkf.  1G64.  f.  vol  L) 
Denuo  e.\.  E.  L.  T.  ITenke,  M.irb.  1S46.  4. 

c)  .Viwafu»,  auff.  Erkl.  ü.  93  vermeinte  Kcl.  Fiacen.  Jon.  167T. 


CHAP.  I.    EVAXG.  CHURCH.    §  408.  CALIXTUS.     §  409.  SPEXEll.  4S7 

Catholic  Church.  lie  w.n  much  respected  by  tho  higher  classes,  and  his 
reputation  at  home  was  much  increased  by  the  honors  which  he  gained  in 
foreign  countries.  His  influence  upon  tho  theology  of  his  own  times  was  al- 
most imperceptible,  but  he  seemed  rather  a  type  of  what  was  about  to  pre- 
vail in  tiie  succeeding  age. 

§  409.     rietism.     Sj^ener.     1035-1705. 

I.  Spener :  Das  geistl.  Priestertl).  Frkf.  1CT7.  12.  and  oth.  Crl.  15.30.  Allg  GoUopgel.  aller  glaub. 
Chr.  n.  rechtsch.  Tlicol.  Frkf.  1C30.  12.  and  often.  Dio  Freib.  d.  Gläubigen  v.  Anselin  d.  Mensclicn 
in  Olaubenssach.  Frkf.  1091.  Tlieol.  Redenken.  II.lL  ITOO.'iS.  4  voli  Cousllla  et  jud.  tli.  Frcf.  1709. 
3  vols.  4.  Lat  ii.  deutsche  th.  Bed.  In  zeltgem.  Ausw.  v.  JTennicke,  llul.  1S33.  Wahrh.  Erzähl,  do 
sen,  was  wepcn  d.  sogen.  Pict  vorgegangen.  Frkf.  (1C97.)  1C93.  AmsL  1700.  \1.— Löscher,  Timoth. 
^'e^nus.  Witt  lilSss.  2  vols.  u.  vieles  in  d.Unwhuld.  Nachrr.  1701-20.  Work  written  to  compose  the 
strife  of  parties :  (Suddens)  Wahrb.  u.  gründl.  Erzähl  was  zw.  d.  sog.  Pict  geschehen.  Without 
place.  1710. 

II.  C.  n.  V.  Ciinstein,  Muster  e.  rechtsch.  Lehrers  in  d.  Leben  Sp.  Hal.  1740.  Suahedlmen,  Sp. 
(Kochlitz,  jährl.  Mitth.  1'.23.  vol.  III.)  W.  Hosshach,  Sp.  u.  s.  Zeit  Brl.  (1S2S.)  ed.  by  G.  Schvceder, 
1S53.  2  vols.  A'Hrt/)/?,  Leben  u.  Char,  eiriiifcr  frommen  u.  gel.  Männer  d.  vor.  Jhh.  II.il.  1S29. —  W. 
Thilo,  Sp.  als  Katechet  Brl.  \HQ.  —  WaMi,  R.  Str.  vol.  I.  p.  540ss.  II,  Iss.  IV,  1030;«.  Y,  Iss. 
Planck,  Gesch.  d.  prot  Th.  p.  ISOss.  [A  new  Life  of  Spencr  has  been  announced  as  in  preparation 
by  K.  Uorshach,  in  2  vols.  Lps.  1854.]    DeuUche  Zeitsch.  f.  ehr.  W.  1S53.  N.  23s. 

Philip  Jacob  Spener  received  a  pious  and  liberal  education  in  the  city  of 
Strasbourg,  and  while  yet  a  youth  became  the  first  among  the  clergy  in 
Frankfort  (IGGG).  He  subsequently  became  the  superior  court  preacher  in 
Dresden  (1G8G),  but  fell  into  dij;grace  on  account  of  his  zeal  as  a  confessor, 
and  was  appointed  (1G91)  Provost  in  Berlin.  He  was  deeply  impressed  with 
the  conviction  that  practical  piety  was  in  danger  of  being  lost  in  a  conform- 
ity to  the  outward  letter  of  Christianity.  By  devotional  explanations  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  Christian  conversation  in  private  religious  meetings  (collegia 
pietatis,  after  1670),  a  high  degree  of  religious  earnestness  was  awakened. 
Ills  "Pious  Desires"  {it)  encouraged  tho  hope  of  reforming  the  corrupt 
Church.  In  that  work  ho  showed  that  tho  Church  should  be  once  more 
built  up  under  the  influence  of  tho  Scriptures,  that  tho  spiritual  priesthood 
of  the  congregation  should  be  restored,  and  that  tho  clergy  should  be  edu- 
cated to  live  a  life  of  personal  godliness.  Then  Christianity  would  be 
preached  in  apostolical  simplicity,  and  become  a  religion  of  the  heart  and  of 
daily  conduct.  In  Leipsic,  where  the  exposition  of  the  Scriptures  had  long 
been  discontinued,  a  society  of  educated  young  men  was  formed  under  tho 
influence  of  Spener,  for  the  scientific  explanation  and  practical  application  of 
the  Scriptures  (July  18,  1G87).  Q>)  The  German  devotional  lectures  upon  tho 
New  Testament  opened  (1G89)  by  three  men  Avho  had  obtained  tho  degree 
of  Magister,  among  whom  was  Aug.  Herrn.  Fmncl-e,  were  attended  with 
great  diligence  by  large  numbers  of  students  and  citizens.  On  account  of 
their  excessive  displays  of  piety  in  their  outward  conduct,  these  persons  were 
called  Pictixtii^  and  were  accused  of  aiming  to  bring  public  worship  and  sci- 
ence into  contempt.  They  were  tlierefore  compelled  by  the  theologians  to 
.eave  Leipsic  (1690),  and  in  connection  with  Thomasius  they  founded  a  new 

a)  Pia  deslderia  o.  hertzl.  Verlangen  nach  gottgerdl.  Besserung  d.  wahren  ev.  K.  (First  pubL  as 
«  pracf.  to  Arndfs  P.istllla  ev.  1075)  Frkf.  1C7.\  lat  Frkf.  1078.  12. 
I)  C.  F.  lUgen,  Hist  Collcgil  philoblbllci  I.li)s.  Lps.  1836s.  8  P.  4. 


488  M(.I)Ki;n  ciinicii  iustoky.   vkh.  vi.   a.  d.  1045-is53. 

sftlt-spriiiK  (it  n<'//<:  (1691).  After  the  first  exhibitions  of  popular  favor  had 
pnato«!  awiiy,  tlio  rij^id  tloinniKls  which  Spenor  made  in  bclialf  of  morality, 
and  Ills  lihoral  hut  l(){,ncal  system  of  doctrines,  raised  ap  against  him  many 
oi)poiion(s  not  only  among  the  worldly  classes,  but  among  the  orthodox, 
Onco  more  Wittenberg,  now  enfeebled  by  ago,  defended  its  Lutheranism,  (c) 
and  the  theology  of  the  schools  with  almost  one  voice  exclaimed  against 
Pietism  as  against  a  new  sect.  The  controversy,  however,  was  carried  on  not 
by  seizing  and  attacking  the  thing  itself,  but  according  to  the  polemical  fash- 
ion of  tlio  times,  by  accusing  it  of  many  erroneous  sentiments,  and  enlisting 
in  petty  quarrels  against  it  the  passions  of  the  people,  the  civil  courts,  and 
even  the  divine  decisions.  Those  tendencies  which  had  been  originated  by 
Spener,  but  which  had  been  kept  within  due  limits  by  the  mildness  of  his 
disposition,  were  soon  carried  to  an  extreme  by  his  followers.  They  con- 
tended that  all  true  regeneration  must  bo  preceded  by  a  high-wrought  peni- 
tential conflict,  that  none  but  a  regenerated  divine  should  be  allowed  to  min- 
ister in  holy  things,  a  proud  sectarian  si)irit  was  awakened,  injury  was  done 
to  the  serious  pursuit  of  literature  by  the  pure  devotional  form  which  theol- 
ogy then  assumed,  some  were  led  to  indulge  in  enthusiastic  hopes  of  a  mil- 
lennial kingdom,  and  of  the  final  extinction  of  hell,  ((I)  and  many  high- 
sounding  pious  expressions  were  introduced  which  really  had  no  meaning.  It 
must,  however,  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Orphan  House  was  the  result  of 
Francke's  pietism,  and  will  ever  commemorate  the  triumph  of  his  faith  in 
God  and  his  benevolence  toward  men.  (t)  As  soon,  however,  as  the  opposi- 
tion began  gradually  to  abate  (after  1720),  the  energy  as  well  as  the  free 
reforming  spirit  of  Pietism  was  gone,  and  it  appeared  to  be  merely  a  languid 
religion  of  feeling,  which,  Avhile  it  shrunk  from  every  semblance  of  worldly 
X)leasure  and  splendor,  regarded  Christianity  under  the  single  aspect  of  a  sys- 
tem which  proclaimed  the  naturally  miserable  state  of  man  in  consequence 
of  sin,  and  the  necessity  of  justification  through  the  expiatory  death  of 
Christ.  Protestantism,  by  its  influence,  penetrated  the  hearts  of  men  more 
profoundly,  and  the  pious  morality  of  domestic  life  was  strengthened  by  it, 
but  especially  in  the  courts  of  some  of  the  inferior  princes  it  degenerated 
into  a  miserable  system  of  legality  and  ceremony  before  God.  Registers 
were  kept  for  souls,  and  many  idle  persons  supported  themselves  comfort- 
ably by  using  the  new  language  respecting  breaking  into  the  kingdom,  and 
the  sealing  of  believers,  while  serious-minded  persons  were  utterly  unfitted 
for  their  ordinary  social  duties,  until  in  despair  they  committed  suicide.  {/) 
The  orthodox,  on  the  other  hand,  in  their  opposition  to  such  fanaticism,  gave 
their  countenance  to  an  extraordinary  degree  of  cheerfulness,  and  thought 
the  condition  of  their  Church  was  remarkably  flourishing.  (^) 

c)  Cliristlnth.  Vorst.  in  auMelit.  Lelirs'itzsen  n.  CJottcs  Wort  u.  d.  svmb.  KBüchern  u.  unrich 
ilgen  GcsensTilzen  aus  II.  Dr.  Spener's  Sclirr.  Witt,  1695. 

<0  «A  M'.  PettTSen,  MvcTTTipiov  airoKaTaffTdcTfaii  irdfTuv,  d.  i.  Gehoimn.  d.  Wiedertr.  all« 
Dinare.  Offonb.  1701^«;.  8  vols. 

f)  A.  II.  Francko.  by  A.  JT.  Xiemet/er,  Hal.  1794.  by  Guerike,  Ilal.  IS'27. 

.0  &-ml<r,  Lobcnsbesclir.  vol.  1.  p.  47fS. 

ff)  llosahadi  vol.  II.  p.  126.     Thulurk,  Geist  .1.  lu*li.  Th.  p.  2725S.  27S. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CriURCn.    §  410.  PniLOSOPIIY.    LEIBXITZ.  459 

§  410.     Philosopldcal  Influences.     Cartesius  to  Wolf. 

Although  pcience  received  from  the  hand  of  Bocon  of  Ventlam  (d.  1626) 
a  tendency  toward  physics  and  tlie  useful  arts,  (//)  many  divines  long  thought 
it  absurd  to  concede  an  authority  to  Copernicus  Avhich  was  superior  to  that  of 
the  word  of  God.  (i)  The  more  modern  philosophy  had  its  origin  with  Des 
Cartes  (d,  1650),  in  an  inquiry  proceeding  from  doubt,  after  something  abso- 
lutely true  and  certain,  and  which  the  reflecting  mind  might  find  in  itself 
alone,  without  reference  to  tlioology.  It  was,  however,  employed  in  the 
Netherlands  for  the  representation  of  the  doctrines  of  revelation,  and  took 
the  place  of  the  formulae  of  Aristotle.  The  consciousness  of  a  knowledge 
of  God  which  from  its  OAvn  nature  was  satisfactory,  was  awakened  there  by 
this  philosophy,  but  as  it  soon  became  suspected  of  political  liberalism,  it  was 
prohibited  by  the  Orange  party  (after  1656).  (r)  The  tragical  philosophy  of 
Spinoza  was  founded  on  a  profound  religious  basis  independent  of  all  dog- 
mas, but  Christianity  was  utterly  foreign  to  his  speculations,  and  during  the 
century  in  which  he  lived  he  was  regarded  as  an  atheist.  (<!)  In  England, 
the  doctrines  of  a  sound  common  sense  were  reduced  by  Locl-e  (d.  1704)  to  a 
philosophical  system,  Avhich  asserted  for  the  experience  of  the  senses  at  least 
a  paramount  influence  in  the  intellectual  world,  and  demanded  a  complete 
toleration  for  every  kind  of  religious  opinions.  He  himself,  however,  never 
intended  to  advocate  any  sentiment  inconsistent  with  tlie  creed  of  his 
Church.  ((■)  In  Germany,  Leibnitz^  fully  confiding  in  the  pritnogenitnre  of 
the  human  mind,  rescued  philosopliy  from  the  abyss  of  Spinoza  by  defending 
a  free  individuality  originally  determined  only  by  the  prime  monad,  and  a 
necessary  agreement  of  revelation  with  the  everlasting  truths  of  reason.  He 
however  conceded  that  the  historical  mysteries  of  Cliristianity  were  beyond 
the  reach  of  reason,  and  with  a  character  in  its  special  peculiarities  quite  dif- 
ferent from  the  ordinary  German  spirit,  ho  kept  aloof  from  all  ecclesiastical 
controversies.  (./')  Ilis  philosojdiy  became  intelligible  to  ordinary  minds  by 
the  labors  of  Wolf  (d.  1754),  who,  though  he  lived  in  perfect  liarmony  with 
the  Church,  sometimes  demonstrated  its  doctrines  in  a  mathematical  style, 
and  sometimes  allowed  them  to  pass  as  mysteries  adapted  only  to  the  world 
of  sense.    But  on  account  of  the  droad  which  Pietism  displayed  toward  the 


a)  Novum  Orpanon  Scientianiin.  1620.  ed.  Brück,  Lps.  1830.  Ofiörer,  Shittg.  ISSl.  [Bitcon'it 
Nov.  Org.,  or  True  Siiggivstions  for  tlio  Iiiterprct.  of  Nalurc.  Lond.  liSO.  S.  Also  in  Works,  8  vols.  S. 
Pliilad.  ISlO.    Account  of  Bacon's  Nov.  Org.  in  Lib.  of  U".  Knowledge.  Lond.  1?'27.  8.] 

h)  Cttlov.  Syst.  vol.  III.  p.  ma.    JIollii:.  Exam.  ed.  Tdler,  p.  809. 

c)  Cartenii  0pp.  Fref.  1692ss.  2  voI'>.  ■i.—IIuetii  Consura.  Par.  1C99.  12.  cd.  4.  1C91.  J.  E.  Erd 
mann,  Darst.  n.  Kritik  d.  Cart  Ph.  IJiga.  l^Sl.  C.  F.  Ifock,  OirL  n.  solne  Gegner.  Vienna.  1SS5. 
Bordas  Dcmoulin,  le  Cartfsl  inismo.  Par.  IS^IS.  [IK  Whewelf,  Ul#t.  of  tlio  Iniluctivo  Science.«. 
Lond.  2  ed.  1S47.  8  vol.s.  8.  Tennemanni  Manual,  p.  3U5-S.  Henn/a  Tran>l.  of  the  Hist  of  Phil, 
vol.  IL  p.  48-00.] 

(0  Oi>p.  cd.  i'dK/«.«,  Jen.  lSn2.  2  vols,  ^//w^r,  Stuttg.  1*30.  //.  C.  W.  Sigicart,  d.  Spinozi- 
mus.  Tub.  1S;?9.  Amiind  Snint€.%  It.  de  la  vie  et  des  ouvr.  de  Sp.  fondateur  de  Tcxcgese  et  de  la 
phil.  mo<lernc.  Par.  IS  12. 

e)  Works  of  J.  L.  Lond.  1714.  3  vols,  1S2I.  9  vols.  [Philos.  works,  witl;  prel.  disc,  by  St.  John, 
Lond.  1S43.  8.] 

/)  Opp.  lat  gall.  germ.  cd.  Erdmann,  Her.  1S89?.  2  vols.  A.—L.  Fetierhach,  Harst  u.  Krit.  vl 
Leibn.  PU  Atisp.  1S37.  G.  E.  Guhntiter,  G.  W.  v.  Lelbn.  Brsl.  (1S42.)  1S46.  2  vols.  A.  IMffridu 
fcpiii.  u.  Leit.n.  Hamb.  1S46.     [J.  M.  .Vackir,  Life  of  G.  W.  von  L.  Boston.  ISIS.  iSmo.J 


41)0  m(.i.i;i:n  ciiiKfii  iiisT(>i:v.    i-kk.  vr.   a.  d.  lois-isaa 

iloctriiu»  of  ft  prc-ostnblislicd  (iptiinlsin,  und  touanl  ;ill  ])liilos<-)i)liy,  lie  ■was 
driven  from  II;illo  (1723)  by  tlio  iiiMiidatc  of  a  king  wlio  cared  for  iiotliin;' 
lint  wliat  lie  regarded  as  useful.  The  result  of  tliLs  jdiilosopliy,  so  far  as  the 
Churcli  was  concerned,  was  a  natural  theology  whose  essential  princijiles  were 
derived  from  the  Christian  system,  though  it  appeared  to  bo  independent  of  all 
revelation,  (fj)  From  this  school  proceeded  the  Wcrtheim  version  of  the  Bible, 
an  in3ii)id  and  impudent  attempt  to  present  tho  Scriptures  in  a  form  adapted 
to  what  was  said  to  be  the  demands  of  modern  criticism.  The  power  of  tho 
enijiirc  was  found  to  bo  still  sufficient  to  suppress  such  a  work  as  this,  (a) 

§  411.  Peaccalle  Afovemenls  in  Tlieology. 
Tlio  French  theologians  contended  for  the  palm  of  criticism  Avith  tho 
learned  monks  of  St.  Maur,  but  they  could  gain  the  prize  only  by  the  unre- 
strained freedom  of  their  historical  inquiries.  Among  the  theologians  of  tho 
Academy  of  Saumur,  Amy  raid  (Amyraut,  d.  1064)  taught  that  the  grace  of 
God  was  so  universal  that  it  was  not  withheld  even  from  the  heathen,  and 
yet  in  a  certain  sense  was  limited ;  («)  Pajon  (d.  1684),  that  its  influence  was 
principally  upon  the  understanding,  through  the  medium  of  the  Scriptures 
and  the  whole  course  of  a  man's  life;  (b)  Placaeus  (Laplace,  d.  1065),  that 
original  sin  was  a  corruption  to  which  no  guilt  was  attached  until  it  had  pro- 
ceeded to  actual  transgression  ;  and  Louis  Capellus  (ChapeUe,  d.  1C58)  justi- 
fied the  freedom  of  his  criticism  upon  the  language  of  Scripture  principally 
in  opposition  to  those  who  maintained  the  divine  origin  of  the  Hebrew  vowel 
points,  (f)  To  defend  their  churches  against  these  libera^  views,  the  Calvin- 
istic  orthodox  divines  urged  upon  the  Swiss  a  new  confession  of  faith  (1675), 
the  legal  influence  of  which,  however,  had  ceased  even  at  the  commencement 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  (d)  Coeceius  (d.  1669),  who  had  been  educated  in 
the  school  of  Des  Cartes,  demanded  that  theology  should  be  of  a  purely  bib- 
lical character,  since  in  his  estimation  the  Scriptures  were  every  thing  and 
meant  every  thing,  (c)  Many  literary  men  in  France  were  driven,  by  the 
persecutions  endured  by  the  Protestants,  to  foreign  countries,  where  their 
literature  became  the  means  of  their  support ;  and  taking  advantage  of  tho 
freedom  of  speech  enjoyed  especially  in  the  Netherlands,  they  addressed 
themselves  in  a  polished  style  to  the  educated  classes.  Bai/Ic  (d.  1706)  col- 
lected a  treasure  which  those  who  came  after  him  might  use  either  for  or 

O)  Tlieol.  naturalis.  Lps  1736.  2  vols.  4.—Cavz,  Ph.  Lcibn.  et  "W.  usus  in  Th.  Fref.  ct  L.  (1728.) 
1749.  2  vols.  Ludovici,  Entw.  e.  Uist  d.  Wolf  Th.  2  ed.  Lps.  1737.  3  vols.  IT.  Watke,  CI).  Wolfs 
elcne  Lebensbcseh.  Li^s.  1S41. 

.'()  (Lorem  SchmUl,  d.  1751.)  Die  giittl.  Sehrr.  vor  den  Zeiten  des  Messie  Jesus.  One  Tlieil  is  the 
liist  of  the  Israelites.  Werth.  \1^.—J.  N.  Sinnhold,  ausf.  Hist.  d.  sogen.  Werth.  Bibel.  Frkf.  1739.  4 

a)  Traito  de  la  praedest  et  de  sea  principes  difforents.  Saum.  1634 — C.  E.  Saigey,  Moise  Amjr. 
Strasb.  1S49.    A.  Schweizer,  M.  A.  {ZdUrs  th.  Jahrbb.  1S52.  H.  Is.) 

b)  V.  E.  Löscher,  de  Claudii  Paj.  doctr.  ct  fatis.  Lps.  1692.  A.  Sc7uceizer,  I'ajonism.  {ZtUer's 
th.  Jahrbb.  1S53.  IL  Is.) 

c)  Synt.ignia  thorium  theol.  in  Ac.id.  Salmuriensi  disputatarum  Salin.  (1600.)  1664.  4 

d)  (./.  If.  ir,-idegger)  Form.  Consensus  Ecc.  Ilelv.  I^Xiemeyer,  Col.  Conff.  p.  729.)— C  ^^.  Pßif, 
de  F.  r.  lU'lv.  Tub.  1723.  4.  {Banuiud)  MOm.  pour  servir  ä  THist  des  troubles  en  Suisse  ä  locea- 
»:on  du  Cons.  Amjt  1726.    E'icher,  hclv.  Cons,  in  d.  Hall.  EncylcL  IL  vol.  VL) 

e)  Snmma  iloctr.  dc  foedoro  et  testamcntis  Dei.  L.  B.  164:?.— Alberti,  SiirXofv  Kairira,  CartesUa 
iSinus  ct  Cocccj.  descr.  et  rtfutati.  L.  B.  1673.  4. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CnUECn  TILL  17S0.    §411.  BENGEL.    -WETTSTEIX.        401 

against  Christianity ;  and  he  himself  was  the  first  specimen  of  that  peculiar 
style  of  Protestanti.sm  which,  while  it  is  zealous  for  truth  and  freedom,  sus- 
pends its  inquiries  at  the  point  where  faith  seems  inconsistent  with  reason, 
and  contents  itself  with  a  statement  of  the  arguments  on  hoth  sides.  {/)  In 
the  Motherlands  the  Arminian  congregations  began  to  decline,  for  the  spirit 
of  Zwingle  was  now  evidently  reviving  in  all  parts  of  the  Church  there. 
Even  in  England,  where  the  literary  spirit  (Latitudinarianism)  was  especially 
odious  to  the  orthodox  beneficed  clergy,  it  became  extensively  prevalent,  par- 
ticularly in  the  diocese  of  Cambridge.  By  its  distinction  between  what  it 
called  essential  and  non-essential  doctrines,  it  evidently  intended  to  draw  a 
line  between  the  doctrines  of  the  Scriptures  and  those  of  the  Church.  Tlio 
Apostles'  Creed  was  presented  as  containing  every  thing  indispensable  to  sal- 
vation, kindness  toward  those  who  dillor  from  us  in  opinion  was  much  insisted 
upon  as  a  Christian  virtue,  and  a  reconciliation  with  the  dissenters  was  there- 
fore regarded  as  practicable.  (;/)  In  Germany,  Thomashis  (d.  1728)  became 
connected  with  the  Pietists  because  they  were  oppressed  by  the  established 
Church,  but  they  soon  found  that  the  tendency  of  his  instructions  was  to 
form  a  bold  and  satirical  spirit,  and  he  became  convinced  that  while  they 
professed  to  bo  seeking  the  honor  of  God,  they  were  really  inllnenced  by  a 
desire  for  their  own  honor  and  i)Ower.  This  intelligent  German  had  the 
posthumous  reputation  of  having  turned  the  public  mind  against  the  trials 
for  witchcraft,  (h)  and  yet  even  in  the  close  of  the  century  in  which  he  lived 
witches  were  occasionally  put  to  death  in  Upper  Germany.  Pietism  having 
sustained  a  defeat  in  its  conflict  with  the  "Woltian  school  in  the  very  place 
Avhere  it  was  strongest  (1740),  now  betook  itself  discontentedly  to  a  quiet 
obscurity.  During  the  struggle,  however,  even  the  theology  of  the  schools 
had  become  penetrated  by  its  fervent  spirit.  This  was  first  apparent  in  the 
case  of  BuddcuH  (d.  1729),  who  was  historically  familiar  with  philosophy,  and 
yet  gave  to  theology  a  simple  and  scientific  form.  JoJin  Albert  Bcngcl  (d. 
1752),  whose  pious  hopes  were  founded  on  calculations  not  proved  to  be 
erroneous  until  183G,  was  not  deterred  by  them  from  investigating  with  re- 
ligious conscientiousness  the  original  text  and  moaning  of  the  Sacred  Scrip- 
tures, (/■)  while  Wcttstcin  (d.  175t)  took  delight  in  critical  labors,  and  without 
regard  to  received  doctrines  endeavored  to  ascertain  which  of  the  innumer- 
able readings  was  the  original  tpxt  of  the  New  Testament,  and  to  illustrate 
it  by  every  thing  resembling  it  in  antiquity,  lie  was  never,  however,  per- 
mitted to  pursue  his  labors  to  their  final  result.«',  for  as  his  criticism  was 
even  then  suspected  of  being  friendly  to  Socinianlsm,  ho  Avas  dei)osed  (1730^ 
at  Basle,  and  received  with  much  hesitation  by  the  Arminians.  (k) 

f)  r)iotlonn»lre  lilsL  et  crlt.  UoL  1096.  2  vols.  f.  nnd  ofloti.  Amst.  I'lOss.  4  vols.  f.  Noiivollc'de  li 
röp.  (k'S  lettre».  Am-^t  16S4-1715.— J/aiceuwa",  Yio  d.  B.  Anist  1730.  12.  L.  Feuerhadi,  Picrro  B 
Lpz.  2  ed.  1S44 

g)  (Art/ill r  Bury)  The  Naked  OospeL  By  u  true  »on  of  the  Church  of  Engl.  1C90.  i.—P.  Jurieu 
.»rel.  du  Lntltudiniiirc.  (Rolcr.  1C96.)  TTtr.  1C97. 

h)  II.  Luden,  Thonin-sfus  nnch  8.  Sehiokfalcn  ii.  Schrr.  Brl.  1S05.  A.  EichsUulii  Or.  do  Thuia 
Jen.  1S89.  4.     C.  F.  Fritswhf,  dc  rallonnllsina  Hal.  1S:JS.  4.  Cm.  L  p.  Tsä  15. 

i)  J.  C.  Bur/.;  Benders  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Stuttg.  (IS.31.)  1S32.  Bengel's  liter.  Briofwechs.  mit- 
geth.  V.  Burl;  Stuttj:.  1S36. 

I)  C.  n.  llitgmhach,  .T.  J.  Wett^t.  u.  seine  G<gner.  (ZciLoclir.  f.  hist.  Th.  1^00.  V.  1.) 


192  MdDKUN  CHURCH  HISTOKV.     VVAl.  VI.     A.  1;.  ICJS-l^M. 

^  412.  /jnr  mid  Legal  Views  in  the  German  Chnrcli. 
The  <li'putios  of  the  Protestant  states  at  the  permanent  Diet  of  Ratisboc 
(after  ICCi)  f^nned  a  tribnhal  (Corpus  Evangelicorum),  -which  possessed  no 
real  power,  but  was  designed  to  secure  the  riglits  guarantied  by  the  Peace,  (fi) 
Tlio  jurisdiction  over  the  individual  national  Cliurches  remained  with  the 
necular  authorities,  and  was  exercised  by  tlie  consistories  and  ministerial  coun- 
cil, witli  tlio  co-operation  of  the  states  of  the  respective  countries,  and,  in 
some  provinces  of  the  licformcd  Cliurch,  with  the  aid  of  the  minor  synods. 
Every  ecclesiastical  usurpation  was  therefore  easily  repelled,  tlie  Church  was 
sometimes  used  as  a  police  for  the  execution  of  the  laws,  and  the  property  of 
the  Church  was  sometimes  used  for  secular  objects.  The  press  was  the  only 
organ  by  which  ecclesiastical  privileges  and  wants  were  made  known,  and 
even  this  was  placed  imder  the  restraints  of  a  censorship.  In  the  literary 
works  of  that  period,  the  fact  that  princes  exercised  so  much  ecclesiastical 
power  is  variously  explained.  When  the  internal  inconsistencies  of  the  epis- 
copal system  (p.  441)  had  become  evident,  the  formation  of  a  Territorial  sys- 
tem naturally  followed  from  the  right  of  reforming  the  Church  which  had 
been  assumed  by  the  imperial  diet,  from  the  advancement  of  political  rights, 
and  from  the  ascendency  of  a  worldly  spirit.  According  to  this  system,  the 
ecclesiastical  was  merely  an  element  of  the  civil  power.  This  legal  view  of 
the  subject  was  generally  adopted  about  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  in  consequence  of  the  liberal  use  which  Thomasins  made  of  it,  and 
the  judicious  limitations  assigned  to  it  by  Boehmer.  Still  the  consciousness 
of  her  own  rights  which  the  Chm'ch  possessed,  confirmed  by  the  records  of  a 
thousand  years,  soon  occasioned  a  theological  opposition  to  this  view.  Chan- 
cellor Pf'iff  of  Tubingen  was  the  author  of  the  Collegial  Systeiii  (1719),  ac- 
cording to  which  the  Church  is  an  independent  corporation,  whose  power  can 
be  lawfully  assumed  by  princes  only  by  treaty  with  it.  Both  views  have 
contended  with  each  other  side  by  side,  and  have  alternately  exerted  an 
important  influence  upon  the  administration  of  the  Church.  {}>) 

§  413.  Legal  Relations  to  the  Catholic  Church. 
Although  tlie  modern  state  was  inclined  to  compromise  the  religious  dif- 
ferences among  its  subjects,  both  Churches  tolerated  each  other  only  so  ftir 
as  they  could  not  invalidate  a  right  actually  acquired  during  the  recent  con- 
flicts. In  Germnny,  this  hostility  was  fostered  especially  by  the  oppressions 
which  members  of  the  evangelical  Church  sustained  from  their  Catholic 
rulers,  and  by  the  enticement  of  some  princes  to  the  Catholic  Church,  (a) 
Catholic  dynasties  were  established  in  the  Electoral  Palatinate  when  the 
Catholic  line  of  the  Palatine  house  of  ITeuberg  came  to  the  throne  (1685), 
and  in  Electoral  Saxony  when  Frederic  Augustus  became  convinced  of  the 
truth  of  the  Catholic  faith  on  his  becoming  a  candidate  for  the  Polish  crown 

a)  Sc/iauroth  n.  ITerrich,  Satnml.  aller  Conclusorum  n.  Vcrbandl.  d.  Corpus  Evv.  Kegensb. 

n51-S6.  4  vols.  f.    IT.  vr.  r.  Buloic,  Gesch.  u.  Vcrf.  d.  Corpus  Evv.  Eegensb.  1795. 

h)  XetUlhlndt,  do  tribns  systematibns  doctr.  do  jure  sacr.  dirifendorum.  (Obss.  jnr.  ecc.  Hal.  1'5;3.) 
a)  Stnirf.  Eel.  Beschwerden  zwischen  den  Kath.  u.  Evangelischen.  Lps.  17-2-2.  2  vols.     Oertei 

rollst.  Corpus  jravamm.  ev.  Eegensb.  ITTlss,  5  vok  C 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CnUHCII  TILL  1750.    §  413.  CONVEBTS.  493 

(1697).  The  oppression  of  the  Protestants  became  legalized  in  the  Palatinate, 
when  a  clause  in  the  Peace  of  Eyswick  (1G97)  required  that  public  worship 
should  henceforth  he  conducted  in  the  same  manner  in  •which  it  had  been 
performed  Avhile  the  French  occupied  that  territory.  It  was  only  by  the 
reprisals  which  Prussia  made,  that  the  Reformed  Church  recovered  any  por- 
tion of  its  immunities.  (/')  In  Saxoinj,  all  the  privileges  of  the  Protestant 
Church  were  maintained  by  the  zeal  of  the  people  and  the  states,  so  that  not 
even  a  verse  in  any  of  their  highly  animated  hymns  would  they  suffer  to  be 
stricken  out.  The  reigning  family  in  its  subsequent  generations  was  sincerely 
and  piously  attached  to  its  Church,  but  its  precarious  and  foreign  throne  was 
purchased  by  a  renunciation  of  its  important  position  in  Protestant  Germany, 
and  its  success  in  drawing  over  some  individuals  was  gained  at  the  expense 
of  the  alienation  of  a  loyal  people.  In  77/'!/HÄ?r/c^--Wolfenbüttel,  the  Princess 
Elizabeth  was  induced  to  forswear  her  vow  at  confirmation  (1707),  that  she 
might  become  the  mother  of  an  imperial  family,  and  her  grandfather  Anthony 
Ulrich^  whose  counsel  she  had  followed  in  this  matter,  embraced  the  same 
faith  with  a  policy  which  could  then  have  referred  to  no  consequences  except 
in  another  world,  (c)  In  Wurtemhurg^  when  Charles  Alexander  went  over 
to  the  Catholic  Church,  the  courage  of  a  single  officer  was  sufficient  to  give 
a  check,  though  in  a  somewhat  tumultuous  manner,  to  the  progress  of  the 
defection  (1735).  {iT)  In  Salzburg^  certain  peaceable  congregations  which  had 
beea  inclined  to  the  evangelical  Church,  and  had  been  tolerated  as  industri- 
ous subjects  ever  since  the  sixteenth  century,  fell  under  the  notice  of  the 
Archbishop  Count  Firmian^  who  undertook  their  conversion  by  violent  means 
(1729).  One  hundred  elders  then  assemljled,  at  early  dawn  on  Sabbath 
morning,  in  a  lonely  cave  of  the  Schwarzach,  and  swore  on  the  sacred  host 
and  the  consecrated  salt  that  they  would  bo  faithful  to  the  evangelical  faith 
and  the  triune  God,  and  that  in  every  misfortune  they  would  maintain  a  fra- 
ternal affection  for  each  other.  An  archiepiscopal  patent  of  emigration  (Oct. 
31st,  1731)  drove  them  under  the  severest  circumstances  from  their  houses 
and  their  estates.  Public  sympathy  was  enlisted  to  console  the  sad  train  of 
these  confessors  for  the  loss  of  their  beautiful  mountain  homes,  and  twenty 
thousand  of  them  found  a  hospitable  reception  in  Prussia.  (')  In  Hungary^ 
few  magnates  long  resisted  the  temptations  to  apostasy  presented  to  them,  in 
the  form  of  bishops'  sees  and  offices  in  Church  and  State.  The  Protestants 
of  that  country,  although  protected  by  the  laws,  were  robbed  by  those  who 
professed  to  administer  those  laws,  not  only  of  their  churches,  but  even  of 


h)J.J.  Mufer,  norlcht  v.  d.  clausuLi  A.  IV.  PacU  r.ysii.  Frkf.  1T32.  4.  Pütter,  syst  ParsL  d 
l)faiz.  Rel.  Boscli  werden.  Oiitt  lT9:t. 

c)  Codex  August  Th.  L  p.  846s.  Acta  hist  occ,  to).  I.  p.  llSss.  WV»««?,  neues  Mus.  f.  wiclis 
Gesch.  vol.  L  P.  2.  F.  Förster,  Fr.  Aug.  11.  I'otsd.  1SS9.— Aug.  TJieiner,  Qosch.  d.  Zuruckk.  d. 
re?.  Häuser  v.  Braunschw.  u.  Snclison  In  d.  Scliooss  d.  kntli.  K.  Einsled.  1S43.  To  bo  corrected  by: 
W.  O.  S<>l<l<in,  drci.ssls;  Jnliro  des  rrosclyllsin.  in  Sachs,  u.  Ur.  Lps.  1S45.  W.  Ilocck,  A.  Ulrich  u. 
Elis.  V.  I!r.  Wolfenb.  1S45. 

rf)  >/.  r.  Moser.  Lebens-Gcsch.  8  cd.  Frkf.  u.  Lps.  177T.  vol.  L  p.  ISlss, 

e)  Scfte/honi,  do  rel.  ev.  in  prov.  Saliib.  ortu  et  fatis.  Lps.  17-32.  4.  M.  Zus.  v.  SlUbner,  L. 
1732.  </.  Moser,  actenm.  l?er.  v.  d.  schweren  Vert  d.  Evv.  in  S.  Erl.  1732.  12  St  Göking,  Emi^rra- 
tionsgesch.  Frkf.  u.  L.  (1732 )  1737.  2  vols.  4.— A'.  Pansf,  Oesch.  d.  Ausw.  d.  ev.  S.  Lps.  1S27.  Zelt- 
»ehr.  f.  hbt  Th.  1>32.  vul.  II.  I'.  2. 


404  MoDKliN  CUVMCU  HISTOKV.     Vi-M.  YI.     A.  T).  164S-1S.VI. 

tlicir  ohildron.  unco  more  at  tlie  Diet  of  (Jcdenbur^'  (1081)  their  religious 
freedom  wiis  solemnly  uckiiowledged,  but  with  a  reservation  iu  favor  of  the  right 
of  the  I'roprietors  of  tho  soil.  In  order  to  break  down  the  national  aristocra- 
cy, wlioso  exorbitant  privileges  were  principally  maintained  by  the  Protestant 
noliility,  a  murderous  tribunal  was  instituted  at  Eperies  (1C87),  and  the 
Jesuits,  l)y  tlieir  crafty  policy  for  conversion,  destroyed  tiie  soul  together 
with  the  body.  By  the  exclusion  of  its  complaints  from  the  general  diet,  the 
evangelical  Cluirch  was  completely  abandoned  (1715),  and  reduced  to  less 
tliau  one  half  its  former  size  by  a  process  of  bloodless  martyrdoms.  In  the 
otlier  patrimonial  countries  of  Austria  the  evangelical  mode  of  worship  was 
utterly  annihilated.  The  few  who  remained  secretly  faithful  to  their  reli- 
gion, and  endeavored  to  transmit  it  to  those  who  should  come  after  them,  as 
soon  as  they  were  detected,  were  banished  to  Transylvania,  the  only  asylum 
now  left  for  evangelical  Christians  and  exiles,  (y')  In  PuhiiiiJ^  the  Dissi- 
dents, gradually  abandoned  by  the  aristocracy,  gradually  lost  also  their  eccle- 
siastical and  civil  rights.  In  1717,  a  law  was  enacted  which  forbade  them  to 
build  any  new  eburches,  and  another  passed  in  1733  excluded  them  from  tho 
general  diet  and  from  aU  civil  offices.  The  superior  clergy,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Jesuits,  now  went  so  far  as  to  think  of  their  complete  extermina- 
tion. The  power  of  the  Jesuits  was  exhibited  in  the  terrible  vengeance  they 
inflicted  (1724)  upon  the  Protestant  city  of  Thorn^  when  the  general  hatred 
broke  out  in  a  popular  insurrection  against  the  Jesuit  college  in  that  place. 
Despairing  of  all  other  relief,  the  Dissidents  threw  themselves  under  Russian 
protection  (1767),  from  which  they  obtained  a  restoration  of  their  rights. 
They  were,  however,  so  persecuted  on  account  of  this  proceeding,  that  they 
never  found  peace  until  they  obtained  it  under  the  favor  of  a  foreign  rule  at 
the  dissolution  of  the  Polish  kingdom  (after  1772).  (j/)  As  soon  as  Louis 
XIY.  began  to  reign  independently  in  France  (1661),  the  work  of  restoring 
unity  of  faitb  was  commenced.  The  Huguenots  were  deprived  of  many 
churches  and  schools  under  the  pretence  of  reviving  tbe  privileges  granted 
by  the  edict  of  Nantes.  In  a  fit  of  repentance  for  his  excesses,  the  king 
allowed  himself  to  be  persuaded  to  atone  for  them  by  purifying  his  kingdom 
from  all  heretics.  Many  conversions  among  the  nobility  to  obtain  the  favor 
of  the  court,  and  among  the  people  for  trifling  sums  of  money,  seemed  to 
promise  an  easy  accomplishment  of  this  undertaking.  Children  were  taken 
from  their  parents,  "  booted  missions  "  of  dragoons  were  sent  in  every  direc- 
tion (after  1681),  and  the  whole  mighty  power  of  the  monarchy  was  enlisted 
iu  tho  work  of  conversion.  In  spite  of  the  terrible  penalties  denounced 
against  all  emigration,  the  evangelical  classes,  wherever  it  was  possible,  fled 
to  other  lands.  A  home  was  offered  to  the  fugitives  in  every  part  of  Pro- 
testant Europe,  but  especially  in  Holland  and  Brandenburg.      France  lost 

/)  §  357.  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  XVII.  p.  223.  47Gss.  WalcJu  nst  R.  Gesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  227.  VI,  209. 
IX,  Iss.  Gesch.  d.  Prot  in  Ung.  (Archiv,  f.  KG.  vol.  I.  St  2.)  Die  Schl.ichtbank  v.  Eperies,  {J.  v. 
IfoniMi/r,  Taschenb.  f.  vaterl.  Gesch.  Lps.  1S37.)  [A  Hist  of  the  Trot  Church  in  Hung,  to  1S50, 
w  ith  reference  also  to  Transylvania,  -nith  Prefoce  bv  D'Aubignc,  transL  by  J.  Crais,  w.is  publ.  in 
Lontl.  1S54.  S.]  ' 

0)  §300.  (Jahlonsi:,j)  Das  betrübte  Thorn.  Brl.  ITiö.  LilUnUial,  3  Actus  v.  Thorn.  Tragj.l 
K.iniiTsb.  \'lb.     M\tl>:h,  n^t  R.  Gesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  1.  VII,  Sss. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  413.  LOUIS  XIV.    CEVENNES.        495 

more  than  lialf  a  million  of  its  most  industrious  and  trusty  citizens.  Tlio 
edict  of  Nantes  had  long  been  disregarded,  but  it  was  at  last  formally  re- 
voked in  the  year  1G85.  In  the  Ccvennei  alone,  a  mountain  tribe  which  had 
descended  from  the  TValdenses,  and  had  been  excited  to  enthusiasm  by  a  series 
of  abuses,  took  up  arms  against  their  king.  A  young  artisan  at  the  head  of 
liis  Camisards  exposed  his  naked  bosom  to  the  swords  of  the  marshals  of 
France.  Prophetic  visions  produced  by  an  epidemic  disease  of  the  imagina- 
tion and  the  boldest  military  exploits,  were  witnessed  in  the  same  persons. 
But  as  many  of  these  propliets  and  heroes  as  escaped  the  slaughter  of  the 
battle-field  and  the  axe  of  the  executioner,  were  allowed  only  the  privilege, 
which  many  of  them  scorned,  of  freely  going  into  exile  (iTOi).  The  former 
were  known  in  England  under  the  appellation  of  the  Little  Prophets,  pro- 
claimed the  approach  of  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  subversion  of  the 
pope  and  of  the  Turks,  and  created  much  astonishment  aniong  the  people,  until 
with  honest  confidence  they  tested  their  pretensions  by  an  attempt  to  raise 
the  dead.  Two  millions  of  the  Reformed  still  remained  in  France,  bereft  of 
all  civil  rights,  and  with  no  congregations  except  in  the  wilderness.  The  tei'- 
rible  laws  of  1724  could  not  bo  carried  into  elFect  upon  a  whole  population, 
but  examples  Avere  made  of  individuals,  and  many  pious  preachers  were 
hung.  But  Protestantism  heroically  re-collected  its  energies,  and  again  held 
its  first  national  synod  in  1744.  (//)  In  SiritzerlanJ,  a  civil  war  was  the  con- 
sc^quence  of  the  protection  which  Zurich  extended  to  a  few  converts  in 
Schweitz.  The  evangelical  party  was  beaten  near  Yilmergcn  (IGöG),  but 
Avithout  producing  any  permanent  change  in  the  strength  of  cither  party. 
Once  again  the  old  grudge  broke  forth  on  account  of  the  oppression  of  the 
Reformed  inhabitants  of  Toggenburg  by  the  Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  and  an  un- 
seasonable religious  war  grow  out  of  an  insignificant  brawl  respecting  a 
church.  A  second  bloody  battle  at  Vihnergen  (1712)  was  decisive  against 
the  Catholics,  religious  liberty  was  proclaimed  in  Toggenburg,  and  the  super- 
fluous wealth  of  the  abbot  was  shared  between  Zurich  and  Berne.  (/) 

§  41-i.     Attempts  at  Union. 

K.  in  Ihiiu'j,  (p.  4G3.)  Unionsversiiclio  s.  d.  Rt-f.  v.  O.  E.  O.  fDoutsche  Viertcljahrsclir.  Stuttg. 
1S4C.  N.  31s:%)    C.  G.  Keudccker,  d.  Ilaiiptvers.  z.  Pacific  d.  ov.  K.  in  Doutichl.  1S4G. 

Some  attempts  at  union  were  now  made  which  proceeded  sometimes  from 
the  action  of  individuals  and  sometimes  rather  from  circumstances.  The 
ultimate  object  of  these,  generally,  was  to  ollect  a  reconciliation  between  the 
Protestant  and  the  Catholic  Churches,  but  the  only  result  was  to  show  how 

h)  %  3GC.  SouUrr,  IL  dn  Calvlnifmc,  ea  natssancc,  son  progr6s,  sa  ddcadcnco  ct  »a  fln  en  France. 
Par.  ICSC.  4. — liulhiirefi,  Eclaircis-scinenta  lilst.  Mir  Ics  causes  do  la  rovocat  de  IVdit.  do  N.  Par. 
ITS-'.  2  vols.  Ancillon.W.  i\a  i'itablisseiiu'iit  de  Franfuls  rcfugii«  dans  Ics  i-tats  de  Braudenb.  lier. 
1C90. — De  1(1  Jiitume,  11.  des  rev.  des  COvonncs.  Par.  1700.  Brii^i/it,  \\.  dii  fanatlclsme  on  des  Cev. 
Par.  1713.  2  vols  12.  J.  C.  K.  ITn/man,  Ges-cli.  d.  Anfrulirs  In  d.  Sev.  NOrdl.  ISJJT.  Comp.  W.ilrh, 
Bibl.  vol.  II.  p.  105SS.— CA.  Coquerel,  II.  ilos  «•glises  du  de.«ert  depuls  la  fln  du  repno  do  Lonis  XIV. 
*\iw\\i\  la  r>v.  Par.  1S41.  2  vols.  [Ch.  HW.<«,  G.  il«  FtlU-e  (p.  420).  Ediiib.  Keviow,  Ajiril, 
1S54.  in  Eclectic  Mag.  Ang.  185-t.  p.  434si«.  Memoirs  of  tlio  Ware  of  the  Cevennes,  professedly  by 
CawVier  lilmseir,  and  Iransl.  Into  Engl.  Dublin.  182C.] 

t)  IIoUiii(iei\  Ilelv.  KGc.-k;1i.  vol.  IV.  J.  r.  Mueller's  Scbw.  Gcsch.  furtges.  v.  VuUUiiiin  Zur 
IS45.  Tol.  X.  p.  ISiss. 


40G  MODKKN  CIIl'KCII  IIISTOKV.     I'KK.  VI.     A.  I>.  104^1803. 

profound  wns  flio  gulf  between  these  bodies.  A  more  immediate  and  practi- 
cablo  object  was  to  unite  by  more  intimate  bonds  of  association  the  Lutheran 
and  tlie  IJofoniicd  Churclies.  The  feelings  of  tlie  Romish  party  ■were  princi- 
j.ally  enlisted  in  the  recovery  of  those  who  had  departed  from  them,  and 
who  on  their  professed  return  to  their  Mother  Church  were  often  obliged  to 
anathematize  the  objects  of  their  former  veneration,  ('/)  while  those  of  the 
Protestants  were  directed  to  the  attainment  of  national  unity.  Spinola, 
Bishop  of  Tina,  with  a  commission  from  both  the  emperor  and  the  pope, 
visited  (after  1G75)  many  of  the  Protestant  courts  of  Germany  that  he  might 
lay  before  them  certain  ambiguous  proposals  of  accommodation,  {h)  The 
only  country  in  which  any  hope  of  success  seemed  to  present  itself  was  Ilan- 
over,  where  the  reigning  family  was  anxious  to  live  on  terms  of  closer  inti- 
macy with  the  emperor.  Leibnitz  also,  that  he  might  give  peace  to  the 
world  and  advance  the  cause  of  science,  availed  himself  of  some  plans  which 
had  been  handed  down  by  tradition  from  Calixtus,  and  entered  into  some 
negotiations  with  Bossuet.  The  latter  was  Avilling  to  concede  the  marriage 
of  the  clergy,  the  cup  in  the  sacrament,  and  the  mass  in  the  common  lan- 
guage of  the  people,  while  the  former  thought  the  Catholic  fonn  of  govern- 
ment might  be  received  as  a  human  institution,  and  by  the  play  of  his  fancy 
wrought  himself  into  a  belief  of  the  Catholic  dogmas,  (c)  He  however  was 
anxious  that  the  question  of  the  reception  of  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of 
Trent  should  remain  open  nntil  the  decision  of  a  general  council,  in  which 
Protestants  might  have  a  seat,  and  their  votes  might  be  given  respecting  it. 
As  Bossuet  was  of  course  obliged  to  adhere  to  these  decrees,  and  the  pros- 
pect of  a  succession  to  the  British  throne  was  opened  to  the  house  of  Han- 
over, all  hopes  of  success  in  such  negotiations  were  necessarily  frustrated,  (d) 
John  Fabricius,  who  had  taken  upon  his  conscience  the  responsibility  for  the 
action  of  the  Princess  Elizabeth  in  going  over  to  the  Catholic  {e)  Church, 
was  so  overwhelmed  by  the  contempt  of  the  Protestant  world,  that  he  was 
obliged  to  resign  his  professorship  in  the  University  of  Helmstadt  (1709).  It 
was  not  long,  however,  before  he  was  abundantly  compensated  for  this  latter 
step.  For  nearly  half  a  century,  John  Duraeus  (d.  1680),  an  Anglican  cler- 
gyman and  an  apostle  of  Protestant  union,  travelled  about  for  the  accom- 
plishment of  his  great  object.  But  each  of  the  three  great  Protestant 
Churches  contended  not  only  for  a  faith  in  the  Christ  revealed  in  the  Scrip- 
tiu-es,  which  was  the  only  basis  of  union  insisted  upon  by  him,  but  for  aU 
those  peculiarities  which  separated  it  from  the  others.  An  agreement  for 
mutual  ecclesiastical  recognition  (tolerantia  ecclesiastica)  was  formed  on  the 
principles  of  Calixtus  at  the  religious  conference  at  Cassel  (1661),  and  re- 

a)  Mohnike,  z.  Gesch.  d.  ungar.  Flucbformul.  Greifsw.  1823.    Zeitscb.  f.  hist,  Th.  1S42.  H.  1. 
I)  Thst  which  was  made  public:  Concordia  Christiana.  Yien.  1631. 

c)  Oeuvres  posthuraes  de  M.  Bossuet  Amst  1753.  4.  1  vol. — Systema  theol.  LeibnitziL  Par.  lSi9. 
mit  Uebrs.  v.  Räss  u.  Weixa,  Mainz.  1S20.  3  ed.  1825.  comp.  G.  E.  Schulze,  ü.  d.  Entd.  dass  L 
Katholik  gewesen.  Gott  1827.  Pertz,  ü.  L.  kirchl.  GL  Bekenntn.  Brl.  1846.  [Jfackie,  Life  of  L 
p.  20>*s.] 

d)  0.  G.  Schmidt,  pericnla  conjungendarnm  Ecc.  a  Leibn.  facta  c.  similibus  nostrae  aetatis  moli 
minibus  comparata.  Grim.  1S44. 

«)  Eriirtflrtc  Frage  Hn.  Fabricil,  dass  zwischen  der  Augsb.  Conf.  u.  römlschkath.  EeL  kein  son 
derl.  Unterschied  sei.  1706. 


CHAP.  I.     EVANG.  CnCECn  TILL  1750.     §  414  UNION.     LEIBNITZ.  497 

suited  in  the  transfer  of  the  university  of  Rintelen  to  the  Reformed  Church. 
The  members  of  that  Church  were  always  inclined  to  recognize  others  as 
brethren,  but  the  Lutheran  divines  would  rather  hold  communion  with  the 
papists,  and  rcfrardod  the  hope  that  even  Calvinists  might  be  saved  as  a  temp- 
tation of  tliC  devil.  (/)  Frequently  also,  though  not  Avithout  remonstrance, 
individuals  of  the  lieformed  Cliurch  participated  in  the  sacred  Supper  in  the 
Lutheran  churches,  (y)  After  the  IVace  of  Ryswick,  the  urgent  importance 
of  fraternal  connections  between  the  Protestant  nations  as  a  security  against 
the  dangerous  exaltation  of  the  Catholic  powers,  became  still  more  apparent, 
and  upon  the  princes  of  the  hou.se  of  Prussia  was  especially  devolved  the 
task  of  adjusting  the  dissensions  which  prevailed  principally  among  the  Lu- 
therans, by  a  union  of  the  two  Protestant  Churches.  But  as  long  as  the 
energies  of  Lutheranism  continued  unabated,  every  attempt  at  reconciliation 
only  seemed  to  widen  the  breach  between  them.  (Ä)  The  appointment  of  a 
few  bishops  constituted  a  part  of  the  ceremonial  at  the  coronation  of  the 
first  king  of  Prussia  (1700),  but  this  suggested  the  idea  of  a  union  by  the 
introduction  of  the  form  of  government  which  prevailed  in  the  Anglican 
Church,  (/)  Temples  of  peace  and  union  churches  were  however  consecrated 
in  vain ;  but  although  Leibnitz  broke  oft"  the  negotiations,  it  was  in  the  full 
confidence  that  the  object  would  one  day  be  brought  of  itself  to  a  successful 
conclusion. 

§  415.     The  English  Revolution.     Cont.  from  §  364. 

E.  ITyde  of  Clarendon,  II.  of  the  KebolUon  in  Engl.  1649-60.  O.xf.  1607.  3  vols.  f.  Burnet,  II.  ol 
his  own  times,  lGGO-1713.  Lond.  1724.  2  vols.  4.  and  often.  [Secret  II.  of  Charles  II.  Lond.  1722.  2 
vols.  Clarke,  Life  of  James  IL  Lond.  ISIO.  2  vols.]  Ch.  F.  Wurm,  d.  Engl.  K.  16S9-1702.  limb. 
1S84.  F.  C.  Dahlmann,  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Kev.  Lps.  1S4.3.  5  ed.  1853.  [IL  of  the  Engl.  Rev.,  from  the 
German  of  Dahlmann  by  E.  Lloyd,  Lond.  1S44.]  T.  B.  }facaulay,  llist  of  Engl  from  the  accession 
of  James  II.  Lond.  1848-53.  4  vols.  [J.  Mcintosh,  11.  of  the  Rev.  in  Engl.  Lond.  1S34.  4.  A.  II.  Tre- 
vor, Life  and  Times  of  William  III.  of  Engl.  Lond.  1S35-G.  2  vols.  8.  P.  Grimhlot,  Letters  of 
William  III.,  Louis  XIV.  and  their  Ministers,  &c.  Lond.  1847.  S.  J.  Vernon,  Court  and  Times  of 
■\Villiam  in.  in  Letters  to  the  Uuke  of  Shrewsbury,  cd.  by  G.  P.  li.  James,  Lond.  1841.  3  vols.  8. 
A.  Ciirrel,  II.  of  the  Counter-Rev.  for  the  Re-estab.  of  Tupery  under  Charles  IL  and  James  IL,  and 
C.  J.  Fox,  IL  of  James  II.  (In  Bogue's  Eur.  Lib.)  Lond.  1840.  8.] 

On  the  death  of  Cromwell,  the  English  people,  weary  of  the  tyranny  of 
a  theocratic  republic,  recalled  the  Stuarts  to  the  throne  (1660),  Charles  11.^ 
though  he  wavered  between  infidelity  and  Catholicism,  followed  in  the  foot- 
steps of  his  father,  and  the  majesty  of  the  kingdom  trembled  under  the  inju- 
ries inflicted  by  a  dissolute  despotism.  The  Episcopal  Established  Church 
was  restoreil,  and  the  Puritans  had  to  bear  the  blame  for  tlie  blood  shed  dur- 
ing the  revolution.  Bishops  were  forceil  even  upon  tlie  Scottish  Church, 
and  if  any  royid  favor  was  shown  to  the  dis.souters,  it  was  only  from  a  regard 

/)  nolmk,  Geist  d.  luth.  Th.  Witt  p.  115. 169.  211. 

(I)  Ihid.  p.  12'.'ss.  and  Deutsche  Zeltsoh.  f.  chr.  WIss.  1S52.  N.  Ss. 

h)  Erinnerungen  an  d.  Kurf.  v.  Urandonb.  u.  KTmlge  v.  Preussen  bins.  Ihres  Verhaltens  In  Ange- 
.cg.  d.  Rel.  u.  K.  Hnmb.  1S3S.  E.  lleltcing,  ü.  Y.  W.  des  grossen  Kurf.  rol.  Ansichten  u.  kIrcUL 
«•olitik.  Lemgo.  1^17. 

i)  Relation  des  mcfiures,  qui  fürcnt  prises  dans  les  annees  1711-13  pour  Infrodulro  la  liturgio 
Angl.  dans  le  R.  do  Prusse  et  dans  I'Elect.  do  Hannovre.  Extriiit  d'lir  innnusc  d.  Dr.  Sharp,  Lond. 
.767.  4.  Itenke,  Ma;;.  1795s.  vol.  IV.  p.  ISS.ss.  V.  p.  219s.'».  Darlegung  dor  Im  vor.  Jahrb.  wcjfon  Ein» 
Tihr.  d.  nngl.  KVirf.  In  Pr.  geptlognen  Untcrharidl.  Lpz.  1S42. 

32 


498  MODKUN  CllfliCII  HISTORY.     I'lCn.  VI.     A.  V.  lfl(S-1858. 

to  tliü  C!nt holies.  Tlio  'J'a<i  Art  wiis  tlicrcforo  jci.'Jsed  in  Parliament  (1C73) 
by  wiiich  every  one  was  proliibitcd  froin  holding  any  public  oflice  iinles.s  he 
had  acknowledged  the  king's  ecclesiastical  supremacy,  and  had  received  the 
saoranu'iit  of  the  Lord's  Supper  in  an  Episcopal  church.  Lcighton  (d.  1084), 
Avlio  had  always  kei)t  the  gospel  free  from  any  connection  with  politics,  re- 
signed  the  archbishopric  of  Glasgow  as  soon  as  the  violent  measures  of  the 
Episcopal  Cliiirch  had  cut  off  all  hope  of  its  reconciliation  with  the  Presby 
terians.  ('/)  Milton,  having  published  a  treatise  in  which  he  endeavored  to 
justify  the  sentence  of  death  which  had  been  passed  upon  the  king,  gave  in 
his  darkness  and  solitude  a  bright  picture  of  his  severe  puritanic  Christian- 
ity in  his  poem  of  Paradise  Lost.  (?y)  James  II.  (after  1G85)  publicly  pro- 
fessed his  adherence  to  the  Catholic  Church,  received  a  Roman  nuncio  at  his 
court,  proclaimed  free  toleration  of  all  religions,  imprisoned  those  bishops 
who  protested  against  it,  called  around  him  a  retinue  of  Catholic  officers,  and 
formed  the  design  of  governing  a  disaffected  people  without  the  aid  of  Par- 
liament. That  people,  however,  soon  forsook  him.  His  son-in-law  William 
III.  of  Orange,  the  great  champion  of  the  Eepublic  and  of  Protestantism, 
became  king  by  an  agreement  in  which  the  constitution  of  the  empire  and 
of  the  Church  was  distinctly  settled  (1G89).  England  retained  the  Episcopal 
form  of  government  for  its  established  Church,  Ireland  was  placed  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  most  of  the  dissenters  obtained 
the  privilege  of  public  worship.  Socinians  and  Catholics,  however,  were 
excepted,  and  were  never  placed  on  a  level  with  other  dissenters  until  1779. 
The  Test  Act  also  remained  in  full  force.  In  Scotland,  where  the  inclina- 
tions of  the  people  were  in  favor  of  it,  a  Presbyterian  form  of  government 
was  maintained.  The  supreme  ecclesiastical  authority  is  vested  in  a  General 
Assembly,  composed  of  commissioners  from  the  fifteen  provincial  Presby- 
teries, assembled  annually  at  Edinburgh. 

§  416.     Freethinlers  or  Deists. 

J.  Lehinil.  View  of  the  Principal  Deistical  Writers.  1754.  2  vols.  Trinius  Froydenker-Lexlcoii. 
L.  u.  Brnb.  1759.  Zugabe,  17C5.  U.  Thorschmid,  Vers.  e.  vollst.  cngL  Freyd.  Bibl.  Hal.  1765ss.  4 
vols.  G.  Less,  neuste  Gescb.  d.  Ungl.  (irt/^c7(,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  II.  p.  8ss.  Ill,  875ss.)  Scldoaser, 
Gesch.  d.  IS.  Jahrh.  vol.  I.  p.  8S2ss.  G.  V.  Lechler,  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Deismus.  Stuttg.  1S41.  [Koack, 
Die  Freidenker  in  Engl.  Lps.  1854.  12.  Ilagenhach,  KGcsch.  des  IS.  n.  19.  Jhh.  Vorles.  10.  vol.  I. 
Lps.  1S48.] 

It  was  in  England  that  Ave  discover  the  first  efforts  of  the  mind  to  break 
away  from  all  traditionary  theology.  The  struggle  between  the  two  Churches 
there  was  severe,  and  the  established  clergy  did  not  hesitate  to  defend  their 
Catholic  position  directly  in  the  ftice  of  their  Protestant  faith.  But  the  civil 
freedom  there  enjoyed  gave  to  every  one  full  opportunity,  not  indeed  with- 

tt)  Eob.  Leighton  e.  apost  !Mann  in  stürm  Zeit  Brl.  1835.  [Jerment,  Life  and  Bemains  of  L. 
Lond.  J.  Pearson,  Life  prefixed  to  Works.  Lond.  1S46.  Works  with  a  Memoir,  by  Aikinan,  Edinb. 
IS40.  Svo.] 

h)  Defcnsio  pro  populo  Anglicano.  Lond.  1651.  Baradi^e  Lost.  1CC7.  De  Doctr.  chr.  1.  XL  ed.  C. 
/?.  Si(mner,  Lps.  1^27.— H";  Iliiyley.  Life  of  Milton.  Lond.  1796.'  4.  G.  Weher,  in  Eaumers  liisL 
Tasehcnb.  1S52.  {Todd-i  Life  of  Milton.  Lond.  8.  J.  Ivimey,  Life  and  Times  of  J.  Milton.  New 
York.  1835.  12.] 


CHAP.  1.    EVAXG.  CHURCH  TILI.  ITöO.    §  41C.  FREETHINKERS.  499 

out  some  danger,  (a)  to  express  opinions  adverse  to  the  established  faith.  A 
series  of  authors  with  no  official  connection  witlx  the  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment, but  Avithin  the  pale  of  the  Church  itself,  defended  by  arguments  from 
common  sense,  and  in  some  instances  with  considerable  learning,  the  position 
that  the  natural  consciousness  of  tlie  divine  existence  and  man's  own  con- 
science was  all  that  was  necessary  for  a  perfect  religion.  Christianity  was 
therefore  regarded  by  some  of  these  writers  as  of  no  value  except  as  it  con- 
tained the  germ  of  this  natural  religion  ;  by  others  it  was  resisted  as  priest- 
craft; and  by  all  its  historical  importance  and  origin  was  denied.  Lord 
Herlert  of  Cherhury  (d.  1648),  a  statesman  of  considerable  seriousness  and 
enthusiasm  with  respect  to  religion,  was  the  first  to  devolope  this  idea  of  a 
natural  religion,  which  he  of  course  pointed  out  as  an  element  in  pagan- 
ism. (Ä)  Ilvhhcs  (d.  1679),  one  of  those  vigorous  thinkers  who  deny  their 
intellects  and  sell  them  to  arbitrary  power,  endeavored  to  prove  that  Chris- 
tianity was  an  oriental  phantom,  which  had  been  raised  by  the  influence  of 
Grecian  philosophy  to  be  an  instrument  of  absolute  monarchy,  (c)  The  Earl 
of  ShafteHhury  (1713),  advocating  a  religion  of  mere  morality,  mingled  in 
bis  writings  an  apparent  reverence  for  Cliristianity  with  the  most  delicate 
irony.  ('0  Toland  (d.  1722)  made  an  assault  upon  the  Jewish  character  of 
Christianity  and  the  genuineness  of  its  original  records,  and  endeavored  to 
establish  a  pantheistic  religion  of  a  purely  earthly  nature.  (<)  The  peculiar 
way  in  which  Mmideville  (d.  1733)  represented  the  passions  and  vices  of  men 
as  necessary  to  the  prosperity  of  the  state,  made  his  work  a  satire  upon  the 
morality  and  the  perfect  standard  advocated  by  the  Church.  (/)  Collins 
(d.  1729)  attacked  the  views  of  miracles,  and  the  whole  system  of  sensuous 
metaphysics  in  vogue  among  the  divines  of  that  period.  (.'/)  Woohton  resolved 
the  miracles  of  Jesus  into  a  series  of  allegories,  and  died  in  defence  of  his 
opinions  in  prison  (1733).  (//)  2'lndal  (d.  1733)  contended  that  the  Scriptures 
were  nothing  but  original  documents  of  natural  religion,  that  Christianity 
was  as  old  as  creation,  and  that  the  Church  was  an  institution  of  the 

a)  Blanco  Whitf,  Law  of  anti-religious  libel.  Dubl.  1S34. 

h)  De  veritate  prout  distinguitiir  a  Revel.  (Par.  \(,U.  4.)  Lond.  1C33.  4.  ami  often.  Pc  Rel.  Gen- 
tiliutn.  1CJ5.  ed.  J.  I  o««,  Ain>t  1700.  [transl  into  En^'l.  Lond.  1705.  S.  Life  of  Lord  II.  of  C.  writ- 
ten by  hiinseir.  Lond.  1824.  8.] 

c)  Leviathan.  Lond.  1G51.  f.  (in  LaL  dc  materia,  f>rina  ct  potestato  civitatis  ccc.  et  civil.)  Anist. 
1(170.  4  and  oflen.  llist  ecc.  carmine  eleg.  conelnnat.-u  Aug.  Trinobant  ICsS.  [Eng.  Works,  cd.  by 
M'm.  ifolenicorth,  Lond.  l>39-43.  9  vols.  8.  Latin  works,  td.  by  Ji.  BUtckbouine,  Lond.  1839.  S.]— 
Thomae  Ilobh.  Vita  Carolop.  1G81.  12. 

d)  Cliaracteristic*  of  Men,  Manner.«,  and  Times.  Lond.  173.3.  3  vols.  12.  [Cooke,  Life  of  !?haft«8- 
bury.  Lond.  1S3C.  2  vols.  8.] 

e)  Ctirislianity  not  mysterious.  Lond.  1C9C.  Adeisidacmon  s.  T.  Livius  a  Ruper>L  vindicatus. 
Hag.  Com.  17fi9.  Xazarcnu.s,  Jewish,  ricntilc,  and  Mahometan  Cliri.stianity.  Lond.  171S.  I'antliels- 
ticon.  Cosmop.  1720.  {TuUnid's  Misoell.  Work.»,  with  Account  of  Life  and  Writings  by  Dt>i  Mai- 
Manx,  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  S.]—Moshehii,  Vimllelao  nntiq.  clir.  dIscipL  adv.  Tol.  c(L  2.  Hinb.  1722.  4. 
[Theol.  And  Philol.g.  Works  of  Toland.  1732.  S.] 

/)  Fable  of  the  Bees.  Lond.  17ti6.  2  vols.  12.  with  cotnm.  Lond.  1714.  [Free  Tlionglits  on  Rel. 
tlie  Clmreli,  &c.  Lond.  1729    12  ] 

g)  A  discourse  of  Freetliinking.  Lond.  1713.  The  »chemo  of  literal  prophecy  considered.  Lond. 
1726.  2  vols.  [Hist,  and  Crit.  Essay  on  the  39  Artt.  ic.  Lond.  1724.  8.  Grounds  and  reasons  of  the 
Chr.  Eel.  Lond.  1724  S.]—T/iors(:/tmi<l,  Lebenscesch.  C.  Dr.s.l.  1751. 

fi)  Disc,  on  the  Miracles.  Lond.  1727.  with  5  continuations  till  1729.  CurU,  Lifo  of  W.  Lond 
1733.     Lc7Hi-ei;  X.achr.  v.  W.  Schicks.  Lps.  1710. 


bOO  MODKUN  (  ntJRCII  HISTORY.     I'KR.  YI.     A.  T).  Ir,|?-1SM. 

State.  (0  Mon/an  (tl.  1743),  wlio  under  tho  influence  of  motives  partaking 
very  little  of  a  spiritual  character,  had  wandered  throufjh  every  variety  of 
the  most  heterogeneous  parties  in  the  Church,  attempted  finally  to  tear  off 
the  mask  from  every  thing  historical  in  Christianity,  and  show  that  it  was  ar. 
invention  of  priests,  (/i)  C'hiilb  (1747)  maintained  that  Christianity  was 
originally  intended  to  be  a  revelation  of  the  moral  law  of  nature,  the  viola- 
tion of  Avhich  was  to  be  atoned  for  by  repentance  or  pimished  at  the  final 
judgment,  but  that  it  bad  been  misunderstood  and  misrepresented  by  the 
apostles.  (0  Lord  Bolinghrole  (d.  1751),  a  man  possessed  of  the  most  emi- 
nent social  qualities,  pointed  out  to  those  who  made  a  gain  of  religion,  that 
tlio  same  worldly  policy  which  then  directed  the  events  of  history  had  done 
the  same  in  all  past  ages,  (w)  The  partial  views  which  this  author  took  from 
his  peculiar  position,  were  expressed  in  a  ridiculous  representation  of  the  his- 
tory of  the  English  kings,  written  in  Avhat  he  conceived  to  be  the  peculiar 
views  and  manner  of  the  Jewish  chronicles.  («)  Henry  DoäircU^  Avithout 
attempting  any  compromise  with  science,  endeavored  to  prove  that  by  its 
very  nature,  religious  faith  excluded  the  exercise  of  all  thought,  if)  Tlie  nu- 
merous treatises  written  by  the  clergy  in  opposition  to  the  Deists,  called  also 
Rationalists,  exhibited  a  much  higher  degree  of  learning,  (p)  but  as  literary 
productions,  they  were  no  match  for  the  better  class  of  the  works  of  their 
opponents.  Concessions  were  made  in  them  which  rendered  others  abso- 
lutely necessary,  and  suggested  doubts  in  circles  to  which  professed  oppo- 
nents could  gain  no  access.  Many  apostasies  from  the  Church  under  the 
guise  of  indifference  took  place  among  the  higher  ranks.  The  noblest  repre- 
sentative of  this  class  was  David  Hume  (d.  1776),  a  pleasant  philosopher,  who 
in  the  uncertainty  at  which  ho  had  arrived  respecting  all  human  affairs,  con- 
cluded it  best  to  be  independent  in  all  things,  {q)  Even  after  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Deism  had  passed,  the  absurd  scheme  of  an  association 
of  deists  and  atheists,  or  the  mockery  of  a  hell-fire  club,  was  commenced  in 
London  (about  1780).  (r)  The  great  body  of  the  people  held  firmly  to  the 
ancient  Christianity,  in  behalf  of  which  a  new  enthusiasm  was  awakened 
among  the  sects.  In  Germany,  some  isolated  persons  still  went  forth  in  pur 
suit  of  adventures  against  the  Church.    Matthias  Knntzen,  an  itinerant  can- 


i)  Eights  of  the  Church  against  Eomish  and  all  other  priests.  Lend.  1T07.  and  often.  Christianity 
js  old  as  the  Creation.  Lond.  1730.  4.  and  often.  [Mem.  of  the  Life,  Writings,  and  Controversies  of 
Tindal.  Lond.  1733.  8.  and  often.] 

ir)  The  moral  philosopher.  Lond.  1787.  3  vols.    Eesurrection  of  Jesus.  Lond.  1743. 

/)  The  true  Gospel  of  J.  Chr.  asserted.  Lond.  173S.  and  others. 

m)  Letters  on  the  Study  and  Use  of  Hist.  Lond.  1752.  2  vols.  Svo.  Philosophical  works,  Lond. 
1754.  5  vols.  4.  [Works  with  Life.  Philad.  1541.  4  vols.  S.—  mirbnrton's  (Bp.)  View  of  the  Pbilos. 
of  B.  Lond.  1756.  S.] 

«)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  IX.  p.  298.  XI.  p.  259ss. 

o)  Christianity  not  founded  on  Argument.  Lond.  (1742.  1743.)  174G. 

p)  Especially  Xaih.  Lardner,  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History.  Lond.  (1727.)  1738-55.  2  vols. 
[Works  with  Life  by  Kippis,  Lond.  158?.  10  vols.  8.] 

q)  Inquiry  concerning  the  Human  Understanding.  Lond.  174S.  Dialogues  concendng  Xat.  Eeli- 
pion.  Lond.  1778.  Life  of  David  Hume,  by  himself.  Lond.  1777.  [Philos.  Works.  Edinb.  182C.  4  voli 
S.  Essays.  Edinb.  2  vols.  S.]—Wahh,  nst  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  YIII.  p.  20SiS.  Jacoli,  D.  II.  1787 
(Werke,  vol.  II.)    Zschiesche,  de  Humio  scepüco.  Hal.  1835. 

f)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  nostri  temp.  vol.  XII.  p.  343s9. 


CHAP.  I.     EVAXO.  CHUßCII  TILL  1750.    g  41C.  DIPPEL.    EDELMANN.         501 

üidate  for  the  ministry  from  Holstein,  asserted  (1764)  that  a  congregation 
of  persons  calling  themselves  Conscicntinrians  (conscientiarii)  were  exten- 
eively  spread  in  various  parts,  vpho  maintained  that  the  Christian  Koran  was 
quite  as  inconsistent  with  itself,  and  as  unworthy  of  confidence,  as  the  Turk- 
ish Koran,  and  that  we  should,  like  Enoch  and  Xoah,  Avithout  the  fable  of 
Christ,  depend  entirely  upon  our  reason.  This  they  contended  was  the  con- 
science which  mother  nature  has  implanted  in  the  breast  of  every  man,  and 
which,  as  it  is  found  not  merely  in  one  but  in  many  and  all  intelligent  per- 
sons, teaches  us  to  injure  no  one,  and  to  leave  all  to  the  possession  of  what 
belongs  to  them,  Ilence  they  taught  that  if  any  one  desi)i3ed  this  Bible,  he 
must  necessarily  despise  himself.  They  denied  the  existence  of  a  God  and  a 
devil,  a  heaven  and  a  hell,  except  such  as  is  created  by  conscience,  and  they 
regarded  married  women  and  prostitutes  as  equally  respectable,  and  all  priests 
and  magistrates  as  useless.  These  sentiments  were  boldly  and  plainly  pro- 
mulgated by  popular  tracts  extensively  distributed  among  the  people.  (*) 
The  bitter  railings  which  Dlppel  (d.  1734),  under  the  name  of  the  Christian 
Dcmocritus,  published  against  what  he  called  the  Protestant  papacy  and  its 
vicarious  atonement,  were  the  offspring  of  a  Pietism  which  he  carried  to 
such  a  degree  of  refinement  that  every  thing  historical  and  external  in  Chris- 
tianity vanished  from  his  system.  (/)  Excited  by  his  writings,  and  following 
the  path  marked  out  by  Knutzen,  Edelmann  (d.  1707)  believed  that  he  was 
called  to  be  a  second  Luther,  and  looked  upon  the  Scriptures  as  a  collection 
of  fragments,  which  were  awkwardly  put  together  after  passing  through  hun- 
dreds and  thousands  of  credulous  lips.  In  rude  but  vigorous  language  he  denied 
the  claims  of  every  religion  founded  upon  revelation,  that  he  might  like  a  genu- 
ine freethinker,  emancipated  from  the  shackles  of  Christianity,  i»repare  the 
way  for  a  religion  corresponding  Avith  reason  and  experience.  Such  a  reli- 
gion he  contended  would  make  a  Christ  of  every  man,  Avhom  he  regarded  as 
an  individual  though  imperfect  organ  of  the  universal  Spirit  and  the  divine 
Logos.  Ilis  Avritings  were  burnt  by  order  of  the  emperor  (1750),  but  ho  was 
protected  by  Frederic  II.  («) 


«)  J.  Ifuaaetta,  Ableinnng  d.  Verleambdang,  ob  wäre  In  Jon.-»  o.  neuo  Sect«  d.  Gew.  cntsUtoden. 
•Tea.  (1G74.)  1675.  4.  In  the  Append,  to  Kuntzcn's  "Cliartcqvcn."  Uerl.  Monatsclir.  Apr.  u.  Aug.  ISOl. 
ir.  liossel,  in  the  Stnd.  u.  Krit.  1844.  P.  4. 

t)  Collections  of  his  writings:  Eriift'n.  Wog  z.  Frieden  m.  Gott  n.  alien  Crcatiiren  durch  Chr. 
Denioc.  (17u9.)  Berlcb.  1747.  8  vols.  4.  M\ilch,  IJ.  Str.  vol.  II.  p.  71Sss.  IL  J.  W.  (Iloirinann)  Leben 
u.  Mein.  Dip.  Dannst  17S2.     W.  Klosf,  .J.  Dipp.  (ZoiU^:li.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S51.  II.  3.) 

v)  Unschuld.  Wahrheiten.  173!Jss.  15  St.  Mosos  mit  aur;:cdocktcn  Angos.  Freyb.  (Berlcb.)  1740. 
3  Anblicke.  Dio  Göttlichk.  d.  Vernunft.  1741.  Setidschr.  den  Vorzug,  e.  Frcygolsts  vor  e.  armen 
Bunder  zeigend.  Freyst  1740.— Selbstblo^rr.  (1752.)  cd.  by  Klose,  IJrI.  1$49.— ./:  //.  J'ralje,  hist 
Naclir.  V.  Ed.  Ilnnib.  1755.     W.  Elster,  Erin,  an  Ed.  in  Bezug  a.  Strauss.  Clausth.  1*39. 


502  MODEUN  CHURCH  HISTOllY.    PKU.  VI.    A.  D.  lfilWS*3. 

§  417.     The  Quälers. 

Cnticli.  ot  flilcl  Conf.  Roter.  1676.  Lps.  1752.  lioh.  Burclay,  Theo],  vcre  ehr.  Apol.  Anist  lö7«.  1.  and 
rft,  Venn,  Smiiiiiiiry  of  tho  hist.,  doctr.  nnd  discipl.  of  Friends.  1C92.  cd.  C.  1707.  m.  Anm.  v.  Seehohm, 
l'vrin.  (l'U'.'.)  17!»S.  liiilos  of  discl])!.  of  the  Soc.  of  Friends.  Loud.  17S3.  cd.  .3.  1S.34.— 6-'.  Croenii  H. 
(jiiiilccrlnnn.  Aiiist.  (Ifii).').)  1704.  Jll/erti,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Rel.  d.  Q.  Hann.  17Ö0.  (Jmirjlinn,  W.  of  the 
[■ooplc  c.illcd  Quakers.  Dubl.  17S9.  4  vols.  F.  Clarkson,  Portraiture  of  Quakerisme.  Lond.  1806.  8- 
vdis.  //.  Tukc,  [Principles  of  Religion  as  held  by  Christians  comirior.ly  called  Quakers,  in  Germ,  ii 
Kn"].  Lond.  and  Lpz.  IS'28.  8.]  J.J.  G  urtiey,  0\)%%.  on  the  society  of  Friends.  Lond.  1S24.  c<L  7 
13.34.  \_W.  Scicell,  H.  of  the  Quakers.  Lond.  and  New  York.  1840.  2  vols.  8.  TI'  li.  V'ctgBtiiff,  II.  a* 
the  Soc.  of  Friends.  New  York.  1S36.  8.] 

George  Fox  (d.  1691),  a  sLoemakcr  from  the  county  of  Leicester,  who 
felt  called  by  inward  visions  to  become  a  reformer  of  tlie  ungodliness  which 
]irevailcd  around  Lim,  founded  (after  IG-iO)  in  tlie  stormy  times  of  the  revo- 
lution the  society  of  Friends,  commonly  called  Quakers,  (a)  The  essential 
principle  of  their  faith  was  that  every  thing  of  a  rehgious  character  in  man 
is  the  result  of  an  immediate  operation  of  the  Spirit  of  God,  Avho  would 
come  to  all  who  quietly  waited  for  him.  They  therefore  look  upon  all  exter- 
nal rites  as  useless.  This  internal  revelation  proceeding  from  Christ  ever 
since  the  fall,  and  given  to  impart  everlasting  life  to  man,  they  regard  as 
of  equal  authority  with  the  Holy  Scriptures.  They  look  upon  the  sacraments 
as  merely  symbols  of  an  internal  state  of  mind,  and  therefore  not  necessary 
to  be  received  in  an  external  form ;  they  reject  the  office  of  the  regular 
clergy,  together  with  all  systems  of  theology,  on  the  ground  of  their  being 
human  inventions,  and  they  wish  to  have  no  church  but  that  of  the  Spirit. 
On  religious  grounds  they  decidedly  refuse  to  render  any  military  service,  to 
swear,  to  pay  tithes,  and  to  conform  to  the  fashions  of  the  world.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  violent  disturbances  of  public  worship  which  Fox  allowed  him- 
self and  his  followers  to  make,  and  their  refusal  to  perform  the  duties  ordi- 
narily required  of  citizens,  many  of  the  Quakers  were  thrown  into  prisons 
and  lunatic  asylums,  until  William  Fcnn  (d.  1T18),  a  man  worthy  of  the 
crown  as  well  as  of  the  cross,  determined  to  establish  a  home  for  his  com- 
panions in  the  faith,  as  well  as  for  religious  freedom  generally.  He  purchased 
the  lands  situated  on  the  Delaware,  and  formed,  under  the  sovereignty  of 
the  English  crown,  and  by  means  of  colonies  nearly  half  of  whose  citizens 
were  Quakers,  the  state  of  Pennsylvania,  for  a  long  time  the  cradle  of  lib- 
erty for  the  African  and  for  the  world.  {I)  The  same  privileges  as  were 
enjoyed  by  the  Dissenters  generally  in  England  were  acquired  (1686)  by  the 
Friends,  and  their  conscientious  scruples  Avere  treated  with  the  utmost  indul- 
gence. Only  a  few  congregations  still  exist  in  Holland,  in  England  they  are 
decreasing,  in  Northern  Germany  they  have  become  extinct,  and  but  a  sin- 

a)  Collect  of  Chr.  Epistles  written  by  G.  Fox,  Lond.  169S.  2  vols.  f.  Journal  of  the  Life,  Travels, 
and  Sufferings  of  G.  Fox.  Lond.  1G91.  and  often.  [Philad.  1836.  &  Complete  Works  of  G.  Y.  Philad. 
1S31.  8  vols.  S.    IT.  Tiike,  Memoirs  of  the  Life  of  G.  F.  Lond.  12.] 

l>)  Works.  Lond.  1726.  2  vols.  f.  (IT.  A.  Teller)  Lebensbeschr.  W.  P.  Brl.  1779.  aarlson,  Me- 
moirs of  the  private  and  piibl.  life  of  W.  P.  1813.  2  vols.  Memoirs  of  the  Hist  Society  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Philad.  1840.  vol.  IV,  1.  [B.  IT.  Draper,  Life  of  W.  P.  Lond.  1326.  24.]  Correspondence  oi 
.T.  Logan  with  W.  P.  collected  by  ITannah  I'enji,  Philad.  1821.  [J.  JT.  Janney,  Life  of  W.  P.  and 
Sol.  from  Cor.  and  Autobiogr.  2  ed.  Philad.  lSe2.  8.  ys'eems'  Life  of  W.  P.  Philad.  12.  IF'.  II. 
Diron,  Hist  Biogr.  of  W.  P.  from  new  sources,  new  ed.  Philad.  1S51.  12  ] 


CnAr.  L    EVAXG.  CIIUKCII  TILL  1750.    §  41S.  ZINZENDOEF.  503 

gle  congregation  has  become  established  in  Pyrmont  (1791).  ('■)  Govern- 
ment among  them  is  administered  on  democratic  principles,  by  a  series  of 
assemblies  gradually  ascending  to  the  highest,  in  each  of  which  difficulties 
between  members  are  settled  by  arbitration.  Those  who,  in  the  contest  for 
American  freedom,  in  an  admirable  enthusiasm  temporarily  laid  aside  their 
peculiar  principles  and  took  up  arms  for  their  country,  and  those  who  par- 
tially renounced  the  rude  exterior  required  by  the  society,  while  moderately 
enjoying  their  well-earned  wealth,  although  tolerated  by  the  society  as  fight- 
ing, free,  lukewarm,  or  wet  Friends,  are  never  elected  as  deputies  to  their 
superior  assemblies.  The  enthusiasm  of  an  entire  reliance  upon  temporary 
inspirations  is  somewhat  moderated  by  an  education  inculcating  stillness  as 
one  of  its  primary  principles ;  but  the  secret  inclination  which  has  always 
characterized  this  system  to  break  loose  from  all  historical  Christianity,  has 
been  developed  during  the  nineteenth  century  in  many  American  congrega- 
tions by  Elias  Hides.  This  has,  however,  given  occasion  for  an  expression 
of  a  more  decided  adherence  to  the  Holy  Scriptures  on  the  part  of  the 
other,  and  the  most  numerous  portion  of  the  members.  {<J)  In  the  com- 
munion of  this  people,  Elizabeth  Fnj  found  the  strength  and  courage  which 
enabled  her  to  penetrate  the  thousand  prisons  to  which  she  conveyed  the 
contrition  and  consolation  of  the  gospel,  (e) 

§  418.     The  United  Brethren.     Ziuzendorf.     1700-1700. 

Zimendorf :  Gegeinr.  Gestalt  des  Krciizroiclis  Jesu  in  sr.  Unscliuld.  L[>s.  (1745.)  4.  Tltpl  tavrov 
o.  naturelle  liefloxiones.  (1740.)  4.  Jcreinias  e.  Prediger  d.  Gerecbtigk.  new  ed.  Brl.  18-30.  Spangen- 
berg,  Leben  d.  G.  v.  Z.  (Barby.)  1772ss.  8  vols.  L.  C.  v.  Sc/iruutenhach,  d.  Gr.  v.  Z.  ii.  d.  Brüder- 
gem.  sr.  Zeit.  (I7S2.)  od.  by  F.  W.  Kijlbing,  Gnad.  1S51.  J.  W.  Verheek,  d.  G.  v.  Z.  Leben  u.  Char. 
GnaA.  \^i^.—  V<trnh<igen  von  Eitse,  Leben  d.  G.  v.  Z.  (Biogr.  Denkra.  vol.  V.)  Brl.  18.30.— Bü- 
dliigische  Samml.  einiger  in  d.  KHist.  einschlag.  Selirr.  Bud.  1742ss.  3  vols.  Spangenherg :  Nachr. 
V.  (L  gegenw.  Verf.  d.  ev.  Br.  U.  ( ir«fc/(,  nst.  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  III.)  5.  umg.  A.  Gnadau.  1S2.3.  Idea 
fldei  fratr.  o.  kurtztr  Bgr.  d.  chr.  Lehre.  B.irb.  1779.  Lebenslauf  v.  ihm  selbst.  (I/enk-e'ft  Arch.  f.  n?:. 
KG.  vol.  IL  St  3.)  Statuten  d.  ev.  Br.  U.  Gnad.  1S19.— /).  Cram,  alte  u.  nene  BrUlerhist  Barb. 
17T2.  (l/egner)  Forts.  B.  1791-1804.  Gnad.  1816.  3  vols.  Gr.  v.  Lynar,  Nachr.  v.  Urspr.  u.  pegenw. 
Verf.  d.  B.  U.  1778.  2  ed.  Ilal.  17S1.  Ch.  C.  F.  Schulze,  v.  Entst  u.  Einr.  d.  ev.  Brüdergcm.  Goth 
1S22.  L.  So/iaaf,  d.  ev.  BrQdergeni.  Lps.  1825.  F.  I.itiU,  Blicke  in  d.  Vergangenh.  u.  Gegenw.  djr 
BrQderk.  Lps.  1846.  [.1.  G.  Spandenberg,  E.vpos.  of  the  Chr.  Doct  as  taught  in  the  Prot.  Church 
of  the  U.  B.  with  Pref.  by  La  Trohe,  Lend.  1796.  8.  7).  Crantz,  IL  of  the  U.  B.  Lond.  17S0.  8.  A". 
Jlogenhaeh,  KGcsch.  des  IS.  u.  19.  Jahrh.  2  ed.  Th.  L  Vorles,  18.  Lps.  1S49.  2  Th.  12.] 

Louis,  Count  of  Zimendorf,  even  when  a  boy  at  the  orphan  house,  was 
filled  with  the  idea  which  Spener  had  inculcated,  of  reforming  the  Church 
and  establishing  it  among  the  heathen  by  planting  it  in  their  midst  as  a 
grain  of  mustard-seed.  Ilis  aspirations  received  a  permanent  dircctiim  under 
the  influence  of  the  Moravian  brethren,  who  had  formed  a  settlement  on  his 
estates  at  Berthelsdorf,  to  which  other  newly-awakened  jicrsons  were  added. 
until  he  succeeded  in  laying  (1722)  the  foundation  of  the  congregation  of 
Herrnhut,  on  tlie  Ilutberg.  Under  his  influence  the  hostile  spirits  among  his 
people  were  conciliated,  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  which  he  proposed  to 

c)  J.  E.  SchmUl,  Qulikergemelndc  in  Pyrm.  Brnschw.  1S05. 

d)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S2S.  p.  SO.'iss.  1S29.  p.  782s!».  1S40.  p.  Ulss. 

e)  Leben  u.  Denkwürdigk.  der  Frau  Elis.  Fry.  Hamb.  2  cd.  1S50.  2  vols.  \J.  Timpson,  McmMrf 
of  E.  Fry.  Lond.  1S40.  New  York.  1847.  2  vols.] 


,-,01  .M<)I)KI:N  Cllli:«  H   III>T()ItV.     VKll.  VI.     a.  U.  ]049-15M. 

tliiMii  WHS  acoopti'd  (1727),  iiikI  in  a  slmrt  fiiuc  their  missionaries  Avandered 
lorlli  iiiiioii;,'  llio  licatlicn.     Tiio  religion  wliich  lie  tauglit  was  fdiiridcd  upon 
the  Bible,  Imt  inculcated  very  free  oi)ini<)ns  respecting  it,  and  consisted  prin- 
lipailv  ill  exorcises  of  the  most  confiding  love  to  the  Saviour,     This  love 
exalted  il  above  all  distinctions  in  ecclesiastical  creeds,  but  produced  no 
anxiety  to  abolish  them.     Ilenco  tlie  congregation  gradually  became  organ- 
ized into  three  different  tropes,  called  the  Moravian,  the  Lutheran,  and  the 
Reformed.     Their  ordinary  devotions  were  principally  taken  up  with  refer- 
ences to  the  corporeal  part  of  the  expiatory  sufferings  of  Jesus,  and  their 
natural  relations  of  conjugal  life  were  strangely  connected  with  those  of  a 
religious  character.     With  a  mind  ri'markably  inclined  to  extravagance,  and 
with  inexhaustible  powers  for  communicating  with  others  on  religious  sub- 
jects by  oral  discourses,  and  singing  directly  from  the  heart,  («)  in  the  half 
French  court  dialect  of  his  time,  and  yet  with  a  singular  facility  for  suggest- 
ing the  most  exalted  themes  hj  the  use  of  the  most  common  comparisons, 
Ziuzendorf  was  fond  of  playing  with  allusions  to  the  wounds  of  the  Lamb, 
and  Avith  the  boldest  images  of  sexual  love.     The  oftcnce  which  this  gave  to 
the  theologians  of  his  day,  was  hardh*  capable  of  augmentation  by  the  fan- 
tastic notions  which  he  advanced  respecting  the  persons  of  the  sacred  Trinity, 
and  various  suspicious  circumstances  which  became  known  in  his  commn- 
nity.  (h)     It  was  with  the  utmost  difficulty  that  the  count  broke  through  the 
prejudices  of  his  order  so  as  to  reach  the  clerical  office,  but  he  was  finally 
recognized  at  Tubingen  as  a  candidate,  and  ordained  to  the  e])iscopal  oflBce 
by  a  Moravian  bishop  at  Berlin,     But  having  attained  this  official  position, 
his  rank  and  education  were  of  important  service  to  him  in  his  spiritual  du- 
ties.   After  a  ten  years'  banishment  from  Saxony,  he  succeeded,  as  a  Chris- 
tian statesman,  in  inducing  the  ecclesiastical  council  of  Electoral  Saxony  to 
recognize  the  connection  of  his  congregations  with  the  churches  professing 
the  Augsburg  Confession  (1748),  and  in  obtaining  from  Parliament  a  regular 
enactment  which  recognized  them  as  constituent  members  of  the  Episcopal 
Church  (1749).     Although  the  humblest  of  the  humble,  he  demanded  implicit 
submission  to  his  official  power  of  binding  and  loosing,  (c)  and  infused  into  bia 
works  so  much  of  the  principle  of  life,  that  it  could  very  soon  exist  without 
him.     After  a  brief  season  of  enjoyment,  he  generally  withdrew  from  those 
who  were  in  various  ways  excited  and  inspired.  ((/)    But  although  the  Breth- 
ren established  settlements  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  Zinzondorf  was  still  pre- 
pared with  the  most  restless  and  extreme  activity  to  labor  to  win  persons  of 
every  class  in  society  to  the  love  of  his  Lord.    Each  congregation  is  divided 
into  choirs  according  to  age,  sex,  and  matrimonial  connection.     Within  the 
general  bond  of  the  congregation  is  embraced  at  once  all  civil,  and  many 

n)  Gelstl.  Gedichte  d.  Gr.  Z.  gcsamnielt  u.  gesiclitet  v.  A.  Knapp,  Stuttg.  1545.  Stud.  n.  Krit 
ISiS.  II.  3. 

t)  (After  Fresenius,  1747ss.  and  Bengel.  1751.)  Das  entdcclitc  Geheimniss  d.  Bosh.  d.  Ilermh. 
äecte.  Krkf.  1749.  J.  Stiu/itra,  Wnrniing  vor  d.  Fanaticism,  from  the  Dutch.  Brl.  17Ö2.  [Stinntra'i 
Pastoral  Letter  against  Fanaticism  has  been  transl.  into  Engl,  with  a  Narr,  of  the  Eise  and  Prog.  <4 
the  Moravians  by  Ilimiux.  Lond.  1753.  S.  Jfosheim,  Ecc,  U.  Cent.  XV III.  §  17.  nt  L  Ilajenbach, 
KGcsch.  des  IS.  u.  10.  .Ihh.  Erster  Th.  Torless.  IS.  &  19. 

c)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  VI.  p.  569ss.        rf)  IhU.  vol.  IV.  p.  C41ss. 


CHAP.  I.    EVAXG.  CnCRCII  TILL  1750.    §  419.  METHODISTS.  505 

professional  and  external  relations,  but  some  "who  are  called  Friends  may 
also  reside  beyond  the  limits  of  the  settlement  («V  Siaa-nopä).  As  the  congre- 
gation consists  only  of  those  who  are  called  the  Awakened,  it  follows  that 
those  who  may  become  lukewarm  fall  under  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 
This  consists  in  admonition,  exclusion  from  the  Lord's  Supper,  from  church 
fellowship,  and  finally  from  the  congregation.  The  officers  are  deacons, 
elders,  and  bishops,  tliough  these  hist  possess  no  exclusive  prerogatives. 
Every  settlement  is  under  the  government  of  a  conference  composed  of  its 
officers,  and  the  whole  Unity  is  governed  by  a  conference  of  the  elders,  the 
seat  of  which  is  established  at  Bertlielsdorf,  and  calls  from  every  four  to  ten 
years  a  general  synod,  at  which  its  own  vacancies  are  filled  and  all  important 
measures  are  decided  upon.  Every  thing  beyond  the  reach  of  human  calcu- 
lation is  intrusted  to  a  decision  by  the  lot,  as  tliey  believe  that  Jesus  ha.s  such 
a  direct  connection  with  their  affairs,  that  in  such  a  proceeding  he  directs  the 
result,  (e)  The  system  of  government  among  the  united  Brethren  is  the 
same  with  that  of  the  Pietists,  although  the  mild  and  cheerful  disposition  of 
Zinzendorf  could  not  accede  to  the  requirement  of  penitential  convulsions, 
and  he  therefore  was  not  on  intimate  terras  with  the  Orphan  House.  The 
objectionable  expressions  which  Zinzendorf  liad  used  in  the  early  part  of  his 
course,  were  finally  recalled  by  himself,  and  still  more  decidedly  by  his  judi- 
cious and  learned  successor,  Spaiujcuhurg  (d.  1702).  (/)  The  piety  of  the 
Hermhutters  soon  degenerated  into  a  peculiar  mannerism,  and  it  became  per- 
vaded by  a  commercial  worldly  spirit,  (y)  Yet  many  a  quiet  or  broken 
heart  found  a  home  among  tliem,  and  the  genuine  Christ  of  earlier  days 
found  there  a  sanctuary  in  times  of  infidelity  and  unbelief. 

§419.     The  Methodists.     Wesley.     1703-91.     WhiteßeW.     17H-70. 

Tlie  works  of  J.  Wesloy.  Bristol.  ITTlss.  82  v.  R.  Southe;/,  Lifo  of  J.  W.  &  tlio  rise  ami  progress 
of  Metbo(li.siii.  cd.  3.  Lond  1S46.  2  vols.  S.  J/.  Jfuore,  Lifo  of  J.  W.  Lond.  1824*.  2  vols.  II.  Wnttou, 
Obss.  on  Soutliey's  Life  of  W.  Lond.  ed.  4.  IS-^a— Life  of  G  Wliitoflild.  Edinb.  1S2G.  edited  after  tlio 
Engl,  by  Tholuck  in  Germ.  Lpz.  1*54.  [./  Gilliex,  Memoirs  of  G.  W.  Hartford.  IS:«.  S.  II.  Philip, 
Life  &  Times  of  G.  W.  Lond.  1537.  12.  New  York.  1S33.  12.]^^.  G.  Bitrckhard,  vollst  Gesch.  d. 
Metli.  in  Enjil.  Nürnb.  1795.  2  vols.  J.  Crowther,  Portralturo  of  Meth.  Lond.  1S15.  J.  W.  £,ium,  der 
MetU.  Zur.  183S.  T.  Jacknon,  [Hist,  of  the  Comtnencoment,  I'rog.  it  Present  State  of  Meth.  Lond. 
1S3S.  Iiaac  Taylor,  Wesley  &  Meth.  Lond.  ISÖI.  S.  J.  WhiMif.id,  Lives  of  J.  it  C.  Wesley.  Lond. 
1793.  2  vols.  8.  Moore's  Lives  of  J.  &  C.  W.  &  Account  of  Great  Pvcvivals.  Lond.  1524.  2  vols.  S.  J. 
Ilampnon,  Mem.  of  Wesley  i  H.  of  Methodism.  Lond.  1791.  8  vols,  8.  Doc.  ii  Hist,  Invest,  of  Meto, 
in  its  Connecti'inal  Prin.  »fc  Pol.  2  ed.  Lond.  IS-Vi.  Mirmtes  of  Conferences  in  Eiu'l.  from  1744  to 
1S24.  Lond.  1S24.  5  vols.  S.  Ä  Warren,  Clironicles  &  Dit'ost  of  Laws,  »fee,  of  Meth.  Lond.  1?27.  3 
vols.  12.] 

A  revival  of  groat  importance  Avith  respect  to  England  and  N'orth  Amer- 
ica had  its  origiu  in  an  association  of  jiious  students  wliom  Jolin  Wesley  col- 
lected around  him  at  Oxford  (172;0,  and  avIio  were  called  Methodi.sts,  on 
account  of  their  jirocise  and  strictly  holy  lives.  During  his  long  life  the  only 
thought  that  seemed  to  fill  the  mind  of  Wesley  was  that  of  the  salvation  of 
Bouls.     In  connection  with  him  was  WhiteßeU,  under  whoso  preaching  the 

«)  Yet  comp.  Allp.  K.  55.  1882.  N.  lia    ScfirautfiibacJi,  p.  S5s. 
/)  A'.  F.  Ltdderhooe,  d.  Leben  A.  G.  Spang.  Ikidib.  1S4G. 
(?)  Die  llerrnh.  in  Leben  ii.  Wirken,  v.  c.  eheni.  Mit^liedc.  Weim.  1S39. 


-,0G  MoDKüN  cm  i:<ii  iiisroiiv.   vva:.  vi.   a.  d.  iws-isaj. 

lu'.'irts  (if  iiiiillitiKlos  were  .shaken,  iiml  ^vll()  fi/lt  tliat  he  needed  more  tongues 
i\nd  bodies  und  .»^oids  in  the  service  of  the  Lord  tlian  Avas  bestowed  on  mei 
lor  ordinary  i>nri)oses.  As  lie  travelled  from  land  to  land,  wherever  the  Eng- 
lish language  was  understood,  this  seraphic  preacher  flung  his  Avords  liko 
lirebrands  among  all  classes  in  every  extreme  of  society.  The  Methodi.sts  did 
not  at  first  desire  a  separation  from  the  Episcopal  Church ;  but  when  they 
wore  persecuted  in  various  ways  in  that  church,  they  began  to  form  a  society 
embracing  many  congregations,  subject  to  a  rigid  system  of  ecclesiastical  dis- 
cipline, and  under  the  jurisdiction  of  superintendents  and  synods.  At  an  early 
]iorlod  thoy  held  some  communication  with  tlie  Pietists  and  Ilerrnhutter.s,  but 
they  soon  withdrew  from  the  latter,  as  their  religious  life  did  not  commence 
with  a  gentle  development  of  the  feelings,  but  with  a  violent  assault  upon  the 
selfishness  of  human  nature,  and  a  painful  process  of  regeneration.  They 
therefore  required  that  their  converts  should  be  able  to  tell  of  a  distinct  time 
in  which  thej'  found  divine  grace,  and  they  preferred  to  hear  that  that  period 
was  one  of  even  violent  corporeal  excitement.  On  this  account  their  elo- 
quence, which  glowed  with  pictures  of  hell,  had.  the  greatest  success  among 
those  who  had  hitherto  lived  lives  of  irreligion,  or  at  least  were  then  incapa- 
ble of  feeling  any  higher  appeal.  As  Wesley  was  Arminian,  and  Whitefield 
Calvinistic  on  the  subject  of  divine  grace,  they  finally  separated  from  each 
other  (1740),  but  the  Wesleyans  wei'e  the  most  numerous.  Their  principal 
danger  was  perceived  and  guarded  against  by  "Wesley,  and  consisted  in  an 
iuditference  to  the  moral  law  while  the  mind  was  taken  up  with  the  blessed- 
ness of  a  lively  faith.  It  became  most  developed  in  the  case  of  FletcJur,  a 
man  who  may  be  truly  called  a  mirror  of  a  ministerial  life,  wholly  lost  in 
God.  (a)  The  special  providential  mission  of  this  people  was  to  act  as  leaven 
in  the  midst  of  the  Episcopal  Church,  then  sunk  in  the  deepest  formality,  and 
to  take  an  interest  in  the  poor  and  neglected  classes  among  the  people.  Hence, 
although  their  number  at  the  present  time  in  both  hemispheres  probably 
amounts  to  a  million,  their  influence,  principally  by  means  of 'uneducated  itin- 
erant preachers,  is  probably  still  more  extensive.  The  sacred  struggle  for 
liberty  which  was  so  long  sustained  by  Wilberforce,  originated  to  a  great  ex- 
tent among  the  Methodists,  (b) 

§  420.     The  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem.     Sioedenlorg.     1688-1772, 

Sicedenhorg :  Arcana  ooclestia,  (Lond.)  1749ss.  7  v.  4  ed.  Tafel,  Tub.  lS.33ss.  5  v.  Vera  clir.  rel. 
com])!,  univ.  Tlicol.  novae  Eec.  Amst  1771.  2  v.  4.  A  series  of  writings  by  &  respecting  Sw.  commn- 
nicited  by  Iinm.  TufA  &  Ludw.  Uofacker,  especially:  Güttl.  Otlenbb.  from  the  Lat  Tub.  lS-2.3s.s  S 
vols.  Die  Cbristusrel.  in  ihrer  Aechth.  Tub.  ISSls.  4  vols.  Katocliisnins  u.  d.  Lehre  d.  N.  K.  Tub. 
1S30.  (After  the  Catecbism  of  the  General  Conference.  Lond.  162S.)  Titfel,  vergl.  Darst.  n.  Beurtl). 
d.  Lebrgegens.  der  Kath.  u.  Prot  Zugliech.  Darst.  d.  UnterscheidungsL  Sw.  Tub.  lS-35.  Tufil.  S.  a 
s.  Gegner.  Tub.  1S41.  2  vols.— JToW^r,  Tub.  Quartalscbr.  1S30.  P.  1  revised  in  bis  Symbolik.  OMet 
matters  in :  StatuUi»,  kircbl.  Geogr.  vol.  L  p.  246ss.  Latest  liter,  account:!  in  HhfinicaUh  Eep.  1S:34 
vol.  IX.  p.  216sä.  A.  K.  Z.  Lit,  Bl.  ISoÖ.  N.  95ss,  Ihtug,  d.  Lehre  d.  neuen  K.  (Studien  d.  ev.  Geistl. 
VrOit  ia42.  vol  XIV.)     a  F.  Xa-nz,  E.  Sw,  d.  nord.  Seher.  Schw.  Uall.  2  ed.  1S50.     [Many  Workl 


«)  Lebon  Fletscbers,  m,  Yorr.  v.  Tboluck.  Brl.  1S33.     [J.  Benson,  Life  of  F.  Lond.  12.— Chockj 
to  Antinoin.  by  J.  Fletcher.  New  Tork.     Works  of  J.  F.  New  Tork.  4  v.  S.] 

I)  Life  of  W.  Wilb.  by  his  sons.  Lond.  1*33.  4  v.     [Pbüad.  revised  by  C.  Morris.  1S4I.  2  v.  li] 


CHAP.  I.    EVAN'G.  CHUECU  TILL  1750.    §420.  SWEDEXBOEG.  507 

af  Sw.  ha^e  been  translated  by  different  persons  &  publ.  by  0.  Clapp  of  Boston.  1S13-51.  J.  G. 
Wilkinson,  Blogr.  of  E.  Sw.  Boston.  1S49.  12.  A.  Clissold,  Tractical  nat  of  the  Doctt.  of  E.  S.  Best 
"iSS9. 12.    A'.  Jliigeiibacli,  KGescb.  (p.  49S.)  Th.  I.  Vorles.  21.] 

Emanuel  von  Sircdcnlorg^  wlio  was  an  a-ssessor  in  the  Miners'  College  at 
Stockholm,  had  been  highly  educated  in  many  branches  of  science,  and  had 
contributed  much  to  increase  a  knowledge  of  mechanics  and  mining  opera- 
tions in  general.  As  he  was  continually  pursuing  his  researches  farther  and 
fiu'ther  into  the  mysteries  of  nature,  during  his  internal  religious  conflicts, 
he  attached  himself  to  every  kindred  s[)irit  of  whom  he  could  learn  any  thing, 
from  the  time  of  Birgitte  to  that  of  Jacob  Boehm(?,  and  he  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  he  was  himself  honored  by  an  intercourse  with  the  spirits  of  another 
world,  who  manifested  themselves  to  him  inwardly,  but  with  the  necessary 
semblance  of  an  external  form,  («)  Sometimes  in  quaint,  but  sometimes  also 
in  very  ingenious  language,  in  the  style  of  a  Northern  Dante  he  described  his 
visions,  in  which  were  pictures  of  every  terrestrial  state,  and  in  a  few  in- 
stances of  rare  sagacity  he  made  it  appear  as  if  lie  really  had  such  an  inter- 
course with  spirits.  {]>)  It  was  not,  however,  until  he  received  a  revelation 
directly  from  the  Lord  that  he  felt  called  upon  to  attempt  the  deliverance  of 
Christianity  from  the  corruption  into  which  it  had  fallen  from  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Nica^a,  and  to  establish  the  Church  of  the  New  Jerusalem  as  the 
third  Testament  of  God  to  man,  and  the  spiritual  second  advent  of  Christ. 
A  few  congregations  of  this  new  church,  principally  formed  on  the  basis  ol 
his  writings,  which  were  regarded  as  sacred  books,  were  collected  togethc 
in  England  and  in  North  America  (after  1788),  and  were  represented  in  an 
nual  General  Conferences  (after  1815).  In  Sweden  his  views  have  obtained 
extensive  prevalence  among  the  educated  classes,  and  in  "Wurtemberg  they 
have  been  promulgated  by  Oetiuger^  (c)  and  revived  by  the  enthusiastic  co 
operation  of  the  pious  librarian,  Tafcl.  The  doctrines  of  Swedenborg  are  a 
fantastic  species  of  rationalism,  which,  in  place  of  the  expiatory  sacrifice  of 
Christ  and  the  Trinity,  substitutes  a  three-fold  revelation  of  the  one  God,  who 
was  obliged  to  become  man,  that  ho  might  give  a  human  character  to  the  doc- 
trines of  faith,  and  drive  back  the  powers  of  hell.  There  is  an  organ  in  every 
man  for  communication  with  the  spiritual  world,  which  can  be  emancipated. 
The  secret  and  spiritual  sense  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  are  of  no  use  except 
to  illustrate  the  truths  derived  from  tlie  literal  sense,  and  to  elevate  them  to 
the  view  of  reason.  (*/)  The  friends  of  tiiis  system,  therefore,  might  on  the 
one  hand  be  fond  of  every  mysterious  phenomenon  in  nature  and  in  the 
spiritual  world,  and  on  the  other,  receive  Ciiristianity  as  a  religion  of  reason,  {c) 
It  was  possible  also  for  them  to  regard  their  views  as  the  gradual  and  con- 
tinued development  of  Protestantism,  and  while  they  merely  contended  for 


«)  (Kant)  Trfiumo  eines  Gelsterselior.«,  erläutert  dorcli  Triiiimo  der  Metaphysik.  Kiinissb.  1TC6 
Kiener,  in  s.  Arcliiv.  vol.  IlL  St  1.  Vol.  VIIL  St.  2.  J.  Gorres,  Sw.  s.  Visionen  u.  Verb.  z.  K.  Strassb 
1S2T. 

I)  Samml.  d.  Urkunden  betr.  Leben  u.  Charakter  Sw.  ni.  Anni.  v.  Tafol.  Tub.  1i39. 

c)  Oetingfit;  Sw.  u.  andrer  ird.  u.  Iiimml.  I'liil.  I'rkf.  u.  L.  ITOS. 

(1)  Tiifil,  d.  Giittlichk.  d.  II.  S.  o.  d.  ticforc  Pclirift>lnn.  Tub.  1S:}9. 

e)  La  rel.  du  bon-sens,  cxposO  prOlun.  u  la  doctr.  de  la  nouv.  Jer.  Par.  1332.  Oegger,  nonv.  f|ues- 
Hens  pl.il.  Born.  1S35. 


50S  MODKEN  CHURCH  UISTORV.    PKH.  VI.    A.  D.  IMS-lSSa 

tlio  laying  asldo  of  creeds,  they  preached  that  theirs  was  tlie  Joliannic  church 
of  tlio  flit  uro.  (/) 

§421.     Minor  Fanatioal  Parties. 

F.  W.  Krug,  krif.  Ocsch.  (I.  prot.  rel.  Scliwärincrel.  Sectlr.  u.  widcrkirchl.  Neuer  Im  Gro«h.  Verg 
Elborr.  IS-M.  M.  Giibel,  Gescli.  des  clir.  Lebens  in  rt.  rheiii.  wostpli.  K.  1S52.  vol.  II.  F.  W.  Bar- 
t/io/i/,  (1.  Krwooklen  Im  prot,  Deutsolil.  Ansgang.  <1.  IT.  u.  erste  Hälfte  <1.  13.  Jlili.  bcs.  d.  frommen. 
Qrnfeiiliiife.  (llauiiicrs  lilst  Tasclienb.  lS5i  &  53.) 

1.  John  Laiculic,  a  canon  of  Amiens,  dissatisfied  with  the  Jesuits  and 
their  opponents,  sought  in  the  Reformed  Church  a  peoi)]e  of  God,  who  wor- 
shipped Christ  in  sincerity  (1050).  lie  agreed  with  that  Cliurcli  ia  its  doc- 
trinal views,  and  he  was  anxious  to  revive  the  external  organization  which 
prevailed  in  the  apostolic  age.  The  germ  of  his  cliurch  Avas  composed  of 
certain  regenerate  persons,  whom  he  formed  into  a  devotional  family,  and 
which  followed  the  deposed  pastor  of  Middleburg  as  an  independent  congre- 
gation. The  Mary  of  this  community  was  the  eminently  gifted  Schurinan,  («) 
but  he  himself  was  every  where  rejected,  until  an  asylum  was  granted  him  in 
Altona  (1G74).  Deprived  of  its  leader  the  congregation  soon  dwindled  away 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  became  the  forerunners  of  the  Pietists  in  a  sectarian 
form,  (h)  2.  A  gloomy  flame  was  occasionally  kindled  in  difierent  places  by 
tlie  writings  of  Boehme.  Quirinus  Kulilmann  of  Breslau,  a  poet,  whose  life 
was  itself  a  continual  poem,  wandered  over  the  earth  full  of  glowing  love  for 
the  Redeemer,  and  urged  on  by  a  vague  impulse  that  ho  was  to  revolutionize 
the  world,  until  he  was  burned  at  the  stake  in  Moscow  (1689.)  (c)  Gkhtel 
(d.  1710)  of  Ratisbon  broke  up  all  his  civil  and  social  connections,  that  he 
might,  like  an  oriental  saint,  abstract  himself  from  nature,  and  lose  himself 
entirely  in  the  Deity.  The  results  of  his  efforts  among  a  class  of  persons 
aiming  to  be  a  priesthood  after  the  order  of  Melchisedek,  to  expiate  the  sins 
of  other  men,  and  an  angelic  brotherhood  striving  to  live  free  from  earthly 
cares,  pleasures,  and  toils,  have  come  down  through  a  series  of  individuals  in 
Lower  Germany  to  the  nineteenth  century.  (fZ)  Daniel  Mueller  (1716-82) 
thought  that  sacred  history  was  intended  to  be  an  allegory  to  represent 
general  ideas,  that  Adam  and  Christ  were  the  same  human  formation  of  the 
one  all-pervading  Deity,  that  the  sacred  writings  of  all  nations  were  equally 
divine,  and  that  he,  like  an  Elias,  Avas  called  to  redeem  the  Avorld  from  the 
yoke  of  the  letter.  lie  travelled  through  the  Avhole  northern  part  of  Ger- 
many to  announce  that  the  external  church  Avas  about  to  be  subverted,  and, 
although  he  died  under  an  impression  that  God  had  deceived  him,  he  has  even 
noAV  some  followers  who  reject  the  historical  Christ,  look  upon  infidels  as  their 
brethren,  and  are  Availing  for  Mueller's  return  to  set  up  a  universal  kingdom,  (c) 

/)  G.  A.  Werner,  since  1840:  Kv.  K.  Z.  1S45.  p.  431s.  Zeitsch.  f.  unirte  ev.  K.  1S51.  N.  31. 

a)  EvK\r}pia  s.  melioris  sortis  electio.  Alton.  1673.  Dess.  1782.  2  vols. 

h)  Doelarationsch.  o.  Erkl.  d.  reinen  Lehre.  Ilervord.  1671.  Walch,  E.  Str.  ausserh.  vol.  IV.  p 
653.    Moeller,  Cimbr.  lit  vol.  III.  p.  35ss. 

c)  BiitjU,  Art.  Kuhlm.  u.  Kublpsalter.  Unsch.  Nacbrichten  1711.  p.  755. 1743.  p.  965ss.  Hurenbei-Q 
de  Q.  K.  (Mas.  Brcm.  Tb.  L  p.  651ss.)    Adelung,  Gesch.  menscbl.  Narrh.  vol.  V.  p.  3ss. 

(1)  KindertnUr,  neue  Engelbrudersch.  Nord.  1719.  neinheck,  Nacb.  v.  G.  Lebensl.  u.  Lehr* 
Brl.  1732.    (Harless)  G.  Leben  u.  Irrthümer.  (Lv.  K.  Z.  1S31.  N.  77ss.) 

*)  Keller,  Dan.  Mueller,  rel.  Schwärmer  d.  IS  Jahrb.  Lpz.  1S:34. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CnURCn  TILL  1T50.    §  421.  SECTS  &  FACTIONS.  509 

S.  The  Heh-etrs,  founded  by  a  candidate  whose  nama  was  Verschooren,  ap- 
peared (about  1730)  in  Leyden,  as  quiet  separatists.  Avho  held  that  every  one 
was  bound  to  read  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages,  and  that  the  merit 
of  Christ  Avas  so  great  that  his  elect  people  were  freed  from  all  guilt,  (/) 
4.  The  peasant  Janssen  carried  his  notions  of  predestination  to  such  an  ex- 
treme that  he  contended  tliat  every  thing  i>roceeded  from  God,  and  would 
finally  return  to  God,  consequently,  that  even  all  sin  was  effected  by  God, 
and  that  human  guilt  was  only  a  fiction  of  the  imagination.  On  his  expul- 
sion from  East  Friesland  (iV-iO)  he  returned  thither  professedly  by  the  divine 
command,  and  proclaimed  that  the  country  was  soon  to  be  reduced  to  desola- 
tion. As  the  measures  taken  by  the  authorities  were  of  no  great  force,  he 
succeeded  in  maintaining  himself  with  a  small  band  of  bold  followers  for  sev- 
eral years.  ((/)  5. 'Elias  Filer,  criminally  connected  (1729)  with  An7ia,  a 
baker's  daughter,  afterwards  converted  l)y  him,  promised  a  pietistic  circle  of 
epicures  at  Elberfeld  that  the  Messiah  should  be  born  a  second  time.  She  also, 
in  the  character  of  the  woman  clothed  with  tlie  sun,  knew  how,  in  direct  con- 
tradiction to  the  laws  of  nature,  to  show  from  the  Apocalyp.so  Avhat  her  for- 
tune was  to  be.  The  city  of  Eonsdorf  was  constructed  by  them,  she  was 
much  esteemed  as  the  mother  of  Zion,  and  he  died  in  the  midst  of  the  high- 
est honors  (1744,  1750).  (A)  6.  In  Brueggle,  in  the  Canton  of  Berne,  sprung 
up  an  excitement  among  the  children,  accompanied  by  pretended  prophecies 
and  visions.  In  this  movement  the  two  brothers  Kohler,  who,  while  boys, 
had  been  employed  in  various  kinds  of  magical  delusions,  made  themselves 
known  as  the  two  witnesses  mentioned  in  the  Apocalypse,  and  fixed  upon  a 
certain  day  in  which  they  declared  that  Christ  would  return  to  tlie  world. 
This  day,  however,  was  subsequently  postponed,  as  they  alleged,  in  conse- 
quence of  their  prayers.  They  poured  forth  the  most  abusive  epithets  upon 
the  Church,  and  rioted  upon  the  donations,  and  shamefully  abused  the  wives 
of  those  who  were  duped  by  them.  Jerome  Köhler  wjis  strangled  at  the  gib- 
bet for  blasphemy  (1753),  and  although  he  confes.<ed  himself  an  impostor,  his 
followers  thought  he  was  invulnerable,  and  they  expected  hina  to  rise  again 
on  the  third  day.  (/)  7.  From  the  conventicles  still  proceeded  many  persons 
under  the  influence  of  religious  excitement ;  Prophets,  to  prepare  the  way 
for  the  speedy  return  of  Christ  to  the  world  ;  Separatists,  who  protested 
against  the  corruptions  of  the  Cliurch,  and  those  who  under  the  sensuous  re- 
action of  pietistic  feelings,  abused  the  liberty  of  God's  children  in  the  indul- 
gence of  the  most  unbridled  licentiousness.  The  Counts  of  "NVitgenstoin,  from 
financial  as  well  as  pious  considerations,  till  almost  the  middle  of  the  eighteenth 
oentury,  opened  their  little  principality  to  all  who  were  oppressed  on  account 
of  religion.  There  Socinians  and  inspired  persons  lived  together,  and  those  who 
had  been  awakened  under  the  most  diverse  influences,  met  together  with  all 

/)  Acta  hist  ecc  vol.  I.  p.  860.  VI,  lOCOss. 

O)  AcU  hist,  eoc.  vol.  V.  p.  13.  2l2ss.  VI,  lOCSss.  Mus.  Urem.  vol.  II.  p.  144«s. 

?i)  Grand  d.  Verwüst.  hell.  Stätte  o.  d.  Geliolinniss  d.  r.<»h.  <L  I'.unsd.  Secte.  Frkf.  I'^X  Z> 
Schleiermnc/ier,  Apologie.  Amh.  1750.  tf.  H'.  JCnfce!,  Gescli.  d.  Bosh.  d.  Ellor-Secte  zu  IJ.  Marb 
1751.  2  vols. 

■i)  Das  entd.  G.li.  d.  Bosh.  In  d.  Brügglersecto.  Zur.  1753.  2  vol».  Acta  hl»t  ecc.  vol.  XVII.  p 
»06. 1031SS. 


510  MoDKUN  cnni:rii  iirsTORV.   per.  vi.   ^v.  d.  iw9-is58. 

their  iii'ciili;iriti(.'S.  (h)  \i  was  tliore  that  Motlicr  Ere  (of  I'utler),  as  the  ne\v 
iiicariiatinii  of  llio  flirco  divine  persons,  -witii  lier  soihiccr  and  tiiosc  whom  sho 
had  seduced,  lioi)od  to  ostablisli  her  empire  (1702.)  Even  wlien  surrendering 
herself  to  natural  indulgences  of  the  flesh,  as  well  as  to  sliaraeful  crimes 
against  nature,  she  endeavored  to  lose  herself  in  the  wounds  of  Jesus,  and 
misused  tlio  words  of  Scri[)ture  in  the  boldest  manner.  The  company  which 
slie  assembled  were  jdimdered  by  the  count's  police,  and  were  soon  lost  in  tlio 
Catliolic  Church,  to  which  they  lied  for  protection.  {I) 

§  422.     Sjjread  of  Christianity. 
J.  Wiggers,  Gesch.  d.  prot  Mir^ion.  Ilamb.  18-15s.  2  vols. 

As  long  as  the  Catholic  powers  had  the  dominion  of  the  seas,  Protestant 
missions  were  necessarily  of  a  very  limited  extent.  The  United  Bretliren 
formed  a  central  point,  from  which  went  forth  missionaries  to  every  quarter 
of  the  world  (since  1732) ;  but  the  gospel,  as  it  was  presented  by  the  Herrn- 
hutters,  could  captivate  only  a  few  individuals,  and  could  operate  only  in  a 
very  narrow  circle,  («)  1.  The  conversion  of  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  to 
Christianity  was  indispensable  to  the  safety  of  the  English  colonies  in  North 
America.  It  was  commenced  (1646)  by  John  Eliot^  with  the  conviction  that 
all  things  were  possible  to  those  who  diligently  toiled  and  prayed  with  faith 
in  Christ.  The  Puritans,  who  then  possessed  the  supreme  power,  established 
a  society  for  planting  Christianity  in  foreign  countries  (1647),  and  the  Method- 
ists also  forthwith  crossed  the  sea.  America,  however,  has  become  Christian, 
not  so  much  in  consequence  of  its  conversion,  as  of  its  colonies,  {h)  2.  With 
the  continual  assistance  of  the  Orphan  House  at  Halle,  Denroark  has  main- 
tained (since  1706)  a  mission  for  its  East  Indian  possessions  at  Tnmqiiebar, 
from  which  also  were  obtained  the  first  missionaries  to  the  English  East  In- 
dies and  the  West  India  Islands,  In  the  East  Indies  the  success  has  not  been 
very  great,  and  in  the  West  Indies  it  has  been  confined  wholly  to  the  slaves,  (c) 
3.  In  Lapland  missionaries  had  to  be  continually  sent  and  sustained  from 
Denmark  and  Sweden  to  uphold  Christianity  against  the  severe  exactions  of 
nature,  {d)  4.  Since  the  fifteenth  century  Greenland  (p.  247 j  had  been  com- 
pletely lost  sight  of  by  the  nations  of  Europe.  A  Norwegian  minister,  Hans 
Egede^  became  possessed  with  a  strong  desire  to  win  back  this  legendary 
country  to  the  fellowship  of  European  and  Christian  society.     He  finally  suc- 

/?■)  J.  W.  Winkel,  Casimir  reg.  Graf  zu  Sayn-Witt.  Vielefeld.  IföO. 

0  Abstr.-ict  of  tlie  public  acts  la  :  Tcrnüiiftitrc  u.  clir.  aber  nicht  scheinbeil  Thorn.isische  GeiianSen. 
IIa!.  1725.  vol.  III.  p.  20S.<s.— ff.  F.  KMer,  d.  Buttler'sche  Rotte.  (Zeit-^^ch.  f.  bist  Tb.  1S4Ö.  IL  4.) 

")  Spiingenberg  in  Walcb,  nst  Kol.  Gesell,  vol.  VIII.  p.  251ss.  Ueberslcht  d.  Mlssionsgescb.  d. 
ev.  Brüdcrk.  Gnad.  1S33.  [.7:  Holmes,  U.  of  Missions  of  the  U.  B.  Lond.  ISIS.  Periodical  Accounts 
of  the  Missions  of  U.  B.  from  1790.  Lond.  10  vols.] 

h)  Eliot,  Chr.  Commonwealth,  or  the  rising  kingdom  of  J.  Cli.  165-2s.  2  v.  4.  Mather,  Ecc.  IL  of 
New  Engl.  Lond.  1702.  f.  [&  Boston.  1S53.  2  vols.  B.}—J.  G.  Midler,  d.  Vorst.  v.  grossen  Geiste  unter 
d.  Indianern.  (Stud.  u.  KriL  1S49.  H.  4.)  [Life  ot  J.  Eliot,  (Sp-irks'  Am.  Biogr.)  Boston.  S.  D.  Neal, 
U.  of  New  Engl.  Lond.  1747.  2  vols.  S.] 

o)  Hall.  Missionsberichto  s.  170S  in  verschiedener  Gestalt  bis  jetzt,  Walch,  nst  Eel.  Gesch.  vol.  V. 
p.  119s.<!.     [Memoirs  of  Chr.  F.  Swartz  &  H.  of  Kel.  in  India.  Lond  1S26.  12.] 

d)  Acta  bist.  ecc.  vol.  XL  p.  1.  XV.  2:?0ss,  [./.  Sheferus,  H.  of  Lapland  with  Sketches,  &c.  Oxon. 
1*74.  f]   Leein,  Lappen  in  Finnm.irk,  from  the  Dan.  Lpz.  1771.  Jtudelbach  in  Knapp's  Christotcrpe. 


CHAP.  I.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1750.    §  422.  MISSIONS.    GREENLAND.        511 

ceeded  in  obtaining  the  supi)ort  of  tlie  D.'inish  government,  and  of  a  commer- 
cial society  (1721).  On  the  western  coast,  tlie  only  part  acce--siblc,  he  found 
a  conntry  bound  up  in  ice,  wliere  a  few  thousand  Esquimaux,  with  no  tra- 
ditions of  the  past,  wrest  from  the  hand  of  nature  the  scantiest  means  of 
subsistence.  Egede  dedicated  himself  to  the  work  of  their  improvement  and 
conversion.  Since  that  time  civilization  and  Christianity,  as  far  as  was  pos- 
sible in  such  a  sterile  soil,  has  been  planted  and  maintained  there,  (c)  5.  An 
Institution  was  established  (1728)  by  Prof.  Calknlurg  of  Halle,  for  the  con- 
version of  the  Jews  and  Mohammedans,  but  as  its  sphere  of  operations  Avas 
contracted,  the  results  were  of  course  inconsiderable.  (/) 


CHAP.  II.— THE  ROMAN"  CATHOLIC  CHUPtCII  UXTIL  1750. 

§  423.     TJie  Pdpacr/. 

Ouurnaeci,  Vitae  et  res  gestae  R.  Pontitf  et  Cardd.  a  Clem.  X.  nsqno  ad  CIcin.  XI.  Roin.  1751ss. 
2  vols.  f.  Bower,  Ramhach,  vol.  X.  Th.  2.  L.  Itanke,  die  riim.  Päpste,  vol.  III.  p.  3Sss.  Respecting 
the  memoirs  of  the  Conclaves:  Ibid.  vol.  III.  p.  34Gss. 

When  tlie  hope  of  once  more  subjecting  the  world  to  tlie  dominion  of 
Catholicism,  and  the  enthusiasm  which  sprung  from  it  had  passed  away,  the 
papacy  gradually  retired  from  the  prominent  position  it  had  formerly  held  in 
the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  assumed  the  station  of  an  Italian  principality. 
And  yet  it  could  not  bring  itself  down  to  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  vast 
claims  Avhich  it  had  once  set  up.  In  civil  affairs  the  political  tendencies  be- 
gan to  predominate  over  the  ecclesiastical.  Hence,  nothing  remained  for  the 
popes  but  to  enter  their  impotent  protest  in  opposition  to  the  undeniable  and 
necessary  facts  of  history.  As  they  continued  to  urge  the  usual  claims  for 
money  and  jurisdiction  upon  the  states,  which  were  then  rearranging  and 
deciding  upon  their  own  affairs,  they  fell  into  porpetuid  conflict  with  the  Cath- 
olic princes.  The  states  of  the  Church  inherited  also  the  burden  of  a  debt 
which  had  increased  under  nearly  every  administration.  According  to  the 
selfish  policy  of  the  Conclave,  and  in  consequence  of  the  right  of  exclusion 
always  exercised  by  the  crowns  of  France,  Germany,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  no 
cardinals  could  ordinarily  be  elevated  to  the  papal  chair  except  they  belonged 
to  the  great  Italian  families,  had  grown  gray  in  the  service  of  the  Koraish 
prelates,  and  were  not  very  ])owerfuI  for  good  or  for  evil.  Such,  indeed,  was 
uiiil'ormly  the  case,  except  when  the  pious  party  were  sufficiently  strong  to 
carry  the  election.  Innocent  X.  (Pamfili,  lG-i-4-55)  was  made  pope  on  the 
ground  that  lie  had  never  said  much,  and  had  done  still  less,     lie  commenced 

e)  IL  Eijedf,  Nachr.  v.  d.  Groenl.  Miss.  limb.  17-tO.  [Ifana  Egede,  A  descrlp.  of  Greenland  & 
Life  of  the  Author.  Lond.  1S19.  8.]  Paid  E'jetif,  Nuclir.  v.  Gr.  a.  e.  Tagebuch,  v.  1721-40.  Copenh. 
1790.  (Extracts  in  tno  Acten  z.  nst  KG.  vol.  IIL  p  1.  57ss.)— /?H</W/«/f/i,  It.  E;;.  Grönl.  Bischof 
(Chr.  Biogr.  1S50.  vol.  I.)  [Iceland,  Greenland,  &  the  Faroe  Isles.  Now  York.  1S30.  12.]  Kölhing, 
Gesch.  d.  Miss,  in  Gr.  Gnad.  1781.  T).  Ausland.  1S34.  N.  lUl-s.  [Miss.  Records  rcsp.  Greenland,  \.t\- 
brador,  Ac.  (Pres.  Boord.)  Phil.  1S.30.  S] 

/)  Accounts  of  Ok.  Institiition  till  1791.  St  pfi.  &-hnh,  LcUunsen  des  II  .cli.steii  n.  s.  Rath.  a. 
Beiden  d.  Europa.  A--ien.  .\fr.  Hal.  IT'lss  5  vols. 


512  MODKUN  CHUKC'ir  mSTORV.     TKi:.  Vr.     A.  D.  1648-1 S63. 

Ills  roiKn  Avitli  completely  destroyinf,'  Itoinan  afrriculture,  by  (,'rantinf;  to  tho 
papnl  oxchcqncr  tho  entire  mc^nopoly  of  the  trade  in  corn,  and  by  his  depend- 
ence npon  Donna  Olympia  ga'  e  occasion  for  the  taunt  that  the  vicar  of  Christ 
was  in  petticoats,  and  tliat  J,  new  Joanna  was  in  possession  of  St.  Peter's 
keys,  (fi)  Alexander  VII.  (Chigi,  1G55-C7)  lived  to  enjoy  the  triumph  of 
■welcoming  tlie  accomplished  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adol|)lui3  to  the  Capi- 
tol. This  extraordinary  woman  had  become  tired  of  Protestantism  and 
of  the  Swedish  crown,  and  had  resigned  them  botli,  that  slie  might  inde- 
pendently enjoy  the  glories  of  art  and  science  in  the  midst  of  the  natural  lux- 
uriance of  a  southern  clime.  Though  of  a  masculine  temperament,  she  still 
loved  a  system  of  faith  which  made  a  merit  of  celibacy,  and  while  she 
spurned  all  restraints  upon  thought,  she  nevertheless  felt  the  need  of  a  present 
infdliblc  autliority.  Hence,  while  she  humbled  herself  to  embrace  with  full 
confidence  the  abstract  notion  of  the  papacy,  her  imperious  disposition  and 
her  keen  wit  came  not  unfrequently  into  collision  with  the  actual  pope.  The 
negotiations  of  the  papal  court  with  Louis  XIV.  respecting  portions  of  terri- 
tory belonging  to  Parma  and  Modena,  the  royal  prerogative  of  appointing  tho 
superior  ecclesiastical  officers  in  the  newly  acquired  provinces,  and  the  insult 
to  the  dignity  of  the  French  ambassador  at  Rome,  were  terminated  of  course 
in  the  humiliation  of  the  pope  by  the  treaty  of  Pisa  (1C64),  since  the  king 
was  already  in  possession  of  Avignon,  and  threatened  to  advance  upon  Rome 
itself.  During  his  pontificate  he  lost  the  reputation  of  a  saint,  but  acquired 
that  of  a  poet,  and  was  regarded  by  the  Roman  people  as  a  great  man  in  lit- 
tle things,  but  a  little  man  in  great  things.  While  the  Jesuits  attempted  to 
prove  that  the  pope  was  infaUible,  even  in  matters  of  fact,  the  Florentine  am- 
bassador decided  that  a  true  word  never  passed  his  lips,  (h)  Clement  IX. 
(Rospigliosi,  1667-69)  filled  once  more  the  important  position  of  a  mediator 
between  the  ecclesiastical  and  the  civil  powers.  He  endeared  himself  to  the 
people  by  the  mildness  of  his  disposition,  but  the  affiiirs  of  government  went 
on  as  they  best  might,  without  his  direction.  Clement  X.  (Altieri,  1670-76), 
a  feeble  octogenarian,  was  saluted  pope  by  all  parties,  as  if  by  inspiration, 
after  a  long  struggle,  but  did  nothing  except  to  weep  over  the  administration 
of  his  family  itivorites.  Innocent  XI.  (Odeschalchi,  1676-89)  adopted  vigor- 
ous measures  for  the  restoration  of  strict  morals  both  in  Church  and  state, 
lie  endeavored  to  relieve  the  finances,  but  seemed  to  think  that  nothing  was 
needful  but  to  save  as  much  as  possible.  A  few  bishops  in  France  had  re- 
sisted the  royal  claim  to  administer  the  revenues  of  even  those  churches 
which  had  not  been  founded  by  the  crown  during  a  vacancy  in  the  diocese 
to  which  they  belonged,  and  to  appoint  persons  to  the  livings  dependent  upon 
such  vacant  bishoprics.    The  pope  gave  his  countenance  to  their  appeal. 

a)  HossUniseher,  n.  Inn.  X.  Tit  1674  4  Giialdi  {Lett),  Vita  della  D.  Olympia  Maldachlni. 
Without  place.  1666.  12.  ü.  v.  liicherz,  Lp3.  1753,  but  not  to  be  depended  upon. 

I)  Philomati  labores  juveniles.  Par.  1656.  t—Co7iring,  11.  elect.  AL  HImst  1657.  4  (0pp.  vol  V.) 
—Arkenholz,  M6m.  concern.  Cliristine  R.  de  SuOde.  AmsL  1751s.  4  v.  4  ü.  v.  Reißtein,  Lps. 
17N3SS.  4  vols.  4  Grauert,  Chr.  tu  ilir.  Hof.  Bonn.  lS37s.  2  vols.— Relation  de  tout  ce  qui  se  pasea  en- 
tro  le  P.  Al.  et  le  Roi  dc  France.  Col.  1670.  12.  Desmarais,  11.  des  demelez  de  la  cour  de  France 
avec  la  cour  de  Rome.  Par.  1706.  4.  {Leti)  11  sindicato  dl  A!,  con  il  auo  viasgio  ncU'  altro  mondo. 
Gen.  166:3.  12. 


CHAP.  II.     CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1750.     §423.  POI'ES.  513 

Louis  XIV.  took  possession  of  Avignon,  and  threatened  to  sunder  all  connec- 
tion between  France  and  the  Roman  See.  Innocent  refused  to  grant  canoni- 
cal confirmation  to  all  those  bishops  who  had  been  appointed  bj'  the  kinjr. 
That  he  might  be  master  of  his  own  city,  and  restore  tlie  administration  of 
justice,  he  abolislied  the  privilege  which  ambassadors  had  sometimes  exor- 
cised, of  making  their  quarters  at  Rome  an  asylum  (la  franchise).  On  this 
the  French  ambassador,  whose  retinue  was  equal  to  an  army,  abused  both  the 
ecclesiastical  and  the  sovereign  rights  of  the  pope.  Innocent  died  without 
being  moved  from  his  purposes,  hated  by  the  great  and  by  the  Jesuits,  cursed 
by  the  people  as  a  miser,  and  yet  revered  as  a  saint,  (c)  Alexander  WIT. 
(Ottoboni,  1089-91),  who  was  elected  through  French  infiuence,  re-established 
the  whole  system  of  nepotism  and  simony,  supported  his  native  city  of  Venice 
in  its  war  against  the  Turks,  and  obtained  by  the  favor  of  France  the  aboli- 
tion of  the  freedom  of  its  ambassador's  quarters,  but  he  could  come  to  no 
agreement  respecting  the  royal  prerogative  in  the  French  Church.  Innocent 
XII.  (Pignatolli,  1G91-1700)  took  the  predeces.^or  wliose  name  he  bore,  for 
his  model,  and  endeavored  to  secure  by  laws  the  whole  succeeding  century 
against  nepotism  and  simony.  Ilis  nepotes  were  the  poor,  and  the  Lateran 
was  his  hospital.  Ilis  elForts  for  the  restoration  of  Church  discipline  ex- 
tended to  so  high,  and  yet  to  such  minute  subjects,  that  some  scoffers  boasted 
that  he  had  reformed  the  Church  in  its  head  and  members.  In  the  peace 
which  he  concluded  with  France  the  king  kept  possession  of  the  royal  prero- 
gative he  had  previously  claimed.  Clement  XI.  (Albani,  1700-21),  an  inde- 
pendent prince  and  a  zealous  pathetic  preacher,  endeavored  without  success, 
in  the  complicated  mazes  of  the  war  of  succession,  to  obtain  by  spiritual  or 
carnal  Aveapons  some  share  in  the  inheritance.  His  protest  against  the  as- 
sumption of  the  crown  by  the  Elector  of  Brandenburg,  was  regarded  in  Ger- 
many as  a  papal  extravagance.  When  the  aversion  of  the  bishops  to  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  Sicilian  monarchy  had  come  to  an  open  rupture,  the  pope 
imagined  that  he  could  destroy  the  ecclesiastical  sovereignty  of  the  crown  by 
interdicts.  But  the  oidy  effect  which  they  produced  was  that  ho  was  obliged 
to  support  at  Rome  the  three  thousand  clergymen  who  were  expelled  from 
the  Two  Sicilies  for  their  observance  of  the  interdict.  (</)  Innocent  XIII. 
(Conti,  1721-24),  a  kind  prince  and  a  conscientious  bishop,  on  the  pledge  that 
he  should  receive  the  palfrey  and  the  feudal  quitrents,  invested  the  emperor 
with  the  sovereignty  of  Naples,  vainly  protested  against  the  bestowal  of 
Parma  and  Piaccnza  as  imperial  fiefs,  and  from  respect  to  France  was  obliged 
to  appoint  a  contemptible  wretch  to  the  cardinalship.  Benedict  XIII.  (Orsini, 
1724-30),  who  could  bo  induced  to  accept  of  the  papal  oflSce  only  by  a  regard 
to  his  monastic  vow  of  obedience,  seemed  always  to  have  regarded  tho  con- 
vent of  the  Dominicans  as  his  world,  while  his  hypocritical  favorite,  Coscia, 
bartered  aAvay  both  Church  and  state,  until  primitive  Christian  simplicity  be- 


c)  Vita  d'Inn.  XL  Yen.  1690.  4.    Bonamici,  de  vita  et  rebus  gejtls  Inn.  XI.  lioin.  1776.     L"utat 
da  Mege  dc  Home.  Col.  1767. 

u)  0pp.  (Bulls,  Discourse-s  Letters)  Rom.  17'22.  Frcf.  1729.  2  vol.«.  t.—Bniifr,  Lc-ben  u.  Thaten  il. 
khigen  u.  berübinten  CI.  XI.  Frkf.  1721.  .3  vols.  {P.  Polidoro)  L  VL  de  vita  et  rebus  gestis  CL  XL 
Urb.  1727.  4.   BcbouUt,  IL  de  CI.  XI.  Avign.  1752.  2  vols.  4. 
33 


r>\-i  MOr)Ki:M  f'ln'RCII  IIISTOP.Y.    pkr.  vi.    a.  D.  IRIS-ISCI 

came  utterly  ridiculous  in  ;i  court  so  recklessly  conformed  to  the  Avorli],  A 
peace  was  coiioliideil  with  Naples,  by  which  it  was  .stipulated  that  the  Sicilian 
monarchy  should  bo  rcco;,'iiized,  but  that  important  cases  of  dispeasatior 
should  bo  reserved  for  the  lloraan  Curia,  (e)  Clement  XII.  (Corsini,  1730-40;, 
who,  after  a  brilliant  career  was  raised  to  the  throne  when  old  and  blind,  was 
the  patron  of  justice,  art,  and  literature,  as  for  as  he  could  be  so  through  liis 
family  favorites.  lie  secretly  favored  the  conquest  of  Naples  for  a  Spanish 
prince.  (/)  Benedict  XIV.  (Lambertini,  1740-58),  a  learned,  well  meaning, 
and  facetious  master,  but  averse  to  public  affairs,  set  an  example  to  his  people 
of  noble  yet  simple  manners.  As  an  author  he  diminished  the  number  of  the 
saints  of  the  Romish  Church,  as  a  pope  ho  abolished  many  of  their  festivals, 
and  lived  in  harmony  with  the  great  heretical  king,  (y)  and  endeavored  to 
preserve  the  dignity  of  the  Roman  court  ])y  judicious  concessions  to  the  Cath- 
olic princes,  that  they  might  not  become  unwilling  to  present  their  jjetitions 
there.  (/() 

§424,     The  Galilean  Church. 

(Picoi)  Essai  hist  sur  Tinfluence  do  la  rcl.  en  France  pendant  lelT.  S.  Par.  1S24.  2  vols,  translated 
a.s  Denkwurdiskeiten  d.  franz.  K.  by  Räss  &  Weis,  FrnkC  1S2S8.  2  vols. 

In  France  all  the  splendors  of  an  absolute  monarchy  were  developed  under 
Louis  XIV.  (1643-1713),  in  the  midst  of  a  wealthy  and  intellectual  nation, 
which  found  consolation  for  its  secret  wounds  in  the  gratification  of  its  vanity 
and  frivolity.  During  the  contest  with  Innocent  XI.  the  king  convoked  an 
assembly  of  bishops  and  barons  at  Paris  (1682),  in  which  the  legal  views 
which  ordinarily  prevailed  in  France  were  formally  pronounced.  It  was  there 
maintained:  1.  That  Peter  and  his  successors  have  received  power  from  God 
in  spiritual,  but  not  in  secular  affairs.  2.  That  this  power  is  limited,  not  only 
by  the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Constance  relating  to  the  authority  of  Gen- 
eral Councils,  but,  3.  By  the  established  prescriptions  and  usages  of  the  Gal- 
lican  Church ;  and,  4.  That  the  decisions  of  the  pope,  when  not  sustained  by 
the  authority  of  the  Church,  are  not  infallible.  These  i)ropositions  of  the 
Galilean  clergy  were  proclaimed  by  a  royal  ordinance,  to  which  all  the  instruc- 
tions of  the  schools  were  to  be  conformed,  but  in  Rome  they  were  publicly 
burned  by  the  common  hangman.  The  whole  power  of  the  pope  was  founded 
on  the  opinion  that  no  bishop  elect  could  be  consecrated  without  the  papal 
sanction.  All  newly  elected  bishops  were  therefore  very  zealous  for  the  re- 
conciliation which  was  soon  effected  with  Innocent  XII.  by  the  revocation 
of  the  four  propositions.  Public  opinion,  however,  in  France,  has  never 
drawn  back  from  the  positions  assumed  in  them,  («)    The  prelates  appointed 

«)  Opp.  theol.  Koin.  1728.  3  vols,  f.— Icon»  et  mentis  ct  cordis  Ben.  XIII.  Frcf.  1725.  Leben,  u 
riialen  Ben.  XIII.  Frkf.  17-31.    Aleic.  Borgia,  Ben.  XIII.  vita.  Itoin.  1752.  4. 

/■)  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  IV.  p.  10Ü3s8. 

g)  Aug.  Tkeiner,  Zustünde  d.  kath.  K.  in  Schlesien.  1740-53.  a.  d.  Archive  d.  h.  Stuhls.  P.atisb. 
1S52.  2  vols. 

Ä)  0pp.  ed.  Azeredo,  Rom.  l"17ss.  12  vols.  4 —Acta  hist.  ecc.  vol.  IV.  p.  ICDJs--,  Vie  du  P.  BOn 
.K.IV.  Piir.  17S;3.  12.     Hist  poL  Bl.  1S5.3.  vol.  31.  II.  3. 

<J)  E.  du  J'in,  dc  pot  ecc.  et  temp.  s.  dcelaralio  cleri  gall.  den.  rep.  Vind.  1776.  4.  Mog.  17S3.  4.  Bo» 
net,  )A-fe:isio  «li'claralio-.iis.  Lux.\Gen.)  1730.  2  vols.  4.  it  ofu   In  his  Oeuvres  1^30.  vois.  IX.   Baum- 


cnAP  ir.   CATHOLIC  cnuRcn  till  nso.   §  4-21  feance.  louis  xiv.    5 1 5 

according  to  the  vacillating  policy  of  tlie  king  and  bis  favorites,  formed  a 
spiritual  nobility  in  the  court  so  completely  submissive  that  even  their  liberal 
position  with  respect  to  Rome  depended  entirely  upon  the  royal  will.  But 
when  secular  literature  became  flourishing  and  subjected  the  intellect  of  Eu- 
rope to  its  sway,  the  consequences  of  the  restoration  of  Catliolicism  entirely 
disappeared,  and  many  learned,  profound,  and  brilliant  writers  were  produced 
within  the  Church  itself.  As  the  great  bistorical  works  published  by  the 
monks  of  St.  Maur  and  in  the  Oratory  at  Rome,  were  generally  undertaken  in 
an  ecclesiastical  spirit,  and  without  a  wish  to  sacrifice  their  learned  leisure  to 
t!ie  prejudices  of  an  inquisitorial  tribunal,  they  seldom,  and  never  intentionally, 
contained  any  thing  displeasing  to  the  hierarchy.  Fetavius  (d.  1052)  com- 
posed his  work  on  the  history  of  doctrines  (p.  6,  nt.  c.)  with  the  hatred  to 
heretics  which  is  peculiar  to  the  Jesuits,  but  the  power  of  Catholicism  derives 
very  little  support  from  the  medley  of  opinions  he  has  brought  together  from 
the  ancient  Church.  Peter  de  Marca,  Archbishop  of  Paris  (d.  16G2),  attempted 
to  justify  the  liberties  of  the  Gallican  Church  by  examples  derived  from  past 
ages  (p.  C,  nt.  I).  Mubillon  (d.  1707)  wrote  against  the  imiiudence  with  which 
the  bodies  taken  from  the  catacombs  were  honored  and  sold  at  Rome  for 
relics.  (]i)  France  was  so  much  beloved  by  this  man  of  documents  that  even 
the  prayers  of  the  hierarchy  could  only  prevail  upon  hirn  slightly  to  mitigate 
the  form  of  his  expressions.  Huet  (d.  1721),  at  one  time  Bishop  of  Avranches, 
attempted  to  prove  the  truth  of  Christianity  by  pointing  out  vestiges  of  it  in 
all  antiquity,  and  the  uncertainty  of  all  human  knowledge,  {c)  Richard  Si- 
mon (d.  1712),  with  a  bold  and  subtle  learning,  ventured  beyond  the  views 
then  commonly  entertained  respecting  the  origin,  preservation,  and  interpre- 
tation of  the  sicred  Scriptures.  He  forsook  the  Oratory  of  his  own  accord, 
was  violently  assailed  by  the  Protestants,  and  although  he  could  not  survive 
the  loss,  he  burned  his  manuscripts  on  account  of  the  displeasure  of  his  con- 
temporaries, and  for  fear  of  the  Jesuits,  {d)  Salignac  de  la  Motte  Fenelon^ 
the  swan  of  Cambray  (d.  1715),  apostolital  in  his  spirit,  intellectual,  and 
guided  only  by  the  impulses  of  his  own  atfectionate  heart,  described  an  edu- 
cation conformed  to  man's  nature,  in  contrast  with  the  mode  of  training  pur- 
sued by  the  Jesuits,  {c)  BoHsuct  (d.  I704r),  the  eagle  of  Meaux,  made  conces- 
sious  to  the  court  and  to  the  world  without  injury  to  his  own  dignity  or  to 
his  Church.  In  the  service  of  the  king  he  defended  the  freedom  of  the  Gal- 
lican Church,  and  for  the  advantage  of  the  pope  ho  attacked  the  Protestants. 
4is  attractive  representation  of  Catholitisra  was  made  to  show  that  the  lat- 
ter had  abandoned  the  Church  only  becau.-e  they  were  ignorant  of  its  true 
character.     Language  was  subject  to  his  control  as  if  he  were  its  king,  his 


g<trle».  v.  <1.  Frt-ili.  d.  giill.  K.  llal.  1752.  Or^y<>ir<;  Ess.il  liisL  siir  U'S  liberies  do  IVi;!.  gnlllcano. 
Par.  tSlT. 

h)  ßiae'-ü  liovKDii  Ep.  do  cultu  Sanctorum  Ignotur.  Tar.  16SS.  4.  od.  2.  1705.  4.  Rotli  In  Out- 
rages  postliumos.  I'ar  1724.  \o\.  1.  p.  209a». 

(•)  Ifuetii  Cointiicntar.  de  reliiis  ad  euin  pprtlnont.  Amst  1718.  12. 

(/)  II.  crit.  du.  v.  T.  (Car.  1G78.  4.)  Hot  UX,.  t.  II.  crit.  du  N.  T.  Ho«.  16S9.  4.— Life  prefaced  to 
Ijftties  clioisie.s  de  M.  Simon  par  do  la  .'A<(;7/»(  re,  .\in>t.  1730.  4  vols.  12.  A'.  //.  Gr(i/,\i.  K.  S. 
(iiPitiT.  zu  d.  Th.  Wiss.  Jena  1851.  vol.  I.) 

j)  (>euv.  Spirituelles.  Antv.  1718.  2  v  &  often.  Cnrrespondaneo  do  Fen.  Par.  1827.  3  vols, — Ram 
t'l'j,  n.  .le  F..I1.  Hay.  172:?.  12.  Cobl.  1S2*5.     De  /fe.t»«»<r,  II.  de  F^n.  I'ar.  1809.  .3  vols. 


510  MODKUN  ClIUnCH  HISTORY.     rKK.  VI.     A.  D.  1Ö4%-1S53. 

eloquence  Wfts  lofty,  ingenious,  on  difficult  subjects  sometimes  wonderfully 
fine,  nnd  in  consequence  of  a  strain  of  sadness  which  prevails  in  it,  generally 
]),itlictic.  (/)  The  puljjit  orators  contemporary  with  him  Avere :  Flec7iier, 
IVishop  of  Nismcs  (<1.  1710),  whoso  cool  considerateneas  made  every  exalted 
thing  on  earth  bow  to  tlio  doctrine  of  the  cross;  the  Jesuit,  Bourdalov.6 
(d.  1704),  whose  discourses,  with  no  brilliant  passages,  and  with  no  effort  to 
obtain  applause,  move  all  hearts  by  their  vigorous  beauty  ;  Massillon,  Bishop 
of  Clermont  (d.  1742),  who,  while  revealing  in  the  noblest  language  of  an 
accomplished  education,  the  secrets  of  the  human  heart,  the  captivating  mid- 
dle path  between  the  extremes  of  good  and  evil,  and  the  intricacies  of  daily 
life,  made  virtue  seem  attractive,  and  even  the  king  dissatisfied  with  himself; 
and  finally  the  missionary,  Bridaine  (about  1750),  who,  with  popular  vigor  as 
a  messenger  of  God,  gave  utterance  to  the  thunders  of  the  eternal  world,  {g) 

Jansenism. 

Leydecker,  II.  Jansenlsmi.  Traj.  ad  Eli.  1695.  {Gerheron)  11.  genürale  de  Jans.  Amst.  ITOO.  Zm- 
cliesini,  H,  polem.  Jans.  Eoin.  1711.  3  vols.  AbriSjio  hist  des  dütours  et  des  vari.it  du  Jam«.  'With- 
out place.  1739.  4.  Dom.  de  Colonia,  Diction,  des  livres  Jansenistes.  Lyon.  1752.  4  vols.  i2.  [Art. 
in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit.  vol.  VII.] 

§425.    /.  rort-Royal. 

Fontaine,  Mem.  pourservir  ä  m.  de  P.  E.  Col.  (Utr.)  1738.  2  vols.  12.  J.  Racine,  IL  d.  P.  II. 
Par.  1767.  2  vols.  More  complete  in  his  Oeuvr.  Par.  1799.  4  vols.  Eelatlon  de  la  paix  de  I'egl.  sons. 
CI.  IX.  avec  des  lettres,  actes  etc.  1706.  2  vols.  (Quesnell)  La  pais  de  CI.  IX.  Brus.  1701.  2  vols.  12. 
ir.  Reuchlin,  Gesch.  v.  P.  E.  Hinb.  1S39-44.  2  v.  C.  A.  Sainte  Beuve,  P.  E.  Par.  lSlO-2.  2  vols. 
[Eel.  Mag.  vol.  3.  p.  369.    Art.  in  Meth.  Quart  Eev.  April.  1S53.  p.  191-212.] 

A  controversy  which  had  for  some  time  been  slumbering,  was  revived  by 
Jansenius,  a  deceased  Bishop  of  Ypres.  His  work,  which  together  with  his 
testament  was  edited  by  a  friend,  (a)  contained  an  exact  representation  of  the 
Augustinian  and  Pelagian  systems  of  doctrine,  from  which  it  appeared  that 
many  of  the  scliolastic  writers  and  popes  approached  much  nearer  the  heretic 
than  the  saint.  To  the  system  of  external  accommodation  which  so  exten- 
sively prevailed  in  the  ethical  system  of  the  Jesuits,  was  here  opposed  the 
cordial  sincerity  of  a  spirit  wrought  by  God,  which,  being  freed  by  grace 
from  the  power  of  concupiscence,  and  implanted  in  the  soil  of  divine  love, 
cannot  sin,  and  finds  its  freedom  in  the  service  of  God.  The  Jesuits  attacked 
the  book  as  soon  as  it  appeared,  and  Urban  VIII.  directed  against  it  the  bull 
In  eminenti  (1642).  The  university  of  Louvain,  however,  in  behalf  of  the 
Netherlandic  clergy  suggested  the  inquiry,  Avhether  the  pope  condemned  the 
rejected  propositions  as  the  propositions  of  Jansen  or  of  Augustine  ?     "When 


/)  Oeuv.  Von.  1736ss.  5  vols.  4.  Par.  1744.4  vols.  f.  Oenv.  posth.  Amst  (Par.)  1753.  3  vols.  4.  Oeuv. 
oompl.  Par.  1S36.  12  vols.  4.— De  Beattsset,  H.  de  Boss.  Par.  1S14  4  vols.  TabarazuJ,  Supplem.  aus 
11.  de  Boss,  et  de  Fun.  Par.  1S22.  A.  Caillot,  Vie  de  Boss.  Par.  1S36.  Eespecting  his  allosed  mar- 
riage: (WeU)  Katholik.  1827  P.  6  N.  1.  A.  K.  Z.  1S27.  N.  S3.  [A  work  by  M.  Floquet  on  the  Lif« 
&  Writings  of  Bossuet  is  announced  in  Paris  in  1S54,  and  is  said  to  contain  important  discoveries.] 

g)  Mauri/,  Essai  sur  I'eloquence  de  la  chaire.  Par.  ISIO.  vol.  I.  Lit.  hist  -(vill  be  found  in  Am 
mon,  Ilandb.  d.  Kanzelberedts.  Nürnb.  1S12.  p.  4Ss.  Examples:  Musterpred.  franz.  Kanzelredner 
übers,  v.  Lincke,  m.  Vorr.  v.  Krehl.  Meiss.  1S33. 

n)  Augustinus  s.  doctrina  Aug.  do  humanae  naturae  sanitnte,  aegritudine  ot  mcdicina  adv.  Pelaf 
et  Ma&oillenses.  Lev.  1640.  f.  &  of:en. 


CHAP.  ir.    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1T50.    §425.  POKT-KOYAL.  517 

the  government  had  decided  in  favor  of  the  bull  (1G47)  it  was  generally  re- 
ceived in  all  parts  of  Belgium.  In  France,  the  Abbot  of  St.  Cyran  (d.  1G43) 
the  early  friend  of  Jansen,  a  John  in  the  prison  of  Richelieu,  and  with  a 
higher  ambition  than  that  ancient  preacher,  had  already  collected  a  band  of 
^•outhful  disciples,  whose  enthusiasm  for  the  liberty  of  the  Church  had  been 
excited  by  a  severe  doctrine  and  di3ci[)lino.  {h)  Anthony  Arnauld  (d.  IG'J-i), 
the  shrewd  and  profound  Doctor  of  the  Sorbonne,  with  an  hereditary  hatred 
of  the  Jesuits,  took  his  stand  in  favor  of  Augustine,  (c)  "With  him  stood, 
after  a  brief  struggle  in  youth,  his  sister  Angelica^  the  Abbess  of  the  Cister- 
cian convent  of  Port-Royal.,  and  a  convent-mother,  whoso  gentle  spirit  was 
pervaded  by  the  most  thorough  earnestness  of  monastic  hfe.  {<J)  Engaged  in  the 
same  cause  was  also  a  community  of  highly  educated  men,  who  lived  in  the 
manner  of  the  ancient  anachorets  in  the  vicinity  of  Port-Iioyal  (ks  Champs. 
Innocent  X.  condemned  live  propositions  taken  from  the  work  of  Jansen 
(1653).  Arnauld's  friends  explained  that  the  five  propositions  were  not  in- 
tended by  the  author  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  in  which  they  were  con- 
demned by  the  pope.  But  Alexander  VII.  assured  the  world  (1G5G)  that 
Ihey  were  actually  condemned  in  the  sense  intended  by  Jansen.  The  party 
at  Port-Royal  and  lour  bi.shops  objected  that  this  was  a  simi)lc  question  re- 
specting an  historical  fact  (la  question  du  fait),  on  which  the  Church  could  de- 
cide Avith  no  higher  authority  than  science.  This  revival  of  Augustinism 
originated  in  the  same  spirit  which  had  induced  the  Reformers  to  revive  it,  a 
deep  religious  earnestness  in  opposition  to  the  extreme  levity  which  prevailed 
in  the  Church.  Tlie  general  duty  of  seeking  edification  in  the  perusal  of  the 
sacred  Scriptures  was  defended,  and  the  absolute  recognition  of  the  sove- 
reignty of  God  was  a  shield  against  the  absolute  authority  of  the  papacy  and 
the  monarchy.  But  the  Port-Koyalists  denied  that  there  was  any  such  affin- 
ity between  themselves  and  the  reformers,  and  entered  with  peculiar  zeal  into 
the  conflict  Avith  Calvinism.  They  also  acknowledged  that  the  principle  of 
all  good  works  must  lie  in  a  pious  disposition,  (c)  and  yet  they  were  models 
of  the  severest  penances  and  solf-denials.  Their  devotional  books,  written  in 
the  purest  style  of  the  most  accomplished  French  authors,  very  soon  took  the 
place  of  the  Jesuitical  literature.  Pascal  (1G2:]-G2),  an  eminent  matheniati- 
(ian  even  in  early  youth,  had  his  religious  spirit  awakened  during  a  dangerous 
illness,  and  in  the  midst  of  continual  debility,  to  consider  the  natural  condi- 
tion of  the  Chri.-5tian.  In  oi)position  to  a  sceptical  world,  and  in  brilliant 
flashes  of  thought,  he  proved  from  the  very  contradictions  of  men  the  neces- 
sity and  truth  of  Cliristianity  as  a  restoration  of  religion  to  tiioso  who  longed 
to  know  tlie  divine  will.  By  the  enthusiasm  and  wit  of  his  Letters,  the  ori- 
gin of  whicli  was  then  so  mysterions,  but  exhibited  a  perfect  sympathy  with 
tlie  Port-Koyalists,  the  public  mind  Avas  completely  carried  against  the  lax 
piety  and  licentious  confessional  morality  of  tlio  Jesuits,  (/)  although  these 

?*)  Oeuvres  cliretiennes  ct  spirituelles.  Lyon.  1C7!>.  4  vols.  IC. 

/■)  Oeuvres  (rArnauIil,  Lniis.  1773.  43  vols.  4.    After  Laiijuiiiaix  ituileö  biogr.  (Par.  1S23.)    //es«- 
l-M,  in  tlie  KUht  Archiv.  lS2t.  vol.  II.  P.  1. 

(/)  Entretiens  on  conferences  de  la  mere  Angelique.  Brux.  1757.  12. 
(■)  A.  Arnault/,  de  la  freqiiente  coniintiiiion.  Par.  Ki4-3.  &  often. 
/)  I'ensees.  Par.  10("9  10.  Ä  ufu^n.  I!rl  1S8G.  transl.  Into  Oeriii.  {hy  ICIeiikcr)  Urem.  1777.  by  Blech. 


518  MODKUN  cMUi:c;n  HisTOKV.   i'i;i:.  VI.   a.  u.  igh-ka 

worn  llio  ro[)ro3cntativos  of  worldly  interests,  and  in  some  respects  of  c\cl 
fioiiiid  ioiiimon  Hcnse.  ((j)  Clement  IX.  gave  the  Jansenlsts  an  opportunity, 
l»y  moans  of  certain  cqnivocal  cxi)rcssion3,  to  reconcile  their  convictions  with 
tiio  pajKil  will  (1(509).  Innocent  XL  was  at  heart  not  very  far  from  them. 
Wwi  Clement  XL  and  Louis  XIV.  were  determined  upjon  their  extermination. 
Most  of  them  lied  to  the  Netherlands,  Port-Royal  was  aholished,  and  so  com- 
pletely destroyed  that  even  the  graves  were  rifled  of  their  contents.  (A) 

§  426.     II.  The  Comtitution  Unigenitu». 

Acta  Const  Unig.  cd.  P/off,  Tub.  1721.  4.  Col.  nova  Actt  Const  TT.  ed.  Diiloin,  Lupl.  B.  1725. 
4.— Anecdotes  s6crites  de  la  Const.  U.  Utraj.  1732.  3  vols.  ^ragd.  and  Lpz.  17,W«s.  6  v.  La  Const.  U. 
di'foree  a  I'egl.  univ.  Col.  1709.  4  vols.  [I'apae  Clementis  XI.  famosissinia  Bulla  sic  dicta  Vnlg.  &c. 
Kom.  171;).] 

The  illustrations  of  the  New  Testament  published  by  Paschasius  Quenncll 
(d.  1719),  a  Jansenist  who  had  been  expelled  from  the  Oratory,  was  a  hook 
much  beloved  by  the  people,  and  recommended  by  many  high  authorities  of 
the  Church  for  devotional  uses,  {a)  But  the  Jesuits  deemed  it  of  great  im- 
portance for  the  overthrow  of  Jansenism  that  this  book  should  be  con- 
demned. The  same  thing  was  also  demanded  by  Lotus  ATF.,  and  Clement 
XL.  Avas  finally  induced  to  condemn,  by  the  Constitution  Unigenitus  (1713), 
101  propositions  taken  from  Quesnell's  New  Testament  as  heretical,  danger- 
ous, or  offensive  to  picas  ears.  Among  these  were  many  doctrines  of  the 
fathers,  and  even  of  the  Scriptures,  but  which  were  capable  of  a  Jansenist 
explanation.  Hence  a  large  portion  of  the  French  clergy  and  people,  with 
the  Archbishop  of  Paris,  the  Cardinal  de  Xoailles  at  their  head,  publicly 
resisted  the  Constitution.  The  king  commenced  the  work  of  executing  it  by 
force,  and  died,  not  without  some  misgivings  that  he  might  have  gone  too  far 
in  this  matter.  Under  the  regency  of  Orleans,  who  cared  no  more  for  the 
pope  than  he  did  for  Christ  himself,  many  bishops,  in  opposition  to  the  papal 
enactment,  appealed  to  a  future  council.  But  as  the  minister  Dubois  was 
anxious  to  attain  the  dignity  of  Cardinal,  the  regency  decided  (after  1719) 
against  the  appellants,  and  when  Louis  XY.  imdertook  the  government  under 
the  Cardinal  A.  LL.  Fleurij,  those  who  had  made  the  appeal  wore  compelled 
by  depositions,  imprisonments,  and  banishments,  to  withdraw  it,  and  the 
Constitution  was  by  an  act  of  royal  sovereignty  enforced  as  a  law  of  the 
kingdom  (1730).  The  last  attempt  in  behalf  of  Jansenism  was  by  means  of 
miracles  and  wild  convulsions  at  the  grave  of  a  popular  saint,  Francis  of 

with  Prcf.  by  Neander.  Berl.  1840.  Pensces  (in  their  orisr.  form),  fragments  et  lettres  pnbl.  p.  Proip. 
Fung  re.  Par.  1844  2  vols.  Les  Provinciales^  Par.  1656s.  4.  &  otten.  Lemgo.  1774.  3  v.  Oeuvres. 
Hay.  1779.  Dijon.  1S:)5.  2  vols.  [Pascal's  Thoughts  on  Pvel.  ed.  by  Bickerstoth.  Lond.  1347.  8.  Xew 
York,  &  Provincial  Letters.  Edinb.  1847.  Now  York  &  Philad.  1S47.]— La  vie  de  P.  par  sa  soeui 
Mad  Perier.  (Prefixed  to  Pensces.  Amst  16S4.  &  often.)  Bossut,  Discours  sur  la  vie  et  les  ouvr.  de 
P.  (Oeuv.  dc  P.  1779.  1S19.)  U.  ReucMin,  V.  Leben  ii.  Geist  sr.  Schrr.  Sluttg.  1840.  Bordas  De- 
moulin,  Eloge  do  P.  Par.  1S4.3.  Neander  in  Wiss.  Abhh.  Brl.  1551.  p.  74ss.  J.  MueUer  in  d.  D 
Zoitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  18.'j3.  N.  80.     [Art  in  Kitto's  Journ.  of  Cibl.  Lit  vol.  III.] 

g)  Pumas,  II.  des  cinq,  proposs.  dc  Jans.  Liege.  1699.  2  vols. 

A)  Mem.  sur  la  destruction  de  P.  R.  des  Champs.  1711.     Gregoire,  les  ruines  de  P.  P».  Par.  1309. 

a)  P!»rtially  publ.  after  1671,  but  the  whole  Issued:  Lo  Nouv.  Test  en  Francois  avec  des  lofle«» 
lion»  morales.  Par.  1657.  2  vols.  12.  aud  often. 


CHAP.  If.    CATHOLIC  CllUncn  TILL  1750.     §  420.  JANSENISM.  519 

rd)'/.«,  wlio  liad  died  with  tlio  appeal  in  Lis  hand  (1Y27).  Strange  things 
were  related,  which  made  a  deep  impression  upon  even  unbelievers,  but  the 
miracles  found  a  grave  in  the  dungeons  •which  the  government  provided  for 
those  wlio  asserted  them.  (A)  Beaumont^  Archbishop  of  Paris,  gave  orders 
that  all  dying  per.'jons  who  could  not  prove  in  their  certificate  of  confession 
that  they  had  accepted  of  the  Constitution,  should  be  denied  the  sacrament, 
and  it  was  accordingly  refused  to  the  Duko  of  Orleans.  Tiie  archbishop  was 
summoned  to  answer  for  this  act  at  the  bar  of  the  Parliament  of  Paris  (1752). 
All  interference  in  spiritual  aftairs  on  the  part  of  that  body  was  then  forbid- 
den by  the  king.  The  Parliament  appealed  to  their  oath,  which  bound  them 
to  assist  every  citizen  in  the  maintenance  of  his  rights.  A  peace  was  finally 
mediated  by  means  of  a  mild  pastoral  letter  from  Benedict  XIV.  (175G).  ('•) 
Jansenism  has  however  subsequently  propagated  itself  in  throe  different 
forms.  In  the  ÜSTetherlands  it  has  a  peculiar  form  of  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, with  no  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  but  with  the  Archbishop 
of  Utrecht  presiding  over  the  two  Bishops  of  Harlem  and  Deventcr.  01)  The 
mystical  element  has  been  continued  among  a  few  enthusiasts  (Convulsion- 
naires),  Avho,  having  elevated  their  feelings  to  a  high  degree  of  spasmodic 
exhilaration  by  a  certain  amount  of  corporeal  abuses,  wounds  and  crucifix- 
ions, pour  forth  predictions  of  the  overthrow  of  the  throne  and  of  the 
Church,  (e)  The  liberal  element  in  the  form  of  a  theological  spirit  has  ex- 
ten.sively  ])revailed  among  a  large  portion  of  the  clergy  in  Franco,  Germany, 
and  Italy. 

§  427.  Mysticism,  Quietiam^  and  Pious  Humor. 
Antoinette  Boiirignon  (d.  1C80)  of  Pvyssel,  proposed  to  God  at  first,  that 
she  would  love  him  and  his  creatures  at  the  same  time,  but  afterwards,  under 
an  impression  that  she  loved  him  alone,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  busy  scene  of 
external  confusion,  she  held  continual  conversation  with  God  like  a  woman 
m  the  society  of  her  husband.  She  would  consent  to  be  judged  by  no  otlior 
authority  than  the  Bible,  although  she  herself  professed  to  stand  in  no  need 
of  a  written  Avord  of  God,  and  had  herself  saluted  as  the  mother  of  all  be- 
lievers with  a  new  revelation  to  man.  She  was  i)ersecuted  by  the  Jesuits, 
and  had  .some  connections  with  the  Janscnists,  but  she  was  herself  indillorent 
with  respect  to  both  Churches,  and  had  many  admirers  and  bitter  opi)onents 
in  both.  ('/)    The  Alombrados,  who  may  almost  bo  regarded  as  the  Quakers 

li)  VIo  flo  M.  Franr.  do  Paris  Utr.  1729.  and  oflon.  Keciiell  des  mir.  »iir  lo  toinbcan  do  P.  Par. 
1734s.  3  vol?.  Mimlgeron,  la  vtrlto  des  mir.  (I'lir.  1737.)  Col.  1745s>i.  8  vols.  4.  Mem.  dc  Mc.  d-. 
Pompadour.  Par.  1S30.  vol.  I.  p.  57.— Proci-s  verbaiix  des  plusleiirs  miSlcclns,  dressi'S  pnr  ordre  de  s* 
Mojo'tö  nil  siijet  de  qiielfiue«  personiies  soidbantes  nglteos  des  conviilslong.  Par.  173i  Muxhrhn  Dts 
ad  II.  ccc.  vol.  II.  p.  307S.1. 

c)  Apolo^'ic  dos  jiiiremons  rcndtiB  contre  lo  sclilsme  jiar  les  trlbiinaiix  sicullers.  Pnr.  1752.  3  vids. 
Waldig  list.  Pel.  Ge.icli.  vol.  I.  p.  68.  4S9.<«. 

d)  DiipncOe  lif^lUyardf,  ll.de  lY-pl.  metrop.d.  dflreclit.  I'tr.  17S4.  cd.  8.  l<s>2.  H'.(ieÄ,  nst. 
Bel.  Go?ch.  vol.  VI.  p.  82s.«.  Tlicol.  Quartidseli.  Tub.  IS.'G.  P.  Is.  Augmti,  d.  V.nh.  Utreolit. 
IJonn.  1S39. 

<■)  GriyiniA  vol.  I.  p.  37Sss.  (Arclilv.  f  KO.  v<d.  I.  St,  2.  p.  ISOss) 

«)  Oeuvres  p.  /'.  I'oiret,  Amst  1079««.  19  vols.  In  tlio  first  vol.  \f  Jier  Lifo  by  herself  and  by 
Poirct.— H'/Zc/i,  IUI.  SireiU  aus.«,  d.  liith.  K.  vol.  I.  p.  C21.  IV,  SOlss.  W.  KloHf,  A.  Bur.  (Zeitsch 
f.  bist.  Til.  IS.')!.  II.  3.)    [Ajxd.  for  Mad  liourijjnon.  Lond.  1699.  8.    Translations:  Acad,  of  Learned 


520  MODKRN  CIM-l:CII  HISTOnV.     ri:i:.  VI.     a.  D.  164=>-1953. 

n(  Catlidlicisin,  liavc  nt  dilTorcnt  limes  fsince  1575),  ]>iit  prolja])ly  under  the 
cxcilcnu'iit  of  rrotest.'iiit  influence?»,  niiide  their  appearance  in  Spain.  Michael 
Jfolinot  of  Saragossa,  a  zealous  curato  at  Rome,  recommended  as  the  true 
way  of  salvation  that  the  soul  should  seek  to  become  affectionately  one  ■with 
God  hy  qiiiot  prayer  and  a  complete  annihilation  of  its  own  independent  ex- 
isteuce.  The  French  ambassador,  in  the  name  of  the  Jesuits,  demanded  that 
this  Quietism  should  be  rejected  by  the  Church  (1G87).  Molino?,  after  abjur- 
ing the  condemned  propositions,  died  while  suffering  a  severe  imprisonment 
in  a  convent  (1G9G).  (b)  Madame  Guyon  of  Paris  (d.  1717)  followed  in  his  foot- 
steps, and  even  went  beyond  him  in  some  respects,  but  with  a  love  to  God 
so  excecdinglj'  ardent,  that  few  Ifeve  equalled  it  even  in  their  earthly  attach- 
ments. ('•)  Bossuct,  whose  clear  understanding  could  see  nothing  but  a  dan- 
gerous fanaticism  in  a  love  which  had  so  completely  surrendered  all  regard 
for  self,  that  in  its  longings  after  God  it  had  no  desires  even  for  salvation, 
prepossessed  the  mind  of  the  court  against  her.  But  Ftnclon  denied  the  jus- 
tice of  her  condemnation,  and  showed  how  true  mysticism  was  to  be  under- 
stood in  accordance  with  the  models  of  Catholic  antiquity,  and  how  it  should 
be  looked  upon  as  the  genuine  worship  of  God  in  the  heart,  and  therefore  the 
basis  of  all  the  external  forms  of  the  Church.  {<T)  Twenty-three  propositions 
extracted  from  his  book,  Bossuet  had  condemned  at  Rome.  Fenelon  received 
a  copy  of  this  condemnation  just  as  he  was  ascending  the  pulpit  of  his  cathe- 
dral. "With  the  humility  so  natural  to  his  disposition,  he  immediately  sub- 
mitted to  it,  and  exhorted  his  congregation  to  conform  to  its  directions 
(1699).  (e)  In  Germany,  Angelas  Silesiits  (Scheffler  of  Breslau,  d.  1677),  a 
physician,  but  subsequently  a  priest,  although  he  renounced  the  Protestant 
Church  and  the  friendship  of  Jacob  Boehme,  carried  with  him  an  intense 
love  of  the  Saviour.  Although  the  extreme  longings  of  his  heart  threw  him 
Into  the  abyss  of  Pantheism,  his  profound  speculations  are  so  transparent, 
his  bold  expressions  are  so  childlike,  and  his  poetry  is  so  delightful,  intellec- 
tual, and  affectionate,  that  they  have  always  been  looked  upon  as  sacred  in 
both  Churches.  (/)  Abraham  a  S.  Clara  (U.  Megerle,  d.  1707)  has  given  a 
bold  and  ingenious  expression  of  the  popular  humor  which  prevailed  in  Sua- 


Uivincs.  Lond.  1703.  Confusion  o(  the  Builders  of  Babel.  Lond.  170S.  Light  of  the  World.  1696. 
Light  risen  in  Darkness.  170.3.  abridged,  Lond.  17SG.     Renov.  of  the  Gosp.  Spirit.  Lond.  lSt7.  12.] 

h)  Guida  spiritiiale.  Eom.  IGSl.  In  Spanish  even  in  1675.  in  Lat  'by  FnuicJce.  16S7,  and  in  Germ, 
br  Arnold,  1699. — Recucil  des  div.  pieces  coneernant  le  Quietisme.  Amst,  16i3.  Other  things  in 
HmsmnHTi,  II.  ecc.  P.  II.  p.  541.  C.  E.  Scharling,  Mystikeren  M.  Mulinos's  Laere  eg  Skjaebne. 
Kjübenh.  1S52.  4. 

c)  La  Bible  de  Me.  Gnyon.  Col.  (Amst.)  1715ss.  20  vols.— La  vie  de  M.  de  la  Mothe  Guyon,  öcrite 
par  elle-mirae.  Col.  1720.  3  vols.  12.  and  often.  Brl.  1826.  3  vols.  C.  Hermes,  Züge  a.  d.  Leben  d.  Fr. 
7.  G.  Magdeb.  1S-J5.  [7*.  C.  Vpliain,  Life,  Opinions,  and  Experience  of  Me.  G.  Xew  York.  1S5L 
2  vols.  12.  Eclect,  Mag.  Aug.  1S5:}.  p.  431ss.  Life  and  Rel.  Opinions  of  Mad.  G.  and  of  Fenelon. 
Lond.  Is->1.  2  vols.  12.    L.  M.  CHld,  Lives  of  Lady  Russell  and  Mad.  G.  Boston.  1S30.  12.] 

(/)  F.xplication  des  inaximes  de  Saints  sur  la  vie  intoricure.  Par.  1697.  12.  and  often. 

e)  (JnrUu)  Jugenient  sur  la  Tbeol.  inyst  ct  sur  les  di-uiclez  de  Teveque  de  Meaux  avec  Tarche- 
vcque  de  Cambray.  (AmsU  1699.)    JSeauxsct  and  Tuharaud.  (p.  515-16.) 

/)  Cherubinischer  Wandcrsmann.  Brsl.  1657.  and  of:en.  Munich.  1S15.  1S27.  Brl.  1S20.  In"-*? 
Kelligc  Seoienlust  o.  geijll.  Ilirtcnlieder  der  verliebten  P.*ychc.  Brsl.  1C57.  Munich.  1S26.  Witt- 
inann,  A.  S.  als  Convcrtit,  myst.  Dichtei  -i.  Polemiker.  Augsb.  1;42.  (TT.  Schroder,  A.  S.  Hal  7S58 
J.)    .4.  Kaldert,  A.  S.  Br>l.  I'soS. 


CIIAP.  II.     CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  17Ö0.     §428.  NEW  OEDEKS.  521 

bia  and  Vienna  -witli  respect  to  tlie  perversities  of  the  world,  and  in  favor  of 
the  pious  morality  of  his  native  land.  ((/) 

§  4:28.  Xcicly  Eütallishcd  Orders. 
Boutliillier  de  la  Hance  (d.  1700),  after  a  dissipated  youth,  became,  in 
consequence  of  a  painful  accident,  dissatisfied  with  the  world,  distributed  his 
wealth  among  the  poor,  resigned  all  his  livings  except  that  of  La  Trappe,  of 
which  he  had  been  an  abbot  even  in  his  boyhood,  and  betook  himself  to  a 
residence  in  that  convent  (1CG2).  That  he  might  revive  the  original  rule  of 
Cisteaux,  ho  imposed  upon  the  monks  there  a  terrible  system  of  self-denial, 
■which  deprived  them  even  of  the  pleasures  of  conversation  and  reading.  A 
few  colonics  of  the  Trappints  were  founded  in  Italy,  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  America,  and  some  were  formed  for  nuns,  (it)  In  France,  -where  popular 
instruction  Avas  not  regularly  attended  to  by  either  the  Church  or  the  State, 
the  Society  of  the  Brothers  of  the  Chrixtian  Schools  (Ignorantins)  was  found- 
ed for  that  purpose  by  Baptist  de  la  Salle  (1724),  but  more  especially  for  the 
education  of  future  teachers.  A  Xeapolitan  named  Liguori  (d.  1787),  with 
whom  the  will  of  the  pope  was  equivalent  to  the  will  of  God,  formed  the 
Congregation  of  the  Most  Sacred  Redeemer  (Redemptorists,  Liguorists),  a 
friendly  variety  of  the  Jesuits,  and  in  subsequent  times  affording  to  them  a 
refuge  and  a  hope.  {]>)  In  addition  to  the  associations  without  regular  vows, 
were  established  sisterhoods  for  the  Adoration  of  the  Heart  of  Jesus  and 
Mary,  for  the  cultivation  of  a  sensuous  kind  of  worship  which  had  been 
recommended  ever  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  Jesu- 
its, at  tho_  suggestion  of  love-intoxicated  nuns.  The  cstabli.<hment  of  this 
order  had  been  frequently  declined,  but  it  was  finally  (1700)  authorized 
at  Rome,  and  was  introduced  in  some  places.  It  was  a  subject  of  debate 
among  divines  whether  the  actually  bleeding  heart,  or  a  mere  symbol  of 
divine  love,  was  the  object  of  adoration.  By  the  people,  however,  these 
votaries  were  often  ridiculed  as  Cordicolatras  or  Marionettes,  (c) 

§  429.     Spread  of  Christianitij.     Cont.  from  §  394.«.v. 

1.  The  Church  in  China  continued  to  make  some  gradual  advances,  prin- 
cipally through  the  assistance  of  the  missionary  seminary  at  Paris  (after 
1GG3).  Instances  of  oppression  were  not  numerous,  and  were  generally  of 
short  duration.  But  the  mendicant  friars  were  more  and  more  urgent  in 
their  complaints  at  Rome  against  the  mingling  of  Christianity  with  idolatry. 


ff)  Judns  (lor  Er7.wliclin.  Bonn.  Snlzb.  ICSTss.  4  vols,  and  often.  Hiiyl  u.  Pfuy  !  der  Welt.  Würiz. 
1707.  4.  nnd  nflen.  liolni  dieli  o.  Irh  llss  dicli,  d.  1.  nllorly  Materien,  Dlscnrs  ii.  Pre<llgtcn.  Salzb. 
17S7.  4.  nnd  often.     Das  Gedieaen>te  n.  g.  W.  Itlanbenren.  lS4ii!i.i.     Werke,  Lindau  ISJCss. 

a)  Riince  :  Lettres,  pnbl.  par  B.  Oonod,  I'nr.  ISIt'i.  Tr.  de  la  s,ilnlele  et  desdevoirsdo  la  vieinonns- 
tlquc.  16<3.  2  vols.  4.  On  the  other  si<le :  .V<il>illo)i,  Tr.  de»  etndes  nion.ist.  ItiDl.  and  often.— .Vn/v««/- 
I(V»',  Vie  do  rAlptiii  de  laTrnfipi".  I'ar.  \'M.  2  vols.  12.  Chiitfdiihii.iiKl,  \Wy  de  Kanoe.  Par.  Isl». 
Ulm.  lS4r>.  L.  I>.  H.  Hist,  civile,  rel.  ct  lillir.  do  l'ubhnye  de  la  Tr.  I'ur.  1S24.  L'iUert,  Ovdvn  d. 
rrnpplstcn.  Drmst,  1S33.     OaiUurdln,  les  Tropplstos.  Tar.  1S44.  vol.  I. 

h)  Ocuvre.s  coiiipleto.s  Par.  Isa,').  14  vcds.  S.  and  12.  A.  Oititini,  vita  del  b.  Alfonso  Lig.  noin. 
1S15.  4.  Vienna.  1S:W.    Jeuncaril.  Vie  du  b.  Alf.  LIg.  Louvnin.  1S29. 

c^  Benedleti  .\1V.  do  server.  Del  bentif.  IV,  00.  Archiv,  f.  KG.  vo!.  I.  St.  2.  p.  177fs  KuchUr 
In  Ztitscli.  f.  lilsf.  Th.  1S34.  St.  1. 


522  MdliKUN  C'lUKCU  HISTOUV.     I'KU.  VI.     A.  I).  lCIS-1353. 

I'lir  ft  lon^'  time  tlio  Jesuits,  however,  succeeded  by  craft  and  power  to  de- 
lüiul  lliumsflvcs  ayainst  tlio  orders  sent  to  them  from  Rome  on  this  subject 
Tlio  k'pito  Touriion  died  wl'ilo  enduring  a  confinement  at  Macao,  brouglit 
upon  liiin  by  their  means  (1710),  At  last  tlieir  adversaries  wore  successful 
(1740).  No  sooner,  however,  were  the  sacred  usages  of  the  nation  rejected, 
tluin  a  persecution  seldom  susi)ended  was  commenced,  froin  which  only  a  few 
unimportant  fragments  of  the  Church  were  ever  saved.  2,  In  the  East 
Indies  likewise,  the  hope  of  success  depended  upon  the  compliance  of-  the 
missionaries  with  the  customs  of  the  Brahmans,  and  their  incorporation  of 
the  religious  and  social  usages  of  the  people  into  the  system  of  Christianity. 
"When  the  Jesuits  at  Pondicbery  represented  in  one  of  their  sacred  dramas 
the  destruction  of  the  Indian  gods  by  the  Knight  St.  George  (1701),  a  perse- 
cution was  immediately  commenced  in  that  country ;  and  when  the  bull 
against  the  admixture  of  heathenish  customs  with  the  Christian  religion  was 
enforced  (1742),  the  progress  of  the  mission  was  at  an  end.  {a)  3.  In 
2'hibet,  the  gospel  was  preached  (after  1707)  by  the  Capuchins,  and  they 
were  allowed  to  erect  a  hospitium  there.  But  the  worship  of  the  Dalai 
Lama  was  itself  too  much  like  an  ascendant  j)apacy,  to  present  much  hope 
of  success  in  the  proclamation  of  a  Eoman  Christianity,  (h)  4.  In  South 
America,  a  splendid  church  organization  according  to  the  European  style 
was  developed.  In  a  portion  of  North  America,  where  the  dominion  of 
France  was  extended,  were  also  established  component  parts  of  the  Gallican 
Church. 


CHAP.  III.— EOMAN   CATHOLIC   CnURCII   UNTIL   1814. 

I.     MaTTEES    PeELIMIXAEY    to     tue    PkEVOLrilOX. 

§  430.    French  Philosophy.    Cont.from,  §  416. 

Corrcspondance  liter,  phil.  ct  crit  par  Grimm  et  Diderot,  Par.  lS13ss.  16  vols.  Extracts:  Bran 
•lenb.  1S20.— U'lifcA,  nst.  Eel.  Gcsch.  vol.  I.  p.  473ss.  (.1.  A.  v.  Stark-)  Triumph  d.  phil.  iin  IS.  Jalirh. 
Frkf.  1S03.  2  vols,  recently  edit,  liy  Buch/einer,  Landsh.  IS^^-L  (i\  Schütz)  Gesch.  v.  Staatsvcrandr. 
unter  Ludwig  XYI.  o.  Entst.  Fortscb.  u.  Wirks  d.  sogen,  neuen  Phil.  Lps.  1S26-.3-3.  6  vols.  L.  Ltr' 
minier,  de  I'influence  de  la  phil.  du  IS.  S.  Par.  1S:53.  Lps.  1335.  Sc/ilonser,  vol.  L  p.  477.  IL  443ss. — Liter, 
of  the  French  Chtaics  in  Fhert.  [J.  D.  Morell,  Hist  and  Grit.  View  of  the  Spec.  Phil,  of  Eur.  in 
the  19th  cent  Lond.  1S47.  2  ed.  S.  New  York.  1848.  8.  P.  Damiron,  Essai  sur  1"H.  de  Xa  phil.  en  Fr. 
au  XVIIe.  S.  3  cd.  Par.  1S4G.  2  vols.  S.  G.  IL  Letces,  Biog.  IL  of  Pliil.  Ser.  II.  vol.  IV.  Lond.  1S4Ö. 
4  vols.  IS.     leniteminin's  II.  of  Phil  Lond.  1850.  S.] 

The  government  of  royal  mistresses  (Pornocracy)  in  the  court,  the  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants,  the  maltreatment  of  piety  in  the  Jansenist  contro- 
versy, the  natural  development  of  the  national  mind,  and  the  influence  of 
English  Deism,  conspired  to  form  in  France  an  opposition  similar  to  that 
Deism,  but  such  as  naturally  sprung  up  against  an  infallible  Church  in  a  des- 
potic and  corrupt  state.  Uodins  Septiloquia  recognized  the  claims  of  ail 
religions,  that  the  religion  of  godliness  and  rectitude  in  them  all  might  be 


a)  J  897.  nt.  <7. 

b)  EelHzione  del  prlncipio  et  stato  presente  della  miss,  del  Tibet  Eom.   1742.  4.    StäuJlin  la 
Archiv,  f.  KGesch.  vol.  L  St  3. 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHUECH  TILL  1S14.    §  430.  FKEXCU  rUILOSOPHT.     523 

acknowledged.  (<?)  In  a  fictitious  book  of  travels,  Vairasse  distinguished 
between  true  Christianity  and  the  hierarchy,  against  which  his  book  was 
directed.  (/')  Even  in  the  canting  court  of  Louis  XIV.,  who  finally  gave  his 
consent  that  even  Tartufe  should  be  performed  in  his  presence,  it  was  not 
looked  upon  as  inconsistent  with  the  rules  of  good  society  to  ridicule  religion 
as  Well  as  hypocrisy.  Voltaire  (d.  1778)  was  not  quite  insensible  to  the  fjos- 
sibility  of  the  existence  of  a  God,  in  whose  honor  he  erected  a  plain  church, 
nor  to  the  beauty  of  Christianity,  but  in  a  series  of  sprightly  essays  (after 
1715),  with  the  most  niiive  simplicity  and  ignorance  of  facts,  he  gave  up  all 
its  historical  relations,  and  sacrificed  the  life  of  religion  itself  to  a  spirit  of 
universal  scoffing.  Montesquieu^  before  laying  the  foundation  of  his  future 
government,  presented  the  mirror  of  an  unliiased  common  sense  before  the 
received  doctrines  and  the  compulsory  measures  of  the  Church  (1721).  Phi- 
losophy so  entirely  withdrew  to  the  territory  presided  over  by  the  five  senses, 
that  the  mind  of  man  was  finally  regarded  as  a  dream  of  the  flesh,  and  love 
as  the  hypocrisy  of  selfishness.  This  worldly  philosophy  was  carried  to  its 
comi)lete  results  by  CoiuUlluc  (d.  1780),  in  Ilolbaoii's  circle  it  was  fearlessly 
applied  to  practical  life,  (c)  while  Ihicctius  (d.  1771)  tempered  it  Avith  an 
elevated  humanity.  In  this  spirit,  Lidcrot  (d.  1784),  whose  religion  it  was 
to  destroy  all  religion,  edited  the  Encycloj^edie  (after  1751),  intended  to  be  a 
general  survey  of  all  human  knowledge,  clear  and  grand  with  respect  to  the 
worldly  tendencies  of  the  mind  and  in  its  efforts  against  all  kinds  of  slavery, 
but  hostile  to  all  eternal  realities  and  aspirations  above  the  world.  Besides 
these  were  a  host  of  inferior  works,  in  which  the  oriental  simplicity  of  the 
Scriptures  was  nuide  the  subject  of  amusement  eitiier  by  bold  derision  or  by 
sentimental  wantonness,  and  all  systems  of  faith  were  ridiculed  as  priestcraft. 
liaynal  deprived  history  of  its  true  glory  as  a  picture  of  a  divine  household; 
even  in  Buffon's  sublime  researches,  the  Creator  is  placed  far  behind  a  self- 
producing  nature ;  Lalande  proclaimed  the  laws  of  a  heaven  without  a  God ; 
and  in  fact  the  gospel  was  generally  regarded  as  a  mere  astronomical 
mytli.  ('/)  The  enthusiastic  spirit  of  Jiouttscau  (1712—78)  found  many  things 
in  the  gospel  for  whidi  liis  nature  had  a  strong  aftiuity,  but  in  consequeuco 
of  his  rejection  of  all  history,  he  was  compelled  to  oppose  every  thing  in  it 
of  a  historical  character.  By  holding  up  a  state  of  nature  in  contrast  with 
the  artificial  condition  of  human  society,  the  Jesuitic  education  then  in 
vogue,  and  the  supernatural  revelation  of  the  Scriptures,  he  contributed  more 
than  all  the  scoffers  to  endanger  the  Churcli,  since  he  tluis  showed  how  one 
could  sjjcak  witii  earnestness  and  oven  transport  of  divine  things,  without 
being  a  Christian.  (<)  This  opposition  was  ])owerful  at  that  time,  because 
those  Avho  were  the  favorites  of  the  nation,  who  gave  laws  to  the  fashion- 


a)  ColliHjiiliim  lioptnplomiTi'S  do  alxlltls  roruiii  sublim.  Brcaiil».  1,'>!>3.  Guhvauer,  das  llcptnpl 
tics  Jenn  Bodiii.  IJrI.  IWl. 

h)  Hist  des  Sevoraiiibos.  I'lir.  H)77».s.  3  vols.  12.  Sulzb.  ltW3.  8  vols. 

c)  Sy.sU'ine  de  In  imtiiro.  I.ond.  (.\mst.)  1770.  2  vols  niid  often.  Llegn.  1788.  2  vols. 

</)  Diipui»,  Orlglno  do  toils  los  cultos.  Pur.  1795.  3  vols,  and  ollcn.  1S37.  In  tlio  Extrjicts  hy  Eli6, 
Btuttg.  1S31). 

e:  M«.  de  SlUfl,  Leltrcs  snr  les  onvr.  ct  lo  cnraclcro  d.  K.  Gen.  17S9.  (}fitaset-rüüia>j)  II.  do  la 
vie  et  des  otivr.  de  ll.  Par.  1S2I.  2  vols.     Wachler,  blogr.  Aufs.  1S86.  p.  8l5s. 


5'24  MODKUN  ciit:i:cii  iiistouy.   i'kk.  vi.   a  d.  iws-isca 

nlilo  world,  nrid  wire  lionorcd  with  tlic  friondöliip  of  tlio  nortlicrn  monarcha, 
•were  its  iirinci|ial  rcprcsciilative.i,  nrid  sjiokc  of  Cliristianity  us  a  sujierannij- 
ntt'd  Btnf?c  of  civili/atioii.  'J'lic  iiK'asiiro.s  adopted  by  the  government  against 
them  were  but  partial,  and  generally  operated  in  their  favor.  As  the  bier- 
arcliy,  wlio  liad  little  else  at  command  but  learned  lore,  were  no  longer 
allowed  to  burn  the  authors,  they  defended  themselves  by  burning  the  books 
These  works»,  liowcver,  expressed  the  general  sentiment  of  the  French  nation. 
On  tlio  hide  of  the  hierarchy  Avere  the  civil  power,  immense  wealth,  and  a 
nobility  with  which  it  was  in  numerous  ways  connected.  On  the  other  side 
Avas  nearly  a  whole  nation,  including  a  majority  even  of  the  hierarchy  and 
the  nobility,  with  the  conviction  that  their  power  was  founded  upon  a  de- 
ception, and  that  their  wealtli  had  been  unjustly  drawn  from  a  heavily 
taxed  people. 

§  431.     Clement  XIII.  (1758-69)  and  the  Jesuits. 

B(yicer,  Ramhach,  vol.  X.  2.  p.  SSlss.  {Le  Bret)  Samml.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Auf  beb.  d.  JcsnitenorJ. 
betr.  Frkf.  n.  L.  (Ulm.)  1778-S4.  4  vols.  [J.  Poynder,  II.  of  tho  Jofuits.  Lond.  ISIC.  2  vc^ls.  8.  A. 
AmoulJ,  Lcs  Jesuites,  Histoire,  Types,  Moeurs,  Mysteries.  Par.  1S46.  2  vols.  8.] 

Clement  XIII.  (Rezzonico)  was  chosen  pope  through  the  influence  of  the 
Jesuits,  and  with  pious  conscientiousness  exposed  the  papal  authority  to  tho 
most  imminent  hazard,  that  he  might  avert  their  fate.  They  had  indeed 
pained  a  victory  over  the  Jansenists,  but  it  was  at  the  expense  of  the  popular 
favor.  On  account  of  their  influence  at  courts  they  were  hated  by  states- 
men, their  engagements  in  trade  involved  them  often  in  diflSculties  with  the 
merchants,  and  their  power  over  the  conscience  made  them  obnoxious  to  all 
classes.  The  very  dislike  which  so  many  of  that  age  felt  toward  Christian- 
ity, and  the  whole  spirit  of  the  coming  generation  now  making  itself  percep- 
tibly felt,  seemed  to  demand  them  as  the  first  sacrifice.  The  result  was  by  no 
means  certain,  since  all  the  nations  of  Southern  Europe  had  been  educated  in 
their  school.  On  the  request  of  the  Portuguese  government,  Benedict  XIV. 
had  forbidden  them  to  engage  in  commerce,  and  when  dying,  he  committed 
to  the  Patriarch  of  Lisbon  the  work  of  reforming  them.  The  order  to  this 
cftect  was,  however,  revoked  by  Clement.  By  an  exchange  with  Spain,  Por- 
tugal had  obtained  a  portion  of  Paraguay  (1753).  The  Portuguese  were 
however  driven  back  by  an  Indian  army,  and  although  the  Jesuits  denied 
any  participation  in  an  insurrection  Avhich  then  occurred,  it  was  certain  that 
the  insurrection  was  impossible  without  their  connivance.  Carvalho,  Mar- 
quis of  Pomlal,  was  anxious  to  withdraw  the  monarchy  and  the  nation  from 
all  connection  with  the  hierarchy  and  the  nobility.  But  although  the  minis- 
ter possessed  unlimited  power,  he  knew  he  could  not  effect  such  a  revolution 
while  surrounded  by  the  Jesuits.  An  attempt  to  assassinate  the  king  supplied 
an  occasion  for  impeaching  them  of  high  treason.  The  result  was  that  they 
were  for  ever  excluded  (Sept.  3,  1759)  from  Portugal,  and  their  property  was 
confiscated.  The  pope  interceded  for  them  in  vain  ;  his  nuncio  was  sent  out 
of  the  country  (1760),  and  all  connection  with  Kome  was  broken  oi£  (a)    It 


<0  L'adniinistrat'on  de  M.  de  Pomb.il.  Amst.  1759.  4.    J.  Smith,  Memoirs  of  the  M.  do  Tomb.-il 
Lti'l.  1*43.  2  vols.  B.—{Klauging)  Saminl.  d.  nst  Scbrr.  d.  Jes.  in  P.  betr.  A.  d.  Ital.  Frkf.  ii.  L 


CIIAP.  III.     CATHOLIC  CnUECn  TILL  1S14.     §  431.  THE  JESUITS.  525 

was  thus  jn-oved  that  the  overthrow  of  the  Jesuits  was  not  impossible.  The 
bankruptcy  of  the  Jesuit  la  Vedette  in  France,  was  seized  upon  as  an  occasion 
for  making  the  whole  order  responsible  for  the  unfortunate  speculation  iu 
trade  by  one  of  its  members,  and  for  examining  its  constitution.  The  Parlia- 
ment of  Paris  summoned  the  Jesuits  before  its  bar  (1702),  an  apostolical 
brief,  in  Avhieh  the  holy  Father  unburdened  liis  heart  of  its  troubles,  and 
Jesuitism  was  identified  with  Catholicism,  was  laid  aside  as  if  it  were  the 
letter  of  a  private  individual,  and  when  public  opinion  had  been  gained  over 
by  the  publication  of  the  dangerous  doctrines  of  which  the  Jesuits  were  ac- 
cused, they  were  banished  from  France  as  dangerous  to  the  state  (1764).  (J) 
The  other  Bourbon  courts  ordered  them  to  be  hastily  and  violently  seized  and 
transported  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  re.'^pective  territories  (17C7).  It 
was  in  vain  that  the  pope  issued  a  bull  (1705),  in  which  he  showed  that  the 
order  was  sacred,  and  indispensable  to  tlie  interests  of  the  Church.  He  only 
ventured  to  annul  the  edicts  of  the  Duke  of  J'anita,  and  to  threaten  others 
with  an  excommunication  (17C8).  France,  however,  took  possession  of  Avig- 
non ;  Naples,  of  Benevento ;  and  all  the  Bourbon  princes  declared  such  fanati- 
cal decrees  of  excommunication  utterly  unreasonable.  (<•) 

§  432.     Clement  XIV.  (1769-74)  and  the  Jesuits. 

Lettres  interessantes  du  P.  Clem.  XIV.  trad,  du  latin  et  do  I'ltal.  p.  le  Marq.  de  Caraccioli,  (not 
altogether  aulhcntie.)  Par.  1770s,  3  vols,  and  often,  ital.  u.  deutsch.  Letterc  ed.  altre  operc  di  GangancUi. 
Firenze.  1S29.  Clem.  XIV.  Epp  et  Brevia  selectlora,  ex.  secret  tabb.  Vatic,  ed.  A.  Theiner,  Par. 
1852.— Haic/i,  nst.  Kel.  Gesch.  vol.  L  p.  8.  20Ks.  Oirutvio//,  Vio  du  P.  Clem.  Par.  1775.  Leben 
Cletn.  XIV.  Frcf.  u.  L.  1775.  (by  Ileumont)  Gang.,  Cleni.  XIV.  u.  8.  Zeit.  Brl.  1S47.  A.  Theinei; 
II.  du  Pontif.  do  Clem.  XIV.  Par.  1652.  2  vols.  [J/!  D'Alemhert,  An  Account  of  tlio  Destruction 
of  tbe  Jesuits  in  France,  from  tho  Fr.  Lond.  17C6.  12.] 

In  the  Conclave  there  was  a  severe  struggle  between  tho  ])arties  of  tho 
king  and  of  tho  Jesuits.  Tho  Bourbons  were  however  victorious,  and  se- 
cured tho  election  of  GanganelU^  a  Minorite,  who  had  always  disapproved 
of  the  measures  of  his  predecessor,  on  the  ground  that  they  sacrificed  the 
interests  of  the  papacy  itself  to  those  of  the  Jesuits.  Clement  XIV.  was  of 
low  origin,  his  character  was  not  very  commanding,  but  he  possessed  consid- 
erable talent.'»,  a  noble  manliness,  and  at  the  same  time  a  general  mildne.-^  of 
disposition,  and  for  a  i)opo  he  was  eminently  liberal.  He  governed  withou: 
the  aid  of  cardinids  or  nepotes,  and  instead  of  aiming  to  build  magnificent 
edifices,  he  endeavored  to  alleviate  distres.s  in  cottages.  He  abolislied  tho 
reading  of  the  sacramental  bull  (in  coena  Domini),  and  it  was  never  after- 
wards resumed.  («)     By  some  concessions  made  to  Portugal  and  tho  Bourbon 

17.')9-C2.  4  vols.  Deductio  chronol.  et.inalj-llca,  ubi  horreiidae  nianifestaMtiir  clades  a  Jo.s.  Soc.  Lusl 
taniae  ejusque  colonils  illatnc,  ed.  J.  de  Seiilra  HUriu»,  OIl.-lp.  1771.  2  vol."«.  ir<//t7i,  n>t  Pel.  Gesch 
vol.  II.  p.  57ss.  a.  V.  ifitrr,  Ge«oIi.  d.  Je.s.  in  P.  unter  Ponib.  Nürnb.  17S7.  2  vols.  J.  F.  JA  v. 
0//er»,  Ü.  d.  Mordvers,  geircn  d.  Kritili;  Joseph  v.  P.  lierl.  IS.'Ji).  4. 

h)  E.xtraits  des  assertions  dani^ereuses  et  pernlcleuses  que  les  Jes.  ont  cnselpnfcs  nvec  Tapprol«»- 
tion  de  leurs  Superieurs.  Verllles  par  les  commljvialrfi  du  I'nrlement.  Par.  1072. — C/ioineul,  Staat.'* 
Denkwi'ird.  v.  ihm  selbst  from  the  Fr.  Pern.  1790.  Nova  Acta  bist  ecc.  vol.  XIII.  p.  43:j,sa.  7iib(t 
raiid,  Essai  sur  IVtat  des  Jes.  en  France,  ed  2.  Par.  ls'2S. 

o)   Walch,  nst  Pel.  Gesch.  vol.  III.  p.  109.-«. 

a)  At  Iea.*t  not  until  Easter,  1S30,  according  to  the  author's  personal  Observation. 


ß2G  mui>i:i:n  <iii:i:cii  iiisTi.KV.   i'Ki:.  vr.   a.  d.  icis-iva 

Courts,  lifti-iiioiiy  was  (fiioe  more  cstaldislied  with  tlicin.  When  tliey  urf,'e(] 
hirii  to  uluihsli  tho  onler  of  the  Jesuits,  lio  licsitated  for  a  while,  debatinj^ 
wlietluT  it  were  hotter  to  destroy  than  to  reform  it,  hut  at  last,  on  the  10th 
An;;.,  177;{,  tiic  brief  called  Dominus  ac  liedemtor  iiOHtcrQi)  announced  its  abo- 
lition, on  the  ground  that  the  peace  of  the  Churcli  required  such  a  step.  In 
Home,  the  execution  of  this  bull  was  secured  by  the  employment  of  a  mili- 
tary force.  Tho  number  of  members  connected  with  the  order  at  that  time 
in  twenty-four  provinces  was  22,589.  Their  treasures  and  pajiers  had  been 
placed  where  they  could  not  be  found.  The  suppression  was  enforced  in  all 
the  Catholic  courts,  and  even  Maria  Theresa  acquiesced  in  it  wlicn  coi)ie3  of 
her  own  confessional  secrets  had  been  transmitted  to  her  from  Rome,  {c) 
Frederic  IT.,  however,  had  so  much  pride  that  be  would  not  put  down  the 
order  for  a  while  in  Silesia,  and  it  was  favored  in  the  Polish  provinces  of 
Russia,  under  a  vicar  general.  i<l)  In  other  countries  also  the  order  main- 
tained a  secret  existence,  waiting  for  a  revival  which  it  was  taught  by  some 
old  legends  to  expect,  and  individuals  have  every  where  been  found  protest- 
ing against  the  lawfulness  of  its  abolition.  The  fate  of  the  Jesuits,  like  that 
of  the  Templars,  w\as  not  altogether  undeserved ;  but  like  the  latter,  they  were 
condemned  without  a  legal  sentence  or  a  process  of  law,  and  many  merito- 
rious persons  connected  with  them  were  rewarded  with  a  helpless  old  age. 
The  missionary  and  educational  operations  of  all  Catholic  countries  -were 
much  embarrassed  by  their  suppression.  Avignon  and  Benevento  were  re- 
stored to  the  pope,  but  he  could  not  prevent  the  governments  of  Spain, 
Naples,  and  Venice  from  doing  as  they  pleased  with  the  Church  and  its  pro- 
perty in  those  countries.  He  was  well  aware,  that  by  the  decree  for  the  abo- 
lition of  the  order  of  the  Jesuits,  be  had  signed  his  own  death-wai'rant,  and 
he  died  (Sept.  22)  abandoned  by  all,  with  some  evidence  of  having  been 
poisoned,  (e) 

§  433.     rius  VI.  (1774-99)  and  his  Age,  until  1789, 

(Jonclave.  {VTalch,  nst  Eel.  Gcsch.  vol.  V.  p.  259ss.)  (C.  C.  Ade)  Lebens-  n.  Kegiernngsgescli. 
P.  VI.  Cesena.  (Ulm.)  lTSl-96.  6  vols.  P.  P.  Wolf,  Gesch.  d.  riim.  K  unter  P.  YI.  Zur.  1793äs.  Lps. 
lSfi'2.  7  vols.  (./  F.  Boiirgoing)  Mt-ra.  sur  Pie  VI.  Par.  1799.  2  vols.— Ueber  die  gegenw.  Lago  il. 
roin.  Kath.  {Plancke,  nst.  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  I.) 

The  Bourbons  consented  to  the  election  of  An  geh  Uraschi,  because  they 
felt  assured  from  his  moderation  that  his  partiality  for  the  Jesuits  would  not 
be  sufficient  to  induce  him  to  attempt  their  restoration.  The  treasures  Pius 
VI.  acquired  from  the  states  of  the  Church  during  the  first  tranquil  years  of 
his  reign,  were  spent  in  building  and  in  draining  tlie  Pontine  marshes.  His 
liberality  is  extolled  by  numberless  inscriptions.  The  convents  were  at  that 
time  assailed  bj'  innumerable  caricatures,  and  were  regarded  as  no  longer  tol- 
erable except  as  hospitals  for  diseased  minds,  (a)   Many  princes  saw  that  they 

I)  Dated  from  July  21.  Acta  hist  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  145ss. 

c)  After  Kessler  and  Ilormajr:  A.  K.  Z.  1S32.  N.  160. 

rf)  LutteroÜi,  Kussl.  u.  d.  Jes.  1770-lSOO.  Uebtrs.  v.  £irch,  Lps.  1&45. 

e)  Walch^  nst,  llel.  Gesch.  vol.  V.  p.  2S2ss.  /,*  Bret,  Mag.  vol.  VI.  p.  144ss.  On  the  other  h.ind. 
<. :  Wie  Ichto  u.  stirb  Gang.,  by  J.  Reklienhach.  (?)  Neust  1S31. 

a)  11  g.  Trcix  est  trcp.  Capitul.Mion  de  la  France  avec  ses  Moines.  Have.  1767.  12.  (by  Born) 
Nalurgcsch.  d.  Mi.nchth.  17S3. 


CHAP.  Iir.    CATHOLIC  CllUrxn  TILL  ISM.    §  4G3.  PIUS  VI.  527 

might,  without  the  least  infringement  of  their  faith,  and  very  much  to  their 
credit  as  friends  of  generul  improvement,  take  possession  of  the  immense 
weaUh  in  the  hands  of  the  monks.  The  pope  himself  appeared  to  bo  a  civil 
prince,  and  the  head  of  the  Church  merely  from  tlio  favor  of  other  princes. 
The  bishops,  however,  clearly  saw  that  if  they  became  independent  of  the 
pope,  they  must  become  dependent  upon  the  kings.  The  clergy  foresaw  that 
the  property  of  the  Clmrch  would  be  quite  as  acceptable  to  the  secular  lords 
as  the  wealth  of  the  convents.  Even  those  Avho  cared  nothing  about  the 
matter,  were  of  the  opinion  tliat  barracks  were  not  much  more  desirable  than 
convents.  The  faith  or  the  superstition  of  a  largo  portion  of  the  peoide  Avas 
such  as  to  make  them  entirely  dependent  upon  the  clergy  for  their  religion. 
Accordingly,  the  great  masses  were  gradually  formed  into  parties  favorable 
or  opposed  to  a  reform.  In  Fortiigal,  the  system  of  things  established  by  the 
violence  of  Pombal  was  immediately  terminated  when  he  was  Iiimsclf  over- 
thrown, on  the  death  of  the  king  (17V7).  In  Spuin,  Count  Aramhi^  who,  in 
accordance  with  his  French  education,  had  made  (after  17G2)  the  inquisition 
and  the  system  of  education  dependent  upon  the  government,  was  removed 
from  his  station  (1772),  and  Don  OlaciJcs  repented  in  the  dungeons  of  tho 
inquisition  (after  177G)  that  he  ever  attempted  to  cultivate  by  Protestant 
colonies  the  Sierra  Morcna,  which  was  now  restored  to  the  robbers.  But 
gsrms  of  hostility  to  the  hierarchy  still  remained  in  all  parts  of  the  penin- 
sula, combined  Avith  a  disposition  to  strive  after  a  political  constitution.  In 
Germany^  conflicting  powers  Avere  measuring  their  strengtii.  I^enhichJ^  Avho 
had  brought  from  Gottingen  to  Mayence  his  doubts  respecting  the  Messianic 
prophecies,  Avas  deposed  and  abused  (177-i).  (Ji)  Slciuhuhler,  a  young  laAvyer, 
Avas  imprisoned  at  Salzburg  for  some  jest  at  the  Catholic  ceremonies,  was 
condemned  to  death  as  a  blasphemer  (1781),  had  his  sentence  commuted  to 
banishment  from  the  country  and  ecclesiastical  pouance,  and  lliially  died 
under  his  ill-treat ment.  ('•)  Wlieu  tlie  preacher  Gaisinr  cast  out  devils  (after 
1773)  in  the  name  of  Jesus,  thousands  of  persons  Avere  found  at  Elhvanger 
and  Ratisbon  possessed  and  insane.  Some  of  the  patients  appeared  to  be 
cured,  but  few  received  permanent  benefit.  Tiiose  Avho  believed  in  the  mira- 
cles, appealed  to  them  as  proofs  against  the  Protestants  and  in  favor  of  tho 
Jesuits.  Most  of  the  neighboring  bi.-iliops,  then  tho  emperor,  and  Anally  even 
tho  lioman  court  condemned  tho  Avholo  i>roceoding.  ('/)  In  J>i(V(!ria,  tlie 
OrJ er  of  {ho  IlhnniiKtIl  Avas  founded  by  Wiixlnnijd  (1777),  on  a  Masonic 
basis  and  Avith  Jesuitic  forms,  by  AvJiicii  an  intelligence  superior  to,  and  irre- 
ppective  of  all  ecclesiastical  divisions  might  bo  diffused  among  the  peojde. 
This  poAverful  as.sociation  Avas  destroyed  by  tlio  govornnient  (17S5).  (<)  In 
Nov.  1780,  the  Emperor  Joseph  ]J.  obtained  the  long-dosired  sovereignty 
over  tho  hereditarj'  provinces  of  Austria.     His  administration  Avas  equivalent 


li)  Acta  hilt,  OOP,  nosf.  temp.  vol.  III.  p.  002i4s.     Wulvh,  n»!.  Ki-I.  Gescli.  \o\.  VIIL  p.  Tss. 

c)  After  MTicliler:  Menzel,  ndso  d.  Oostr.  1S82.  p.  1U3. 

(}}  Oi'iii'r.il  view  iiml  Llli'r.iluie :    U'f//c7i,  vol.  VI.  p.  871.  54Us. 

e)  (WcMiiiiijit)  ficsili.  «1.  A'lrf.il^riitii:  «L  III.  Frkf.  u.  L.  ITSll.  vol.  I  an.l  ot!:.  Eini^-o  Original!<o:i 
(1.  111.  0.  niif  lir>elift  I'.ofrlil.  Munlcli,  17^7.  Anliiin?  z.  d.  Origlnalscli.  Frkf.  n?7.  r^jstcin  u.  Folgen 
<L  111.  0.  .Miinicb.  1787. 


528  MODKHX  CHURCH  IIRTOKV.    IT.K.  Vf.     A.  I).  IWW'iM. 

to  a  revoliitioTi,  in  ODnscqiicnco  of  lii.s  (lictntorial  ino.'iHiircs.  With  respect  to 
the  Church,  liis  pliin  rtviiiirod:  that  it  should  ])0  separated  from  all  foreign 
influonco  and  made  puhjcct  to  the  government ;  tliat  it  sliould  be  made  a 
school  for  the  instruction  of  the  people ;  and  that  all  institutions  which  could 
not  be  made  subservient  to  the  public  welfare  should  be  destroyed.  Law 
upon  Imv  was  enacted  for  the  attainment  of  these  objects,  and  the  represen- 
tations of  tlio  bisliops  and  the  protests  of  the  nuncio  were  alike  ineffectual. 
It  was  then  that  the  pope,  a  fine-looking  and  eloquent  man,  vain  of  both 
these  qualities,  and  confiding  much  in  the  power  o!"  his  f^ersonal  nddress, 
resolved  to  conquer  the  heart  of  the  emperor,  and  awaken  the  respect  whicli 
prevailed  in  former  times  among  the  people  beyond  the  Alps,  by  the  presence 
of  the  vicar  of  Christ.  He  entered  Vienna  on  the  22d  March,  1782,  with  a 
splendid  procession.  He  could  not  indeed  deliver  by  his  intercessions  even 
one  of  the  convents  devoted  to  destruction  as  useless.  But  as  the  prelates 
thought  it  better  for  them  to  obey  the  pope  than  the  emperor,  and  as  under 
their  influence  the  people  valued  their  ancient  ancestral  usages  more  than 
the  liberty  and  equality  which  had  been  forced  npon  them,  the  dying  empe- 
ror (1790)  found  that  all  he  bad  created  was  annihilated,  and  that  only  what 
he  had  destroyed  remained  unchanged.  (/)  The  feeling  of  constitutional 
independence  in  Eome  had  gained  a  solid  basis  by  the  labors  of  Xic.  r. 
Jlonthchn,  and  a  recantation  extorted  from  the  frightened  old  man  (1778) 
could  not  invalidate  the  influence  of  his  proofs  with  respect  to  the  origin  of 
the!  papal  power,  (g)  The  four  archbishops,  ofl:ended  at  the  establishment  of 
a  new  nunciature  at  Munich  (1785),  took  ground  against  every  extraordinary 
jurisdiction  of  the  pope  on  German  territory,  and  associated  themselves  at 
Eois  on  the  principle  of  an  independent  national  church  (1786).  They  were 
immediately  sustained  by  the  emperor  himself.  The  University  of  Uonn  was 
founded  by  the  Elector  of  Cologne  as  a  school  for  enlightened  Catholicism. 
The  bishops,  however,  thought  themselves  safer  in  obeying  the  distant  pope 
than  the  archbishops  ;  the  Bavarian  Palatinate  followed  its  ancient  policy  of 
receiving  advantages  over  the  national  Church  directly  from  the  hand  of  the 
pope,  and  when  the  archbishops  became  frightened  at  the  storms  which  took 
place  beyond  the  Rhine  in  behalf  of  freedom,  they  also  hastened  to  become 
reconciled  with  Rome  (1789).  (/<)  Leopold  of  Tuscany^  in  the  same  spirit  as 
his  brother  had  exhibited  in  Austria,  attempted  by  the  agency  of  Scipio 
Ricci,  Bishop  of  Pistoia  and  Prato,  to  reform  the  polity  of  the  Church.  At 
a  synod  of  his  clergy  at  Pistoia  (1786),  the  principles  of  the  Gallican  Church 

/)  Acta  a  Pio  YI.  causa  itineris  Yindob.  Horn.  17S2.  (Acta  hist.  ecc.  nost  temp.  vol.  IX.  p.  283. 
4»ss.)  A.  F.  Bauer,  Gesch.  d.  Reise  P.  YI.  Yicn.  17S2s.  3  vols.  Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  IX.  p. 
llSss.— Codex  ,T.  ecc  Josephini.  Frivf.  u.  L.  (Prsb.)  ITSS.  .7b.«.  II.  Briefe.  Lps.  1S22.  {CaraccioU) 
La  vie  de  Josw  Par.  1790.     Gross-IIoffinger,  Gesch.  Jos.  Stuttg.  1S35.  3  vols. 

0)  Justini  Febro7iü  de  statu  Ecc.  et  legitiina  potestito  Rom.  Pontiflcis  L.  ad  reuniendos  dissi- 
dentes.  BuUioni.  (Frcf.)  1763-74.  4  vols.  4.  and  oflen,  in  different  foniis.  Commentarius  in  suam  re- 
tracUL  Frcf.  17S1.  4.  Walch,  nst  Rel.  Gesch.  vol.  I.  p.  147.  YI,  171.  YII,  192.  455.  YIII,  529ss. 
Brlefw.  zw.  d.  Kurf.  v.  Trier  u.  N.  v.  llonth.  ü.  Febr.  Frk£  1S13. 

A)  Resultate  d.  Emser  Congr.  in  Actenst.  Frkf.  u.  L.  17S7.  4.  Pragrm.  n.  actenm.  Gcsch.  d.  Nun- 
tiatur in  Munch.  17S7.  S.  Dom.  Pli  YI.  resfionsio  ad  Metropolitanos.  Rom.  17S9.  Pacca,  (Memorio 
vol.  lY.)  hist.  Denkw.  Q.  s.  Aufenlh.  in  Deutsch.  17S&-94.  from  the  Ital.  Augsb.  1S32.  E.  r.  Munch, 
Gesch.  d.  Kmser  Congr.  Carlsr.  1S40. 


CUAP.  HI.    CATHOLIC  CIIUECH  TILL  1*14.    §  4«.  FRENCH  REVOLUTION.      529 

and  of  the  most  liberal  Jansenism  were  adopted,  all  superstitious  ceremonies 
■were  abolished,  and  it  was  determined  that  public  worship  should  be  con- 
ducted in  the  language  of  the  people,  and  that  the  Scriptures  should  be  circu- 
lated among  them.  But  these  enactments  were  opposed  by  most  of  the  bish- 
ops in  Tuscany,  the  populace  in  Pistoia  stormed  the  episcopal  palace,  and 
when  Leopold  ascended  his  brother's  throne,  the  hierarchy  obtained  a  com- 
plete victory,  (i)  In  Naples^  the  convents  Avero  abolished,  the  prerogatives 
of  the  monarchy  were  enlarged,  and  the  feudal  tenure  of  the  pope  was  de- 
nied. The  controversy  on  these  subjects  was  finally  brought  to  a  compro- 
mise (1790),  in  which  it  was  agreed  that  the  feudal  relation  should  be  given 
up,  but  that  whenever  a  new  king  ascended  the  throne,  he  should  present  an 
otfering  to  St.  Peter  of  500,000  ducats.  {I) 

II.    The  Fi'.EXcn  Revolutiox. 

Vollst  S.irninl.  d.  Selirr.  seit.  Er.iffn.  d.  Kclchft  Fr.  in  RQoks.  a.  d.  Cler.  (according  to  BarrueL, 
Col.  Eccl.)  Kcuipt.  1795SS.  4  voK—Barrutl,  II.  du  Clcrjte  en  France  pond,  la  rev.  Lond.  1794.  1804. 
2  vols.  J.  T.  Diitiic,  Tie  VI.  et  VIL  consldorus  dans  lours  rapports  avec  la  rev.  franf.  S.  Oincr.  1?39. 
Jitgei;  H.  d.  Tegl.  de  Franco  pendant  la  rev.  Par.  1S52.  .3  voli».  Comp,  tho  pol.  liistt  of  Mignet, 
TJiiers,  and  Wacli:i>nuf/i,  Ilaumer,  Dahlmann.  [all  of  which,  except  tlie  last,  have  been  transl.  into 
Engl.  See  also :  T.  Carbjle,  Micbelet,  Lamartine  (Glrondins),  Alison,  and  Scott  (Lifo  of  Nap; 
Prelim.  Clinr>.)] 

§  434.     The  Xational  Assemhhj  {Constituent).     1780-1701. 

Planch,  neueste  Kel.  Gesch.  1793.  vol.  III. 

The  Revolution  was  not  actually  occasioned  by  the  disorders  which  pre- 
vailed in  tho  Church,  but  without  these  it  would  hnrdly  have  been  possible. 
The  superior  clergy  were  the  natural  allies  of  tho  higher  nobility,  but  .since 
oven  the  court  was  obliged  to  demand  great  .sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the 
Church,  the  electoral  law  was  so  contrived,  that  among  the  representatives 
of  the  ecclesiastical  estate  the  pastors  had  the  numerical  majority.  These, 
with  Talleyrand.!  the  Bishop  of  Autun,  who  never  failed  to  discover  on  which 
side  victory  was  about  to  turn,  at  their  head,  at  an  early  day  and  with  hon- 
est intentions  became  connected  with  the  third  estate.  There  was  a  philo- 
sophical party  which  had  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  Christianity,  but 
it  had  no  idea  of  contending  against  tho  faith  of  the  people.  Its  object  was 
to  destroy  the  hierarchy  only  as  a  political  power,  and  to  efiect  the  deliver- 
ance of  the  state  by  the  wealth  of  the  Church.  The  very  central  point  of 
interest  at  tho  national  festival  on  tho  field  of  Mars  (July  14,  1790)  was  a 
high  altar,  and  there  were  pious  Jansenists,  who  hoped  in  tho  decrees  of  the 
national  assembly  to  realize  their  ideal  of  a  Church.  Such  were  tho  honest 
C'</«'/.i,  who  wished  to  bring  every  thing  back  to  the  simplicity  of  apostolic 
times,  the  cntiiusiastic  Carthusian  Dom  Gerle,  who  vainly  demanded  that 
Catholicism  should  be  acknowledged  as  tho  religion  of  tho  state,  and  Gre- 
goire,  who,  confiding  in  the  democratic  humane  spirit  of  Christianity  even  in 


i)  Act«  Syn.  Pistolen».  TIcIn.  1790.  2  vols.  Planck,  vol.  I.  p.  2«3.  II,  229«sl  D«  Potter,  Vie  et 
Mitn.  de  Ricci.  Par.  1S2Ö.  4  vols  Stutfp.  ISSfi.  4  vols.  [Memoirs  of  Sclplo  do  RiccI,  Bp.  of  P.  and 
Ref.  of  Citli.  in  Tuscany.  Lond.  lS.'i2.  2  voK  ISj 

k)   li'atch.  nst.  Rol.  Ocscli.  vol.  V.  p.  .'iss.     I'lmirl-,  vol.  I.  p.  3ss. 
34 


530  .\i<M)KKN  ciuriu;!!  iiistoky.   ri:u.  VL   a.  d.  1649-1853. 

tho  tinK>  cf  (lio  most  sanpiiiiuiry  oufra},'cs,  did  not  shrink  from  exposing  him- 
self to  di-risioti  and  dead!}'  peril  in  behalf  of  the  Church,  (a)  In  the  declara- 
tion of  hiinian  rif,dits,  -which  constituted  tho  new  gospel,  freedom  of  religious 
faith  was  [)roclainicd.  Tho  hierarchy,  determining  to  submit  ■with  dignity  to 
what  was  now  inevitable,  proposed  tiiat  tiieir  property  should  be  proportion- 
ally taxed,  and  that  all  superfluous  vessels  belonging  to  the  Church  should  be 
melted  down.  On  the  celebrated  night  of  the  4th  Aug.,  they  also  consented 
that  the  tithes  should  be  discontinued,  and  the  pastors  agreed  that  the  sur- 
plice foes  should  be  renounced.  In  tlie  discussion  upon  the  laAv  relating  to 
these  subjects,  it  was  decided  that  the  tithes  should  be  abolished  as  soon  as 
the  state's  treasury  should  be  in  a  condition  to  sustain  the  expenses  of  public 
vrorsliip.  All  ecclesiastical  property  Avas  declared  to  be  the  property  of  the 
nation  (Nov.  2d,  1789).  It  was  in  vain  that  Montesquieu,  with  insinuating 
moderation,  and  Maury^  with  severe  argument,  urged  the  utter  futility  of 
this  proceeding  as  a  financial  speculation,  the  dilemmas  to  which  a  pecuniary 
salary  would  reduce  the  clergy,  the  inviolability  of  this  kind  of  property,  and 
the  saeredness  of  such  pious  institutions,  and  that  even  Siojcs  himself  warned 
the  deputies  that  if  men  would  be  free  they  must  be  just.  It  vras  determined 
(Dec.  19th)  that  two  hundred  millions  of  the  Church  property  should  be  sold, 
and  that  the  administration  of  every  thing  belonging  to  the  Church  should 
be  committed  to  the  secular  authorities  (April  14th,  1790).  The  state  under- 
took, on  the  other  hand,  tho  support  of  the  Church  and  of  the  poor.  A 
house  and  garden,  and  at  least  1200  livres,  were  secured  to  every  pastor. 
The  salaries  of  the  bishops  were  ample,  but  moderate  only  when  compared 
with  the  affluence  which  they  formerly  possessed.  All  sinecures  were  abol- 
ished. Monastic  vows,  being  looked  upon  as  inconsistent  with  human  rights, 
and  not  needful  to  the  public  worship,  were  no  longer  protected  by  the  laws 
(Feb.  13th),  but  adequate  annuities  were  provided  for  those  who  belonged  to 
the  monasteries,  and  they  were  at  liberty  to  reside  in  the  convents.  The 
kingdom  was  divided  into  eighty-three  departments  of  equal  extent,  to  which 
the  Church  Avas  to  be  so  conformed  that  each  department  was  to  constitute  a 
bishopric.  It  appeared  equally  consonant  with  primitive  Christianity  and 
the  newly-established  principles  of  freedom,  that  all  bishops  and  pastors 
should  be  elected  by  the  people.  All  fears  of  evUs  attending  a  popular  elec- 
tion whicii  was  not  even  then  directly  with  the  people,  were  answered  by 
appeals  to  the  disgraceful  concomitants  of  former  elections.  Every  bishop 
was  required  to  be  the  pastor  of  the  cathedral  church,  and  in  all  legal  mat- 
ters to  listen  to  the  counsel  of  his  vicars,  the  old  system  of  the  provincial 
synods  was  revived,  and  all  intei'ferenco  from  neighboring  bishops  was  pro- 
liibited ;  still  the  unity  of  the  Church  and  its  connection  with  a  visible  uni- 
versal head  was  not  impaired.  The  party  of  the  bishops  solemnly  protested 
against  this  spoliation  of  the  Church,  and  this  derangement  of  the  episcopal 
jurisdictions  by  the  hands  of  the  civil  power.  To  destroy  their  opposition, 
it  was  decreed  (Nov.  2Tth)  that  all  ecclesiastical  officers,  under  penalty  of 
losing  their  offices,  should  take  an  oath  to  observe  these  laws  as  a  civil  con- 

a)  Monioiro*  «Ic  Gr.  precedes  ci'iine  notice  hisL  sur  Vav-toar  par  Jf.  IT  Ciirnot,  Tar.  1937.  2  vols. 
«?.  Krri'jri;  Cr.  nach  s.  Denwlinligk.  Li>s.  ISaS, 


CHAP.  III.    CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TILL  1S14.    §  435.  GOBET.    EOBESPIEREE.    53 1 

stitntioii  of  the  clerpy.  A  large  majority  of  the  clergy  refused  to  take  this 
oath  until  the  Church  should  declare  its  assent  to  the  laws.  Mirahcau  lifted 
np  his  prophetic  voice,  predicting  that  the  selfishness  of  the  priests  would 
bring  down  ruin  upon  the  Church,  if  Catholic  Franco  was  induced  to  contend 
against  emancipated  France.  Some  bishops,  chosen  in  accordance  with  the 
terms  of  the  new  law,  were  consecrated  (Feb.  24-,  1791).  After  considerable 
delay,  Fi>is  VI.  declared  (April  13th)  that  the  oath  for  the  constitution  was 
inadmissible,  and  tliat  every  one  who  took  it  should  forfeit  his  oflice  in  the 
Church.  (/')  From  this  time  the  Catholic  Church  became  the  avowed  enemy 
of  the  revolution,  and  when  the  pastors  were  obliged  to  choose  between  the 
Church  and  their  native  land,  they  began  to  emigrate  to  foreign  countries. 
Avignon  was  declared  a  constituent  part  of  France  (Sept.  1-tth). 

§  435.     Lcgidatke  Asscmlhj  and  Katianal  Contention.     1791-95. 

Greonire,  fur  les  flifTamati-tirs  et  porscciiteiirs  dans  la  rel.  Par.  S.  (ISOO.)     Curron,  les  confesseois 
de  la  foi  dans  I'Ogl.  gall,  ft  la  fin  du  IS.  S.  Par.  1S,'0.  4  vols. 

The  Legislative  Assembly  decreed  that  every  priest  who  refused  the  con- 
stitutional oath  should  be  excluded  from  the  churches  and  deprived  of  his 
salary.  Those  who  excited  the  people  to  resistance  were  declared  subject  to 
banishment  or  imprisonment.  The  king  refused  to  ratify  these  decrees  as 
long  as  it  was  in  his  power  to  do  so,  and  priests  who  had  not  taken  the  oath 
officiated  in  his  chapel.  Under  the  National  Convention,  when  France  was 
betrayed  by  priests  and  barons  into  the  hands  of  foreigners,  and  involved  in 
all  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war,  wjien  in  this  contest  every  venerable  usage 
was  annihilated,  when  the  sacrament  of  royalty  was  desecrated,  and  the  su- 
preme power  was  exercised  by  a  Parisian  mob,  Christianity  itself  was 
regarded  as  a  mere  usage  hostile  to  liberty,  and  the  doctrines  of  the  French 
philosophy  were  embraced  and  reduced  to  practice  by  the  populace  in  its  own 
Avay.  In  tlie  mean  time,  some  noble-minded  persons  like  the  Girondists  and 
Charlotte  Corday,  found  their  ideals  only  in  the  virtues  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans. A  new  mode  of  reckoning  time  was  introduced  (Oct.  6th,  1793),  all 
Christian  manners  and  morals  were  abolished  by  actual  legislation,  marriage 
was  treated  merely  as  a  civil  contract,  liable  to  dissolution  on  notice  by  one 
of  the  jiarties,  all  ecclesiastical  utensils  were  sold  as  national  property,  and  nu 
idolatrous  worship  of  reason  was  solemnizeil,  in  whicli  venal  i)rostitntes  Avere 
the  priestesses  and  goddesses.  Gohcf^  Bishop  of  Paris,  appeared  with  his 
priests  before  the  bar  of  the  Convention  (Xov.  7tli),  to  declare  that  their 
previous  lives  had  been  a  deception.  The  existence  of  God  was  publicly 
denied,  his  vengeance  was  boldly  challenged,  and  above  the  cemeteries  the 
inscription  was  raised,  "  Death  is  an  eternal  sleep."  At  last,  Ii<'hcspierre^ 
true  even  in  tliis  to  his  character,  and  believing  that  nothing  could  supply 
the  jilace  of  the  religious  feelinir  in  tlie  hearts  of  the  people  as  a  safeguard 
fur  all  civil  virtues,  induced  the  Convention  to  declare  that  the  French  na- 
tion recognized  tlie  existence  of  a  Supreme  Being,  whose  highest  worship 
tonsisted  in  the  faithful  performance  of  relative  duties,  and  the  immortality 

^)  {Hiilot)  Col.  Brevlura  otinstrr.  I'll  VI.  n<I  praos.  Gall.  ecc.  calamitates.  Aug.  ITDC   2  vols. 


532  MODKUN  fmi:cH  iii.sTouv.   ri:ii.  VI.   a.  d.  im*-19M. 

of  tlie  Houl.  In  lioiior  of  tliis  Supremo  IJeing  an  absurd  national  festival  was 
oelehratcil  (.Inly  8tli,  1704).  After  tlie  subversion  of  the  rei|,'n  of  terror, 
Iil)L'rty  for  the  exercise  of  all  kinds  of  religion  was  restored  (Feb.  21st,  1795), 
witli  a  view  to  favor  Ciiristianity,  which  had  never  been  wholly  suppressed 
among  the  people,  especially  in  the  southern  provinces  of  France. 

§  430.     The  I'licojihilanthropids.     1796-1802. 

MnnucI  des  Tliöopli.  Par.  1797.  Ann6e  reli^npusc  des  Tlieopli.  (Recuell  des  disconrs.)  Par.  1797. 
(Iregoire,  Gesch.  d.  Theopli.  übers,  v.  Stiludlin  in  s.  Mag.  vol.  IV.  p.  257ss.  and  Hann.  1806.  [HisL 
di'S  Soctes  rel.  Par.  1828.  6  vols.  8.  J.  Evans,  Sketch  of  Clir.  Uenoin.  with  an  Outline  of  Atheism, 
Thcophil.  &c.  15th  ed.  Lend.  Amherst.  1S32.  12.] 

As  the  state  was  indifferent  to  all  forms  of  religion,  and  the  Republican 
Directory  was  afraid  of  the  Christianity  which  prevailed  in  the  Church,  the 
increasing  consciousness  of  the  necessity  of  some  religion  led  many  to  adopt 
a  form  of  worship  adapted  to  a  natural  religion.  This  was  gradually  intro- 
duced into  ten  churches  of  Paris,  and  became  extended  into  most  of  the 
provinces.  God,  immortality,  morality,  and  the  ever-changing  life  of  nature, 
were  the  objects  of  this  system,  which,  as  it  was  never  sustained  by  any  vigor- 
ous religious  character,  was  soon  found  unable  to  cope  with  either  the  Chris- 
tianity or  the  spirit  of  indifference  which  existed  in  society.  Hence,  after  a 
brief  period  of  success,  when  the  First  Consul  declared  that  this  mode  of 
worship  could  no  longer  be  tolerated  in  the  churches  belonging  to  the  nation, 
it  was  ridiculed  by  the  public  and  entirely  discontinued. 

§437.     The  Eoman  EepiLllic.     Cont.  frorn%^ZZ. 

Every  kind  of  influence  had  been  brought  into  requisition  by  Pius  YI.,  to 
foster  by  religious  fanaticism  the  flame  of  civil  war  in  France.  Uuonaparte, 
who  had  become  master  of  Italy  by  the  complete  destruction  of  the  Austrian 
army,  demanded  that  the  pope  should  annul  all  his  decrees  against  France. 
When  the  latter  refused,  and  ventured  to  make  preparations  for  resistance, 
the  French  republican  general  threw  himself  upon  the  States  of  the  Church. 
At  Tolentino  (Feb.  19,  1797),  a  treaty  of  peace  was  obtained  at  the  expense 
of  all  the  possessions  of  the  Roman  court  in  France,  of  its  legations  in  Fer- 
rara,  Bologna,  and  Romagna,  of  thirty  millions  of  francs,  and  of  an  immense 
selection  from  the  Roman  treasures  of  art.  A  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment was  bestowed  upon  Lombardy.  Even  in  Rome  a  party  was  formed  in 
tavor  of  a  republic.  When  a  popular  insurrection  with  this  object  in  view 
took  place  in  the  city,  and  a  French  general  had  been  killed  in  the  fray,  Ber- 
th ur  was  sent  into  the  states  of  the  Church  to  obtain  satisfaction  from  the 
government.  Under  the  protection  of  his  arms  a  Roman  republic  was  formed, 
and  the  pope  was  informed  that  his  civil  authority  was  at  an  end  (Feb.,  1798). 
The  sympathy  generally  expressed  for  the  misfortunes  of  the  citizen  pope 
made  him  an  object  of  suspicion,  and  led  to  his  removal  from  Rome.  Finally 
this  mild  and  devout  pontiff  died  a  French  prisoner  at  Talence  (Aug.  29th, 
1790).* 

•  Bnldaaiari,  Hist  de  I'enlivement  et  de  la  captivito  de  Pie  VI.,  trad,  de  lltallen  p.  de  Lacvw 
mre,  Par.  1&40.  A.  d.  Fr.  v.  X.  Steck,  Tub.  1S44 


CHAP.  III.    CATnOLIC  C  IIURCII  TILL  18U.    §  438.  PIUS  TIL    NAPOLEON  L    533 


III.   The  Eha  of  Napoleon. 

§  438.     Plm  VII.  and  the  lie-estalUshment  of  the  Gallican  Church. 

Storia  di  Pio  VII.  (with  orig.  docc)  Vcn.  1S15.  2  vols.  Simon,  Tie  pollt  et  prlvöe  de  Pie  VII 
Par.  1S23.  ViuiJet,  Esquissea  liist  et  polit  sur  Pio  VII.  Par.  1S24.  Jufjer,  Leb.  P.  VIL  m.  Urk. 
Frkf.  lS-24.  Artaud  de  Montor,  IL  Uu  Pape  P.  VIL  Par.  1n%3.  2  vols.  ed.  3.  Par.  1S39.  3  vols.—' 
(Caprara)  Concordat  entre  le  Gouvcrnoinont  franr.  et  le  Pape.  Par.  1S02.  Cologne,  isn'2.  Rdnluird, 
neue  Organis.  d.  Eel.  Wes.  in  Fr.  CoL  )'>'^i.  Hurrutl,  du  Pape  et  de  ses  droits  rel.  ä  I'occas.  du  Con- 
cord. Par.  1S03.  2  vola. 

Pius  F//.  (Chiaramonti)  was  elected  pope  at  Venice  (March  14,  1800), 
under  the  protection  of  Austria.  By  liis  apparent  concession  to  the  revolu- 
tion {'i)  while  he  was  Bishop  of  Imola,  lie  had  shown  himself  a  man  of  a 
crafty  and  obstinate  spirit.  Under  the  armed  escort  of  the  allied  powers  be 
was  brought  to  Rome  (July  3d),  where  he  was  by  the  treaty  of  Luneville  put 
in  possession  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  but  without  the  legations  (1801). 
lie  now  turned  his  attention  to  the  work  of  healing  the  wounds  inflicted  by 
the  revolution.  Napoleon  was  at  that  time  convinced  that  the  true  end  of 
all  his  victories  was  to  secure  the  liberties  of  the  country  by  the  establish- 
ment of  order,  and  to  frustrate  the  conspiracies  formed  against  them  in 
Europe  by  extending  them  throughout  the  continent  by  wars  of  conquest. 
Though  personally  perhaps  indiflferent  toward  all  churches,  he  saw  that  it 
was  indispensable  to  the  tranquillity  of  the  country  that  Catholicism  should 
be  re-established  as  the  religion  of  the  state.  For  the  revolution  had  dis- 
tinctly shown,  that  even  after  a  nation  has  broken  all  bonds,  it  cannot  exist 
without  a  God  ;  and  from  the  sea  of  blood  into  which  the  innocent  and  the 
guilty  had  alike  been  plunged,  the  recollection  of  the  Church  of  their  fa- 
thers emerged  like  the  dawn  of  a  brighter  day.  Ilence,  when  the  aims  of  the 
future  emperor  were  not  satisfied  at  a  national  synod  at  Paris,  of  those  bish- 
ops who  had  taken  the  oath,  a  Concordat  was  agreed  upon  (July  15,  1801), 
after  mutual  concessions,  with  the  papal  minister  Consahi.  Its  stipulations 
were:  Catholicism  is  the  religion  of  the  majority  of  the  French  nation  ;  the 
property  of  the  Church  shall  not  bo  restored,  but  the  state  undertakes  to 
sustain  the  Church  by  a  suitable  and  ample  provision ;  all  priests  who  have 
taken  the  constitutional  oath,  as  well  as  those  who  have  emigrated,  shall 
resign  their  offices,  but  be  eligible  for  a  re-election ;  n  division  of  dioceses, 
conformed  indeed  to  the  political  departments,  but  having  reference  to  the 
old  bisliop's  sees,  shall  be  made ;  the  first  consul  shall  appoint  the  archbish- 
ops and  fifty  bishops  in  France,  but  tlio  pope  alone  shall  have  the  power  of 
bestowing  upon  them  a  canonical  confirmation;  the  pastors  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishops ;  the  first  consul  shall  possess  the  same  prerogatives 
as  were  possessed  by  the  former  government ;  and  the  pope  shall  be  the  tem- 
poral sovereign  of  the  Ecclesiastical  State.",  and  the  head  of  the  Church.  In 
addition  to  these  stipulations,  Napoleon  enacted  by  organic  laws:  the  pro- 
clamation of  papal  decrees  dei)en(ls  upon  the  discretion  of  the  government ; 
there  shall  always  be  an  opportunity  for  an  ap[)eal  to  the  council  of  state 
against  the  abuses  of  ecclesiastical  power;   the  teachers  in  the  seminarieg 


a)  llomd-lle  du  citoyen  Card.  Chiaramonti.  1797,irad.  do  Tita!,  par  Grii/oire.  Par.  (lSt4.)  ISIS. 


534  MODi'.r.N  ciir'KCii  history.   ri:i:.  vi.   a.  d.  icij-isss. 

Hlmll  1)0  Ixiiiiid  liy  tlie  loiir  propositions  of  tho  Cnllican  clergy ;  and  inaniapo 
ceroiiioiiies  slia.i  bo  purfDriiiL-d  by  tlio  priests  only  after  a  previous  act  of  tho 
civil  authorities.  The  introduction  of  tlie  Concordat  was  pokninizcd  on  tho 
Easter  festival  of  1802.  Tho  Democrats  and  tho  old  companions  in  arms  of 
tho  first  consul  ridiculed  the  now  capncinado.  IJut  even  while  the  work  of 
destruction  had  boon  ffinn<;  on,  St.  Martin  (d.  1804)  had  homo  witnes.s  to  the 
mysteries  of  tlie  human  heart,  and  its  a.si)iration3  after  a  God,  wlio  could 
alleviate  the  disorders  of  the  head,  even  after  Christ  had  healed  the  distress 
of  tho  heart  of  our  race.  He  however  labored  only  for  certain  initiated  per- 
sons, leaving  the  Church  to  an  inferior  kind  of  prescriptions,  (h)  Chateau- 
Irland  (d.  1848),  in  the  midst  of  the  sorrows  of  the  revolution,  bad  found 
tho  Christianity  which  he  had  previously  lost,  and  with  many  tears  he  now 
believed.  In  the  primitive  American  forests,  under  the  Grecian  sky,  and  at 
the  holy  sepulchre,  he  extolled  the  beauties  of  Christianity,  and  what  it  had 
accomplished  for  luunanitj'.  His  inner  life  continued  subject  to  the  alterna- 
tions of  doubt  and  faith,  and  the  faith  which  he  possessed  was  always  artifi- 
cially excited,  and  tricked  out  with  the  tinsel  of  a  worldly  vanity  ;  bat  even 
amid  the  ruins  of  the  temples,  his  Genius  of  Christianity  appears  as  a  long- 
forgotten  spiritual  reality,  and  a  new  glorification  of  an  awakening  as  well  as 
a  witnessing  Catholicism,  (c)  Even  Napoleon  perceived  that  the  imperial 
crown  he  was  placing  upon  a  head  already  crowned  by  fame,  would  be  more 
firmly  fixed  were  it  consecrated  by  the  pope,  and  accordingly  he  became  one 
of  the  Lord's  anointed  (Dec.  2d,  1804).  The  Catechism  designed  for  the 
youth  of  France,  (<7)  enumerated  devotion  to  the  emperor  among  the  divine 
commandments,  and  it  was  in  fact  the  religion  of  young  France. 

§  439.     Dispute  between  the  Emperor  and  the  Pope. 

IS.  Schoell,  Eecucil  des  i/ieces  offieielles.  Par.  1S15.  Tieces  liist.  relatives  ä  Pie  VII.  Par.  ]S14. 
(Archiv,  f  KGescb.  vol.  II.  p.  172.  403ss.)  Corrospondance  de  la  eonr  do  Eome  avec  la  France.  Par. 
ÜSU.  Beauchamp,  H.  des  malheurs  de  Pie  VII.  Par.  1814.  Eiilation  autli.  de  renlövement  du  P. 
Pie  VII.  de  Vital,  p.  Lemierre  d'Argy,  Par.  ISli  Memorie  del  Card.  Pacca,  Orvieto.  1S2S.  ed.  8. 
1333.  1-3  vols.    [Notes  on  the  Ministry  of  Card.  B.  Pacca,  Sec  of  State  to  P.  Vll.  DubL  1S43.  S.] 

It  was  in  vain  that  the  pope  demanded,  as  the  price  of  his  obedience,  that 
the  Church  in  France  should  be  entirely  under  his  control,  and  complained  of 
the  violation  of  the  Concordat  by  the  organic  laws,  and  of  the  infringement  of 
the  canonical  laws  bj'  the  Code  Napoleon.  That  he  might  cope  with  the  superior 
power  of  France,  he  formed  a  league  with  the  enemies  of  the  emperor,  and  pre- 
vented the  union  of  all  Italy  for  common  measures  against  Austria  and  Eng- 
land.   This  induced  the  emperor  to  send  troops  to  take  possession  of  the 

h)  Des  errcurs  et  de  la  vtritt-.  1775.  Edinb.  17S2.  2  vols.  L'homme  de  di-sir.  Lyon.  1790.  Ecc« 
homo.  Par.  1792.  Lps.  1S19.  De  I'esjirit  des  choses.  Par.  1900.  2  vols.  Oeuvres  posthumes.  Tours. 
1S07.  2  vols.  comp.  Varnhagfn,  Dcnkw.  Lps.  1S40.  vol.  V.  p.  125.  lOlss. 

o)  Atala  ou  les  amours  de  deux  sauvages.  Par.  X.  (ISOl.)  Le  Genie  du  Christianisme  ou  beantcj 
de  la  rol.  chr.  Par.  1S02.  5  vols.  Les  martyrs.  Par.  1S09.  3  vols.  Itineraire  de  Paris  :i  Jerusal.  Par. 
ISU.  3  vols.  Oeuvres.  Par.  1S80.  22  vols.  Memoires  doutre-tombe.  Par.  1S43.  (Berl.  lS4Sss.)  12  vola 
[Tho  Gen.  of  Chr.,  The  Martyrs,  Tlie  Itinerary  to  Jerus.,  Concress  of  Verona,  his  Memoirs  by  him- 
Bvlf,  Sketches  of  Ens.  Lit,  and  various  other  works  of  C.  have  been  transl.  into  Engl,  and  publ.  ii 
Lond.  1346-50.     IHs  KecoUections  of  Italy,  Engl,  and  Amer.  were  transl.  and  pnbl.  Philad.  ISIC.  S.] 

<f)  Catoch.  a  Tusaje  de  toutcs  les  i-gl.  de  IVrnpire.  Par.  ISOG. 


CIIAP.  III.     CATHOLIC  CHDPwCII  TILL  1S14.     §  439.  PIUS  VIL    NAPOLEOX  I.     535 

Elates  of  tlio  Church  (Feb.,  1808),  and  after  many  acts  of  violence  to  declare 
that  the  donations  of  his  predecessor,  the  Emperor  Charles,  were  then  re- 
voked on  account  of  the  abuse  which  had  been  made  of  them  (May  17th, 
1809).  lie  however  allowed  the  pope,  as  the  supreme  head  of  the  Catholio 
Church'  to  have  possession  of  all  domains  belonging  to  the  Roman  Curia,  of 
a  palace  in  Paris,  and  of  two  milllüns  of  yearly  revenues.  I*iiis  \ll.  rejected 
every  ofier  of  a  salary  as  an  insult,  depended  for  his  support  entirely  upon 
the  alms  of  the  faithful,  and  declared  every  one  who  laid  his  hand  upon  the 
patrimony  of  St.  Peter,  excomnmuicated  from  the  Church,  lie  was  then 
arrested  (July  6th),  taken  to  Savona,  where  he  opposed  to  the  prayers  as  well 
as  the  threats  of  the  emperor  an  inflexible  resignation,  which  could  do  noth- 
ing while  lie  was  not  at  liberty,  and  wliile  deprived  of  the  counsel  of  his  car- 
dinals, lie  also  refused  to  contirm  those  who  had  been  appointed  bishops. 
lu  connection  with  the  Cardinal  Maury ^  then  Archbishop  of  Paris,  who 
thought  an  honest  reconciliation  of  the  Clmrch  with  him  into  whose  hand 
God  seemed  to  have  given  the  world  was  absolutely  indispensable,  (a)  Napo- 
leon now  attempted,  by  means  of  a  synod  at  Paris  (1811),  to  render  the  im- 
perial Church  independent  of  the  pojie.  The  bishops,  however,  perceived 
that  tlieir  own  protection  against  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  emperor  was  to 
be  found  in  the  obstinacy  which  the  i)ope  then  maintained,  and  the  synod 
was  therefore  dissolved.  ((>)  As  far  as  the  sovereign!}'  of  France  extended  in 
the  Spanish  and  Italian  peninsulas,  most  of  the  convents,  together  with  the 
inquisition,  were  abolished,  the  property  of  the  Church  was  confiscated,  and 
the  liberal  form  of  the  Galilean  Church  was  introduced.  It  was  for  this  rea- 
son that  the  Spanish  clergy  placed  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  national 
movement  in  which  the  lirst  resistance  was  made  against  the  emperor,  and 
that  they  might  gain  their  point,  they  took  part  witli  the  advocates  of  a  lib- 
eral Constitution,  and  with  England.  The  same  reason  induced  Cardinal 
liuffo  (d.  1827),  among  the  southern  peaks  of  the  Apennines,  to  bestow  his 
blessing  upon  the  arms  of  the  robbers.  After  his  misfortunes  in  Russia, 
Napoleon  was  obliged  once  more  to  i)ay  some  deference  to  public  opinion. 
He  then  gained  the  lieart  of  the  pope,  and  concluded  (Jan.  2üth,  1813)  a  Con- 
cordat at  Fontaincblcau^  by  which  the  investiture  of  bishops  was  made  no  longer 
dependent  on  the  arbitrary  papal  will,  and  in  which  nothing  was  said  of  the 
temporal  government  of  the  pope.  It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the 
Jieart  of  the  holy  Father  was  seized  by  a  paroxysm  of  deep  despondency  on 
account  of  this  surrender  of  his  last  weapon,  and  following  the  counsel  of  the 
liberated  cardinals,  he  revoked  all  that  he  had  done.  On  the  very  next  day 
(March  2.jth),  tlie  enii)eror  jiublished  the  Concordat  as  a  law  of  the  empire, 
liut  the  nationalities  which  iiad  been  destroyed  by  him  now  rose  up  against 
him,  and  this  military  prince  began  to  totter  from  his  eminence.  Then  it 
was  that  ho  concluded  to  liberate  the  pope,  and  restore  to  him  the  possessior 
of  the  states  of  the  Churcli. 

a)  From  the  Life  of  Mmv.  by  his  Xcphew.  (Stud.  \\.  Krit  1881.  P.  8.  p.  CCSss.) 

b)  Melcliers,  Nationalconc.  zu  Paris  in.  Actonst.  Munich.  lSi4. 


536  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    I'KR.  VL    A.  I).  ICIS-ISM. 

f   III).     Occrllirow  of  the  German  Ecclesiastical  Constilntlon. 

MarUiu,  KrciicU  dos  i)rlnc.  traltt'S.  vol.  VII.  p.  539s8.  Suppl.  vol.  III.  p.  24.3ss.  Rclch«<leputallon». 
Hmiptsclil.  <'cl.  by  Cümiiierfr,  RiitLsb.  1S04.  4.  Octuporl,  «1.  K.  D.  Reccs.s  in.  Erliiiitr.  Hmb.  1S03.  2 
vols.— //</;■/,  I)oiit.«dil.  nst.  Btnat.s-  ii.  K.  Vcränder.  Brl.  1804.  Planck,  Bctr.  ü.  d.  riHt  Veriindr.  d. 
kath.  K.  Mann.  iMiS.  (I'uuIhii)  üoitrr.  j..  Gesch.  d.  katb.  K.  Im  19.  Jalirli.  IKldclb.  (1818.)  1828. 
Kojip,  <1-  •-""'•  K-  '"'  'Ö.  Jbh.  Mayence,  1S30. 

Tlio  pcclesiastical  Electorates,  wliicli  liad  been  jilaccs  of  rendezvous  for 
the  enii{:jnints,  and  for  all  who  wished  to  devise  intrigues  against  France, 
were  swallowed  up  in  the  republic,  and  by  the  Peace  of  Luneville  (1801)  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine  was  ceded  to  France.  The  secular  princes,  who 
were  losers  by  this  arrangement,  or  who  for  other  reasons  had  found  favor  at 
Paris,  were  indemnified  by  the  gift  of  territories  belonging  to  the  Church. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  ecclesiastical  princijialities  and  charitable  foundations 
were  secularized  by  a  recess  of  the  imperial  deputies  (1803).  Dalhcrg,  the 
electoral  arch-chancellor,  who  enjoyed  the  esteem  of  the  conqueror  for  his 
pliancy,  of  the  German  people  for  his  goodness  of  heart,  and  of  artists  and 
learned  men  for  his  sj-mpathy  with  them  in  their  studies,  and  his  freedom 
from  all  petty  considerations,  was  the  only  one  who  maintained  his  elevated 
ecclesiastical  and  political  position ;  and  in  his  episcopal  see  at  Ratisbon,  to 
which  the  metropolitan  rights  of  Mentz  had  been  transferred  (1805),  he  en- 
deavored to  reconcile  the  Church  with  the  spirit  of  the  new  age.  After  the 
papacy  had  been  secularized.  Napoleon  declared  (1810)  (o)  that  the  princi- 
pality belonging  to  it  possessed  only  a  secular  and  personal  character. 
Although  the  nobility  were  more  affected  by  the  loss  than  Catholicism,  yet 
the  Church  was  in  these  various  ways  obliged  to  expiate  the  offences  of  the 
empire.  It  was  however  obvious  that  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  dis- 
solved. The  dioceses  had  been  dismembered,  the  chapters  and  convents  had 
been  abolished,  the  ecclesiastical  princes  of  the  empire  had  even  thrown  away  the 
crosier,  Protestant  princes  claiming  to  be  the  heirs  of  the  bishops  had  usurped 
the  right  of  patronage,  bishops  were  not  appointed  to  vacant  offices,  nor  were 
the  dioceses  re-organized,  and  finally,  with  the  quiet  subversion  of  the  holy 
Roman  empire,  there  were  no  more  securities  for  the  laws  of  the  empire.  In 
this  way  the  ecclesiastical  constitution  was  completely  terminated.  Even  in 
Bavaria  (since  1799),  the  spirit  of  lUuminism  destroyed  the  monasteries,  and 
induced  the  government  to  issue  enactments  against  every  thing  it  regarded 
as  superstition,  (b)  In  consequence  of  the  extravagant  claims  set  up  by  each 
party,  all  negotiations  between  the  princes  of  Southern  Germany  and  the 
Roman  court,  which  always  insisted  that  heretical  princes,  Instead  of  gaining 
ecclesiastical  property,  should  lose  their  own,  {c)  were  utterly  fruitless,  and 
provisional  ecclesiastical  governments  were  formed  according  to  the  spirit  of 
the  civil  authorities. 

«)  {Dalberg)  Dc  la  palx  de  Tigliso  dans  les  6tats  do  la  confed6ration  rbenane.  Frcf.  ISIO.  Ratish. 
ISIO.  .1.  Krümer,  Karl  Theod.  Dalb.  Lps,  isil.  Dalberg.  Die  letzten  Lebenstage  e.  deutscbei 
BUchofs.  by  //.  .V.  £.  Carlsr.  1S46.     Liter  Naohlas.s  d.  Fra\i  v.  Wolzogen.  vol.  11.  p.  Öös. 

b)  Ifeiil-e-a  Kel.  Ann.  vil.  I.  p.  127.  II,  2iils.'=.  A.  Z.  1S(I3.  N.  253,  1S04.  N.  151. 

c)  Instructions  to  the  Xuntlus.  lu  Vienna,  in  Paulus,  Keitrr.  1823.  p.  87. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CIIUECII  TILL  ISU.     §  441.  KEIMAKUS.    BAIIKDT.        537 

CHAP.  IV.— THE  PPwOTESTANT  EVANGELICAL   CHURCH   UNTIL 

1814. 

§  Ul.     The  Age  of  Enlightenment.     Cont.  from  §  416,  430. 

(ff.  U.  Brastherger)  Erzähl,  u.  Beurth.  d.  VerüDdr.  d.  Lcbrbc?.  d.  Prot  In  Deutschl.  Ilal.  ITOX 
J.  A.  IT.  TUlmann,  pragin.  Gesch.  d.  chr.  Pv.  u.  Th.  in  d.  prot  K.  2  Ilalfto  des  IS.  Jahrh.  Brsl.  1S05. 
(New  Title)  Lps.  lS-24.  only  1  vol.  Gieseler,  Kuckbl.  a.  d.  kirclil.  u.  th.  Kiolit  u.  Entw.  d.  letzten  50 
J.  Gott  1S3T.  Tholuck,  Abriss  c.  Gesch.  d.  Umwülziing  s.  IT.'JO.  a.  d.  Gebiete  d.  Th.  in  Deutschl 
(Verm.  Solirr.  Ilal.  1S;}9.  vol.  II.)     {Ihtgenhach  (§  41C.)  vol.  I.  Vorless.  11-17.  vol.  II,  1-9.] 

The  same  spirit  Avhicli  Avas  in  other  places  breaking  loose  from  all  re- 
straints, attempted  in  Germany  to  overthrow  Christianity.  The  Wolfenbüttel 
Fragmentn.  originally  composed  by  lieimarus  (d.  1768)  for  himself  and  a  few 
friends  in  a  town  zealous  for  ancestral  usages,  and  edited  by  Lessing,  con- 
tended Avith  much  intellectual  acuteness  against  the  habit  of  decrying  reason 
which  prevailed  In  the  pulpit,  and  against  the  possibility  of  a  revelation 
which  should  possess  sufficient  evidence  to  render  it  worthy  of  universal  con- 
fidence, and  represented  the  undertaking  of  Jesus  as  an  unsuccessful  attempt 
at  an  insurrection  which  finally  gained  credit  by  a  pretended  resurrection,  {a) 
Among  other  decisive  conclusions  respecting  Christianity,  MnuviUon  put 
forth  one  in  which  not  only  its  divine  origin,  but  even  the  moral  principles 
of  the  gospel  were  assailed.  Qi)  Bahrdt  (1741—92),  always  clever  and  light- 
minded  not  only  in  his  scientific  pursuits  but  in  his  daily  life,  having  gradu- 
ally broken  loose  from  the  restraints  of  the  ecclesiastical  creed,  endeavored 
by  strange  fancies  sometimes  to  destroy  the  Scriptural  history,  and  sometimes 
to  make  it  harmonize  with  the  views  and  sentimentality  of  the  age  by  repre- 
senting Socrates,  .Jesus,  Semler,  and  himself,  as  equally  the  instruments  of  divine 
providence,  (c)  He  addressed  himself  to  the  common  people ;  others  en- 
deavored to  move  the  middle  cla-sses  of  society ;  the  higher  classes  had  im- 
bibed the  same  spirit  in  a  more  ingenious  form  from  France;  while  those  who 
were  intellectually  of  a  still  higher  order,  though  they  looked  from  a  position 
of  an  entirely  secular  character,  regarded  the  efforts  of  these  modern  Titans 
with  derision  and  mockeries.  This  merely  destructive  school  was  not  over- 
come by  the  numerous  replies  its  productions  called  forth,  nor  by  the  petty 
persecution  to  which  its  adherents  were  subjected,  but  by  the  free  develop- 
ment of  German  theology.  German  literature,  with  some  respect  for  the 
blessings  of  Christianity  and  what  wore  called  the  dreams  of  its  youthful 
days,  prosecuted  the  discovery  that  the  doctrine  of  the  Church  was  perhaps 
ditferent  in  important  respects  from  that  of  primitive  Christianity,  and 
indulged  the  expectation  that  wlien  theology  should  be  properly  developed, 


«)  [A'.  //;m<?,]  Leben  Jesu.  p.  81.  (ZQr.  Gescli.  u.  Lit.  a.  d.  Schützen  d.  Wolf.  BIbl.  Boltr.  8.  4. 
Wolfenb.  1777.)  Frngin.  d.  Wolf.  UnKennnnten,  hrsg.  v.  Leasing,  4  cd.  BrI.  1S!5.  Selection  of  all 
liiiIiorLint  papers  frnm  the  llainbiirc  MS.s. :  Apolosic  o.  Schiitzsch.  für  die  Vrniunf^.  Verehrer  Gottef 
V.  II.  S.  Keim.  ed.  by  If.  Klone.  (Zeit.scb.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S50.  II.  4.  IS'jl.  II.  4.  ISS'.'.  II.  .3.) 

h)  Das  ttrizij;  wahre  System  d.  chr.  P.el.  BrI.  17S7. 

c)  [A:  //«(.fc,]  Leben  Jesu.  p.  81.  K.  F.  AiA;-(//,  Glaiibensbek.  Ilal.  1770.  K.  ii.  Ketzcr-Alma 
n.ach  f.)r  17S1.  Ilüresiopcl.  Gesch.  s.  Lebens,  by  himself.  Brl.  1790s.  4  vols.  Mit  P.ericlilpg.  v.  Vvl- 
i,aniJ,  Jen.  1701.  ü.  I.anrkhard,  Ilnl.  1761.  Briefe  anges.  Gelehrten,  Staatsmänner  u.  a.  an  den  b» 
'ahmten  Mfirtyrer  Bahrdt.  Ljis.  1701.  5  vols. 


."538  MODKUN  ciiti:'ii  iiistokv.   tkh.  vi.   a.  d.  le^s-iyw. 

It  would  lie  cinisistciit  with  tho  dictates  of  a  mature  reason.  Mifknel'm 
(ITI'J-'JI),  from  tho  Orphan  houfic,  -with  some  assistance  from  England,  pre- 
Bontcd  an  historical  cstiraato  of  tho  original  text  of  tho  sacred  Scriptures,  and 
interi)rctcd  the  Old  Testament  hy  oriental  illustrations,  and  the  Mosaic  laws 
hy  tho  ])rin<iiilcs  of  Montesquieu.  His  dilluse  and  easy  stylo  vfus,  very  agree- 
ahlo  to  the  Cicrmans ;  in  his  best  days  he  liad  the  reputation  of  being  an 
innovator,  though  when  an  old  man  he  was  considerably  behind  his  age,  and 
he  himself,  without  moral  courage,  assures  us  that  he  always  conformed  hia 
instructitms  to  tho  doctrines  of  the  Church,  {d)  Erncsti  (1707-81;  applied 
the  results  of  classical  philology  to  the  settlement  of  more  precise  rules  for 
tho  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  to  which  he  once  more  conducted  the 
creed  of  the  Church,  (e)  Semler  (1725-91),  who  had  by  extreme  diligence 
advanced  from  the  jiietistic  and  contracted  spirit  of  his  youth,  when  he  ex- 
hibited neither  fancy  nor  genius,  to  a  mat\irity  in  which  he  displayed  im- 
mense treasures  of  an  independent,  bnt  irregular  and  undigested  knowledge, 
presented  various  examples  fortified  by  all  the  w-eight  of  the  original  histori- 
cal documents,  of  the  misunderstandings,  the  delusions,  and  violence  in  which 
he  thought  the  doctrines  of  the  Church  in  many  instances  had  originated. 
In  his  estimation,  the  Bible  was  full  of  many  minor  ideas  peculiar  to  tho 
places  in  which  it  was  Avritten,  and  he  seemed  to  think  it  was  proper  to  admit 
any  doctrine  into  it  which  might  serve  to  improve  the  morals  of  men.  lie 
never  imagined  that  he  was  doing  any  thing  calculated  to  produce  a  revolu- 
tion, and  he  was  pervaded  by  the  pious  feelings  which  formed  the  habit  of 
his  youth.  Hence,  when  the  very  system  for  which  he  had  contended  and 
suffered  became  triumphant  (1779),  and  he  saw  how  far  beyond  all  bounds 
it  was  carried  by  Bahrdt,  he  was  alarmed  at  his  own  course,  and  came  into 
conflict  with  the  very  spirit  of  the  age  which  he  had  done  so  mnch  to  pro- 
duce. For  in  his  subsequent  works  he  maintained  that  in  public  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  were  to  be  absolutely  npheld,  although  in  private  each  one 
was  to  be  allowed  full  freedom  in  his  religious  views.  (/)  Frederic  IL,  the 
German  hero  with  a  French  education,  who  would  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  Christian  faith,  although  he  Avas  not  Avithout  some  regard  for  Christian 
morality,  for  the  strength  of  religious  feelings,  for  Protestantism  as  the  reli- 
gion of  his  country,  and  for  every  individual  of  ability  in  the  Church,  de- 
spised every  thing  like  priestcraft,  gave  all  the  influence  of  his  great  name  to 
those  who  were  opposing  the  doctrines  of  the  Church,  and  allowed  every  one 
full  liberty  to  be  saved  after  his  own  fagon.  {g)      The   General   German 

d)  Eichhorn,  J.  D.  Mich.  (Alls.  Bibl.  d.  bibl.  Lit.  1T99.  v.  III.  p.  82Tss.)  Leb-ynsbescbr.  von  ibm 
selbst  m.  Anm.  v.  Ilassenkamp,  Hint.  &,  L.  1793.  [Introd.  to  the  N.  T.  from  the  Germ,  of  J.  D.  Midi, 
by  Jrarsh,  lAind.  ISIS.  C  vols.  Ct/mnient.  on  tlic  Laws  of  Moses,  transl.  from  tlie  Germ,  of  J.  D.  Mich. 
by  SniM,  Lond.  4  vols.  S.   EMihorns  Life  and  Writinn:sof  J.  D.  M.  b:«becn  transl.  Edinb.  1535.  IS.] 

*)  A.  Teller,  Ern.  Verdienste  um  Th.  ii.  Uel.  Lps.  1TS3.  Semler,  Zus.  zu  Teller.  Hal.  17S3.  J.  r. 
Vorst,  Or.  dc  Ern.  optimo  post  Grotinm  duce  interpretum  X.  T.  Lugd.  B.  1S04.  4.  [Ernesti,  Ele- 
uients  of  Interp.  transl.,  with  Notes  and  App.  by  M.  Stuart,  Andover,  1327.  12.] 

/)  Lobensbcschr.  von  ihm  selbst  Hal.  17Sls.  2  vols.  Xiemei/er,  S.  letzte  Aeusserungen.  Hal.  1T91. 
Ekhho,-^!^  Soml.  (AUg.  Bibl.  1793.  vol.  V.) 

a)  Prtuxit,  Fr.  d.  G.  Brl.  lS32ss.  5  vols.  F.  r.  liaumer :  Fr.  IL  u.  s.  Zeit.  (Beitrr.  z.  neu 
Oescb.  Lpj.  l>s3G.  v.  II.)  V.edcn  z.  Gedächtni.isC  Fr.  IL  Lps.  184-3.  »t  1S47.  J.  C.  Jokannsen,  Fr.  d. 
O.  Kel.  u.  Tuler.  (Zcitsch.  f.  lilst.  Th.  1S49.  II.  1.)     [E.  2Iori,irty.  II.  of  Fr.  ThcoL  Lond.  &  Thilad. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CnUECn  TILL  ISU.    §  442.  KEACTIOX.  530 

Library,  which  under  Nicolai^  during  tlie  first  ten  years  of  its  publication 
(after  17C5),  exercised  an  absolute  sway  as  a  tribunal  of  literature,  always 
exerted  its  secret  influence  in  opposition  to  the  ancient  system  of  faith,  (//) 
and  rejected  every  thinp:  which  exceeded  tlie  limits  of  its  own  bald  intelli- 
gence and  morality,  on  the  fj:round  of  a  liability  either  to  the  reproach  of  su- 
perstition or  the  suspicion  of  Jesuitism.  {P)  It  professed  to  rcj-'ard  Cliri.stian- 
ity  only  as  an  liistorical  development  of  natural  morality  and  religion,  and  a 
popular  system  of  instruction  in  the  best  way  to  become  happy  in  this  world 
and  the  next.  In  consequence  of  the  power  possessed  by  the  opposition 
among  the  influential  classes,  and  its  continued  adherence  to  the  general  basis 
of  Christianity,  it  would  neither  be  discarded  as  a  heresy,  nor  attempt  to  set 
Ttp  a  peculiar  Church  of  its  own,  but  on  the  i)rincii)le3  of  Protestantism  it 
Avas  looked  upon  as  simply  one  among  many  theological  views,  and  as  hetero- 
doxy by  the  side  of  orthodoxy.  Besides,  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  upheld 
by  it  in  opposition  to  the  fallible  doctrine  of  the  Church,  although  the  de- 
velopment of  the  experimental  sciences  made  many  doubt  whether  the  whole 
of  the  sacred  text  could  be  the  immediate  word  of  God.  Euliglitenment,  by 
which  was  meant  an  elevation  above  the  childish  prejudices  of  education  by 
a  courage  which  induces  one  to  rely  upon  his  own  understanding,  now  be- 
came the  watchword  of  the  age,  (/)  and  Germany  once  more  saw  its  sanc- 
tuary of  faith  torn  down  by  the  hands  of  its  own  priests. 

§  442.  Chriiftian  lieaction.  Prussian  liellgioua  Edict. 
Societies  were  now  established  for  the  maintenance  of  the  ancient  faith, 
by  publications,  by  schools  for  the  education  of  the  young,  and  by  fraternal 
admonitions.  One  of  these  was  formed  at  Stockholm,  1771 ;  another  at  the 
Hague,  1785  ;  and  a  very  extensive  German  society  for  the  diffusion  of  Chris- 
tianity was  started  by  Urlspcrgcr  (after  1779),  with  its  principal  seat  at 
Basle,  and  without  regard  to  differences  of  creed,  including  all  who  acknowl- 
edged Jesus  as  their  God  and  Saviour.  («)  The  Suabiau  prelate  Oetinger 
(1702-82),  whose  mind  was  inclined  to  every  thing  mysterious  and  fanciful, 
and  yet  was  always  practical  and  fond  of  general  principles,  was  unwearied 
in  turning  the  attention  of  the  people  of  Berlin  to  that  of  which  they  knew 
nothing,  and  proclaimed  the  mysteries  of  God  as  a  sacred  philosophy,  in  which 
all  material  things  Avoro  pervaded  by  spirit.  (J)  Those,  however,  who  con- 
tended against  the  innovations  in  an  intelligent  manner,  were  themselves 
atVected  by  the  general  literature  of  tlio  day,  and  forsook  many  fundamental 
l)rinciples  of  the  old  Protestantism.    Individual  instances  of  persecution  were 

2  vols.  CSimphelV»  Life,  Jkc.  of  Fr.  tlio  Or.  Lond.  4  vols.  3.  2  vol»,  p.  a  iMrd  Dover,  Life,  Ac  of 
Fr.  the  Or.  Lond.  2  vol».  9.  J).  Thlebault,  Ori«.  Anecdd.  of  Fr.  ilio  Or.  ft-oui  tlio  French.  Phllad 
1S06.  2  vols.  8.] 

/()  Briefe  an  .Toll.  Mueller,  od.  by  ^flturer-Const>lnt.  Scliaini.  1S40.  vol.  IV.  p.  ISss.  esp.  2-3. 

i)  /'.  iVie.  Uebor  iiiclno  Gelehrte  nildiin^.  Brl.  17Ö9.  J.  G.  FichU,  Nlc  Lebun  u.  sondcrb.  Mein 
«jngen.  Tub.  ISOl.     (;!,rKi»yl,  Nlo.  Luben  n.  lit.  Xiidilns;«.  Ürl.  1S20. 

X-)  Kant,  Wnsl>t  Aiifkl  iriin!,'?  (ISerl.  Mon.it.scbr.  17-;».  Dec.) 

(i)  J.  A.  Urlxp.  15os<liaftVnh.  u.  Zwecke  e.  zu  errichtenden  deutschen  Gcscllscb.  thütiger  BeförJ. 
relnor  Lelire  \i.  Gotl.oelli<:k.  Biw.  17S1. 

1>)  Bibl.  WurterbiK-li.  (177r,.)  ed.  with  Explan,  by  rr.tmherger,  Stuttg.  1S49.  AntoDiog.  cd.  the 
same   Stiitl;.'.  1S4,1.     J\.  A.  Aiiherlin,  d.  Theos,  plile  Oot  with  IVaef  by  A*.  liolhf,  Tub.  1S4?. 


540  MODKUN   ('Ill'IiCn  IIISTOUV.     ri:U.  VI.     a.  D.  164*-1SM. 

not.  iiidooil  wanting.',  and  flie  lepal  ecTisor.shij)  and  tho  public  prosecutor  wore 
Homctinios  iippcalofl  to'  Lut  generally  instead  of  a  resort  to  tlio  civil  or  tlio 
occlesiaHtieal  Hword,  tlio  most  timid  intrigues  -were  carried  forward,  and  tho 
pcüi)lo  Avero  indifferent  to  tlio  Avliolc  matter.  An  attempt  to  suppress  the 
now  freedom  of  instruction  at  the  University  of  Jena  (1794)  was  quietly  sup- 
l)resscd  by  Charles  Angvstus.  (r)  Tho  most  decided  hostility  was  displayed 
in  the  very  place  where  the  professed  enlightenment  originally  found  a  home. 
FrciJcric  WilUam  JT.^  painfully  impressed  with  a  sense  of  the  position  of  his 
illustrious  ancestor  with  respect  to  the  Church,  and  himself  under  the  influ- 
ence of  a  faction,  Avas  anxious  to  aid  Avhat  ho  regarded  as  tho  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  published,  by  tho  advice  of  his  ecclesiastical  minister  Woellner, 
a  religious  edict  (July  9,  17V8),  which,  for  tho  protection  of  the  congrega- 
tions, threatened  every  clergyman  Avith  deposition,  and  even  Avith  severer 
punishments  according  to  circumstances,  Avho  should  presume  to  teach  any 
thing  inconsistent  Avith  the  symbols  of  the  Church  to  Avhich  he  belonged,  {d) 
The  execution  of  this  edict  Avas  to  be  secured  by  a  national  catechism,  and  a 
commission  for  examination  (1791)  under  the  immediate  direction  of  Woell- 
ner.  (f;)  But  even  the  laAV  passed  at  the  same  time  for  the  censorship  of  the 
press,  (/)  could  not  prevent  such  a  general  expression  of  disapprobation,  {g) 
that  AVoellner,  to  escape  the  reproach  of  having  established  a  Protestant 
inquisition,  only  ventured  on  the  execution  of  the  edict  by  way  of  experi- 
ment, since  he  called  in  the  high  authority  of  the  chancery  to  aid  hiin  against 
the  opposition  of  the  superior  consistory.  The  decision  in  an  individual  case 
Avas  to  settle  the  validity  of  the  threatened  rule  for  all  others.  The  supreme 
court  Avas  directed  by  an  order  of  the  cabinet  (1791)  to  inquire  whether 
Schulz,  a  preacher  of  Gielsdorf,  (/)  who  had  assailed  the  fundamental  truths 
of  Christianity,  (//)  and  in  accordance  with  the  ncAV  fjishion  of  tho  times 
Avore  a  queue,  Avas  to  be  regarded  as  an  evangelical  preacher  ?  Although 
many  influences  Avere  brought  to  bear  upon  the  court,  and  it  Avas  threatened 
in  various  Avays,  it  refused  to  act  inconsistently  Avith  its  long-established  repu- 
tation, and  decided  that  tho  Christian  conduct  of  this  preacher,  and  the  love 
Avhich  his  respectable  congregation  exhibited  toAvard  him,  would  not  warrant 
his  removal  from  them.  As  the  accused  Avas  hoAvever  deposed,  and  an  order 
Avas  issued  by  the  cabinet  directing  that  those  members  of  the  court  Avho 
gave  the  obnoxious  votes  should  be  punished,  the  general  dissatistaction  Avas 
much  increased.  (/)  It  had  now  become  evident,  on  the  one  hand,  that  the 
Church  Avas  established  ou  no  legal  basis,  and  was  dependent  on  the  ai-bi- 
trary  caprice  of  a  minister ;  and  on  tho  other,  that  no  external  force  was  suf- 
ficient to  repress  tho  intellectual  poAver  of  this  development.  "When  Frederic 
William  III.  ascended  the  throne  (1797),  the  edict  lost  all  the  poAver  it  ever 

c)  (Rohr)  Wio  Karl  August  sich  bei  Verketzerraagsversuchen  gegen  ukad.  Lehrer  benahm, 
llanii.  1S30. 

d)  Acton  z.  nst  KGoscli.  vol.  I.  p.  401ss.     Das  preuss.  11.  Edict  Eine  Gesell,  a.  d.  IS.  Jalirh.  far 
d.  19.  Lps.  1842. 

f)  (  Wald)  Ann.  d.  Pr.  Rcl.  Wes.  1T96.  vol.  I.  St,  4.        /)  Acten  z.  nst.  KGescli.  vol.  II.  p.  154s& 
(/)  Uenke,  Beurth.  aller  Schriften  welche  durch  das  pr.  K.  Edi-it.  veranlasst  sind.  Kiel,  1793. 
h)  Erweis  d.  liimniclwciten  Unterschieds  d.  Moral  u.  d.  r.el.  v.  e.  unerschrockenen  WahrheiU 
freunde.  Frkt:  i;ss. 

i)  Ifiuke,  Arch.  vol.  I.  Qu.  2.  p.  S4ss.     VaUr,  Anhaii,  vol.  I.  p.  iSTss. 


CflAP.  IV.    EVAXG.  CnURCn  TILL  1S14.    §+43.    LE5S1XG.    HERDER.        541 

possessed,  and  it  was  proclaimed  by  this  pious  king,  tliat  as  religion  wa.s  ex- 
clusively an  affair  of  the  heart,  it  needed  no  compulsory  enactments,  and 
that  "with  reason  and  philosojjhy  for  its  inseparable  companions,  he  conld  not 
doubt  that  it  "would  by  its  unaided  energies  maintain  its  existence  in  the 
nation.  (Z-) 

§  443.  Eci-olution  in  German  Literature. 
The  affectionate  reverence  with  which  Geliert  (l7lo-6Ü)  was  surrounded, 
notwithstanding  the  contracted  and  sickly  spirit  he  possessed,  showed  that 
the  simjile  utterance  of  a  pure  Christian  heart  found  much  that  was  conge- 
nial in  the  minds  of  others.  The  admiration  also  with  which  the  first  cantos 
of  the  Messias  were  received  (1748),  could  never  have  been  awakened  if 
there  had  not  been  a  general  confidence  in  an  incarnate  God,  who  had  given 
himself  a  sacrifice  for  man.  At  the  same  time,  however,  in  which  this 
theological  revolution  took  place,  the  intellect  of  the  German  people  be- 
came much  elevated.  No  longer  unmindful  of  its  former  glory,  nor  de- 
voting itself  to  the  pursuit  of  monstrosities  and  miserable  imitations,  its  full 
and  profound  spirit  now  awoke  to  a  consciousness  of  its  powers,  and  began 
to  form  a  polished  national  literature,  by  means  of  which  the  nation  once 
more  assumed  an  important  position  in  the  history  of  the  world,  (a)  Among 
the  leaders  in  this  intellectual  movement  were  some  who  stood  foremost  in 
the  theological  world.  Lessing  (1729-81),  who  never  aspired  to  the  charac- 
ter of  a  theologian,  but  only  to  that  of  an  amateur  in  theology,  with  power- 
ful native  talent  and  character,  threatened  to  overthrow  the  formal  principles 
of  the  old  Protestantism,  by  proving  that  Christianity  rested  not  upon  the 
Bible,  but  upon  the  internal  experience  of  men.  Although  he  entertained  a 
profound  respect  for  the  religion  of  the  people,  and  the  serious  earnestness 
of  genuine  orthodoxy,  he  anniliilated  the  pretensions  of  the  Lutheran  pas- 
torate by  the  most  terrible  weapons  of  thought  and  learning,  {h)  He  was 
unwilling  to  accept  of  a  religion  on  the  veracity  and  faith  of  others,  and  by 
his  Nathan  he  j)ersuaded  the  whole  nation  to  elevate  itself,  as  he  had  done, 
above  all  regard  for  historical  traditions.  Herder  (1744  1803),  as  long  as  ho 
was  in  advance  of  his  age,  and  after  a  season  of  prophetic  youthful  extrava- 
gance, became  animated  with  the  same  enthusiasm  for  the  Scriptures  whicli 
he  had  fdt  for  Homer  and  Ossian,  and  having  redeemed  tlie  gospel  of  human- 
ity from  the  dogmas  uf  tlio  scliools,  he  announced  and  gave  a  personal  repre- 
sentation of  it  among  his  fullow-men.  (r)  And  yet  this  triumphant  literature 
was  merely  a  glorification  of  the  world,  and  in  its  most  ardent  efforts  after 
ideal  excellence  had  no  very  definite  relation  to  Christianity.    From  holding 

k)  A.  K.  Z.  1S27.  N.  2S. 

a)  If.  Otlzer,  d.  deutsche  poet  Lit.  ».  Klnjuit  Nach  Ihren  otliiscben  u.  rel.  Gc8icht«punkten.  Lpa. 
rS41.     Comp.  Gervlnus  and  Vlliimr. 

V)  Eino  I'aruliel  nebst  e.  kleinen  Bitte  u.  evontuHlen  Absagun(;;srhrclben.  Anti-Goezo.  1779*  and 
otli.  in  the  10  and  11  v.  of  Les^lng■B  Sclirr.  ed.  by  Ixichntann,  BrL  1S39.— ÄöAr,  Les&  In  theol.  Be- 
ziehung. (Kleine  theol.  Sclirr  Scbleus.  1S41.  vol.  L)  liienädcer,  ü.  Le»  als  Hrsgebr.  d.  Wolfenb. 
Fraginm.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S44.  11.  4.) 

c)  (Christi.  Schrr.  Rig.  179-Im.  5  Satnnil.)  Werke  z.  Rel.  a.  Th.  ed.  by  J.  G.  MufUer,  Tub.  (ISnPs«. 
12  V.)  1827SS.  18  V.  Z>,iiiz  u.  Gniber,  Charscterintik  IL  Lps.  1S05.  M.  C.  T.  Herder,  Erin,  an  d 
Leben  IL  Tub.  1S20.  2  vols.     Welm.Hri<che.s  llerder-Albuin.  Jen.  1S45. 


542  MODERN  ClIUnCH  IIISTOUV.    I'KR.  VI.    A.  T).  1C4S-1S.13. 

11  scrnpliio  kind  of  ortlifxloxy,  WiAdud  siuldcnly  ombraceil  .'i  lax  system  of 
rrcetliiiikin},'  (al'tor  ITflO),  not  only  in  matters  of  faitli,  but  in  those  of  morals. 
Goethe  took  some  interest  as  n  i)oet  in  tlie  various  manifestations  of  tlie  Ciiris- 
tlftii  spirit,  occnsionally  ho  himself  assumed  a  pastoral  style  of  address  while 
dcfendinf?  practical  and  sincere  piety  principally  against  the  reckless  spirit  of 
the  innovators,  ('/)  and  he  abhorred  all  negative  criticism  Avith  respect  to  the 
original  authorities  of  antiquity;  but  tlie  idea  of  any  interruption  of  those 
natural  laws  by  which  the  Deity  reveals  himself  to  men,  was  liighly  repug- 
nant to  his  feeling  of  exclusive  sympathy  with  nature,  and  the  decoration  of 
a  single  bird  of  Paradise  was  inconsistent  with  his  views  of  the  multii)licity 
in  which  all  things  appear.  For  himself,  therefore,  he  never  felt  the  need  of 
suci«  a  system  as  that  of  Chnstianity.  {e)  Schiller  has  sometimes  used  strong 
Innguage  respecting  the  inconsistency  of  Christianity  Avith  the  adoration  of 
an  independent  Ruler  of  all  things,  with  which  the  age  had  made  him  ac- 
quainted, yet  in  his  mature  years  he  himself  postponed  the  categorical  impera- 
tive to  the  religion  of  free  inclination,  and  perceived  the  important  part 
which  the  gospel  sustains  in  the  history  of  the  world.  His  OAvn  hopes  of  the 
world's  salvation,  however,  were  built  wholly  upon  the  influence  of  moral 
freedom  and  beauty.  (/)  But  by  the  side  of  these  highly  endowed  children 
of  the  world,  the  prophets  also  found  a  friendly  position  on  account  of  the 
kindred  spirit  of  enthusiasm  which  they  seemed  to  possess.  Among  these 
were  :  Ilamann  (1730-88),  a  powerful  child  of  nature,  and  yet  one  filled  with 
the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures,  who,  with  a  style  as  abrupt  and  fragmentary  as 
was  his  actual  life,  poured  forth  his  prophecies  against  the  Babel  of  the 
Enlightenment  on  the  Spree  ;  (y)  Lavater  (1741-1801),  who  with  a  magical 
versatility  of  talent  ingeniously  mingled  the  earthly  and  the  heavenly ;  (/<) 
in  his  better  days,  Jung-Stilling  (1740-1817),  idyllic  in  his  style,  powerful 
in  prayer,  and  credulous  with  respect  to  modern  miracles ;  (/)  and  Claiidiun 
(1743-1815),  with  his  humble  and  yet  humorous  sincerity,  (l) 


(?)  Brief  il.  Tastors  *  *  an  den  neuen  P.  zu  *  *  Zwo  bibl.  Fragen  an  e.  Landcreistl.  in  Schwaben. 
Fragmente. 

«)  Comp.  e.  g.  Götlies  n.  Lav.  Briefw.  eil.  by  Hirzel,  Lps.  1S33.  and  GOthe's  last  letter  to  Angnste 
V.  Stolberg  in  the  Urania.  lS-39.  [Autobiog.  of  Goethe,  transl.  by  P.  Godicin,  New  York.  1S46.  2 
vols.  12.    Works,  transl.  into  Engl.  Lond.  1S52.  4  vols.  S.] 

/)  Ji.  Binder,  Schiller  im  Verh.  z.  Christenth.  Stuttg.  1S8D.  2  vols.  Comp.  C.  rilmann  and  G. 
Schtcdh.  d.  Cultus  d.  Genius.  Ilamb.  1840.  p.  Slss.  Tendency  to  Christianity :  F.  J.  Günther,  Sch. 
Lied.  V.  d.  Glocke.  Elbrf.  1S53.  [Worship  of  Genius,  transl.  from  the  Germ,  of  C.  Ulliiiann.  Lond. 
lS-15.  12.  Life  of  Schiller  and  Exam,  of  Works.  Lond.  1S25.  8.  Carlyle,  Life  of  S.  Lond.  and  New 
York.  12.] 

a)  Werke,  ed.  by  liothe,  Brl.  1821ss.  7  vols,  and  S  vols.  (Nachtr.  u.  ErlUutv.)  v.  G.  A.  VTiener. 
Brl.  1842.  Möller,  ehr.  Bekenntnisse  u.  Zcugn.  v.  11.  Münst  1S2G.  F.  Ilerhst^  Bibl.  ehr.  Denkw 
L[is.  lS.3n.  vol.  L     W.  Bauer,  de  Ilara.  vita  et  Serr.  Vrat  1S42. 

Il)  Geheimes  T;;gcbuch.  Von  e.  Beobachter  sr.  selbst.  Lps.  1772ss.  2  vols.  Ausgewählte  Schrr.  ed. 
by  Orebi,  Zur.  lS41s.  C  vols.  F.  HerHt,  Bibl.  ehr.  Denker.  1^32.  voL  IL  Göthe,  a.  m.  LebcE. 
(Nachgel.  W.  1S33.)  vol.  VII L  p.  142ss.     C.  Ilegner,  Beitrr.  z.  Kenntniss.  Lav.  Lps.  1S3G. 

')  (Jugend,  Jünglingsj.  Wandersch.  177S.)  Lebensgesch.  new  ed.  Stuttg.  1S35.  (^ol.  I.  A.  sänimtl. 
Schrr.  cd.  by  GroUnutnn.')  Sendscbr.  geprüfter  Christen  an  J.  SI.  Carlsr.  1S33.  Schwartz,  St  Alter 
u.  Lebensende.  Ildlb.  ISl 7.  Goethe  a.  m.  Leben.  (Werke.  1S29.  12.)  vol.  XXV.  p.  245.  Jacohi's 
Brr.  vol.  II.  p.  4'»7.  [Stilling's  "Childhood,"  "Interesting  Tales,"  and  " Pneumatology,"  have  been 
translated  by  .Tackson.  Lond.  4  voK  12.  Autobiogr.  Xew  York.  1S3S.  S.] 

t)  Siimmtl.  W.  d.  Wandsbecker  Bothen.  17T4-1S12.  7  ed.  Ilamb.  1S44.  S  vols.  IG.  Comp.  Hist  pol 
Blätter.  1*39.  vol.  IV.  P.  C6s. 


CHAP.  IV.    EVAXG.  CHUECn  TILL  ISU.    §  444.  KANT.    JACOni.    FICHTE.    543 
§  44-t.     Reformation  of  Philosojyliy  in  Germany. 

C.  2t.  MicheM,  Gcsch.  d.  Pliil.  v.  Kant  b.  Ilesel.  Brl.  lS.37s.  2  vols.  H.  M.  Chaltj7>afuii,  hist. 
Entvr.  d.  Sp^c.  Pliil.  v.  Kant  b.  Ilegel.  Drsd.  {lS.37-39.)  4  e<1. 1843.  [transl.  into  Eii-1.  by  A.  Edersheim, 
Ediub.  1554.]    K.  Biedermann,  d.  deutsche  Phil.  v.  Kant,  b.  a,  unsre  Z.  Ljis.  1S43. 

As  the  mind  was  aclinowledged  to  bo  the  higliest  of  all  powers,  the  spirit 
of  the  age  pressed  most  ardently  forward  in  its  efforts  to  ascertain  its  nature. 
In  view  of  all  that  Wolf  and  Ilinnc  had  said,  Kant  (1724-1804)  went  into  a 
careful  investigation  of  our  faculty  of  understanding,  and  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  we  cannot  know  things  in  themselves,  and  tilings  above  the 
reach  of  the  senses,  but  that  the  only  thing  certain  in  itself  is  the  moral  law, 
which  conducts  us  to  a  practical  faith  in  God  and  immortality.  lie  also  ac- 
knowledged that  it  is  our  duty  to  connect  ourselves  with  Christianity,  on 
the  ground  that  it  is  a  popular  school  for  moral  education,  and  because  its 
sacred  books,  as  well  as  its  received  doctrines,  are  an  excellent  explanation 
of  the  great  object  of  morality.  ('?)  Jacohi  (1743-1819)  agreed  with  Kant 
respecting  the  limitations  of  all  knowledge,  but  he  shrunk  from  the  direct, 
strict  way  of  reason,  which  that  i>hilosopher  had  marked  out,  and  pointed 
out  in  a  dilettantic  and  exalted  style  the  certainty  of  those  religious  ideas 
which  are  found  in  the  sentient  part  of  man's  nature,  and  which  neither 
have  nor  need  any  proof.  He  was  himself  profoundly  studying  a  j)roblem 
which  has  employed  the  mind  of  man  as  long  as  it  has  had  an  existence,  with 
the  heart  of  a  Christian  but  the  understanding  of  a  heatlieu.  (h)  A  theo- 
logical school  was  founded  by  Kant,  but  as  his  influence  on  philo.sophy  con- 
sisted principally  in  the  scientitic  and  moral  earnestness  of  the  movement 
commenced  by  him,  some  more  popular  results  have  been  produced  in  the 
department  of  theology,  by  the  combination  of  the  critical  philosophy  with 
the  philosophy  of  faith.  Ficlite  (17G2-1814)  showed  that  the  ultimate  point 
toward  Avhioh  the  critical  religious  philosophy  tended,  was  faith  in  a  univer- 
sal moral  government.  But  as  he  was  not  satisfied  with  the  resignation 
which  both  Kant  and  Jacobi  required,  he  conceived  of  all  existence  merely 
as  the  voluntary  creation  of  the  mind.  Having  been  accused  of  atheism  in 
Electoral  Saxony,  his  self-respect,  which  identified  his  own  person  with  the 
cause  of  science,  led  him  to  nso  an  incautious  expression  which  jiroduced  his 
dismission  from  his  professorship  at  Jena  (1799).  It  Avas  not.  however,  the 
existence  of  God,  but  the  existence  of  the  world  tliat  he  denied;  and  tlio 
omnipotence  of  the  /  in  the  religion  of  cliecrful  virtue,  together  with  his 
confidence  in  the  approaching  end  of  Christianity  wliiih  ho  assumed  in  all 

a)  KrlUk  d.  rclncn  Vernunft.  17S1.  Kr.  d.  prnkt  Vft.  1T?S.  Kr.  d.  rnheüskr.  1790.  Ilel. 
Inncrh.  d.  Oronzen  d.  bl.  Vft.  Künlgsh.  1793.  and  oftrn.  SäninUl.  Sclirr.  od.  by  /.'oifnl-ram,  Lps. 
■f837s«.  12  vols.  IfaitetiHtein.  Lps.  ISJj'^s.  10  vols.  DifUrin,  Hedcnt  d.  Kant.  Phil.  fTird.  nencre  Th. 
(Stud.  u.  Krlr.  1S17.  H.  4.)  [Kimfs  Critlck  of  Piiro  i:ca<on.  Lond.  1S:5>.  S.  An  Analy^l3  of  the  C. 
(if  P.  Pv.  L'ind.  1S44.  8.  Lofic  with  Life,  by  ük-hiirdmn,  Lond.  1S:!6.  S.  Metaphyslc  of  Ethics, 
trtinsl.  \)\-  SemiiIf,YA\v\>.  1S30.  8.  Prolesomena  to  every  future  Metaphyslc.  Lond.  Is38.  8.  anil 
Theory  of  Rel.  Iransl.  hy  Semplf,  Edinb.  18S7.  8.  A.  F.  M.  W'iüicA,  The  Critical  Phil,  of  Knnt. 
Lond.  179S.     Wirgmnun,  Prince.  <T  the  C.  Phil.  Lond.  1S24.] 

h)  //«««?  u.  d.  Clauhcn.  17s:.  Von  d.  pöttl.  iJIncen  u.  Ihrer  OITenb.  Lps.  (l-^Il.)  1S'22.  Werke. 
Lps.  1S12S5.  fi  \o\>.  Uriifrt-.  Lps.  ISi.'iss.  2  vols.  Brtefw.  zw,  Qoethe  u.  Jac.  Lp».  184C.  J.  Kulin, 
Tac.  u.  d.  Pli  Br.  Zeit.  Mentz,  1824 


544  moi)Hi:n  church  histokv.   pkh.  vi.  a.  d.  ims-isss. 

liis  specuktioiiH,  hecninc  finally  trannformcd  into  the  omnipotence  of  love. 
Chri.stiunity  was  recognized  by  him  as  tlie  gospel  not  only  of  freedom  and 
equality,  hut  of  inditlercnco  to  tho  world,  though  ho  always  expressed  a  spe- 
cial i)reforcnco  for  the  writings  of  John,  (c)  His  school  is  of  importance  in 
the  history  of  tlie  Cliurch  only  because  it  was  an  important  point  of  progress 
in  pIiilosoi)liv,  and  because  it  imparted  an  heroic  strength  to  the  human  mind. 

§  445.     Eationalism  and  Supernaturalism. 

StüucUhi,  Gesell.  (1.  Rat.  u.  Supr.  Giitt.  182C.  E.  B.  Pusey,  Causes  of  the  late  rationalist  cliarac- 
tor  of  tlio  Tlicol.  in  Germany.  Lond.  1828ss.  2  vols.  Amand  Saintes,  Uist  crit.  du  rationali.sine  en 
Allomagne.  Par.  (1341.)  1843.  m.  Anmerk.  u.  E.vcursen.  v.  C.  6.  Ficker,  Lps.  1817.  [A  Crit  Hist 
(if  Entionalisin  in  Germ,  from  its  Origin  till  now.  transl.  from  the  French  of  Am.  Saintes,  by  J.  li. 
Beard,  Lond.  1849.  8.    Art  in  Kitto's  Journal  of  Bibl.  Lit  vol.  I.] 

The  theology  which  now  had  the  ascendency  in  the  German  Church,  had 
avoided  an  open  rupture  with  that  which  the  Church  set  forth  in  her  creeds, 
and  yet  had  appropriated  to  itself  all  which  it  thought  intelligible  and  useful 
in  them,  A  living  representation  of  it  was  exhibited  in  the  person  of  the 
mild  and  venerable  Spalding  (1714-1804),  («)  But  the  original  opposition 
which  will  always  be  found  to  exist  between  a  merely  sacerdotal  religion 
and  a  religion  of  mature  reason,  became  developed  near  the  commence- 
ment of  the  nineteenth  century  as  the  principal  subject  of  controversy  in 
the  Christian  world,  under  the  scholastic  names  of  Eationalism  and  Super- 
naturalism.  This,  instead  of  being  a  discussion  respecting  some  peculiar 
doctrines  of  religion,  referred  to  the  primary  principles  which  lie  at  its  foun- 
dation. In  general.  Rationalism  found  the  supreme  law  of  all  religion  in  the 
reflecting  mind,  which  it  regarded  as  a  natural  revelation  from  God ;  w^hereas 
Supernaturalism  found  it  in  a  sacred  tradition,  which  was  looked  upon  as  a 
supernatural  revelation.  The  tendency  of  the  age  was  unquestionably 
rational,  and  it  was  contending  for  liberty  and  intelligible  ideas  in  opposition 
to  merely  prescriptive  usages.  But  so  far  as  Rationalism  constituted  a  dis- 
tinct school,  it  maintained  the  supremacy  of  a  sound  common  sense,  as  it  was 
defended  by  Wolf,  Kant,  and  Jacobi ;  it  appropriated  to  itself  the  natural  reli- 
gion and  earnest  system  of  morality  found  in  the  Scriptures  ;  and  it  regarded 
this  as  all  that  was  essential  to  Christianity.  Every  thing  else  in  the  Bible 
it  set  aside  as  the  various  kinds  of  outward  covering  which  the  truth  assumed 
during  the  process  of  its  birth.  The  last  representatives  of  this  school  were : 
Paulus  (1701-1851),  the  influence  of  whose  character  as  an  expounder  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  his  conscientious  earnestness  in  the  formation  of  his  specula- 
tive creed,  was  precisely  the  same  in  various  directions  as  if  he  had  been  an 
avowed  freetliinker ;  (b)   Wegscheider  (1771-1849),  who  as  a  didactic  theolo- 

c)  Vers.  e.  Kritik  aller  Offenb.  Künigsb.  (1J92.)  1793.  Grnndl.  d.  Wissenschaftsl.  Weim.  1794. 
Af.pell.  an  d.  Publ.  ü.  die  ihm  beigemessenen  atheist  Aeusscr.  Jena.  1799.  Anw.  z.  sei.  Leben.  BrL 
1S06.  J.  n.  FiehU,  J.  G.  Fichtes  Leben  n.  Briefw.  ISoOs.  2  vols.  GoeVie,  Werka  vol  XXXL  p, 
153.  Paulus,  Skizzen,  p.  170ss.  J.  U.  Fichte,  Paulus  u.  Fichte.  (Freihafen.  1S40.  P.  2.)  Paulus  im 
N.  Sophron.  1S41.  vol.  L  P.  1.  [Fichte's  Destination  of  Man,  The  Nature  of  the  Scholar,  The  Voca- 
tion of  the  Scholar,  The  Way  to  a  Blessed  Life,  and  Characteristics  of  the  Age,  have  been  transl.  and 
publ.  with  a  Memoir  of  the  Author.  Lond.  lS46ss.  8.] 

<7)  J.  J.  Sp.  Lebcnsbcschr.  v.  ihm  selbst,  ed.  by  his  son.  Hal.  1804. 

V)  Skizzen  a.  m.  Lebensgesch.  z.  .\ndcnkcn  an  mein  SOj.ihr.  JubiL  Ueidelb.  1839.  K.  A.  v.  Reich- 
lin-Meldegg,  H.  E.  G.  Paulus  u.  s.  Zeit  Stuttff.  1S53.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  IV.  EVA><G.  CHURCH  TILL  1514.     §  445.  RATIONALISM.  545 

gian,  (r)  together  with  EvTir  (1777-1848),  a  high  officer  in  the  Church  and  a 
popular  author,  showed  how  this  style  of  speculation  can  he  made  consistent 
with  an  ecclesiastical  professorship,  (d)  On  the  other  hand,  Supernaturalism 
abandoned  the  fundamental  principle  of  the  former  orthodoxy,  but  firmly 
maintained,  though  with  many  concessions,  that  the  historical  contents  of 
Christianity  were  a  supernatural  revelation  from  God,  and  employed  itself  in 
substituting  a  biblical  for  an  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  In  the  department  of 
German  literature,  the  older  Tubingen  school,  which  collected  together  out 
of  various  authors  the  mildest  views  respecting  the  writings  transmitted  by 
the  hands  of  the  Church,  {e)  appeared  to  bo  the  only  support  by  which  the 
cause  of  Supernaturalism  was  itresorved  from  an  entire  defeat.  In  the  ranks 
of  common  life,  however,  and  in  churches  of  other  countries,  this  system  was 
the  prevalent  mode  of  communication  between  ancient  and  modern  times. 

§  446.     The  Ecclesiastical  Party  in  Germany. 

BreUchneider.  d.  Unkircliliclik.  dieser  Zeit.  Gotli.  (IS20.)  1822.  A.  KZ.  1S23.  N.  188. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  new  century,  the  pious  morals  and  manners 
of  the  preceding  times  had  become  seriously  impaired  in  consequence  of  the 
sudden  relaxation  of  the  former  system  of  faith,  the  unrestrained  mode  of 
life  which  the  revolution  had  produced,  and  the  universal  tendency  to  mate- 
rial or  political  interests.  The  religion  of  the  Bible  seemed  to  have  no  ele- 
ments in  common  with  the  modern  views  of  the  world,  and  the  religion  of 
the  cross  was  utterly  estranged  from  the  new  pleasures  and  glories  of  human 
society.  The  school,  as  established  by  JJaxedow  (1723-90),  wlio  attempted  in 
a  rather  awkward  manner  to  realize  the  plan  suggested  by  Rousseau,  {<()  was 
inclined  to  assume  the  position  which  properly  belonged  to  the  Church,  since, 
instead  of  contending  against  an  innate  tendency  to  sin,  it  put  confidence  in 
the  general  goodness  of  human  nature,  and  instead  of  instructing  its  pupils 
in  the  Christianity  of  the  Catechism,  it  educated  them  as  reflecting  beings, 
by  agreeable  entertainments  and  by  pleasant  views  of  actual  life.  Pestalozzi 
(174G-1827),  on  the  other  hand,  devoted  himself  so  thoroughly  to  his  employ- 
ment, that  in  receiving  him  to  their  affections  they  also  accepted  of 
Christ,  (fi)  The  Church,  indeed,  still  possessed  the  confidence  and  love  of  the 
great  body  of  the  people  ;  and  some  were  yet  firmly  attached  to  ecclesiastical 
principles,  and  scattered  blessings  all  ai'ound  them.  The  best  among  many 
of  a  similar  character  were :  lieinhard  (1753-1812),  who  presided  over  the 
Saxon  Church,  preaching  the  gospel  with  a  scholastic  and  precise  rhetoric, 
with  many  concessions  to  the  new  spirit  of  the  day,  but  with  an  earnestness 
worthy  of  the  former  times  of  the  Church,  doing  justice  to  every  order  of 


c)  In.'titutioncs  Tli.  Pngni.  IIrI.  ISl.^  od.  8.  1^4. 

d)  Briete  ü.  d.  Rationalism.  Aach.  (Zeitz)  181.3.    Krit.  Prodl?or-Blbl.  s.  1820. 

e)  Tub.  Zeitscli.  unter  verscli.  Titel  1790-10,  ed.  l>y  Flatt,  Süsliind,  Bengel,  Stcudel.  Comp, 
Rhelnw.  Rep.  IS.*«,  p.  174.  190.  203.  216s8. 

a)  {3feijer)  Bas.  Leben  u.  Cliarakter.  Ilaiiib.  1791. 

b)  Lienliard  u.  Oorlnid.  Zur.  (17S1.)  1790s3.  8  vols.  Buch  d.  Mutter.  Ifert,  1803.  [Autoblogr. 
Scenes  of  iny  Life  at  Bergdorf  and  Yferdun.  LoncL  1S30.  JT.  Biber,  Memoirs  of  P.  and  his  Plan  ol 
Ed.  Lond.  1331.] 

35 


54G  M()I)Ki:n  ciiuucir  histouv.   per.  vi.   a.  d.  icis-i=r^. 

tnlont,  find  mrxlernting  every  injurious  influence  from  without ;  f-)  and  Oler- 
I'm  (1740-1826),  tlio  pastor  of  tlio  Stein  thai,  and  a  Protestant  saint,  who 
Bhowed  how  much  an  active,  fervent,  and  simple-hearted  man  can  do,  with 
the  divine  assistance,  for  the  8j)iritual  and  temporal  welfare  of  a  congrega- 
tion, (c/)  But  the  educated  and  tlie  lialf-cducated  classes  turned  silently 
away  Irom  God,  or  at  least  from  Christ;  and  even  those  who,  lilie  all  truly 
exalted  minds,  had  at  least  some  longings  after  eternal  tilings,  congratulated 
themselves  with  the  author  of  the  Titan,  that  tliey  could  penetrate  much  fur- 
ther into  the  Infinite  than  could  cither  Peter  or  Paul,  {e)  Rectitude  of  ex- 
ternal conduct,  in  connection  often  with  great  self-complacency  and  easy 
conformity  to  usage,  was  now  substituted  for  justification  by  faith.  Many 
sermons  were  nothing  but  moral  lectures,  or  sought  for  the  practical  in  some 
region  far  beyond  the  ])rovince  of  religion.  The  lifeless  condition  of  the 
Church  may  be  seen  in  the  vandalism  with  which  the  old  hymns  were  muti- 
lated. (/')  Many  pious  persons,  as  well  as  freethinkers,  were  apprehensive 
that  Christianity  was  about  to  be  subverted. 

§  447.     Small  Fanatical  Parties. 

A  strange  mode  of  divine  worship  practised  by  the  Jumj)c)'s,  a  class  of 
persons  who  sprung  up  among  the  Methodists  of  Wales  (about  1760),  now 
made  its  appearance,  and  consisted  in  a  Avild  leaping  upward  in  honor  of  the 
Lamb.  This  enthusiasm  received  a  regular  form  from  Anna  Lee,  who,  in 
consequence  of  the  oppression  she  endured  in  England,  emigrated  with  her 
adherents  to  New  York.  Althougli  her  prediction  that  she  should,  as  the 
Lamb's  wife,  give  birth  to  a  new  Messiah,  remained  unfulfilled  at  the  time  of 
her  death  (1782),  lier  followers  continued  to  praise  God  by  chastity,  commu- 
nity of  goods,  and  by  dauces  like  those  of  David  before  the  ark  of  the  cove- 
nant. These  Shalrrs  have  their  principal  settlement  in  a  few  busy  and  neat 
villages  near  the  Hudson,  where  men  and  women  lodge  in  the  same  dwell- 
ings, but  most  strictly  separated  from  eacb  other,  with  countenances  immova- 
ble, eyes  dull,  trusting  to  immediate  inspirations,  and  as  the  only  true  Church 
waiting  for  a  wonderful  development  throughout  the  Avorld.  (a)    Joanna 

c)  Geständnisse  s.  Predigten  u.  s.  Bildung  z.  Prediger  betr.  Sulzb.  (ISIO.)  1511.  K.  U.  L.  PöliU, 
F.  V.  Reinhard  nacli  s.  Leben  n.  Wirken.  Lps.  lSl-3ss.  2  vols. 

d)  Notice  sur  Ob.  Par.  1S2G.  Strassb.  lS-.'6.  IT.  Sdiubert,  Züge  a.  d.  Leben  Ob.  NQrnb.  1S26.  6  ed. 
13-3S.  / 6«/.  aus  d.  Nachlasse  eines  Visioniirs.  Lps.  1837.  Ob.  Lebensgesch.  u.  Gesamni.  Schrr.  »n- 
lammensestellt  v.  W.  Burckbardt,  Stuttg.  1S43.  4  vols.  [Memoirs  of  J.  F.  Oberlin.  Lond.  1S30. 
JSarlc.  Wm-ex,  The  Ban  de  la  Uoehe  and  its  Benefactor,  J.  F.  Ob.  Lond.  1S20.  S.  L.  Ilalseij,  Memoirs 
of  J.  F.Ob.  Pittsburgh.  1S32.  IS.  H.  I^jr^,  Mem.  of  J.  F.Ob.  Boston.  153S.  V2.  Artt.  in  Qu.irt. 
IJev.  1S31.  and  Eclectic  Rev.  1823.  in  Rel.  Mag.  1S23.  and  Littell's  Mus.  Philad.  1531.] 

e)  Brief«-,  zwischen.  II.  Voss  u.  Jean  Paul.  Ileidelb.  1S.3;3.  p.  1-33.  6S.  [Autobiogr.  of  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  and  Boston.  2  vols.  12.  £.  Lee,  Life  of  J.  P.  R.  Boston,  1S42.  2  Tols. 
12.    Most  of  his  works  are  translated.] 

/)  Billroth,  Bcitr.  z.  wissensch.  Critik  d.  herrsch.  Thcol.  Lps.  ISOl.  7?.  Stier,  die  Gesangbnchs- 
noth.  Lps.  1S:}S. 

«)  llenke,  Hel.  Ann.  P.  1.  p.  lOöss.  Archiv,  f.  KGesch.  vol.  I.  St.  1.  Stdudlin,  Beitr.  vol.  V.  p. 
895.  Duke  Beruhard,  Reise  nach  Nord-Am.  p.  lT3ss.  Blätter,  f.  lit  Unterb.  1333.  N.  Gl.  Pred.  BibL 
1S44.  V.  25.  P.  6.  [CiUvin  Green  &  Seth  Y.  We/l.%  Millennial  Church,  or  View  of  the  Society  called 
Phakers.  Albany.  1S23. 12.  T.  Broicn,  Account  of  the  people  called  Shakers.  Troy.  1312.  12.  W.  J. 
Ud^kett,  Shakerism  unmasked,  &c.  Pittsfield.  lv2S-12.] 


CHAP.  IV.    EVANG.  CHÜPXII  TILL  1S14.    §  447.  SECTS.    HArCE.  547 

SotUheote  also  promised  the  people  of  England  that  she  would  give  birth  to 
one  who  was  to  be  the  Shiloh  of  the  world,  and  made  it  the  duty  of  believ- 
ers to  observe  the  Jewish  law,  that  they  might  receive  the  Messiah  in  a  wor- 
thy manner.  Although  after  waiting  for  a  long  time  she  died  (1814)  in  her 
delusion,  and  the  splendid  cradle  wliich  had  been  prepared  for  the  Messiah 
still  remained  empty,  tlie  Xeic  Israelites  continued  till  1831  to  observe  the 
Jewish  Sabbath,  in  hope  of  the  future  Messiah,  {h)  Among  the  peasantry 
of  Norway  a  powerful  religious  movement  was  produced  by  Nielsen  Hauge 
(1771-1824),  who  felt  called  to  be  a  prophet  like  the  herdman  of  Tekoa  (after 
1795).  The  law  of  God  was  the  principal  theme  of  his  discourses,  and  ho 
judged  of  others  as  well  as  wished  liimself  to  be  judged,  exclusively  by  the 
Scriptures,  and  the  catechism.  Community  of  goods  was  required  only  on 
the  principles  which  he  believed  to  have  prevailed  in  the  Apostolic  Church, 
and  Avhatevcr  projjcrty  was  intrusted  to  his  hands  he  employed  in  objects  of 
general  utility.  He  became  odious  to  the  clergy  on  account  of  the  suspicions 
which  his  conduct  threw  upon  their  order,  and  under  a  law  of  1741  he  was 
severely  abused  by  heavy  fines  and  a  long  imprisonment  for  preaching  with- 
out a  license.  This  law  was  finally  abolished  by  the  Storthing  (1842),  and 
the  law  of  184.5  gave  full  toleration  to  all  Christian  sects.  A  powerl'ul  party 
has  sprung  up  under  Ilaugc's  influence,  which  contends  earnestly  against  the 
ecclesiastical  authorities  on  account  of  the  laxness  they  exhibit  with  respect 
to  the  terms  of  salvation,  (c)  In  Sweden  the  special  need  of  family  worship 
on  account  of  the  great  extent  of  the  parishes  led  to  the  formation,  after  1803, 
of  a  party,  which  from  its  perusal  of  tlie  Scriptures  and  Luther's  Postills, 
were  called  Lacmrc.  Their  pious  zeal  was  proved  by  their  Lutheran  ortho- 
doxy, their  rigid  morals,  and  their  devotional  meetings.  A  few  zealots 
among  them  who  claimed  to  be  infallible,  on  account  of  their  possession  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  and  therefore  dealt  out  their  curses  upon  all,  and  especially 
upon  the  clergy  Avho  thought  difTerently  from  themselves,  who  burned  the 
books  of  devotion  they  had  previously  used  because  such  works  were  useless 
to  thos3  who  had  the  Bible,  and  who  paid  no  regard  to  the  edicts  of  the  eccle- 
siastical authorities  were  fined  according  to  law,  and  many  of  them  endea- 
vored (after  1840)  to  find  their  Zion  in  America,  {d) 

%  448.     Civil  Beh'tions  of  Protestants  vivhr  CatJiolic  Governments.     Cent. 

from  §  413. 

TIic  iiidilfirence  which  generally  prevailoil  on  religious  subjects  had  the 
eflbct  to  bring  about  what  the  reason  of  the  ago  demanded.  From  inclina- 
tion as  well  as  from  policy,  Frcleric  II.  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  Pro 
testant  Germany.    As  an  individual  event  it  was  of  no  great  importance  that 

V)  Xiemftjer,  Boob.  a.  Kelson.  Ed.  2.  vol.  II.  p.  93s?.  A.  K.  Z.  1S31.  X.  G7.  {P.  Mitthiax,  J.  Sontli 
rote's  Propliecios  nnd  case  st.ited.  Lond.  1S30.  12.] 

e)  Jen»  if  or  Her :  Archiv,  f.  KGesch.  vol.  1 1,  p.  PMs%  Schubert:  Ibid.  vol.  V.  p.  C-STss.  Ev.  K.  2. 
\^-i\.  N.  C4.  IS34.  N.  07.  01.  (Ä'.  SiU-wfij)  Gedanken  e.  SüddeiiUchen  ü.  d.  K.  Norw.  caluA.  u.  Knt 
1S49.  11.  2s.) 

(0  Schuhfifi:  ArchW.  T.  KOescli.  vol.  IV.  p.  6-2 Iss.  V,227ss.  A.  K.  Z.  1S22.  N.  5.  1530.  N.  8S.— Brl 
K.  Z.  1840.  N.  3s.  1SJ9.  N.  4.  D.  A.  Z.  1*02.  N.  1C7. 


548  MODKRN  CllUßCU  UI3T0RV.     PER.  VI.     A.  1).  1&J8-1S.M. 

the  oppression  of  thoir  Trote-stant  subjocts  by  the  princes  of  Ilolienlohe  was 
l)rovoiito(l  by  the  imperial  troops  (1750),  («)  but  German  Protestantism  gained 
once  more  bv  the  proud  position  maintained  by  Prussia  a  consciousness  of  its 
])()litical  i)uwor  and  pccurity.  Joseph  II.,  full  of  philosophical  7,eal  for  the 
general  rights  of  man,  gave  to  the  Evangelicals  in  all  his  dominions  the  com 
jilete  privileges  of  citizenship,  and  the  freedom  of  a  quiet  worship  (1781).  (b) 
This  edict  of  toleration  was  not  accepted  in  Tyrol  and  Hungary.  But  tho 
Ilungarian  Diet  of  1791  recognized  the  religious  freedom  of  the  Protestants 
by  tho  restoration  of  all  their  former  privileges,  although  the  Catholic  ma- 
jority would  never  allow  complete  justice  to  be  actually  administered  in  this 
matter,  (c)  As  late  as  1762  religious  intolerance  was  still  so  strong  in  Tou- 
louse that  sentence  of  death  was  passed  upon  the  honest  John  Calas.  Then 
it  was  that  Voltaire  came  forward  in  defence  of  murdered  innocence,  and 
convinced  the  French  nation  that  Christianity  was  not  a  barbarous  religion, 
but  one  that  enjoined  toleration  upon  all  its  votaries,  (d)  The  Parliament  of 
Toulouse  in  1769  recognized  the  legality  of  a  Protestant  marriage,  and  the 
civil  rights  of  Protestants  were  acknowledged  in  1787 ;  but  the  complete 
equality  of  the, rights  of  the  Protestant  with  those  of  the  Catholic  Church 
was  not  fully  proclaimed  until  the  revolution.  Kapolcon  granted  the  Pro- 
testants a  Synodal  Constitution  (1802),  though  he  subjected  it  to  great  Hmita- 
tions  and  a  rigid  supervision,  "When  the  German  empire  was  broken  up,  the 
permanency  of  the  peace  of  Westphalia  became  doubtful.  But  the  right  of 
possession,  which  had  been  acknowledged  for  years  under  it  in  the  individual 
states,  was  maintained  until  the  higher  privilege  of  a  complete  legal  equality 
Avas  received  and  enforced  by  Xapoleon,  especially  in  favor  of  the  Catholics, 
as  far  as  the  terror  of  his  cannons  prevailed,  {e) 

CHAP,  v.— THE  PROTESTANT  EVANGELICAL  CHURCH  UNTIL  1S53. 


ll^- 


§  449.     Development  of  Protestantism. 

Gieseler.  (p.  5-37.)  A.  Keander,  d.  Tcrflosseno  halbe  Jahrh.  in  s.  Verb.  d.  Gegenw.  (Dt-ntsclie 
Zeitsch.  f.  cbr.  Wiss.  1S50.  N.  1-4.)— (irundesJuigen)  Der  deutsche  Protestantismus.  Frkf.  1547.  3  ed. 
1850. 

In  times  of  extreme  trouble  and  great  commotion,  when  the  insufficiency 
of  all  human  aid  was  evident,  the  people  sought  consolation  and  safety  in  that 
which  was  everlasting.  From  the  retirement  of  quiet  families  and  sects  a 
love  for  the  Church  of  former  days  was  openly  proclaimed.  When  the  Ju- 
bilee of  the  Reformation  was  celebrated  (1817)  the  hearts  of  the  people  were 
turned  to  the  faith  of  their  fathers,  and  Luther  was  looked  upon  as  something 
more  than  a  mere  hero  of  freedom.     German  theology  had  gone  forward  to 

a)  8aminlnng  der  hohenlobiscben  Eel.  gravaminura.  Heilbr.  1751. 

b)  Tldfert,  Rechte  u.  Verf.  d.  Akatboliken  in  Oestr.  Vien.  1327. 

c)  TihUcamis,  Rel.  Beschwerden  d.  Prot,  in  Ung.  Lp3.  1S33.  p.  :90s8. 

d)  Memoire  de  Donat  Calas  pour  son  pCre.  1762.  Voltaire,  Traite  sur  la  tolerance  k  I'occas.  .le  U 
mort  de  J.  Calas.  Par.  176.3.  Brl.  17S9.     llfagenback  (§  416)  vol.  I.  Vorles.  2.] 

e)  Kluber,  off.  Recht  d.  deutschen  Bundes.  Frkf  ed.  2.  1S22.  p.  S49. 


CHAP.  y.    EVAXG.  ClIURCn  TILL  ISSg.    §449.  MODERN  PROTESTANTISM.    549 

express  the  negative  side  of  Protestantism,  with  none  to  obstruct  its  progres? 
or  embitter  it  by  opposition,  and  it  now  lost  its  interest  in  mere  negations.  In 
all  departments  of  intellectual  effort  a  new  historical  spirit  had  been  awakened, 
and.  had  drawn  the  hearts  of  men  to  subjects  connected  with  past  times.  It 
was  therefore  not  surprising  that  this  spirit  should  have  had  an  influence  upon 
the  common  feeling  of  the  Church.  The  old  Protestantism,  seizing  the  wea- 
pons of  the  new  age,  endeavored  once  more  to  win  the  empire  it  had  too  soon 
given  up  for  lost.  "While  engaged  in  conflict  with  it  the  opposition  first  ex- 
hibited its  bitterest  earnestness,  and  like  the  warrior  spirits  after  the  battle  of 
the  Huns,  they  once  more  entered  the  deadly  strife.  Many  persons  were  of 
course  painfully  wounded  in  this  contest,  and  acted  inconsistently  with  their 
own  former  course,  (a)  But  a  fresh  feeling  of  lifo  now  pervaded  the  Church, 
the  poetry  of  the  old  Church  hymns  was  appreciated,  (h)  the  system  of  popu- 
lar schools  was  carefully  farmed  on  a  Christian  ba<is,  and  theology  disclosed 
her  most  ample  treasures,  especially  in  Germany.  Holland,  Denmark, 
Sweden,  and  America  participated  in  these  blessings  with  joyful  emulation  ; 
but  England  did  so  with  caution,  and  even  resistance.  This  progress  of  the 
new  age,  however,  could  not  be  arrested  ;  and  it  was  found,  therefore,  that  the 
established  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  creeds  Avhich  had  been  for  a  time  aban- 
doned, could  not  as  such  be  re-established.  Hence,  as  Protestantism  was 
obliged  at  some  time  to  discover  the  essential  contradiction  which  existed  in 
its  original  form,  and  to  develope  its  nature  as  the  Christianity  of  freedom, 
tlie  true  ideal  of  this  development  was  presented  in  the  rehgious  indepen- 
dence whose  power  was  rooted  in  the  Church.  But  the  perfected  idea  which 
could  not  be  realized  by  the  age  without  many  a  severe  conflict  and  extrava- 
gance, was  exhibited  even  then  in  a  few  personalities,  types  of  the  future, 
which,  though  deeply  agitated  in  the  struggles  of  science  and  piety,  stood 
firndy  established  in  intellectual  freedom  in  the  church  of  their  fathers.  Thus 
Tzscldrner  (1778-1828)  openly  abandoned  the  precise  letter  of  Luther's  theo- 
logical system,  but  in  the  very  spirit  and  honesty  of  that  reformer,  conducted 
the  cause  of  Protestantism,  aroused  the  common  sentiments  and  feelings 
which  had  slumbered  in  the  hearts  of  its  friends,  and  showed  in  his  polished 
and  stately  discourses  that  every  thing  truly  human  in  the  past  or  present 
should  bo  considered  as  having  a  relation  to  Christianitv.  (c)  In  like  man- 
ner De  Wette  (1780-1849)  investigated  the  Scriptures  with  an  independent 
spirit,  alloAved  the  understanding  full  liberty  in  his  judgment  of  the  creeds  of 
the  Church,  and  in  morality  laid  great  stress  on  the  right  of  a  subjective  con- 
viction. He  has  also  pointed  out  with  a  judicious  spirit  the  peculiarities  of 
antiquity,  and  the  style  of  sacred  poetry  which  the  received  doctrines  of  the 
Church  must  necessarily  assume,  that  they  may  be  accomi'iiodated  to  the  ordi- 
nary feelings  of  the  Church.  IIo  did  not  fail  also  to  show  how  real  Cliris- 
tianity  had  proceeded  in  the  form  of  the  practical  spirit  and  life  of  the 


a)  LühMerger,  <].  Gründe  <I.  frelw.  Xicdorl.  iii.  Amto».  Nfirnb.  ISSS.—Giese,  Bekenntnisse  eines 
Freigewiirdnen.  Altonb.  1840. 

h)  (C.  Grfineiscn)  Die  Oesangbuclisrcfomi.  (Stiittg.)  19RS. 

c)  Pölit-.  Tzscli.  Abriss  s.  Lebens  u.  Wirken».  L\>%  l$29.  J.  D.  GoldKorn,  Minh.  a.  Tzsch.  lotztei 
Amts-iind  Leidensjidircn.  Ljis.  IS'iS. 


5r>0  MODEHN  CIIÜECn  HISTORY.    I'F.ß.  VI.    A.  1).  lOJS-liM. 

Church  Avithout  (li.ftnrhanco,  tlironf,'li  all  the  changes  of  hiiinari  spcculf.tion.  (J) 
Above  all,  Schlcicrmachcr  (1708-1834)  pointed  out  the  various  revolutions 
through  which  the  age  had  passed,  by  proving  to  the  self-complacent  party 
of  the  Knlightcniuent,  to  Avhich  he  was  always  a  match  and  superior  in 
every  tiling  which  they  regarded  as  supreme,  tliat  even  on  their  own  ground 
and  when  every  tiling  untenable  had  been  boldly  conceded,  a  life  without 
God  and  Christian  communion  was  utterly  unsatisfying.  Having  spent  a 
portion  of  his  early  life  at  Herrnliut,  piety  toward  the  Redeemer,  even  in  its 
peculiar  features,  was  the  predominant  trait  of  liis  character.  He  was,  how- 
ever, familiar  not  only  with  Plato  but  with  Spinoza,  and  in  the  full  conscious- 
ness of  his  freedom,  and  with  the  highest  esteen  for  genuine  character 
wherever  he  found  it,  his  piety  was  exercised  toward  every  thing  in  the  uni- 
verse. It  did  not,  however,  assume  a  Christian  character  until  his  own  eccle- 
siastical relations  were  developed.  Hence  the  fundamental  principles  of  the 
Reformed  Church  he  drew  from  the  living  fountain  of  universal  Christian 
feeling.  This  was  an  experience  acquired  in  a  domain  inaccessible  to  philoso- 
phy. And  yet  he  never  surrendered  his  rights  to  exercise  his  analytical  criti- 
cism upon  those  enactments  of  the  Church  in  which  it  had  gone  aside  from 
the  truth,  and  even  upon  those  portions  of  the  sacred  Scriptures  which  he 
regarded  as  fallible.  Those  portions  which  were  addressed  to  the  feelings  he 
held  under  the  most  absolute  control  of  the  understanding,  (f) 

§  450.     The  PMlosophy  of  tlie  Äbsohite  and  its  Ramifications. 

In  direct  opposition  to  the  philosophy  of  faith  Fichte  had  exalted  humau 
knowledge  until  it  took  the  place  of  divine.  When  Schelling  (b.  1775),  start- 
ing from  this  position,  had  construed  nature  as  if  it  were  a  shadowy  reflection 
of  the  spirit,  he  became  deeply  interested  in  its  actual  living  movements,  and 
as  his  highly  gifted  mind  was  engaged  in  the  contemplation  of  them,  he  came 

d)  Idee  ü.  d.  Studium  d.  Tbeol.  (ISOl)  ed.  by  Stieren.  Lps.  1S50.  Com.  ü.  d.  Psalmen.  Heldlb 
1811.  3  ed.  1829.  Lehrb.  d.  hebr.  jud.  Arclifiol.  Lps.  (1S14.)  1S30.  Ue.  Eel.  u.  Tbeol.  Brl.  (1S15.)  1S2L 
Einl.  in  d.  A.  T.  Brl.  ISU.  4  ed.  1S33.  in  d.  N.  T.  Brl.  1826.  4  ed.  1842.  Theodor,  o.  d.  Zweiflers  Weihe. 
Brl.  1822.  3  ed.  1828.  Lebrb.  d.  Sittenl.  Brl.  1S33.  Die  H.  S.  übersetzt  Hdtb.  (lS09ss.)  3  ed.  ISSSa. 
3  Y.  Exeg.  II.indb.  z.  N.  T.  1S36-4S.  Das  Wesen  d.  chr.  Gl.  Bas.  lS4ö.— ActensammL  u.  d.  Entlass- 
ung d.*Prof.  de  Wette  v.  theo!.  Lehramt  zu  Berlin.  Lps.  1S20.  F.  Lücke,  z.  Erin,  an  de  W.  (Stnd.  n. 
Krit.  ISöO.  n.  8.)  [Human  Life  or  Practical  Ethics,  transl.  by  S.  Osgood,  Boston,  1842.  2  v.  12.  Theo- 
dore, or  the  Skeptic's  Conversion.  Boston.  1S41.  2  v.  12.  Introd.  to  the  0.  T.  tr.  &  enlarged  by  Theod. 
Parker.  Boston.  1843.  2  v.  S.] 

e)  (Tertr.  Briefe  ü.  d.  Lucindo.  ISOO.  first  publ.  in  the  Athenaeum  with  Vorr.  by  Cuij^-ajf, Ilamb. 
1835.)  Ue.  d.  Eel.  Eeden  an  d.  Gebildeten  unter  ihren  Verächtern.  Brl.  1799.  5  ed.  184-3.  Monologen. 
Brl.  1800.  6  ed.  1843.  Die  Weihnachtsfeier.  Brl.  ISöS.  3  ed.  1S3T.  Ue.  d.  sogen  I  Br.  an  Timoth.  Brl. 
1S07.  Darstd.  theol.  Studiums.  Brl.  (1811)1830.  Der.  ehr.  Glaube.  Brl.  (lS21s.)lS30s,  2  v.  Werke 
8. 1834.  in  3  Abth.  Briefw.  m.  J.  Gass,  ed.  by  W.  Gass,  1852.  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  £  ehr.  Wiss.  1850. 
N.  51.  Selbstbiogr  (in  his  26th  year)  communicated  by  Lommatzsch.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1851.  H.  1.) 
—Baumgarten-Criisius,  ü.  Schi.  Denkart  u.  Verdienst.  Jen.  1834.  Lücke  Erin,  an  Schi.  (Stud.  a  Krit. 
1834.  P.  4.)  Schiceitzer,  Schi.  Eigonthüml.  als.  Pred.  Hai.  1*54  T/üel,  Schi.  d.  Darst.  d.  Idee  e.  sittl. 
Ganzen  anstrebend.  Brl.  1835.  F.  Delbrück,  Schi.  Bonn.  1S;37.  J.  Schaller,  Vorl.  ü.  Schi.  H.al.  1844. 
G.  Weissenhorn,  n.  Schi.  Dial.  u.  Dogm.  Ilal.  1847.  2  vols.  Rienücker,  zu  Ehren  SchL  (Stud.  a. 
Krit.  1843.  H.  1.)  [Eng.  translations  of  S.  are :  Crit  Essay  on  Luke  by  C.  ThirlwuU,  Lond  182.5.  S. 
Introd.  to  Plato's  Diall.  by  Dodson,  Lond.  1327.  8.  Obss.  on  Sabellius,  with  notes,  by  M.  Stuart,  in 
Bib.  Eepos.  vol.  V.  p.  2C5ss.  VL  Iss.  and  Outline  of  the  Study  of  Theol.  with  Lücke's  Eeüvlnisconcos 
of  Schi,  by  Farrar,  Edinb.  1350.  8.] 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CnURCII  TILL  1853.    §  450.  SCIIELLIKG.    IIEGKL.  55  1 

to  regard  tlie  ^vllole  lii.story  of  tlie  universe  as  the  i)rocess  by  Avhicli  divinity 
was  developed  in  the  parallel  spliere.s  of  nature  and  of  mind.  In  his  subse 
quent  researches  after  truth  he  viewed  the  world  as  an  apostasy,  and  as 
snming  that  it  was  originally  in  opposition  to  God,  he  explained  its  origin  ir. 
God,  and  its  distinction  from  God.  In  the  estimation  of  this  philosophy  re- 
ligion is  the  immediate  coming  of  the  deity  to  self-consciousness,  Christianity 
divested  of  its  scriptural  simplicity  is  the  turning  point  of  human  history,  and 
the  sj'stem  of  faith  which  tlie  Church  has  formed  respecting  revelation,  the 
Trinity,  and  reconciliation,  is  tlie  exjdanation  which  it  makes  of  the  great 
problem  of  the  universe,  and  by  which  it  expresses  its  presentiments  with  regard 
to  the  final  result,  (a)  Closely  resembling  Schelling  in  the  reflective  and  tranquil 
manner  of  his  life,  Hegel  (1770-1831)  assumed  that  the  law  of  logic  was  the 
law  of  the  universe,  according  to  which  all  opposites  are  elevated  until  they 
become  lo.st  in  a  higher  unity-, — until,  in  fact,  they  become  merely  an  idea, 
which,  that  it  may  recognize  itself  as  spirit,  i)laces  the  universe  as  an  object- 
ive reality  apart  from  itself,  and  by  constantly  thus  raising  and  separating 
new  opposites  which  occur  in  the  history  of  the  world,  it  reveals  to  itself  its 
own  infinite  abundance  of  life.  In  the  view  of  this  philosophy  the  popular 
religions  which  have  existed  in  the  world  have  been  the  several  points  by 
which  the  divine  self-consciousness  has  developed  itself.  Christianity  being 
the  religion  in  which  the  unity  of  the  divine  and  the  human  is  presented,  con- 
tains the  ultimate  point  of  all  truth,  but  in  the  lower  form  of  the  idea,  as  it 
remains  essentially  to  those  who  see  things  at  the  stand-point  where  God  and 
the  world,  the  present  and  the  future,  remain  in  opposition,  and  general  ever- 
lasting truth  is  possessed  only  in  the  individual  facts  of  Christianity.  (?;)  The 
per.sonal  intluence  and  manner  of  Schelling  after  the  brilliant  period  of  his 
residence  at  Jenn,  was  powerful  on  society  in  the  south  of  Germany  ;  while 
Ilegel,  as  a  Prussian  state  philosopher,  even  when  idealizing  the  actual  world, 
produced  a  profound  impression  upon  the  theology,  principally  of  the  north. 
The  Rationalists  were  astonished  to  find  themselves  assailed  by  opponents 
quite  equal  to  them,  both  in  freethinking  and  in  science,  and  who  yet  gave  to 
Christianity  an  historical  importance  and  an  ecclesiastical  form  far  superior  to 
what  they  were  willing  to  concede  to  it.  They  therefore  accused  their  an- 
tagonists of  a  pantheism  which  concealed  its  inconsistency  with  morality  aud 
religion  under  the  semblance  of  ecclesiastical  orthodoxy.  To  this  it  was  re- 
plied, that  Rationalism  was  a  stage  of  improvement  which  had  now,  with 
Kant,  become  utterly  obsolete ;  and  that  although  it  extolled  reason  as  the 
supreme  law  in  matters  of  faith,  it  had  never  attempted  in  a  scientific  man- 
ner, even  in  its  most  elaborate  works,  to  inforiu  men  what  reason  is,  and  what 


a)  LiL  In  MicheUt,  vol.  II.  p.  212ss.  &  osp.  In  Zcitschr.  t.  spccuL  Physik.  1801.  vol  IL  P.  2.  Me- 
thode (1.  nkad.  Studiums.  Tub.  1S03.  2  ed.  1S13.— Phil.  u.  Rel.  1S(U.  Phil.  Schrr.  Lnndsh.  1S09.  Denk- 
innl  d.  Sclir.  v.  d.  Rotlllchen  Dlnccn.  Tub.  1S12.  [.Horell,  Hist.  &,  erit.  View  of  Spec.  Phil.  In  tlia 
19th  cent.  (New  Y<iik.  TMS.)  p.  4.3.3ss.  EplL  of  the  U.  of  Phil,  transl.  from  the  French,  &c  by  C.  S. 
Jlenrij,  (New  Y.-rk.  1*41.  2  v.)  v.  11.  p.  lUSss.] 

I)  Lit.  in  J/(c/(fW,  vol.  11.  p.  ClL^s.  Diirorcnz  d.  Fictcsrhen  u.  Scholl.  Systems.  Jena.  ISOl. 
PhSnonienoIo^rie  d.  Geistes.  IJamb.  ISilT.  Encyklop.  d.  pliil.  Wiss.  Ildll).  ISIT.  :?  od.  l->-'U.  Vorless.  ü, 
L  Phil.  d.  Kel.  BrI.  (1S82.)  1S40.  2  v.    Werke  s.  1S82.  IT  vol».   Rosenkranz,  Hegel's  Leben.  I5rl.  1S44 


552  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.     I'KR.  TI.    A.  I).  1648-lSM. 

is  itH  provirioo  in  roli;,'ion.  (r)  After  IIef,'er!i  dcatli  liis  scliool  became  divided 
into  tlidso  wlio  used  an  ortiiodox,  and  tlioso  who  used  a  lietero<lox  mode  of 
expression.  Tlie  former  class  explained  its  theological  views  in  the  spirit  of 
its  original  master,  (il)  The  latter  contended  that  it  was  only  giving  greater 
distinctness  to  the  original  sense  of  its  master,  in  opposition  to  the  ordinary 
mode  of  representation,  when  it  proclaimed  that  an  everla.sting  life  exalted 
to  the  absolute  idea  is  in  fact  the  gospel  of  an  everlasting  death,  that  religion 
Avhon  carried  to  its  perfection  by  rea.son,  is  only  a  God  worshipping  himself, 
and  that  a  God-man  is  one  who  never  had  an  existence  as  an  individual  upon 
earth,  (e)  Thus,  from  the  modern  attempt  to  exalt  the  old  orthodoxy,  has 
sprung  up  a  severe  struggle  for  the  fundamental  princifdes  of  Christianity, 
and  the  Hegelians  were  accused  by  the  friends  of  piety,  of  atheism,  the  anni- 
hilation of  the  biblical  history,  the  denial  of  immortality,  and  a  hypocritical  pro- 
fession of  Cliristianity.  (f)  They  rei)llod  by  reproaching  their  accusers  with 
a  shallowness  which  could  only  tliink  of  God  separate  from  the  universe,  a 
selfishness  which  never  disengages  itself  from  its  own  little  I,  a  hAired  of  all 
philosophy,  and  an  apostasy  from  Protestantism.  (^7)  In  some  philosophic 
researches  under  Hegel's  direction,  and  to  carry  forward  the  system  which 
he  had  commenced,  the  proof  of  an  immortality  of  individuals,  and  of  a  per- 
sonal and  if  possible  a  triune  God,  was  attempted  on  the  basis  of  the  idea  of 
personality,  (h)  ScheUing^  himself,  was  called  (ISil)  to  the  professorship  left 
by  Hegel,  that  he  might  heal  the  wounds  which  had  been  inflicted  by  philoso- 
phy there.  He  described  the  logical  structure  by  which  his  predecessor  had 
attempted  to  complete  his  system,  as  a  mere  episode  of  that  system  by  a 
later  hand,  and  as  a  philosophy  looking  only  at  negative  results,  but  without 
power  to  escape  from  its  ideal  to  the  actual  world.  He  therefore  placed  by 
its  side  a  system  of  positive  philosophy,  which,  as  an  hypothesis  respecting  the 
play  of  antemundane  potences  assuming  in  the  actual  world  the  form  of  trini- 
tarian  personalities,  presented  some  hope  of  a  complete  union  of  science  with 
a  future  Johannic  Church.  But  the  age  had  no  taste  for  this  second  part  of 
Faust,  (i)    The  original  moderate  Hegelian  school  was  represented  by  the 


c)  E.  g.  ifarluinel-e,  Dogmatik.  2  ed.  Vorrede.  Uegel,  Phil.  d.  Eel.  1S32.  v.  II.  p.  254.  {Morell, 
(p.  466ss.)  &  ITenry  (p.  20Sss.)  as  above.] 

d)  6.  A.  Gahler,  de  verae  phil.  erga  rel.  pietate.  Ber.  1S36.  Göschel:  der  Monismus  des  Gedank- 
ens. Zur.  Apol.  d.  ge^enw.  Phil,  am  Grabe  ihres  Stifters.  Naumb.  1S32.  Die  siebenfaltige  Oster- 
frage. Brl.  1836.     [Morell,  p.  47Ss.] 

e)  Comp.  MicJidet,  v.  IL  p.  637.  Die  dt  Phil.  s.  Hegels  Tode.  (Die  Gegenw.  Lps.  1S5I.  vol.  VI. 
üfi.  Biwb,  la  Phil,  de  l'iVbsolu  en  Allemiigne  diuis  ses  rapports  avec  la  doctr.  ehret  Montauban.  1S42. 
[3foreU,  p.  4S0.] 

/)  IT.  Leo.  diö  Ilegelingen.  Hai.  (ISSS.)  1S89.— Ä'u/tnw,  Rüge  u.  Hegel  Quedl.  1S3S.  Eheinw.  Eep. 
V.  XXXI.  p.  2Sss. 

O)  A.  Huge.  Pronssen  u.  d.  Reaction.  Lps.  1S5S.  G.  0.  Jfarbaeh,  Anfl-uf  an  d.  prot  Deutsch!, 
wider  unprot  Umtriobo.  Lps.  lS3Ss.  2  II.  (Ä  Bauer,)  Die  Posaune  d.  jüngsten  Gerichts  ü.  Hegel  d. 
Atheisten  u.  Antichr.  Lps.  1S41.  C.  ZichiescJie,  ü.  d.  Gott  d.  Prof.  Leo  u.  d.  Atheism,  s.  Gegner.  UaL 
18:39. 

h)  J.  n.  FU-hte  ■  Beltrr.  z  Characteristik  d.  nenern  Phil.  Sulzb.  1S29.  Ve.  Gegens.,  Wedep.  u. 
fiel.  d.  Phil.  Ihllb.  imi.  Ue.  d.  Beding,  e.  specul.  Theism.  Elberf.  l*3ö.  C.  If.  Weis*«  :  Ue.  d.  ge- 
genw. Standp.  d.  phU.  Wlss.  Lps.  1329.  Idee  d.  Gotth.  Drsd.  1S33.  Grundzüge  d.  Metaphjrs.  Ilnib 
,S35. 

»■>  J.  r.  Sc/i<;Ung,  Vorrede  zu  CouMn.  ü.  fr  &  deutsche  Pliil.  from  the  French  bv  Beckers,  Statta 


CHAP.  V.    EVANO.  CnUECn  TILL  1358.    §  450.  EOSENK RANZ.    STRAUSS.    55S 

noble  individuality  oi  liosenlcram^  and  set  up  the  motto  that  true  reason  must 
xead  to  Christianity,  that  Christianity  must  be  reasonable,  and  that  its  found- 
ers were  the  perfect  individual  realizations  of  the  idea.  (1c)  But  when  its 
true  principles  were  exposed,  and  the  State  which  had  once  brought  it  into 
notice  had  withdrawn  its  favor,  it  could  no  longer  sustain  itself  against  the 
general  neglect  it  received.  Its  essential  principle,  however,  continued  to 
struggle  in  ditierent  departments  of  literature  against  the  various  prevalent 
systems.  Strauss  (born  1808)  rei)resented  the  gospels  as  a  mass  of  fragments 
composed  by  tlie  primitive  churches  as  the  natural  development  of  their  own 
views  and  feelings,  and  yet  he  looked  upon  Christ  as  the  ideal  genius  of  gen- 
uine religion,  and  as  the  highest  form  in  which  religion  has  appeared.  lie 
did  not,  however,  conceal  his  conviction  that  a  collision  was  inevitable  be- 
tween science  and  the  popular  systems  of  Christian  theology,  whose  advocates 
had  raised  the  question  whetiier  he  could  consistently  belong  to  the  clerical 
profession.  Hence,  when  he  was  called  to  the  theological  faculty  of  Zurich, 
the  people  rose  up  in  behalf  of  the  old  system  of  faith,  and  the  government 
of  the  Canton,  though  willing  to  make  concessions,  was  overthrown  by  a 
committee  on  religious  faith  (Sept.  fi,  1839).  In  this  attair,  however,  religious 
zeal  was  made  in  some  degree  subservient  to  political  objects.  (T)  "When 
Bruno  Bauer,  who  had  been  thrown  from  one  extreme  of  the  Hegelian  party 
to  the  other,  and  proudly  scotfed  at  all  theologians,  analyzed  the  dilferent 
gospels  as  mere  works  of  art,  originating  in  a  purely  literary  way,  and 
taking  their  form  and  materials  with  various  degrees  of  success  and  skill  from 
the  prevalent  views  of  the  people  long  after  the  events  of  which  they  speak, 
it  was  found  that  even  the  freedom  of  teaching  allowed  in  a  Protestant  coun- 
try could  hardly  tolerate  the  j)ropagation  of  a  doctrine  which  totally  under- 
mined the  Church.  A  decided  majority  of  the  Protestant  faculties  of  Prus- 
sia whose  opinions  were  asked  was  not  obtained,  but  the  civil  authorities 
formed  their  decision  on  the  ground  of  the  views  then  expressed,  which  were, 
that  the  sentiments  maintained  in  Bauer's  writings  were  inconsistent  with 
the  position  of  a  teacher  of  theology,  (in)  Indeed,  his  own  advocates  pro- 
daimetl  that  the  new  principle  was  atheistic  and  sims-culottic,  and  that  phi- 
losophy had  given  notice  of  its  complete  secession  from  the  Church.  (/()  "When 
a  professor  of  aesthetics  acknowledged  himself  a  Pantheist,  and  attempted 
no  concealment  of  his  hatred  for  his  ojiponent.'»,  the  whole  body  of  the  clergy 

1S84  Schelllng'«  eret«  Vorles.  In  Berlin.  Stutter.  1841.  PaulM,  die  emlllch  offonbar  gewordene  Pbll. 
d.  Offenb.  (Sell.  Vorlesungen  Im  WlntiT  1S41.)  I>arftl^t  1843.  Vorwort  zu  II.  Steiri-ns  nachgel,  Scbrr. 
V.  Schelllng.  IJrl.  1S4C.— .»A« r/iWncX:«',  z.  Kritik  d.  Sell.  OITinb.iruni.i'plill.  Ilrl.  ISW.  Kupp.)  F.  W.  J. 
V.  Sch.  von  e.  vleljfilir.  Beobachter.  Lp».  l^X    Sch.  a  die  Thool.  (with  tlie  Llteniture)  BrI.  1»45. 

;i)  Encjkl.  d.  theol.  Wi.<s.  Hal.  (I^31.)  H45.    Krlt,  Erl.mt.  d.  Heg.  Systems.  König»b.  1J40. 

I)  [//<»«<■,]  Lcbcn  Jesu.  ji.  34.  /).  /'.  i-lrauttn,  Kricdl.  Blülter.  Allona  IS:!'.».— A«cXv,  Strauss  u.  d 
Zürcli  Kirche,  with  a  Vorr.  by  De  Wi-tte.  Ba^s.  \<iO.  A.  lioiicn,  Oedoh.  .1.  Boriif.  d.  Dr.  Str.  Frfcf 
1S40.  Der  Kampf  d.  I'rinciplon  lin  K.  Zürich.  V.  e.  Aagenzeuaon.  (Zi-itscli.  f.  lil*t,  Tli.  1S40.  II.  3.) 
ir.  GeUfr,  die  Strauss.  Zerwürfnis.««  in  Zur.  Hainb.  1S43.  [Strauss'  Lifo  of  Jesus,  from  the  Germ. 
Lond.  134C.  8  vol*.  S.    Letter  to  HIrzell,  ic.  I.on<L  1844] 

m)  [//(!«<■,]  Loben  .Tesu.  p.  85.  Jiiitur,  die  ev.  Lnndcsktrcbo  Prenss.  u.  d.  Wiss.  Lpi  1S40. — Gu- 
tacbten  d.  ev.  tbeol.  Faculläten  d.  Prouss.  L'niv.  ü.  d.  LIcent  B.  Bauer.  Brl.  IMi  For  Lit.  sec  Brun^ 
Eep.  1S45.  vol.  II.  p.  97ss. 

n)  EJgav  Riiitfr,  B.  Bauer,  u.  s.  Oivner.  Brl.  Mil.  D^>ut3clio  Jalirbb.  ls4-2.  N.  S».  Opitx,  B 
Bauer  u.  8.  Gegner.  Brsl.  l>4ij. 


554  MoDF.iiN  ciit'i:(ii  irisTiMiV.   rr.i:.  vi.   a.  d.  ic4S-i'«3. 

in  tho  country  rose  in  opposition  to  the  Antichristianity  of  Tubingen,  and  the 
governinont  ccnstn-ed,  but  protected  him  by  a  suspension  of  two  years,  (o) 
Lewis  Fvuerhdch  liaving  placed  tho  old,  genuine  gospel,  which  had  conquered 
and  dcs|iised  tlic  world,  in  direct  contrast  with  tho  modern  system  of  pro- 
gress, declared  Christianity  a  fixed  idea,  and  all  religion  a  dream,  from  which 
when  man  awakes  ho  finds  onl}'  himself.  His  bajitism  of  cold  water  was  not 
unacceptable  to  such  youth  as  had  previously  fallen  out  with  the  notion  of 
the  divine  existence.  Q:»)  Near  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  an  enthu- 
siasm for  the  glorious  life  of  the  ancient  Greeks  reappeared  among  the  poets. 
Tho  great  German  poet,  who  had  been  profoundly  affected  by  the  world's 
mighty  convulsions,  now  proclaimed  tho  new  gospel  of  tlie  rehabilitation  of 
tho  flesh  in  contrast  with  a  Christianity  which  had  been  especially  designed 
for  the  spirit  in  its  horror  at  a  nature  peopled  with  spectres,  and  which  had 
for  1800  years  consoled  men  in  all  their  sorrows,  {q)  lie  was  soon  surrounded 
by  a  literary  circle  belonging  to  a  young  Germany^  "which  either  wished  to 
remove  the  schism  which  Christianity  had  made  known  between  God  and 
the  world  by  means  of  Christ  born  on  earth  as  the  world's  legitimate  child,  (r) 
or  thought  that  men  would  have  been  happier  had  they  been  entirely  ignorant 
of  God,  and  hence  declared  that  the  vicars  of  heaven  were  not  needful  for 
the  most  exhilarating  enjoyments  of  existence,  {s)  This  youthful  poetry  was 
destroyed  as  it  were  in  a  night,  not  by  the  police,  but  by  the  serious  morality 
of  the  German  people,  it)  The  more  talented  among  them  directed  their  atten- 
tion to  a  nobler  intellectual  chivalry,  and  though  the  poet  who  had  led  them, 
after  long  keeping  swine,  like  the  prodigal  son,  among  the  Hegelians,  returned 
to  his  forsaken  God,  he  never  lost  the  inclination  to  jest  at  holy  and  unholy 
things,  even  on  a  hopeless  sick  bed.  {n)  But  the  poetry  of  a  Pantheism  which 
leads  men  according  to  their  moral  dispositions  to  adore  either  the  universe  or 
themselves,  and  sometimes  to  worship  the  Son  of  God  as  a  son  of  the  people, 
has  often,  without  being  recognized  in  its  true  character,  prevailed  extensively 
among  the  half-educated  multitude.  ('•)  But  as  Christianity  had  been  accused, 
in  quarters  where  poetry  had  not  joined  in  the  reproach,  of  a  secret  worship 
of  Moloch,  and  of  cannibalism  as  well  as  of  other  crimes,  it  was  resolved  that 
in  place  of  this  barbarous  and  slavish  religion  a  pure  Uumanism  should  be  set 
up,  as  the  autonomy  of  the  spirit  resting  upon  its  own  authority  alone,  a  new 
religion  looking  distinctly  to  earthly  interests,  or  triumphing  over  all  religion 


0)  F.  Vischer,  akad.  Rede  z.  Antritte  d.  Ordinariates,  21st  Nov.  1S44.  Tub.  1344.  Lit  in  Briins 
Kep.  1S45.  vol.  IV.  p.  189ss. 

J})  Phil.  11.  Christenth.  Mannli.  1830.  Das  Wesen  d.  Christenth.  Lps.  (1S41-4.S.)  1S49.  Vorless.  iL 
•J.  "Wesen  d.  Eel.  Lps.  1S51. 

g)  IT.  Heine,  Gesch.  d.  scliGnen  Lit  in  Doutschl.  Par.  1S33.  vol.  L  p.  6.  33.  69s.  Zur  Gesch.  d.  P.el 
0.  Phil.  (Salon,  llamb.  1S:35.  vol.  II.) 

r)   Tk.  Mundt,  Madonna.  Unterhaltungen  m.  e.  Heiligen.  Lps.  1S35. 

»)  Gutzkow,  "S'orrede  zu  Schleierm.  Briefen  ü.  d.  Lucinde.  Hamb.  1S35. 

0  (,J.  P.  Lange)  Ue.  d.  Rehabilitation  d.  Fleisches.  (Ev.  K.  Z.  1S3Ö.  N.  SSss.)  (G.  Schmib.)  Votum 
Ü.  d.  jnnge  D.  Stuttg.  1S36.  K.  ITase,  d.  junge  D.  Parchim.  l^'iT.— Paulus,  d.  Ilofgerichts  zu  Mann- 
heim motiv.  Urtheil  ü.  d.  in  d.  Romane  Wally  angekL  Prefsvergehn.  Ildlb.  1536. 

v)  If.  Heine.  Komanzero.  Ilamb.  1S51. 

r)  L.  Sche/er.  Laienbrevier.  Brl.  5  ed.  1S4G.  Das  hohe  Lied  v.  Titus  Itlrich.  Brl.  1545.  F.  v  Sitl 
let,  Laienevangolium.  Lps.  1Si2. 


CnAP.  V.    ÜVAN'G.  CnUECII  TILL  1S53.     §  451.  OETHODOX  TIETISM.         OOO 

as  a  conquered  territory,  (w)  A  coarse  political  liberalism,  from  an  extreme 
hatred  of  the  clergy  rejected  also  the  God  whom  they  served,  that  it  miglit 
nave  its  own  God  of  this  world  and  of  freedom,  (x)  This  plan  of  a  com- 
plete rupture  with  the  whole  liistorical  development  of  past  times,  led  the 
uneducated  classes  to  confound  in  one  general  mass  their  own  wants  and  de- 
sires with  the  dregs  of  philosophy.  Soon  God  was  annihilated  and  the  peo- 
ple were  deified,  patriotism  was  despised  that  all  pious  reverence  might  ho 
obliterated  with  it,  and  Christ  was  made  prominent  only  as  his  name  could  bo 
used  to  sanction  democratic  and  revolutionary  principles,  (y) 

§  451.     Orthodox  Fictism  and  its  Extremes. 

The  romantic  poetrj'  which  prevailed  in  the  beginning  of  the  centnry  was 
a  shadowless  picture  of  the  piety  of  the  middle  ages.  Xovalis  (v.  Ilarden- 
burg,  1772-1801)  found  a  religion  in  poetry,  which,  having  destroyed  its  own 
I  in  its  ardent  longings  over  the  grave  of  Protestantism,  and  over  the  ruins  of 
liome,  indulged  in  fond  dreams  of  a  new  church  of  the  all-pervading  deity,  (a) 
The  national  feeling  which  had  been  awakened  during  the  wars  for  freedom, 
and,  after  the  victory  had  been  defrauded  of  its  natural  development,  and  re- 
pressed until  it  became  once  more  nothing  but  a  jiitiful  Gerniani.sm,  now 
longed  to  recover  the  pious  manners  of  earlier  days.  This  longing  still  re- 
mained, even  when  a  portion  of  the  youth  had  ceased  to  hope  for  any  thing 
from  pohtical  agitations.  A  religious  pleasure  was  derived  from  an  investiga- 
tion of  the  mysteries  of  nature,  and  of  tlie  spiritual  world,  and  from  an 
cfibrt  to  break  through  the  limits  prescribed  for  man.  (Jj)  In  connection  with 
such  a  disposition,  the  revolution  which  tlien  took  place  in  the  religious  life, 
in  accordance  Avith  the  laws  which  regulate  intellectual  movements,  called 
forth  an  extreme  reaction  against  the  rationalism  which  prevailed  even  in  the 
third  decennary  of  that  century,  and  then  against  the  philosophizing  Anti- 
christianity.  By  means  of  conventicles  and  tracts  a  zealous  party  was  soon 
formed,  and  an  energetic  organ  of  communication  with  the  public  was  estab- 
lished in  tlie  Evangelical  Church  Journal  (1827).  (c)  Its  essential  character 
is  pietistic,  ('.?)  though  it  is  more  liberal  and  better  accommodated  to  ordinary 


n)  Daumer:  Dil)  Gelioitnn.  <1.  ehr.  Alti-rth.  Hamb.  IS-JT.  DIo  Rel.  d.  neuen  Woltalters.  Ibid. 
\<Ö0.  3  vok    A.  Huge,  Ocsainm.  Sclirr.  Munli.  1S4C-8.  10  vols. 

a-)  Klielinvaia  Kep.  IS:«,  vol.  V.  p.  71». 

I/)  Mux  Stinier,  d.  Einzige  u.  s.  Eigi-nth.  Lps.  1S45.  11".  J/<i;v,  tl.  jungo  Deutschl.  in  d.  ScUweU. 
Lps.  1>I6.    J.  FibM,  System  d.  social,  rolitllc.  Zur.  1S47. 

<0  Scliriften,  ed.  by  Tieck  &  SchleKol,  Brl.  18.14.  5  ed.  1837-46.  3  vols. 

h)  Die  Poherin  von  Prevorst  Stutt«:.  (1S29.)  1832.  2  v.  [Tbo  Seeross  of  Provorst,  or  Uevelatt  of 
tlie  inner  life  of  in»n.  New  York.  1833.  S.]  Gescblcbten  Besessener.  Carlsr.  1S34.  Magikon,  ed.  bj 
J.  Kerner.  Stutts.  ISIO.  2  11. 

t)  I).  Schulz,  A.  Wesen  u.  Treiben  d.  Berl.  ev.  K.  Zeitung.  Brsl.  lS.39s.  2  P.  (On  the  other  side: 
Pie  ov.  Kirclio  u.  d.  Consistorlalrath  Siliulz.  IJrl.  18;?9.)— //.  Eicald,  die  Ungeschlclitllcbk.  ov.  Gelät- 
liclien.  Tub.  1845.  L.  15.  K  (oniir.)  It.  lUri^'stonb.  IJraunschw.  1845.  Der  Geist  d.  ev.  K.  ZL  2  cd.  Brl 
1845.  (On  the  other  side:  Die  Partei  d.  Kv.  K.  Z.  Von  c.  Laien.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1846.  N.  15s.  138.  30ss.) 
C.  Z^chiemhe,  d.  Ev.  K.  Z.  u.  Ihr  Treiben.  Lp<.  1S45. 

rf)  Bretschneiitei;  d.  Grundlage  d.  ev.  Plet.  Lps.  1S33.  C.  ifärklin,  Dar>t  u.  Kritik  d.  mod.  Plet. 
Ptuttg.  18:"%9.  Comp.  Dorner  In  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1840.  P.  1.  Lit.  Survey :  P.helnwald,  Kep.  v.  XXVIl 
l>.  4:ss.  ISCss. 


55G  MODEBN  CIIÜECII  HISTORY.    TEi:.  VI.    A.  D   1C19-1SM. 

lifo  tlinn  was  the  pietism  of  tho  eigliteonth  contury.  It  ha.°  also  been  more 
disposed  to  enter  into  tho  toils  and  lionors  of  secular  life,  and  in  varioua  de- 
grees it  has  become  connected  with  the  old  Protestant  orthodox}',  and  as- 
sumed its  controversial  cliaracter.  (e)  As  to  its  religious  elements  it  embraces 
the  greatest  variety,  from  the  genuine  piety  exhibited  by  Luther  or  Spener, 
full  of  ft  joyful  faith  in  a  God  boru  of  the  Virgin,  down  through  the  several 
gradations  of  pure  party  zeal,  pride,  and  mental  imbecility,  until  we  reach 
the  hypocrisy  which  uses  the  language  of  ardent  piety  to  gain  selfish  end.s,  or 
even  to  cover  the  most  criminal  designs,  (/)  Although  the  principal  leaders, 
whenever  they  expressed  themselves  in  a  literary  style,  committed  serious 
offences  against  the  old  Lutheran  or  Calvinistic  theology,  and  when  confessing 
their  sins  adopted  many  rationalistic  excrescences,  ((/)  they  regarded  the  theo- 
logical vicAvs  advanced  in  those  systems  as  that  by  wliich  alone  men  could  be 
saved,  and  all  other  views  of  Christianity,  except  soine  fragments  of  truth 
among  the  Catholics  and  Supernaturalists,  as  unchristian.  It  was  on  account 
of  this  exclusiveness  that  even  such  theologians  as  Neander  felt  compelled  to 
X ithdraw  from  their  connection.  They  also  erected  a  literary  inquisition,  the 
object  of  which  was  at  first  disavowed,  but  was  afterwards  acknowledged  to 
be  indispensable,  and  which,  when  it  condemned  individuals,  clothed  its  ver- 
dicts in  the  language  of  Christian  intercession,  (h)  As  a  complete  return  to 
the  position  of  former  orthodoxy  was  impossible,  without  denying  the  reality 
of  the  secular  progress  which  lay  in  the  retrograde  path,  they  pronounced  all 
these  improvements  heathenish,  and  with  a  puritanical  and  stupid  assurance 
they  condemned  every  cheerful  expression  of  genius,  (i)  and  sighed  over  the 
whole  development  of  the  Church  as  an  apostasy.  From  an  extreme  dread 
of  the  revolutionary  spirit  of  the  times,  those  especially  who  belonged  to  the 
higher  classes  now  turned  to  every  thing  old,  even  in  matters  of  faith.  The 
Church  Journal  reproached  an  honorable  clergy,  anxious  for  their  inherited 
rights  and  for  their  country,  with  being  favorable  to  a  perjured  insurrection, 
and  in  the  style  of  von  Haller  (I-),  by  means  of  a  patriarchal  theory  of  state, 
advocated  the  absolute  di-s-ine  right  of  rulers,  and  yet  announced  the  over- 
throw of  a  government  favorable  to  rationalism  by  a  popular  insurrection,  as 
a  victory  for  the  cause  of  God.  (1)  Journals  of  the  same  complexion,  also,  in 
France  and  North  America,  were  in  the  habit  of  using  the  boldest  democratic 
forms  of  language  in  the  style  of  the  old  Puritans,  (m)  In  German  countries 
divines  of  a  liberal  culture  gradually  died,  almost  every  professorship  and 
ecclesiastical  office  of  an  exalted  influence  was  tilled  by  persons  favorable  to 
the  new  orthodoxy,  and  those  inclined  to  free  researches  were  intimidated 
from  pursuing  theological  studies  by  the  hopelessness  of  aU  such  efforts.    A 

«)  E.  g.  Röhr,  I'red.  Bibl.  1S31.  P.  6.  Notizenbl.  N.  6. 

/)  Proofe  in  Schulz.  I.  p.  11.  IT.  85ss.        g)  Ibid.  II,  134ss. 

h)  Ev.  K.  Z.  l?ao.  N.  10»  1S31.  N.  STss.  9.3ss.  Comp.  J/".  GOu,  kurze  aber  notbw.  Erin.  ü.  d.  Lei- 
den (i  jungen  Wertber.  Hamb.  1775. 

0  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S50.  N.  24.  25.  44.  46. 1S51.  X.  U.—X  C.  K.  Hoffmann,  die  schleswig-holst  Geistliek. 
a.  d.  ev.  K.  Z.  ErI.  1S50. 

*•)  Ev.  K.  Z.  ls:Jl.  X.  iSss.  30s.  105.  1333.  X.  31.  On  the  other  side :  A,  K.  Z.  153-3.  X.  Iss.  SchuU 
I.  p.  70$.«.  11.  p.  41ss     A.  Widmann,  polit  Kedenken  wider  d.  Ev.  K.  Z.  Potsd.  1346. 

0  S  450.  Dt.  k.)        m)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1530.  X.  So.  15:31.  X.  Iss.  30.  Sis.  1S32.  X.  43.  59. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHCECn  TILL  1553.    §  401.  SEPARATISM.     RAPP.  557 

3'ounger  clergy  was  therefore  raised  up,  inclined  to  the  new  party,  and  ani- 
mated by  the  energy  of  a  principle  newly  asserted,  but  derived  from  great 
examples  in  former  times.  The  artificial  work  of  sustaining  this  party  de- 
volved in  Germany  upon  tliose  established  churches  which  were  under  Cath 
olio  guardian.ship,  and  after  the  suppression  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
of  1848,  it  became  a  i>rinciple  for  the  administration  of  government.  The 
Evangelical  Church  Journal  then  contended  bravely  against  the  storm, 
with  only  trifling  concessions,  and  the  few  clergymen  who  became  excited 
by  the  popular  movements  acknowledged  that  they  were  not  sustained  by 
their  congregations.  It  is  not  probable,  nor,  if  we  look  at  the  whole  process 
of  German  culture,  is  it  credible,  that  the  ma.ss  or  the  true  nobility  of 
tlio  German  nation  Avill  renounce  all  tliat  it  has  inherited  from  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  become  converts  to  this  precise  form  of  tlicological  doctrine  which 
has  always  become  most  i)romiuent  when  its  pohtical  objects  were  mo*t  un- 
deniable, (n)  and  which  has  in  public  life  violated  all  obligations  and  truth. 
Still,  with  all  the  disturbance  which  this  party  has  often  caused  in  the  affairs 
of  various  congregations,  and  the  many  troubles  or  extravagances  which  it 
has  produced  in  individuals,  until  in  some  cases  they  have  been  driven  to 
madness,  it  has  been  the  means  of  accomplisliing  much  good.  It  has  soft- 
ened many  obstinate  dispositions,  and  had  an  important  influence  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Church.  It  has  strengthened  the  confidence  of  the  Church 
in  her  possession  of  a  form  which  is  primitive  and  divine,  brought  to  light 
the  defective  nature  of  modern  Supernaturali.sm,  introduced  new  investiga- 
tions of  subjects  which  would  otherwise  have  been  too  hastily  given  up, 
denounced  many  an  exhibition  of  a  narrow  superficial  spirit  which  obtained 
favor  under  tlie  garb  of  reason,  and  by  way  of  warning  has  shown  what 
must  be  the  result  of  a  zeal  for  the  mere  externals  of  a  system  which  has  now 
passed  away.  Only  a  few  isolated  instances  occur,  in  which  this  pietistic 
spirit  coul-d  not  find  satisfaction  in  the  ordinary  ecclesiastical  connections,  or 
has  aaiumed  any  extraordinary  appearances.  Among  the  Suabian  tribes  these 
excited  persons  seized  upon  some  ])eculiar  sentiment  of  some  eminent  eccle- 
siastical teacher,  or  induced  some  individuals  to  become  their  advocates 
among  the  people.  Their  disposition  was  in  some  instances  melancholy,  and 
in  others  cheerful.  Although  in  this  region  also  the  clergy  generally  adhered 
to  ancient  usages,  many  innovations  had  been  made  in  their  mode  of  instruc- 
tion, in  the  liturgy,  and  in  the  hymn-book.  The  opposition  therefore  be- 
came distinctly  organized,  and  a  few  Separatists  refused  to  perform  their 
ordinary  ecclesiastical,  and  even  their  civil  duties,  runishraents  and  force, 
in  some  instances  carried  so  far  as  to  take  persons  by  violence  to  the  Church, 
were  of  course  in  vain.  The  civil  authorities  in  Wurtcmhcrg  finally  permit- 
ted those  who  were  discontented  to  assemble  in  a  congregation  at  Kornthal 
(1818),  with  a  peculiar  ecclesiastical  and  civil  constitution  conformed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  type  of  the  apostolic  Church,  but  under  the  inspection  of 
the  civil  authorities.  («)     Others  wandered  away  (after   1805)   to  North 

71)  E.  p.  Comp.  A.  K.  Z.  1861.  N.  85. 

o)  Archiv  f.  KG.  vol.  IV.  p.  4*tss.    Ä  C.  Kaj>ß,  <].  Würtcmb.  Drüdergemelnden  In  Korutli.  iL 
Willielinsdorf.  Stiitti'.  1S39.  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  1S4Ö.  X.  :JJ. 


558  MODKUN  (  liri:(  II   lIISTOi:V.     neu.  vi.     A.  P.  ICJS-ISM. 

Aincrion,  wIkto,  uridcT  the  iiiiiiic  of  Jlariuontxls^  tlicy  foniicd  a  Cüiiuiinnity 
iiüiir  I'ittslmr^r,  in  -wliich  tlie  peasant  Jiapp  (d,  1847)  exercised  a  i)atriardial 
autlioritv.  As  the  Kociety  prorc'.s.scd  to  hold  their  property  in  common,  tlic 
whole  direction  of  it  wa-s  committed  to  him.  Even  marriages  conld  not  be 
funned  without  his  consent.  {■]>)  The  peace  of  the  orig^inal  congrefration  was  di.s- 
turhcd  (1831)  by  Bernhard  Müller  (Froli),  who  had  formerly  lived  in  splendor  at 
Oifenbach,  had  predicted  a  spiritual  universal  monarchy,  and  when  threatened 
with  a  legal  investigation,  had  gone  to  America.  There  he  had  been  received 
by  Kapi)  as  a  prophet,  and  promised  tlie  younger  members  of  the  a.ssociation 
with  a  true  comnuniity  of  goods  and  liberty  of  marriage.  Uapp  was  obliged 
to  purchase  a  separation  for  a  large  sum,  with  which  Proli  laid  tlie  foundation 
of  his  New  Jerusalem,  and  then  called  upon  all  believers  to  hasten  thither  to 
escape  the  vials  of  divine  wrath.  But  when  the  money  was  all  spent,  this 
vicegerent  of  God  announced  that  each  one  might  escape  as  he  could  (1833).  (^) 
£(hca}-d  Irving  (1792-1834)  was  a  Presbyterian  preacher  in  the  Caledonian 
chapel  in  London^  with  a  powerful  fancy  and  a  wild  antiquated  style  of  lan- 
guiige,  with  some  resemblance  to  that  of  the  ancient  prophets,  as  well  as  to 
that  of  Byron  and  Shakspeare.  lie  soon  became  the  favorite  preacher  of  the 
higher  classes,  for  he  contended  against  the  wisdom  of  the  age,  which  he  said 
was  elevating  the  fallen  archangel  Liberalism  above  Christ  the  morning  star. 
"When  his  mind  became  absorbed  in  the  doctrine  that  the  Son  of  God  assumed 
our  &i))fi.il  nature,  although  without  detriment  to  his  holiness,  the  fashionable 
world  began  to  forsake  him.  Ilis  extreme  longing  and  praying  fur  the  spirit- 
ual gifts  which  had  been  afforded  to  the  apostolic  Church,  as  the  signs  of  the 
approaching  kingdom  of  Christ,  seemed  at  last  to  call  them  forth.  As  in  for- 
mer days  at  Corinth,  individuals  spoke  with  tongues,  in  unintelligible  expres- 
sions of  a  religious  ecstasy  mingled  with  exclamations,  which  generally  closed 
with  prophecies  (1831).  The  Scotch  Presbytery  excluded  him  from  the  Cale- 
donian chapel  on  account  of  these  disturbances  of  public  worship  (1832),  and 
by  a  decision  of  the  General  Assembly  he  was  deposed  from  tlie  ministry  for 
doctrinal  errors.  He  now  established  a  church  of  his  own,  (r)  but  in  conse- 
quence of  a  new  outpouring  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  a  re-establishment  of  all 
those  ecclesiastical  offices  which  were  instituted  in  the  apostolic  age,  this 
soon  denied  its  original  founders,  and  arranged  itself  under  twelve  apostles 
and  an  order  of  prophets.  This  constitution  was  established  not  merely  for 
the  present,  but  for  all  future  times,  and  the  body  thus  constituted  claimed  to  be 
the  true  Church  delivered  from  its  past  corruptions,  and  adorned  for  the  second 
advent  of  its  Lord.  In  England  this  movement  met  with  but  little  success, 
but  in  Geneva  a  class  of  persons  inclined  to  such  extravagances  became  dis- 
turbed by  it,  and  an  accomplished  orator  connected  with  the  German  ortho- 

p)  A.  K.  Z.  1S22.  X.  9. 1823.  N.  37.  J.  Wagner,  Gesch.  d.  narmoniogesellsch.  Waibingen  1SS3. 
D.  A.  Z.  1S4T.  N.  251.  2G6.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1S50.  X.  49. 

q)  A.  K.  Z.  1S32.  N.  66.  JS33.  N.  1S6.  Der  Wunderniann  d.  19.  Jlili.  from  the  Engl,  of  Kreidc- 
burg.  ll.'in.  1S;53.  C.  v.  £onti?wrst,  Scliildorung  d.  Abentheurers  Proli.  Frkf.  1S34.  [Witiebrenner'i 
llel  Uoiu.iniiiations  in  the  U.  S.  (llarrishurg,  1.-49.)  p.  9.] 

r)  if.  Ilohl,  ünicbsL  a.  d.  Leben  n.  Schrr.  Irv.  S.  Gall.  1839.  Ev.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  &Sss.  9Tss.  comp 
1887.  N.  54SS.  Acta  hist  ccc.  1S3T.  p.  T98ss.  [Jones,  Biog.  Sketch  and  Sermons  of  Ed.  Irv.  Lond 
IS3Ö.  S.! 


CHAP.  V.    EVANO.  CIIUECII  TILL  1S53.    §  451.  IRVIXGITES.  WILDEXSPUCD.    550 

dox  and  pietistic  school  embraced  its  principles.  (••<)  Attaching  tlieinselves  to 
this  school,  the  angels  and  vice-angels  of  the  new  Church  founded  a  few 
chapels  in  Xorthcrn  Germany,  with  a  great  display  of  primitive  forms.  (One 
of  these  established  in  Berlin  was  closed  in  1851.)  Their  followers,  however, 
never  hesitated  to  receive  the  sacrament  in  the  established  churches,  on  the 
ground  that  their  general  Church  was  to  bo  gathered  from  all  existing 
eects.  (0  On  the  other  hand,  those  appeals  wliich  were  sometimes  heard  in 
a  few  Swedish  parishes  (1841-43)  among  the  young  people  of  both  sexes,  and 
even  among  children,  were  only  simple  and  often  atVecting  calls  to  repent- 
ance, pathetically  spoken  or  sung  in  the  Scriptural  language  of  the  Churtli. 
Those  who  were  about  to  utter  them  were  at  first  seized  witli  a  violent  i)ain 
in  their  heads  and  hearts,  accompanied  with  an  extreme  agony  on  account 
of  sin,  and  others  were  affected  in  a  similar  way  by  imitation  and  comnumi- 
cation  with  each  other.  But  with  the  exception  of  some  who  counterfeited 
these  things  by  imitation,  the  speaking  was  generally  involuntary,  and  the 
speakers  were  unconscious  of  what  they  uttered,  in  the  miilst  of  convulsions, 
faintings,  and  visions.  The  country -people  were  much  editied  by  such  scenes, 
and  took  offence  at  what  they  regarded  as  attempts  to  drive  away  the  Holy 
Ghost  (Joel  3,  Is)  by  medicines  for  the  body,  (m)  Although  in  other  places 
a  love  of  sin  was  sometimes  concealed  under  the  profession  of  extraordinary 
degrees  of  grace,  (')  there  are  no  instances  of  positive,  sanguinary  or  lascivi- 
ous excesses,  except  where  the  authors  of  them  jjassed  from  tliis  general  cLiss 
into  other  sects.  Margaretta  I'ctcr,  the  daughter  of  a  peasant  in  ]yil(Icns- 
jjuch^  of  the  canton  of  Zurich,  became  powerfully  excited  by  lier  intercourse 
with  persons  professedly  awakened,  and  by  tracts  of  an  entliusiastic  charac- 
ter, till,  in  her  anxiety  for  the  spiritual  salvation  of  tlie  world,  siie  looked 
forward  to  the  occurrence  of  extraordinary  events.  Her  intellectual  energy 
and  decision  of  character  induced  many  pious  persons  of  the  surrounding 
count r}^  to  honor  her  as  a  saint,  and  even  the  consequences  of  a  night  spent 
in  adultery  did  not  destroy  her  confidence  in  herself.  Tliis  feeling  of  her 
own  imftortance  induced  her  with  her  followers  to  contend  with  Satan,  by 
means  of  carnal  Aveapons,  to  have  her  own  believing  sister  slain,  and  with 
wonderful  heroism  to  have  herself  crucified,  according  to  what  she  deemed  a 
divine  command,  that  she  might  save  thousands  of  souls  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Christ  once  more  in  her  person  (1823).  ('/■)  It  was  rumored  \i\  Kun'Kjslntrfj 
that  two  clergymen,  who  j)rofossed  the  exclusive  kind  of  Christianity,  had 
introduced  sliaineless  mysteries  into  a  pietistic  circle.  The  legal  investigation, 
which  was  attended  with  great  difficulties  on  account  of  the  distinguished 
persons  accused  (after  1835),  brouglit  nothing  to  light,  except  that  sensual 

*)  ThUmch,  Vorlcss.  Ü.  Katli.  u.  Prot.  1946.  2  AMIi.  [h'Unff,  Tlilorscli.  (Stud.  \i.  Krlt  1S40.  11. 
1.)     G.  Ili-ic/i,  (1.  Irvingisni.  u.  g.  rd.  Clmrakt.r.  (IMd.  p.  19.Ss.s.)    Ev.  K.  Z.  Dec.  1S47.  ami  Jan.  1S4S.] 

t)  Ue.  (1.  Kiitlischliis^  Gottfsm.  (1.  Erdp.  SrliatVli.  Frkf.  184ös.  2  voK  J.  Ihnpei;  d.  Entrückung 
II.  ViTwiindl.  d.  leb<n<len  Htillc«'!!.  liil.  1S47.  ActonstQi-ko  d.  Minist  d.  twUtl.  .Vngileg.  Brl.  1S50.  p. 
945S.— Tlmliiok'.s  Lit.  Anz.  ISI'*.  N.  81.  l!rl.  K.  Z.  1SI9.  N.  8.3.  7S.  1850.  N.  l.S. 

«)  Dio  Pr.ili;rt  Krankh.  (wlih  tin-  Liter.  In  I'.nins.  liop.  1S45.  vul.  III.  ]>.  170.  iTOss.)  Ev.  K.  /* 
1S42.  N.  Gils.  Cf.  ISU!.  N.  \\)»s.  Hrl.  K.  Z.  1S47.  N.  Vi*. 

V)  Khi-lnw.  Ill  p.  1835.  vol.  X.  p.  45. 

v)  J.  I..  Meyfi;  fi-hwänn.  Greiu-lsctMu-n  In  Wlldcii.sp.  Zfir.  2  cd.  1S2-I.  A.  K.  Z.  Iy23.  N.  2S.  41a 
•  02.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S31.  N.  2G--S. 


560  MODERN  ClIUBCU  mSTORY.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1649-1S53. 

pa^Jsiona  had  l)ccn  cxctitcd  xinder  tho  forms  of  devotion,  in  order  to  regain  the 
innocence  of  tlio  orij^inal  Paradise.  It  also  appeared  that  tho  i)reacher  Ehcl 
(b.  1784),  as  the  highly  privileged  chief  nature,  had  exercised  a  despotic 
control  over  the  consciences  of  the  others,  and  that  the  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  their  faith  was  a  philosophic  fancy  produced  by  a  pious  but  eccentric 
being  named  Scltoenhcrr  (1771-1820),  respecting  the  origin  of  tho  universe 
from  the  mingling  of  two  primordial  beings  of  a  spiritual  and  sensuous  na- 
ture as  Eloalis.  (.i)  In  Saxony^  was  Stejjhen  (1777-1846),  the  pastor  of  a 
Bohemian  church  in  Dresden,  a  stranger  and  an  enemy  to  the  polite  litera- 
ture of  the  age,  but  familiar  with  the  Scriptures  and  the  old  Church  of 
Luther,  who  knew  well  how  to  excite  ordinary  minds  by  his  simple  and  im- 
pressive eloquence,  and  to  rule  them  with  keen  intelligence  and  firm  decision. 
He  became  a  centre  for  pietistic  Lutheranism,  at  that  time  new  in  this  region, 
but  propagated  there  by  means  of  young  clergymen  and  foreigners.  Wherever 
it  prevailed,  every  natural  bond  was  relaxed  for  its  exclusive  interest.  When 
the  government  (after  1830)  ceased  to  favor  this  class  of  persons,  and  Ste- 
phen found  himself  threatened  with  prosecution,  professing  to  speak  by  divine 
direction,  he  commanded  his  followers  to  leave  the  country,  as  they  could  not 
there  maintain  the  Lutheran  faith  in  its  purity,  nor  transmit  it  to  their  pos- 
terity. Most  of  the  clergymen  who  had  been  connected  with  his  society  now 
renounced  his  doctrines,  on  the  ground  that  they  were  identical  with  ancient 
Donatism,  and  enjoined  a  flying  from  the  cross.  Others  followed  Stephen 
with  about  six  hundred  members  of  their  congregations,  in  the  autumn  of 
1838,  from  what  they  considered  as  the  land  of  Egypt  to  North  America. 
"When  he  had,  as  their  bishop,  established  a  system  of  unlimited  despotism 
both  in  spiritual  and  secular  aflairs,  he  too  soon  gave  a  loose  rein  to  his  licen- 
tious passions.  No  sooner  was  his  scandalous  conduct  made  known  by  means 
of  women  who  had  fallen  or  been  abused  by  him,  than  his  government  was 
at  an  end.  After  his  deposition  and  expulsion  (May,  1839),  the  clergy  at- 
tempted to  seize  the  reins  of  power,  but  the  ideal  of  a  Wittenberg  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi had  become  nearly  effaced  from  their  minds,  and  the  better  class,  on 
witnessing  Stephen's  fall,  became  conscious  of  their  own  guilt.  They  firmly 
adhered  to  Lutheranism  as  the  only  true  form  of  Christianity,  and,  after  a 
long  period  of  distraction,  those  who  survived  formed  a  general  connection 
by  a  synod,  but  maintaine<l  a  bitter  controversy  with  those  clergymen  who 
were  exiles  for  the  same  faith,  {y) 

§  452.     Undecided  Controversies  letween  Old  and  Neic  Protestantism. 

The  controversj"  which  had  previously  been  maintained  principally  on 
scientific  principles,  and  with  an  acknowledgment  of  a  common  Christian 
ground  between  Rationalism  and  Supematuralism,  was  now  so  far  changed 

a-)  A.  K.  Z.  1835.  N.  177.  Ev.  K  Z.  1S86.  N.  10.  {A.  F.  r.  VTegnem)  ZuverL  Mitth.  ü.  Schonh. 
Leben  u.  Theo.'«,  sowie  ü.  d.  sectir.  Umtriebe  zu  Künigsb.  (Zeitsch.  t  bist  Tb.  1S33.  P.  2.)  Kngsb. 
1889. 

y)  Z.  P.  LütkemüUer,  Lehren  u.  Umtriebe d.  Stephanisten  Altenb.  1S-3S.  G.  PleUaner,  die Fanati 
ker  im  Muldenthale.  Altenb  1S39.  L.  Fisclier,  d.  falsche  Märtyrerth.  Lps.  1S39.  {c.  Polens)  Die  ötf. 
Meinung  u.  Sleph.  Ibid.  1S40.  C.  E.  Vehse,  d.  Stephansche  Auswanderung.  Drsd.  1S40.  Brl.  K. 
Z.  1S41.  N.  7.  33.  S6.  1S45.  N.  S5.    Hasse,  meissn.  KGe^cb.  Lps.  1S4T.  vol.  II.  p.  3S6.  410&S. 


CHAP    V.    EVAXG.  CHURCH  TILL  ISM.    §  452.  HAEMS.    CLAUSEX.  5G1 

that  it  was  carried  on  among  the  common  people,  and  was  a  contest  for  the 
very  existence  of  the  Church.  It  was  also  so  arranged,  that  on  one  side  were 
involved  many  principles  of  Christian  freedom,  and  on  tlie  other  those  of 
ecclesiastical  i)iety.  !Many  irrelevant  matters  were  introduced  into  the  de- 
bate. Tiic  Church  party  brouglit  forth  a  murderer,  who  confessed  that  his 
rationalism  had  been  the  occasion  of  his  crime ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  it 
was  obliged  to  hear  its  religious  conversions  ridiculed,  and  to  see  many  pain- 
ful things  in  the  domestic  life  of  its  members  held  up  to  pnblic  gaze,  (a)  The 
true  ground  of  the  contention,  however,  was  the  revolution  taking  place  in 
pnblic  feeling.  Even  a  liberal-minded  statesman  expressed  a  wish  "  that 
about  a  dozen  Rationalists  might  be  idaced  c.r(Ta  statinn  vocendiy  (J>)  On 
the  part  of  tlie  Rationalists,  a  new  symbol  had  been  brought  forward,  which 
the  orthodox  declared  to  be  inconsistent  with  a  standing  in  the  Church,  (c) 
1,  Claus  Harms  of  Kiel  (b.  1778),  an  imaginative,  popular  preacher  of  the 
old  ecclesiastical  school  of  piety,  and  endowed  with  a  remarkable  facility  of 
expression,  {d)  celebrated  the  Jubilee  of  the  Reformation  by  propounding 
ninety-five  new  theses,  in  which  the  doctrines  of  the  total  depravity  of  man 
and  the  indispensable  necessity  of  faith  were  maintained  in  opposition  to  the 
unbelief  and  rationalism  of  the  age.  The  various  forms  in  whicli  these  were 
opposed,  revealed  how  utterly  foreign  this  system  of  faith  was  to  the  temper 
of  the  age,  and  how  far  even  those  who  at  first  seemed  pleased  with  this 
attack  upon  the  contemporary  spirit  had  embraced  Pelagian  sentiments,  and 
were  estranged  from  the  doctrines  of  liUtlier.  The  power  of  the  orthodox 
party  became  gradually  established  in  Holstein,  and  its  adherents  found  con- 
solation in  tlie  Oath  of  17C4,  which  avowed  a  strict  adherence  to  the  original 
Confession  of  Augsburg,  while  the  more  liberal  interpreters  of  the  Scriptures 
appealed  to  the  Agenda  of  1797,  and  a  series  of  legal  enactments  put  forth 
since  that  time  in  dlie  same  spirit,  {e)  2.  In  Denmarl-,  the  new  Theology 
had  been  quietly  propagated,  when  Prof.  Clausen^  in  a  clear  and  learned 
work  upon  the  conflicting  opinions  prevailing  in  the  churches,  pointed  out 
the  spirit  of  Protestantism  as  tlie  proper  independent  development  of  the 
religious  spirit.  (/)  On  the  other  hand,  (rrundtviff,  a  man  of  a  poetical  tem- 
perament, well  versed  in  the  ancient  history  of  his  country,  violent  and  yet 
lil)eral  in  his  disposition,  in  the  name  of  the  Church  protested  against  the 
()ositions  taken  in  that  work,  and  maintained  that  Clausen  had  placed  himself 
at  the  head  of  all  those  avIio  were  hostile  to  the  word  of  God,  and  that  his 
Protestant  Churt'h  was  merely  a  self-constructed  castle  of  pleasure,  and  a 
temple  of  idols.  When  he  Avas  brought  before  the  civil  courts  to  answer  for 
these  assertions,  he  resigned  his  pastoral  oflRce,  and  was  condemned  for  libel 


a)  A.  K.  Z.  1S2S.  Lit  Bl.  N.  77.  Ev.  K.  Z.  ISW.  N.  100.  40.  (Ik'riclit  ü.  d.  Umtriebe  d.  Frümni- 
aor.  In  Halle.  Altcnb.  1830.) 

h)  Freili.  v.  Stein  an  Ga?orn.  Stuttg.  ISiM.  p.  804.  81.\  840. 

c)  üöhr,  Grund-  u.  Glaiibens-Sütze  d.  ov.  prot  K.  Ncii.^t  (1882.)  8  ed.  1P4.8. 

d)  Stud.  u.  Krlt  IS*?.  P.  8.    A'.  Harms,  Lobcnsbpsclir.  v.  llini  üclbiT.  Kiel,  ISni. 

e)  Schrödter,  Archiv  d.  Harmsclien  Tlicson.  Alton.  l^H.  Kv.  K.  Z.  1S29.  N.  60.  SO.-w.— /te</iO«r 
K.  u.  Scliulbl:itt  s.  1'i44.  NonMeut^clio  Mimat.'sschr.  zur  Fördcr.  d.  freien  Protestant  8.  1845.  Comp. 
•<5iTl.  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  10:i.    Ev.  K.  Z.  1840.  N.  22. 

f)  KathoUcisiii.  og  Protest  Kirkeforfenln^,  Lüre  og  Kitus.  Kjobcnli.  1825.  8  vols,  {\bcra.  v.  Frie». 
Neust.  19-2SS.  3  vols. 

36 


502  MttDKKN  CIHIUII   IIISTOUV.     I'EU.  VI.     A.  I).  1C4S-1%M. 

(1826).  Tlie  oricntulist  Lindbcnj  accused  Clausen  of  tlie  violation  ol'  his 
ordiiiiitioii  vows,  and  held  every  person  responsible  for  tbe  consequences 
"  who  were  witnesses  of  the  cornii)ting  influence,  without  opposition  to  it." 
For  tills  ho  was  accused  of  an  attempt  to  excite  discontent  against  tlie  gov- 
ernuiont,  ])ut  was  acquitted  in  the  courts  of  justice  (1830).  Although  this 
party  ohtained  but  little  public  favor,  it  was  much  promoted  by  the  holding 
of  conventicles,  and  at  last  Grundtvig  received  permission  to  hold  ser- 
vices for  divine  worship  (1832).  A  leader  of  the  opposition  in  the  Diet  then 
endeavored  by  some  liberal  means  to  get  the  control  of  this  churcli  of  the 
poojjle  for  himself  alone,  and  vented  his  rage  against  every  thing  of  German 
origin,  ((j)  8.  In  an  academic  disjjutation  at  Leipsic,  it  was  asserted  that  the 
Rationalists  were  actually  dismissed  from  the  Church.  This  assertion  wag 
afterwards  modified,  and  it  was  said  that  they  were  bound  in  conscience 
voluntarily  to  leave  the  Church,  but  in  the  replies  it  called  forth,  oven  this 
was  shown  to  be  inconsistent  with  Protestantism  and  with  Christianity 
itself.  (//)  But  the  object  of  its  authors  was  more  perfectly  discovered  by 
an  article  in  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal,  in  which  Gesenius,  the  distin- 
guished founder  of  the  modern  school  of  oriental  literature  in  Germany,  and 
Wegscheidcr,  were  denounced  for  ridiculing  Christianity,  and  for  perverting 
the  minds  of  the  youth.  Though  this  article  was  evidently  designed  to 
induce  the  civil  authorities  to  interfere  in  the  case,  nothing  but  an  admoni- 
tion addressed  to  public  teachers  in  general  was  ever  put  forth  from  that 
quarter,  and  not  only  the  assailed  professors,  but  the  most  highly  esteemed 
writers  and  speakers  in  behalf  of  nearly  the  whole  body  of  Protestant 
divines,  protested  against  such  a  turn  of  the  controversy,  and  advocated  the 
freedom  of  scientific  discussion.  On  the  part  of  those  who  had  raised  the 
complaint,  it  was  said  that  the  freedom  of  instruction  claimed  was  nothing 
but  oppression,  when  its  bearing  upon  the  congregations  was  regarded,  and 
that  the  Church  could  not  endure  that  its  future  pastors  should  be  taught  the 
very  reverse  of  what  they  were  afterwards  bound  to  preach,  (i)  4.  In  He«se- 
Cassel,  the  orthodox  party  lost  its  political  support  when  the  ministry  of 
Hassenpflug  was  overthrown.  When  the  government,  in  concert  with  the 
consistories,  imposed  upon  ministers  about  to  be  settled  the  obligation  to  con- 
form themselves  to  the  Scriptures,  "  with  a  conscientious  regard  to  the  au- 
thorized standards  of  faith"  (1838),  a  learned  and  practical  jurist  came  for- 
ward at  the  bead  of  a  party,  demanding  the  very  reverse.  To  save  the  unity 
and  even  the  legal  existence  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  which  he  believed 
would  be  endangered  by  an  arbitrary  change  in  the  existing  law,  TlicJcell  de- 
manded that  an  authentic  inter{)rctatioü  should  be  given,  according  to  which 


0)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1827.  N.  51s.  1S2S.  N.  55s.  1S30.  N.  9Tss.  104.  1S31.  N.  69ss.  1S82.  N.  49ss.  A.  K.  Z. 
18'2S.  N.  193.  1S30.  N.  -19.  1S31.  N.  4'2s?.  1S32.  Lit  B!.  N.  101.  1S34.  N.  111.  Stud.  u.  KriL  1S34.  P.  4 
p.  995SS.    liudelhach  in  d.  Zeitsch.  f.  luth.  Tlicol.  1S41.  V.  1.— Bri.  K.  Z.  1S45.  N.  CO. 

h)  iruUn  :  de  rationalismi  veraindole.  Lps.  1S2".  And.  ev.  K.  zunächst  in  Preussen  u.  Sachsen.  Lps 
1S2T.  (  Vulkmann)  Der  Kationalist  kein  ev.  Christ  L.  1S2S.— (//<ise)  Die  Lcii>z.  Di.-pntation.  Lps.  1S27. 
AVmi7,  phil.  Gutichtcn  in  Saclisen  d.  Hat  n.  Supern.  Lps.  1S27.  {Clemen)  Licht  u.  Sch.itteii.  Lps.  1S27 

i)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S30.  X.  5s.  15.  ISs.  »4.  54s.  59.  C9.  S4ss.  94s.  A.  K.  Z.  1S31.  N.  9.  Vota  by  Bret- 
^••hnoider,  Noandor,  rilmann,  Scliott  B.  Crusin.s,  SrliuUz,  Clin.  tL  a.  On  the  other  side:  Rudel- 
Kttch,  d.  ^■'e'^eu  d.  r.aliont*.  Lps.  IS^yj. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIUKCII  TILL  l>i3.     §  «2.  ALTENBUEG.    HAMDURG.    5G3 

«lie  authorized  confessions  should  be  acknowledged  to  be  in  substance  the 
Blandard  of  doctrine.    Ilcnlcel  declared  that  the  Aufjustana  was  as  authorita- 
tive as  the  Carolina^  and  api)ealed  to  an  assembly  of  his  fellow-citizens  (Aug. 
14,  1839),  which  presented  a  petition  to  the  electoral  princes,  praying  for 
some  explanation  which  sliould  tran'iuillize  the  public  mind,  and  lor  the  con- 
vocation of  a  ,c;eneral  synod.   By  these  means  they  hoped  that  all  authoritative 
creeds  might  be  abolished,  that  the  doctrines  preached  by  the  clergy  might 
be  made  negatively  dependent  upon  the  will  of  their  congregations,  and  that 
all  parochial  compulsion  in  these  matters  might  be  taken  away.     But  not 
only  the  views  of  the  government,  but  the  sentiments  of  the  peojile  were 
opposed  to  both  these  demands,     "When  Ilassonpflug  undertook  the  re-estab- 
lishment of  Old  Ilessia  (1850),  the  ancient  form  of  oath  was  introduced,  and 
every  thing  received  the  precise  ecclesiastical  coloring  of  the  old  Covenant 
of  Fidelity  (Trcubunds-Farbung),  {l)     5.  In  Saxe  Altenlunj^  a  Consistorial 
rescript  was  addressed  (Nov.  13,  1838)  to  the  Ephori  of  Ronneburg,  in  which 
the  emigration  under  Stephen  was  traced  to  the  dissatisfaction  produced  by 
an  unauthorized  mode  of  performing  parochial  dutie^  and  the  preachers  were 
admonished  to  instruct  their  people  in  the  essential  and  fundaraental  doc- 
trines of  Christianity.     The  explanation  of  this  document  by  persons  from 
without,  provoked  the  patriotic  spirits  of  a  few  clergymen  to  a  lively  oppo- 
sition.   The  opinions  of  four  theological  faculties  were  eolicited  by  the  gov- 
ernment, with  regard  to  the  conduct  of  the  consistory  and  its  opponents, 
Tlie  only  reply  favorable  to  a  rigidly  orthodox  sense  was  sent  by  the  faculty 
of  Ijorlin,  and  even  that  body  was  by  no  means  unanimous.     As  these  opin- 
ions were  published  with  a  noble  confidence  by  the  government,  and  every 
attempt  at  legal  proceedings  on  the  subject  was  suppressed,  the  minds  of  the 
people  were  tranquillized.  (/)     ß.  in  J[(unhiirg,  an  excitement  was  created  by 
an  attack  by  some  Pietists  in  a  literary  publication  upon  what  was  called  the 
[)rctended  Christian  life  of  the  mullilude,  and  upon  Rationalism,  which  was 
denominated  a  snake  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  (183'J).    AVhen  two  candidates 
presented  tlieinselves,  and  an  opportunity  was  thus  given  for  an  attack,  the 
yiarty  favorable  to  the  old  faith  used  all  the  means  which  could  be  employed 
ill  a  free  state  to  procure  their  rejection,  on  the  ground  that  they  had  vio- 
lated their  oaths.    But  when  they  declared  that  they  would,  as  hitherto,  con- 
fiirm  according  to  their  conscientious  convictions  to  the  Bible  and  the  Cate- 
chism, both  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  authorities  were  satisfied,  since  it 
could  not  be  denied  that  the  usage  of  a  half  century  was  in  opposition  to  the 
legal  authority  of  the  symbolical  books.     One  pielistic  candidate  was  sus- 
pended until  he  should  jileilge  himself  to  observe  in  future  the  respect  duo  to 
the  ecclesiastical  ministry,  and  which  had  been  disregarded  in  the  course  of 


;.)  J.  W  mckell,  Q.  (I.  Verplllclit  d.  GcWl.  ii.  d.  (■yiiib.  Schrr.  On.«.-«.  (1S«0.)  lS4n.  On  tlio  otiicr 
fide:  A',  r.  nnyrlioffr  \n  2  kT\U  licleiulitiinpcn.  Lps.  1S:?9.  W.  If.  Meiner,  v.  Wort  ü.  Lclirfrclli. 
in  d.  ev.  K.  Ciuss.  18:!'.'. —  W.  Vilmiir,  d.  Kiirlii-,«?.  K.  Kns».  1S^5.  W.  ^fünncher,  Go-sch.  d.  hess,  rof- 
K.  Ciuss.  1S50.  Url.  K.  Z.  ISil.  N.  47. 

/)  Borl  K.  Z.  is:».  N.  Is.  81.  C.  H:  KlöUner,  z.  ElirmrotUinR  c  vcninirllmplten  clirlsll.  GI. 
J.  rredi?t\v«-isp.  Lps.  18:59.  J.  Sihwlerof,  an  den  II.  Dr.  Ho.H'kloi  in  Altonb.  Lp.s.  l-!j',a.  lUdonkon 
;1.  Itifol.  Face.  Jenn,  Bcrl.  Giitt  ii.  Hcidolli.  Xi-bst  Acton^tQcken.  Altonti.  ls.^9.  Paiilu«,  MoHv.  Gut. 
Odilen.  Mannli.  1S:39.     C.  VHiiKinii,  d.  Allenb.  Angolcgonli.  (Stud.  u.  Krlt  ISJO.  I'.  2.) 


Söl  MODKRN  CirURCII  niSTORV.    PEIi.  VI.    A.  D.  1CJS-1S53. 

this  controversy.  (/«)  On  tlie  other  hand,  in  Bremen,  whon  the  younger 
Kniminnchcr,  in  tlio  fervency  of  liis  zeal  against  those  whom  lie  called  the 
priesfH  of  Baal,  pronounced  the  apostle's  curse  (Gal.  1,  8)  upon  the  whole 
anticliristian  sjjirit  of  the  ago,  although  the  liheral  Protestantism  rigidly 
pt'ourod  its  rights  against  a  now  j)riestly  and  Jewish  system,  the  majority  of 
the  clergy  in  the  city  and  country,  to  distinguish  themselves  from  such  as 
they  regarded  as  unbelievers  in  Cliristianity,  formed  an  orthodox  confession 
(1840).  («)  When  the  Reformed  congregation  at  Liebfrauen,  during  the 
spring-tide  of  popular  feeling  in  1848,  and  in  a  popular  election  without  the 
ordinary  established  forms,  called  Dulon  of  Magdeburg  to  become  its  pastor, 
and  when  ho  was  installed  without  pledging  himself  to  any  creed,  the  char- 
acter of  the  candidate  {o)  and  the  object  of  the  congregation  could  no  longer 
bo  concealed.  The  old  priest-church  was  derided  as  a  corpse,  from  whose 
grave  alone  new  life  could  be  expected,  and  the  faith  of  their  forefathers  was 
estimated  only  in  the  light  of  circumstances  the  reverse  of  what  originally 
existed.  A  small  amount  of  intelligence,  and  a  popular  style  of  eloquence, 
were  sufficient  to  enable  such  a  man  to  become  a  religious  demagogue,  who 
professed  to  preach  a  Christianity  which  knew  no  vulgar  class,  and  whoso 
apotheosis  he  completed,  and  whose  holiest  service  he  performed,  when  lie 
endeavored  to  inspire  men  with  a  burning  hatred  to  despotism,  and  to  enlist 
them  in  an  enthusiastic  struggle  for  a  free  state,  a  secular  redemption,  in 
which  every  enjoyment  of  life  might  be  shared  by  all.  {p)  An  accusation 
was  preferred  against  him  (April,  1851)  by  twenty-three  members  of  his  con- 
gi'egation,  who  demanded  that  the  Church  should  be  protected  against  him 
as  an  enemy  to  Christianity.  Dulon  denied  that  the  Senate,  which  in  similar 
circumstances  (1845)  had  decided  that  a  preacher  should  never  venture  in 
his  public  instructions  beyond  the  degree  of  intelligence  which  prevailed 
among  his  people,  had  any  right  to  interfere  in  theological  controversies.  He 
alleged  that,  according  to  the  Constitution  of  1849,  and  the  laws  of  the  Re- 
formed Church,  in  which  no  obligation  to  a  particular  creed  was  required,  a 
pastor  was  responsible  only  to  his  congregation,  and  that  the  great  majority 
of  his  people  were  opposed  to  the  accusation.  (7)  The  Senate  applied  to  the 
theological  faculty  of  Heidelberg  for  an  opinion  upon  the  case,  and  whea  this 
sustained  the  accusation,  (?•)  Dulon  was  deposed  (April,  1852),  on  the  ground 

m)  Kheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXVII.  p.  236ss.  XXXV.  ISSss.  Ev.  K.  Z.  13-39.  X.  6Ss.  ST.  1S40.  X.  14s. 
51s.  A.  K.  Z.  1840.  p.  66.  M.  U.  IlmJticalJcet',  Protest  in  Veranlassung  d.  neuesten  kirehl.  Ereign. 
in  ITanib.  limb.  1S39.   //.  SMeiden.  A.  prot.  K.  u.  d.  synib.  R  zunächst  in  Bez.  a.  llamb.  limb.  1S40. 

n)  Berl.  K.  Z.  1S40.  N.  76.  82.  85.  91.  F.  W.  Krummacher  :  Paulus  kein  Mann  nach  d.  Sinne 
unserer  Zeit  2  ed.  Brem.  1840.  Thool.  Eeplik  an  Panlel.  Elbrf.  1S40.  Der  Scheinheil.  Kationalism. 
VDr  d.  Eichterstuble  d.  II.  S.  Ibid.  1841.  J.  GUde)neUter,  Blendwerke  d.  vulgaren  Eational.  z.  Be- 
leltlgung  d.  Paul.  Anathema.  Berl.  1841.— J".  W.  Paniel:  3  Sontagspr.  2  ed.  Berl.  1S40.  Unver- 
holene Beurth.  d.  sogen.  theoL  Eeplik.  Berl.  1840.  W.  E.  Weher,  die  Verfluchungen.  2  ed.  Berl. 
1S40.  Bremisches  Magazin  f.  ev.  Wahrh.  v.  Paniel,  Eothe,  Weber.  ISllss.  8  P. — Bekenntniss  Brem. 
I'.istorcn  in  Sachsen  d.  Wahrh.  Berl.  1840.  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XLIL  p.  97.  Mallet,  fhr  Stephaul 
Gemeinde.  Br.  1850. 

o)  Ji.  Dillon,  d.  Geltung  d.  Bekenntnisschr.  in  d.  ref.  K.  Magdeb.  1S47. 

p)  Vom  Kampfe  d.  Vulkerfreih.  e.  Lehrb.  fürs  deutsche  Volk.  Br.  1849s.  2  U.  5  ed.  ISÖl.  Die  re£ 
K.,  11.  Mallet  u.  Ich.  Br.  (1850.)  1851.    Der  Wecker,  ein  Sonntagsbl.  s.  Sept  1850. 

g)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  S4.  45.  59. 

r)  Gutachten  d.  thcol.  Fak.  d.  Univ.  Ilcidelb.  ü.  Dulon.  with  Praef.  by  Schankei.  Heidelb.  1552 

tue  other  side :  Dulov,  d.  Gutachten  d.  vier.  heid.  Theologen.  Br.  1852. 


CnAP.  Y.    EVAXG.  CHUIICII  TILL  1S53.    §  452.  DULON.    SINTENIS.  565 

that  his  course  led  to  agitation,  and  Avas  dangerous  to  public  safety,  and  he 
was  forbidden  the  performance  of  any  duties  as  a  preacher  or  an  instructor 
within  the  bounds  of  the  republic.  (•'<)  Even  if  this  proceeding  be  regarded 
as  of  questionable  propriety  according  to  the  legal  ordinances  then  in 
force,  (^)  it  was  certainly  the  natund  result  of  the  revolution  which  had  then 
taken  place  in  public  alfairs.  7.  In  M(t(/Jebur(/,  when  a  work  of  art  was  ex- 
hibited, Sinteiiiti^  the  pastor  of  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  maintained  in 
a  public  journal  that  the  worship  of  Christ  was  a  superstition  not  taught  in 
the  gospels  (1840).  This  was  generally  regarded  as  a  gross  impropriety,  but 
a  few  distinguished  persons  in  their  zeal  denounced  it  in  the  pulpit  as  a  trea- 
son against  the  Church.  When  the  consistory  required  that  Sintenis  should 
acknowledge  his  views  to  be  inconsistent  with  his  office  in  the  Church,  and 
promise  that  he  would  in  future  preach  nothing  which  should  not,  as  far  a* 
he  could  ascertain  from  the  authorized  creeds,  be  consistent  with  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Bible,  under  penalty  of  a  suspension  from  his  office,  the  city 
thought  that  Protestant  freedom  of  instruction  was  impaired,  and  that  the 
whole  was  intended  to  place  exclusive  power  in  the  hands  of  the  pietistic 
party.  Tlie  ecclesiastical  suj)erintendents  and  the  magistrates  therefore 
brought  a  complaint  against  the  consistory  before  the  Bureau  of  Public  "Wor- 
ship, on  the  ground  that  it  had  treated  human  enactments  as  if  they  were  of 
equal  authority  with  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and  that  consequently  the  Pro- 
testantism of  Magdeburg,  once  so  dearly  purchased,  was  in  peril.  But  when 
this  department  censured  the  conduct  of  Sintenis  as  a  pastoral  indiscretion, 
and  admonished  those  who  were  zealous  for  orthodoxy  to  abstain  from  everj' 
tiling  inconsistent  with  existing  rules,  the  excitement  was  allayed,  (w) — In 
all  parts  of  Germany  it  was  only  needful  that  some  iiiHammatory  word 
should  be  ottered  to  produce  a  local  explosion.  The  old  Protestantism  in  its 
renovated  form,  had  in  its  favor  the  written  law,  the  religious  enthusiasm  of 
the  people,  and  sometimes  also  the  protection  of  eminent  civil  authorities, 
while  the  new  Protestantism  had  the  usages  of  almost  a  century,  the  mod- 
ern improvements  in  science,  the  revolutionary  principles  started  at  the 
Reformation,  and  generally,  where  freedom  of  conscience  was  threatened,  the 
masses  of  the  third  estate,  who  rose  in  defence  of  such  freedom.  The  ortho- 
dox style  of  preaching  had  become  so  strange  in  particular  cities,  that  some 
pastors  who  used  it  fell  out  with  their  congregations  and  were  dismissed  from 
them,  (/•)  and  sometimes  a  city  otherwise  diligent  in  the  [iractice  of  religion 
and  in  its  works  of  charity,  jirotested  in  a  legal  form  against  tlie  Apostles' 
Creed,  on  account  of  its  antiquated  character,  (ir)     In  the  principality  of 

k)  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  20.  21.  A.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  70. 

0  Dittenherger,  Votum  In  d.  tlicol.  Fiic.  d.  U.  IlclJclb.  ü.  D.  IMlb.  1S5-2.  On  the  oilier  side: 
Schenkel,  d.  Scliutzpfliclit  d.  Stajits  pegcn  <1.  ev.  K.  lleldelb.  1852. 

w)  Ev.  K.  Z.  IS*).  N.  2118.  43.  54s.  GTs.  A.  K.  Z.  1S40.  N.  Cls,'^  (Theunf)  Urkunden  ü.  d.  Ver- 
fnliren  d.  Consist,  zu  Ma^iL  gegen  Sintenis,  v.  e.  Frenmlo  d.  W.ilirlielt  Lps.  1S40.  Mittlieilunfren  ü.  d. 
Veranl.  iL  liirclil.  Aufrcg.  zu  M;ip<L  DarinsL  1S41. — Der  Blscliof  DriLiokc  u.  s,  actjübr.  Wirken  Im 
Treuss.  Staat,  v.  G.  v.  C.  {Kimig.)  Borgen.  lS4a 

v)  Tlwlucl;  Liter.  Anzeiger.  1S35.  N.  47.  Acta  liist  ecc  1SS5.  p.  441?9.  Ehelnw.  Rep.  vol.  V. 
p.  129s^!.  vol.  XVIII.  p.  2*ss.  laiss. 

%c)  Brl.  KZ.  1S44.  N.  2S.  1S45.  X.  23.  Ev.  KZ.  IS«.  N.  40.  54  RudelbacK  ü.  d.  Bedeut  d.  Ap 
Syinb.  Mit  Bez.  a.  (I.  Leipziger  Confestlonswirren.  Hal.  1S44. 


5GG  MODKKN  ciiuucn  nisTOi:v.   per.  vi.   a.  d.  kb-im.?. 

Lippe,  five  prcnclicr?,  -wlio  had  (Icmanded  the  re-introdiiction  of  tho  Heidel- 
berg Catechism,  instead  of  tho  liberal  catechism  which  had  been  used  fur  a 
pcnoration  past,  and  had  protested  (1844)  against  the  spurious  official  oath 
respecting  tlie  creed  -which  had  for  some  time  been  publicly  administered, 
and  against  the  limitation  of  tho  ecclesiastical  power  of  the  keys,  wore  suni- 
jnoned  l)efore  tho  consistory  as  ecclesiastical  demagogues,  and  after  hnmblin'^ 
themselves,  they  Averc  admonished  carefully  to  observe  tho  regulations  of  the 
Church.  Private  members  were  also  informed  that  it  did  not  belong  to 
them,  with  their  limited  knowledge  of  such  subjects,  to  give  a  Judgment 
respecting  them,  (.r) 

§  453.     Prussia,  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  till  1840.     Cont.  from  §  414. 

J.  Jacobson,  Gesch.  d.  Quellen  d.  ev.  KReclits  d.  Prov.  rrcii-sscn  n.  Tos.  Ki'inipsb.  1800. 
r.  Mühler,  Gesch.  d.  ev.  KVerf.  d.  Mark  Brandenb.  Weim.  ISiG.—Jiöckel,  Irencon.  Brl.  182188.  2 
vols.  K.  F.  Gaupp,  d.  Union  d.  deutschen  K.  Brsl.  1S43.  K.  Semisch,  ü.  d.  Unionsversuche  bes.  In 
Treussen.  Greifsw.  1852.    C.  J.  Kitzsch,  Urkundenb.  d.  ev.  Union.  Bonn.  1803. 

Under  Frederic  II.,  Prussia  had  become,  in  consequence  of  its  natural 
position,  the  most  prominent  of  the  Protestant  powers.  Frederic  William 
II.  (1797-1840),  having  found  consolation  under  his  severe  losses  in  the  sta- 
ble word  of  God,  wished,  after  his  government  had  become  re-established, 
and  he  had  become  rather  jealous  of  its  free  development,  that  the  Church 
might  be  thoroughly  regenerated.  Though  he  felt  some  dislike  to  the  unsta- 
ble character  of  Protestant  freedom,  and  especially  to  the  high-wrought  spirit 
of  Pietism,  he  was  sincerely  attached  to  Luther's  honest  and  steadfast  faith, 
and  with  pious  conscientiousness,  under  the  influence  of  the  writings  of  the 
reformers,  sometimes  conducted  the  affairs  of  tho  Church  with  his  own 
hands.  He  was,  however,  generally  assisted  by  the  gentle  Altenstcin,  his 
minister  for  public  worship,  with  whose  preferences  for  the  Hegelian  phi- 
losophy in  the  Church  and  in  the  schools  he  was  often  displeased,  but  whom 
he  never  would  quite  abandon.  (</)  When  the  civil  power  had  absorbed  aD 
authorities  peculiarly  ecclesiastical  (1809),  the  king  established  (1817)  pro- 
vincial consistories,  whose  duties  were  confined  to  matters  exclusively  spirit- 
ual, and  did  not  include  the  location  of  clergymen ;  district  and  provincial 
synods,  composed  only  of  clergymen,  and  restricted  within  a  narrow  circle 
of  duties,  but  intended  to  be  an  introduction  to  an  imperial  synod ;  (b)  and  a 
ministry  for  public  worship,  which  was  to  be  the  organ  through  which  the  royal 
authority  was  exercised  over  the  Church.  The  oath  which  the  clergymen 
were  to  take,  bound  them  to  be  the  servants  of  the  state  as  Avell  as  of  the 
Church.  As  Protestantism  gradually  developed  itself,  the  contrast  between 
:be  two  Churches  became  less  and  less  prominent  before  the  minds  of  the 
people,  and  other  antagonisms  of  far  greater  importance  than  those  between 
Luther  and  Zwingle  appeared  in  each.     Hence,  when  tho  king  sent  forth  a 

a)  Urkunden  i.  Beurth.  d.  klrchl.  Verh.  im  F.  Lippe.  Lps.  1545.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1842.  N.  WX  1843.  >\ 
23.  87.  72.  1S44  N.  12.  65.  1845.  N.  30ss.  92.  1S46.  X.  9s.  33.  53.  "Ts.  97.  1S51.  X.  75s. 

fi)  EyltrU  Characterzüge  a.  d.  Leben  Fried.  Wilh.  IIL  Magdeb,  1843-6.  esp.  3.  vol.  [Life  and 
Opinions  of  Fred.  Will.  HI.  from  the  Germ,  of  Eyiert,  by  J.  Hirch,  Lend.  1844.  8.] 

I)  Acts  In  Wachler,  Iheol.  Nachrichten  1817.  ScM^iennacher,  ü.  d.  einzuricht  SynoJalverf 
Brl.  15;17.    A.  KZ.  182S.  X.  44. 


CHAP.  T.    EVAXG.  CHURCH  TILL  1653.    §  453.  PRUSSIA.    UNION.  567 

call  for  a  voluntary  union  at  the  Jnbilee  of  the  Reformation,  ('•)  tlie  union  of 
an  eTangclioal  Church  fell  into  his  hands  as  the  ripe  fruit  of  the  age.  No 
attempt  to  produce  uniformity  hy  artificial  creeds  was  therefore  necessary. 
On  the  one  hand,  an  internal  union  was  etlected  by  the  conviction  that  those 
controversies  ■which  had  now  ceased,  or  which  still  continued,  were  not 
incon-sistent  with  Christian  love  and  fellowship ;  and  on  tlie  other,  all  that 
was  needful  to  an  external  union  was  accomjilished  by  an  agreement  respect- 
ing a  constitution,  church  property,  and  ordinary  usage?.  It  was  also  con- 
cluded that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  bo  celebrated  in  the  manner  proposed 
by  the  Synod  of  Berlin,  by  a  mere  breaking  of  the  bread  and  a  faithful  reci- 
tation of  the  words  used  in  the  original  Institut  »n.  But  while  this  Avork 
was  in  process  of  cheerful  accomplishment  in  the  several  ecclesiastical  corpo- 
rations, sometimes  by  public  enactments  and  sometimes  as  tlie  government 
directed,  by  a  ])ractical  acceptance  of  the  breaking  of  bread  and  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  tlie  authorities  of  the  united  Cliurch,  it  was  considerably 
disturbed  by  the  introduction  of  tlie  Agenda.  The  development  which  had 
taken  place  in  the  principles  of  Protesüintism,  and  the  modes  of  speech 
occasioned  by  the  new  scientific  and  literary  education  of  the  people,  ren- 
dered some  alteration  of  the  language  of  the  Church  indispensable.  New 
liturgies  were  tlierefore  introduced  into  some  established  churches  without 
attracting  much  attention.  A  common  f(.)rm  of  worship  seemed  to  become 
necessary  by  the  union.  Tlie  theological  commission  apjiointod  for  compos- 
ing such  an  instrument  in  Prussia  accomplished  nothing.  The  king  then  pub- 
lished an  Agenda  which  had  been  adopted  by  his  cabinet  (1822)  for  the  use 
of  the  court  church,  gave  orders  that  it  slreuld  be  introduced  into  the  garri- 
son churches  of  his  kingdom,  and  recommended  it  to  all  the  congregations 
of  the  realm,  instead  of  the  conflicting  and  arbitrary  forms  which  had  pre- 
viously been  used  in  the  diflerent  provinces,  (il)  Objections  against  it  were 
urged  by  some  who  fancied  that  it  partook  too  much  of  an  old  ecclesiastical, 
and  even  of  a  Catholic  spirit,  and  by  others  who  complained  that  it  was  not 
sufficiently  orthodox,  and  was  too  much  reformed.  Some,  also,  were  displeased 
with  a  heterogeneous  pohtical  element  which  they  discovered  in  it.  But  no 
general  opi)osition  to  it  (t)  was  apparent  until  the  government  took  some 
steps  to  draw  over  the  churches  by  various  temptations  or  by  coercion,  and 
some  authors  contended  that  a  strict  conformity  to  the  liturgy  should  be  re- 
quired by  a  law  on  the  territorial  system.  (/')  In  the  midst  of  this  confusion 
no  synodal  constitution  was  carried  into  etl'ect,  for  even  the  victorious  politi- 
cal party  took  no  pleasure  in  a  measure  which  so  forcibly  reminded  them  of 
the  promised  representative  system.  It  was  only  in  Westphalia  and  the 
Rhenish  provinces  that  a  synodal  form  on  the  basis  of  ancient  usages  was 
introduced  (1835),  but  even  there  the  system  left  as  much  to  bo  desired  as  it 


c)  Si-pt  27,  lSt7,  In  KitzHcti,  p.  125s. 

</)  Klrclien-ARonds  f.  (L  proL  Ilof-  ii.  Doiiik.  In  IJorl.  lirl.  and  oft    A.  KZ.  li».'.  N.  17.  03. 

«)  (Scfileiermiicher)  Ue.  (L  lit.  Iloclit  ev.  IjinUi-sfürstün,  v.  Paclf.  Sinuurus.  GotL  1S24.  Acten* 
•tückc,  betr.  d.  Pr.  K.  A.  ckI.  by  FuUX;  Kiel,  1S27. 

/)  Atigu-sti  Kritik  d.  Preui>s.  A.  Krkf.  1S2.3.  and  Krkliir.  ü.  d.  MnJestfitsrecht  in  klrclil.  Dingen.  F. 
1S25.  ni.  Naelitr.  IJonn.  1V2C.  Jf<irfifiiifi.-f,  fi.  d.  \v.-ilirc  Stelle  d.  lit.  Üeebts,  15rl.  1^25.  C.  F.  V 
Amnion,  d.  KiiifTili.  d.  l!rl.  A.  gescliiclitl.  u.  kircbl.  beleuchtet  Drsd.  1825. 


5G8  MODERN  CHURCH  IIISTOKV.     TKIl.  YI.    A.  D.  164*-lSWi. 

nctiinlly  fulfilled.  (.'/)  Tlio  appointment  of  general  Bnpc-rintendfnts  (1820). 
with  nu'atis  at  coininariil  fur  u  very  extensive  sphere  of  personal  influence, 
was  looked  npon  as  a  restoration  of  the  titular  bishops  to  their  former  pre- 
lutical  jjosition,  and  lienco  as  the  commencement  of  a  Protestant  episcc> 
pacy.  (A)  The  king  showed  a  great  predilection  for  the  Agenda  as  a  work 
of  his  own,  and  he  even  wrote  a  very  modest  defence  of  it  with  his  own 
hand.  (/)  JJut  this  difficult  controversy  was  finally  settled  princij)ally  by  an 
arrangement  proi)osed  by  the  Bishop  Xcandcr,  according  to  which  a  new- 
revision  of  the  liturgy  was  to  bo  made  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  with 
special  reference  to  the  most  important  objections  (1829).  As  this  presented 
to  the  worshippers  a  choice  of  several  forms,  and  paid  respect  to  provincial 
usages,  and  as  the  rights  of  the  Church  were  preserved  and  were  c'uly  hon- 
oi'ed  by  the  government,  it  was  accepted  ■without  difficulty.  Accordingly, 
since  1830,  the  Agenda  has  possessed  the  authority  of  law,  and  but  one  evan- 
gelical national  Church  has  been  known  in  Pruasia.  {!,)  In  all  the  other  estab- 
lished churches  of  Germany  the  royal  ai)peal  was  favorably  received,  and  Wi.s 
carried  into  execution  by  means  of  enactments  in  the  synods  or  the  congrega- 
tions. In  Nassau  (1817),  this  was  accomplished  by  a  formal  recognition  of  a 
previous  unanimity  between  the  two  parties  in  the  essential  articles  of  their 
creeds.  (/)  la  Bavaria  on  the  lihine^  it  was  effected  (1818)  by  a  general  vote 
on  an  edict  which  proposed  that  the  evangelical  Church  should  properly 
respect  the  symbolical  books  containing  the  ordinary  Protestant  confessions, 
but  should  have  no  authoritative  rule  of  faith  but  the  Holy  Scriptures.  In 
Baden ^  the  same  result  was  secured  by  declaring  (1821)  that  the  Augsburg 
Confession,  together  with  the  Lutheran  and  Heidelberg  Catechisms,  should 
be  regarded  as  an  authoritative  rule  of  faith  only  as  far  as  a  free  investigation 
should  discover  their  consistency  with  the  Scriptures,  the  only  sure  source  of 
Christian  truth,  and  as  far  as  the  pure  principles  of  evangelical  Protestantism 
were  fouud  in  them.  It  was  also  agreed  that  the  Lord's  Supper  should  be 
celebrated  there  in  the  form  which  had  been  accepted  by  Melancthon  (p. 
407).  {ui)  Wherever  the  union  was  not  then  effected,  it  was  on  account  of 
some  local  difficulties  in  the  respective  congregations.  In  those  national 
churches  within  the  bounds  of  which,  very  little  more  than  a  single  Pro- 
testant Church  existed,  as  e.  g.,  the  Lutherans  in  the  states  of  the  German 
Confederacy,  and  the  Reformed  in  Switzerland  and  the  Netherlands,  there 
was  no  necessity  or  object  of  such  a  Union,  but  even  there  it  was  accepted 
as  an  ideal,  and  was  recognized  wherever  an  individual  case  required  it. 
The  principal  remonstrance  against  it  was  from  a  few  Supernatnralists  who 
possessed  no  doctrinal  agreement  among  themselves.  (/<) 

g)  Acta  hist,  ecc  1835.  p.  37ös.  1S36.  p.  4ö0ss.  VcrhandU.  d.  2  rheio.  Prov.  Svn.'dal-VersaDunl. 
tiariiien.  1S3S. 

h)  Augusti,  Boitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statistik  d.  ev.  Kirche,  p.  7S8ss. 

J)  Lutlior  in  Beziehung  a.  d.  Preuss,  KAgende.  Bil.  1S27. 

i)  A.  KZ.  1S'20.  N.  140.  1S30.  N.  93.  Ei/krt,  fi.  Worth  u.  Wirkung  d.  Agende  nach  d.  KesulUta 
»  v?hnj  ihr.  Erfahrung.  Polsd.  IS-SO. 

/)  Archiv  f.  alte  u.  neue  KGesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  lS9ss.        m)  yitzsch,  p.  1343. 

«■)  TMiiumn,  ü.  Vereinigung.  Li>s.  ISIS.     Sleudtl  >1.  Vereinigung.  Tub.  1S3  . 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CnUECII  TILL  1S53.    §151.  UNION.    LUTREKAXISM.      5G9 

§  454.     Lutheranism  as  a  Sect  under  Frederic  William  III. 

The  spirit  of  orthodoxy  which  had  now  been  onco  more  awakened,  ])or- 
ceived  that  it  would  soon  lose  its  principal  power,  if  those  portions  of  tlie 
symbolical  books  in  which  the  ditfereut  chnrches  opposed  and  condemned 
each  other  were  no  longer  binding  «pen  the  people.  So  strong,  indeed,  was 
the  feeling  now  aroused,  that  in  men  of  a  reckless  spirit  it  resembled  Luther's 
horror  at  all  fellowship  with  the  Reformed  Church.  That  which  in  other 
places  was  a  conscientious  conviction  in  opposition  to  the  Union,  or  a  theo- 
logical opposition,  {;()  in  Prussia  necessarily  carao  into  collision  with  the  lively 
interest  Avhich  the  government  took  in  the  united  and  uniform  Church. 
When  the  Union  and  the  Agenda  were  accepted  at  Breslau  (1830),  Dr.  Schei- 
hcl  remained  the  pastor  of  a  church  which  rejected  the  Union  as  a  work  of 
Indifterentism,  a  compact  between  Christ  and  Belial  and  the  Agenda,  as  a 
part  of  the  same  scheme.  After  many  etforts  at  accommodation,  ho  was 
suspended  from  the  ministry,  and  when  he  insisted  upon  a  final  decision,  he 
was  dismissed  (1832).  {h)  Clucricle  announced  that  ho  had  returned  to  the 
old  Lutheran  Church,  from  which  ho  had  unconsciously  and  involuntarily 
been  removed,  and  ho  now  obtained  a  secret  installation  for  himself  as  the 
pastor  of  a  congregation  in  and  near  Halle  (1834:).  After  many  disturbances 
of  divine  worship  in  his  house  by  the  police,  he  was'  deprived  of  his  profes- 
sorship on  account  of  a  rash  attack  which  he  made  upon  an  order  issued  by 
the  government  (1835).  (c)  A  few  pastors  connected  with  the  established 
Church  in  Silesia  produced  an  excitement  among  the  ignorant  people  of  their 
congregations,  by  preaching  that  Luther's  precious  faith,  the  religion  of  their 
fathers,  had  been  superseded  by  the  theology  of  the  king.  To  hush  up  these 
disturbances,  an  order  was  obtained  (Feb.  28,  1834)  from  the  cabinet  by  the 
pietistic  party  then  forming  in  the  court,  ('/)  which  assured  the  people  that 
the  Lutheran  Church,  with  its  various  confessions  of  faith,  was  not  abolished 
by  the  Agenda  and  the  Union,  and  that  nothing  but  that  Church  was  estab- 
lished by  law  ;  and  that  the  sacraments  were  to  be  administered  according  to 
the  usages  of  the  old  Lutheran  Church  to  all  who  desired  them  in  that  mode. 
The  Lutherans,  however,  could  not  comi)reliend  how  the  Lutheran  confession, 
condemning  the  doctrines  of  the  Reformed  Church,  could  really  be  received 
in  a  united  Church,  or  how  the  same  liturgy  could  bo  received  in  two 
Churches  which  were  essentially  so  dilVerent.  These  pastors,  who  had  re- 
nounced the  Union  and  the  Agenda,  and  would  no  longer  yield  obedience  to 
the  consistory  of  the  united  Church,  were  suspended.  "When  Kellner^  the 
pastor  of  the  church  in  llonigcrn,  was  about  to  be  suspended  (Sept.  11th, 
1834),  the  congregation  while  singing  and  praying  presented  an  unwearied 
passive  resistance  to  the  opening  of  their  church,  being  resolved  to  do  noth- 

«)  Gieaehr,  neuester  Unlonsvors.  In  Brctixn.  Woua.  \yi\.  lUuUllntch^  Griiiulvesto  d.  lutli. 
Klrclienlehro  ii.  Friedenspra.xis.  Lps.  1S4<). 

l>)  SteffetiH,  wie  leh  wieder  Lutheraner  wunle,  »mil  was  mir  Lutliortliuiii  1st  r.r>l.  IsBl.  (Iluscltke) 
Tlieol.  Votum  o.  Juristen  lii  Saolisen  tl.  |)reuss.  ll<>f-.\p.  e«L  by  Scbeibel,  Nnib.  1S3'J.  SdieiM,  uoten- 
in.vsige  Gescli.  d.  nst  Uiitirnelimuiijt  c.  Union  bcs.  Im  preuss.  Staate.  Lps.  M'H.  2  vols. 

c)  Einige  Urkunden  betr.  d.  Gesell,  d.  luth.  Gemeinde  In  u.  um  Halle.  Lp?.  1>35. 

d)  Comp.  Es-.  KU  ls*3.  N.  5. 


570  MODKUN  CIIITKCII  inSTOIiV.     I'KK.  YI.     A.  D.  1W^1S53. 

iiif,'  by  wl:icli  lliey  would  participate  in  the  crime  of  desecrating  their  altar;- 
Tlio  cliurch  was  thorefuro  broken  open  by  tlie  niilitar}-,  and  on  Christma? 
day  public  worship  was  performed  for  the  first  time  according  to  tlie  forms 
of  the  Agenda.  Kellner  was  thrown  into  prison,  and  at  a  ])ublic  trial,  he 
and  those  who  took  part  with  him  were  condemned  for  insurrection.  Tlie 
congregation  was  finally  oliligcd  to  yield  by  having  soldiers  quartered  in  their 
houses,  {(■)  and  the  i>arty  then  seemed  to  be  entirely  broken  up.  But  in  Feb., 
1835,  tlic  suspended  pastors  held  a  synod  at  Breslau,  at  which  they  resolved 
to  etlcct  the  deliverance  of  the  Lutheran  Church  by  every  practicable  and 
lawful  means.  Fi'om  the  borders  of  Poland  to  Erfurt,  the  scattered  remnants 
of  former  congregations,  impelled  by  an  obscure  feeling  of  attachment  to  the 
Church  of  their  fathers,  assembled  together,  and  by  adopting  the  old  Witten- 
berg Agenda,  became  separated  from  the  established  church.  Scheibel  (d. 
1843),  whose  mind  was  of  a  very  limited  order,  but  who  had  become  power- 
ful through  the  influence  of  a  faith  which  knew  no  doubt,  led  these  people 
from  Saxony  and  Franconia,  and  induced  the  congregations  of  Silesia  and 
Brandenburg  to  adopt  a  form  of  government  like  that  of  the  apostles,  and 
a  rigid  system  of  ecclesiastical  discipline.  But  by  the  application  of  the  laws 
against  conventicles,  by  a  neglect  of  the  schools,  and  a  refusal  to  give  testi- 
mony, these  poor  people,  Avho  assured  their  rulers  that  their  assemblies  for 
worship  were  not  conventicles,  but  the  old  Lutheran  Church,  whose  exist- 
ence had  been  guaranteed  by  sacred  compacts,  were  in  various  ways  dis- 
trained or  imprisoned,  their  ministers  were  generally  kept  in  custody,  and  a 
few  wandered  about  without  means  of  support,  and  persecuted  by  the  police. 
A  portion  of  them  finally  sought  an  asylum  for  the  Lutheran  Church  be- 
yond the  ocean.  Since  the  contracted  spirit  of  this  exclusive  LutheranLsm, 
whose  conduct  appears  much  like  that  of  the  seven  sleepers  after  a  slumber 
of  throe  hundred  years,  has  been  exposed  by  Hengstenberg ;  since  Olshauscn 
lias  shown  the  rebellious  nature  of  its  defence,  and  Hahn,  the  consistorial 
counsellor,  has  moved  against  it  with  the  military,  the  orthodox  party  has 
become  subdivided  into  two  portions.  The  recollection  of  their  common 
origin  has  only  embittered  these  in  their  antipathies  to  each  other,  and  they 
exchange  against  each  other  nearly  the  same  reproaches  which  had  previously 
been  employed  by  them  against  those  whom  they  regarded  as  unbeliev- 
ers. (/)  Even  the  Separatists  fell  out  among  themselves,  for  Guericke  would 
not  accept  of  the  apostolic  constitution,  and  having  acknowledged  that  a 
Lutheran  conscience  might  find  peace  in  a  Church  belonging  to  the  Prussian 
establishment,  provided  Christ  was  preached  there,  he  soon  found  opportu- 
nity to  become  reconciled  with  the  government  (1840).  (g)  This  government 
with  some  confusion  and  reluctance  now  liberated  (1838)  clergymen  who  had 
been  detained  in  prison  long  beyond  the  term  fixed  in  their  original  sentence 

e)  A.  Z.  1S35.  Append.  16.  26s.  50.  64.  Acta  hist  ecc  1S?5.  p.  SOOss.  //.  Olshamev,  -was  ist  v.  d, 
nst.  kirchl.  Ereign.  in  Schlesien  zu  halten?  Lps.  1S-S5.  Kellner,  Sendschr.  an  Olsh.  Lps.  1S35.  O. 
F  Wrhrhaix.  Vcrth.  d.  Uith.  S.iche  gegen  Olsb.  Meiss.  1S.35. 

/)  Ev.  KZ.  1S%.  N.  Iss.  Olshausen  (nt.  e).— Guericke,  d.  cv.  KZ.  u.  d.  Lutheraner.  L.  1S.38. 
Scheibel,  Mitthcil.  esp.  II.  1.  t"".  Ehrennirüin  u.  E.  Kellner,  die  nst  Wiedersaclicr  d.  liith.  K 
lu  Prcus«.  Lps.  1S3S. 

g)  Acta  hist.  ccc.  1S3T.  p.  059.  A.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  52. 


CHAP.  T.    EVANG.  CnUP.cn  TILL  1853.    §  454.  FPEDEEIC  WILLL\M  III.       571 

of  condemnation,  and  ceased  to  imprison  according  to  law  those  private  mem- 
Dcrs  wlio  bad  refused  to  testify  against  their  ministers  with  reference  to  otli- 
cial  acts  prohibited  by  the  authorities.  (/*)  Frederic  William  III.  always 
acknowledged  the  rights  of  conscience  in  matters  of  religion,  but  witli  a 
mind  remarkably  fond  of  order,  he  loved  to  bring  every  thing  to  uniformity. 
In  spiritual  things  he  generally  thought  it  safest  to  refer  to  father  Luther,  but 
lie  esteemed  a  man  a  rebel  who  adhered  to  Luther's  sentiments  with  Luther's 
obstinacy.  He  felt  himself,  and  ho  proved  himself  to  bo  the  protector  of  tho 
evangelical  Church  far  beyond  the  limits  of  Prussia,  and  he  even  bestowed 
many  favors  upon  the  Catholic  Church  of  Lis  kingdom.  And  yet,  in  the 
evening  of  bis  life,  bo  found  himself  involved  in  acts  of  arbitrary  violence 
against  each  of  these  Churches,  llis  time  on  earth  was  spent  in  disquietude, 
but  his  trust  was  in  God. 

§  455.     Lcijal  Vieics  and  Legal  L'elations  in  German  Countries. 

L.  Richter,  (p.  441.)    A'.  Uase,  J.  ev.  proU  K.  d.  deuUchcn  Keiclis.  Lps.  (1&48.)  1S58. 

In  a  time  of  ecclesiastical  exhaustion  there  was  no  dispo.sition  or  ability 
to  construct  a  peculiar  system  of  laws  for  the  Church.  Schuderoff  (170G-18-13) 
almost  alone  then  contended  for  a  collegiate  system,  but  his  zeal  against 
jurists  in  the  Church  had  rather  a  hierarchical  tendency,  (or)  As  soon  as  the 
ecclesiastical  life  exhibited  its  former  vigor,  general  complaints  were  heard 
that  the  Church  was  subject  to  an  arbitrary  foreign  influence,  and  that  its 
members  excused  themselves  from  all  interest  in  its  affairs  on  account  of  the 
bureaucratic  interference  of  the  civil  authoritie.^,  and  their  exclusion  from  all 
share  in  its  administration.  Hence,  when  the  union  with  the  Reformed 
Church  took  place,  attention  was  turned  to  tho  fragments  of  the  old  ecclesi- 
astical establishment,  preserved  in  tho  latter  in  the  form  of  ecclesiastical 
elders  and  synods,  and  to  the  union  by  means  of  consistories  under  the  sov- 
ereign of  the  country.  (Ji)  In  the  literary  controversies  between  the  advo- 
cates of  the  ditforcnt  legal  view.s,  those  who  believed  that  the  Church  was 
purchased  by  the  blood  of  tho  God-man  maintained  that  its  territory  was 
manifestly  beyond  tho  reach  of  tho  secular  powers.  But  a  disinclination  for 
all  theories  of  natural  liberty,  and  a  dread  of  popular  suffrage  as  the  domin- 
ion of  the  flesh,  then  prevailed,  and  gave  great  advantage  to  those  who  advo- 
cated the  predominance  of  the  i)rincoly,  or  at  least  of  the  spiritual  powers.  (<) 


A)  Stheibfl:  Mlttlieiliingcn  A.  ii«t.  GmcIi.  d.  lutli.  K.  Alton.  lS85ss.  6  11.  Archiv  f.  hist  Entw.  ii. 
nst  Gcsrh.  <1.  liitli.  K.  Nürnb.  1S41.  2  P.  n.  A.  K.  Z.  1S3S.  N.  19K  O.  F.  Wehrhau,  meine  Suspcn 
dlrune,  Einkerkerung,  u.  AuswnnOer.  Lps.  1889.  J.  D.  Loncenhnrg,  Persecution  of  tlio  Lnth 
Oliurcli  in  Prussia  from  1S;M.  Lond.  1S40.  IJcrl.  K.  Z.  1S30.  N.  39.  40.  S7.  Slfffem,  wiis  Ich  erlebte 
vol.  X.  p.  "I.  724ss. 

<i)  Ansichten  u.  Wünsche  betr.  d.  prot.  KWesen  u.  d.  Gelstllchk.  Lps.  1S14. 

h)  J.  S'huileroff,  Gninilz.  z  ev.  pn.t.  KVerf.  Lps.  ISU.  E.  Zimmermann,  Grnndr.  z.  ov.  KVorl. 
in  sr.  Monalscli.  vol.  L  II.  Is.  Pahl.  d.  OITentl.  Kedit  d.  ov.  luth.  K.  In  TeuL-schl.  Tub.  1827.  On  tbo 
other  side:  /'.  v.  ßi'iloir,  ü.  d.  pei.'cnw.  Verli.  d.  cv.  KWes.  In  Dcut«;chl.  Mgdb.  (1818.)  1819.  Bret- 
IchneiJer,  Votum  ü.  d.  repraes.  Yerf.  d.  K.  L])?.  1S.32. 

c)  Ev.  KZ.  1S82.  N.  2.  Ä'iidelJjach,  14  Thcfen  Q.  Presb.  \i.  Syn.  Lp.s.  1332.  Puchta,  Einl.  In  «1. 
Recht  d.  K.  Lps.  1840.  F.  J.  Stahl,  d.  KVcrf.  nach  Lehre  u.  lieclit  d.  Prot.  Erlang.  1S40.  C.  Ti'otAf, 
d.  v.aliren  Qrundl.  d.  ev.  KVcrf.  Url.  1S44. 


572  MODERN  CHUnCH  niSTOr.V.    per.  VI.    A.  D.  1049-ls» 

The  Ilofrclian  scliool  onco  moro  brought  forward  the  territorial  system  in 
connection  with  their  higher  view  of  the  state,  according  to  which  the 
Chnrch,  as  a  distinct  society,  entirely  disappear?,  and  becomes  merely  tho 
religions  clement  of  the  state,  (d)  But  the  more  the  importance  of  the  state 
in  a  popular  and  patriotic  point  of  view  was  recognized,  the  more  the  right 
of  the  Christian  congregations  to  dcvelope  by  their  own  energies  the  constitu- 
tion best  suited  to  their  i)rogress  in  cultivation,  was  also  acknowledged.  The 
relation  of  these  congregations  to  the  state  was  to  bo  that  of  mutual  assist- 
ance, but  in  the  existing  organization  of  the  German  state  confederacies,  they 
were  to  be  dependent  only  upon  the  widest  national  limits,  (e)  Baden  re- 
ceived with  the  union  a  synodal  system,  but  the  general  synod  Avas  to  be  con- 
vened only  at  the  suggestion  of  the  sovereign,  and  then  simply  as  an  advis^^ry 
council.  (/)  In  1845,  Zittel,  a  pastor  of  a  congregation,  proposed  to  the  Diet, 
that  instead  of  the  past  religious  intolerance,  under  wliicli  Christianity  had 
found  no  peace,  they  should  try  the  eflect  of  religious  liberty,  under  which 
every  form  of  worship  should  bo  tolerated,  and  no  civil  penalties  should  be 
exacted  unless  a  failure  in  the  performance  of  civU  duties  appeared  probable. 
A  complete  storm  of  petitions  principally  from  the  Catholic  sections  of  the 
country,  against  the  majority  in  the  chamber  which  was  ready  to  concur 
with  the  proposition,  was  the  result.  The  Union  Chnrch  was  here  so  strictly 
constituted,  that  when  the  pastor  Eichhorn  felt  constrained  in  conscience, 
from  hiJi  attachment  to  exclusive  Lutheranism,  to  give  notice  (1850)  of  his 
secession  from  the  united  Church,  and  had  received  the  permission  which  he 
had  asked,  he  was  punished  by  imprisonment,  or  was  directed  by  the  police 
to  leave  the  country,  because  in  some  instances  he  afterwards  performed  min- 
isterial duties  for  those  who  like  him  had  forsaken  the  Church.  These  per- 
sons, according  to  their  own  confession,  knew  but  little  of  their  former  or 
their  present  creed,  and  had  in  general  been  involved  in  the  revolutions  of 
that  period,  but  they  have  hitherto  received  no  permission  to  form  any  Lu- 
theran congregation,  {g)  The  evangelical  Church  in  Bataria^  by  an  appen- 
dix to  the  national  constitution  (1818),  was  allowed  the  privilege  of  managing 
its  own  internal  affairs,  under  the  supervision  of  the  supreme  authorities  of 
the  state.  In  the  Rhenish  Palatinate,  as  soon  as  the  Union  was  firmed, 
parochial  councils  with  power  to  fill  their  own  vacancies,  district  synods  and 
a  general  synod,  chosen  partly  by  and  from  the  congregations  themselves, 
were  organized,  and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  the  rationalistic  party  in  that 
country  was  able  to  maintain  its  ground  in  the  long  conflict  with  the  superior 
consistory  at  Munich,  which  was  essentially  Lutheran,  though  occasionally 
under  Catholic  influence.  The  order  for  the  election  of  elders  in  the  congre- 
gations on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rhine  (1821),  was  so  indefinite  with  respect 

d)  üothe,  d.  Anfange  d.  K.  u.  Ihrer  Vert  WitL  1S3'.  1  voL  Die  ev.  Landesk.  Preassens  u.  d. 
Wlss.  Lps.  1S40. 

*)  C  rUmann,  t  d.  Znk.  d.  ev.  K.  BentscliL  Stuttg:  1S45.  Jul.  MülUr,  dio  nächsten  Au^ben 
I  d.  Fortbiid.  d.  dentsch-prot  KVert  Brsl.  1*45.  C.  C.  J.  Bungen,  d.  Ver£  d.  K  d.  Zukunft.  Hamb. 
1845.  [Const  of  tlie  Church  of  tbe  Future,  &c.  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1S4S.  S.]  JT.  ffusf,  d.  gute 
»Ite  Kecht  d.  K.  Lps.  2  ed.  1=47. 

/)  A.  KZ.  IS.-?'.  X.  201.  1S35.  X.  9S.  1S43.  X.  101.  117s.  170s>    Acta  hist  ecc.  1S35.  p.  41463. 

17>  Actenma.««.  nar^t  betr.  Past  Eichh.  (Allp.  KBlatt  lS5i  N.  16s.)— C.  Eicfihorn,  g««ch.  AbriM 
d.  Entsteh,  ev.  lutli.  Gemeinden  im  G.  Baden.  Stults.  1S52. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.     S  455.  CAVAIUX     -VVCUTEMBEnO.     573 

to  the  i)cculiar  duties  of  these  officers,  that  many  feared  a  liierarchical 
discipline  was  intended,  and  hence  such  a  unanimous  expression  of  public 
opinion  was  raised  against  it,  that  the  government  withdrew  the  plan.  (//) 
The  subsequent  establishment  of  the  s3'nodal  constitution  (after  1825)  took 
place  under  many  sus])icious  limitations ;  each  of  the  two  dioceses  were  to 
have  a  separate  general  synod  ;  the  represontatives  of  the  congregations  were 
io  bo  chosen  by  the  pastors;  one  half  of  all  elected  for  the  general  synod  by 
the  district  assemblies  were  to  be  set  aside  by  the  superior  consistory ;  all 
acts  were  to  be  merely  advisory,  and  even  from  such  deliberations  the  hyper- 
catholic  ministry  of  Abel  had  power  to  exclude  at  pleasure  jtrecisely  those 
things  which  were  of  any  interest  to  the  Church,  (i)  In  Würtemherg^  the 
Church  was  represented  in  the  diet  by  prelates  nominated  by  the  king,  and 
through  these  its  principal  effort  was  to  recover  the  ecclesiastical  ]n'operty, 
of  which  the  recollection  of  the  people  was  still  fresh.  After  1830,  when 
most  of  the  middle  German  states  received  representative  constitutions,  it 
became  necessary  to  make  many  changes  in  the  administration  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal affairs,  and  the  Church  demanded  securities  for  its  established  rights.  (^) 
But  the  theory  of  the  semi-liberal  constitution  ofthat  country  was  not  favor- 
able to  a  peculiar  department  of  laws  for  the  Church,  and  when  the  clergy 
set  up  new  claims,  they  lost  their  old  privileges,  until  the  power  and  the  em- 
barrassments of  the  religious  interests  (since  1840)  have  combined  with  the 
kindred  improvements  in  political  and  ecclesiastical  jurisprudence  to  strength- 
en their  demands  and  call  forth  partial  promises,  for  the  oppressions  of  the 
people  in  civil  life  have  compelled  them  to  seek  freedom  in  ecclesiastical  agi- 
tations. (/)  Tho  Xational  Axsctiihhj  i\\  St.  Paul's  church  (1848)  had  jio  idea 
of  jeopardizing  the  unity  of  the  nation  of  which  it  was  then  dreaming,  by 
engaging  in  the  old  ecclesiastical  disputes ;  but  in  forming  a  theory  of  the 
original  rights  of  the  German  people,  it  was  driven  by  a  recollection  of  many 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  aggressions  upon  mental  freedom  to  put  fortli  a  declara- 
tion respecting  the  true  relation  of  the  state  to  religion.  During  the  delib- 
erations upon  this  subject,  it  appeared  that  some  were  oi>posed  to  every  kind 
of  church,  but  the  co-operation  of  these  extreme  parties  in  favor  of  the  com- 
plete inde[)endence  of  Church  and  state,  was  held  in  check  by  the  hesitation 
of  a  middle  party,  Avliich  feared  to  open  the  door  for  au  uidimited  ecclesias- 


h)  A.  KZ.  1S22.  N.  24.  81.  84.  43.  Works  by  Lcllmu^  Kaiser,  Fuchs.  On  tho  otlier  side:  Vogol, 
Oertel,  and  otlicrs. — Paulu»,  will  d.  Baicrscbo  Lkndesk.  nicht  mundig  worden  ?  (Sophronlzun,  1S24. 
vol.  VI.  H.  1.) 

0  Stfjihurii,  kail.  Kocht  Tub.  1^2.'».  p.  6l!w.  I'.  J.  Xiethammfr,  Nachr.  v.  d.  ersten  Versaniinl. 
d.  Gen.  Synoden  In  15.  Siilzb.  ISiV  /'«cA»,  Zust  d.  prut.  K.  In  B.  Ansb.  ISSO.  (I'rlntoil)  Manu- 
script: l)lo  Gen.  Syn.  zu  Ansbach  Im  J.  1S44.  Without  place,  f.  AnoUier  ruvislun  of  tlib  docuiiiunt 
printed  ut  Ulm. 

k)  Biikellu.  I/iip/rlil,  Q.  d.  llof.  d.  KVorf.  In  bos.  Küoks.  a,  Kurhessen.  Marb.  1S81.  WüilsoIi« 
d.  cv.  Golstlichk.  Sachs.  L.  1S3I.  Gromtmuiin,  0.  liof.  d.  KVerC  in  Sachs.  L.  1S33.  For  lit  see  Stud 
u.  Krit  1S38.  II.  2s. 

I)  G.  T.  M'<l>ei\  die  UmKe-^taUun;;  d.  KVerf.  in  Sachi«,  I>.  ISSiV.  Briiuntg,  constltntlnnellcs  Leben 
In  d.  K.  Lps.  1S.'J8.  C.  Wolf,  die  Zukunft  d.  j.rot.  K.  Stiitt^;.  1S40.  C.  &  AVmiV,  d.  nst,  Zolt.  in  d. 
cv.  K.  d.  I'reuss.  Staats.  Uraunschw.  IS-J-I.  R  AMI,  d.  poj:onw.  Noth.  cL  ev.  K.  I'rous««.  I'a.'iewalk, 
.843.— Acta  hist  ccc.  1S35.  p.  41SS9.  Brl.  KZ.  1S4.V  N.  2.S.v<«.  (ii\.—(nHnde*.haym)  Per  deutsche  Pf  J 
test,  8.  Vergangonh.  u.  heullgon  LebonslVagen.  Frkf.  134T.  J.  Wiggera,  die  klrchL  Beweg.  In 
Deutiii'hl.  Kost.  1*43. 


574  '    M(ii)i:i:n  nnuicii  iiistouy.   pkr.  vi.   a.  d.  164S-is53. 

tioiil  intcrleroiicc  from  abroad.  Accordinglj^,  all  were  alknved  full  libcrt}'  tc 
l)olicvo  in  any  form  of  religion,  or  in  none,  without  affucting  tlic-ir  civil  or 
municipal  rij,'Iit.s ;  no  sjjocial  political  privileges  were  allowed  to  any  religions 
societies ;  permission  was  given  to  form  new  religious  societies,  and  all  wero 
independently  to  manage  their  own  affairs,  subject  only  to  the  general  laws 
of  the  state.  A  general  form  of  an  oath  suited  to  any  religious  ojiinions  was 
also  provided,  and  the  validity  of  marriage  was  made  to  dei)end  entirely  u[ion 
a  civil  act.  With  respect  to  the  schools  there  was  much  contention  betAveen 
the  different  parties,  for  the  Protestant  teachers  especially  demanded  a  com- 
plete emancipation  from  the  bonds  of  the  Church,  while  the  Catholic  party 
with  its  pietistic  adjunct  endeavored  to  attain  an  opposite  result  by  a  free 
election  of  the  teachers  by  the  congregation.  The  majority,  however,  while 
it  held  to  the  principle  that  all  science  and  instruction  in  it  should  be  free, 
placed  the  whole  school  system  under  the  supervision  of  the  state,  and  re- 
moved the  schools  from  the  inspection  of  the  clergy  as  sucli,  without  forbid- 
ding the  employment  of  skilful  clergymen  in  the  supervision  of  them,  (rn) 
In  the  composition  of  the  Prussian  fundamental  laws  at  Erfurth,  these  prin- 
ciples were  essentially  retained,  with  the  exception  only  of  the  article  re- 
specting special  political  privileges,  which  the  state  wished  to  have  power  to 
grant  to  religious  societies  whose  general  aims  might  specially  correspond 
with  its  own.  The  establishment  of  a  state  Church,  however,  was  especially 
guarded  against,  and  all  charitable  institutions  were  secured  from  any 
infringement.  These  principles  were  indeed  incorporated  in  the  constitu- 
tional charter  of  almost  every  German  state,  but  the  revived  diet  of  the 
confederation  declared  (Aug.,  1851)  that  these  pretended  fundamental  laws 
never  possessed  any  legal  authority.  Very  little  was  done  even  when  the 
power  existed  to  enforce  them,  for  the  masses  of  society  were  interested  only 
in  political  questions,  and  the  clergy  were  jealous  of  majorities  supposed  to 
be  unfriendly  to  the  Church.  la  almost  every  place  committees  were  ap- 
pointed by  means  of  the  previous  ecclesiastical  authorities,  by  whom  out- 
lines of  constitutions  were  prepared,  which  conveyed  the  executive  power  of 
the  Church  into  the  hands  of  a  series  of  representative  synods,  rising  through 
several  gradations  from  the  congregation,  with  an  unequal  number  of  secular 
and  clerical  deputies,  and  subject,  as  before  agreed  upon,  to  the  control  of  the 
evangelical  sovereign  through  certain  officers.  All  contemplated  at  some 
future  period  a  great  evangelical  Church  of  the  German  empire.  These  plans 
were  of  course  laid  aside  when  the  political  party  of  the  reaction  became 
every  where  triumphant.  A  few  national  churches  like  those  of  Wurtera- 
berg  and  "Weimar  have  nevertheless  been  alloAved  to  have  councils  chosen 
[lartly  by  the  congregations  for  the  administration  of  their  ecclesiastical 
affairs  (1851),  which  have  since  been  actually  elected,  and  been  engaged  in  a 
limited  sphere  of  Christian  activity.  In  Bavaria,  the  two  divisions  of  the 
Church  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Rhine,  by  the  free  choice  of  the  congrega- 
tions at  a  provisional  election,  united  under  one  General  Synod  at  Anspach 
(1840),  and  obtained  from  the  government  (1850-^3)  an  electoral  law,  ac- 
cording to  Avhich  those  who  possessed  the  confidence  of  the  congregations 

f«)  Fund.  Law  of  Dec.  21, 1S48.  Artt  5  and  6. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIUECII  TILL  1S5.3.    §  455.    GERM.  CHARIER.    OLDKXB.    575 

conld  be  appointed  to  manage  their  ecclesiastical  affairs,  and  a  double  iiuinbcr 
of  clergymen  could  be  elected  to  the  general  synod.  (//)  The  General  Synod 
of  the  liheuish  Electorate  assembled  in  October,  1848,  and  received  from  tlie 
government  a  release  from  the  control  of  the  superior  consistory,  and  the 
grant  of  an  electoral  law.  (o)  A  committee  appointed  by  this  synod,  in  a  ra- 
tionalistic spirit  and  Avithout  much  consideration,  changed  the  original  record 
of  the  Union  of  1818,  which,  after  the  overthrow  of  the  revolution,  called 
forth  the  oi)posit)on  of  the  minority,  and  received  the  censure  of  the  Pro- 
testant faculties  of  Germany  when  their  opinions  were  asked  respecting  it.  (]>) 
The  General  Synod  of  1858,  in  terror  of  the  sword  of  dissolution,  in  face  of 
many  dishonorable  elections  of  elders,  and  in  consequence  of  the  appointment 
of  a  number  of  clergymen  from  the  division  on  the  other  side  of  the  Rhine, 
returned  to  the  patriarchal  electoral  laws  of  1818,  went,  in  fact,  beyond 
them,  and  decided  with  respect  to  the  creed,  that  the  co/iscnsus  which  exist."^ 
in  the  principal  confessions  of  the  evangelical  German  Church,  of  which  the 
Church  of  the  Palatinate  is  a  part,  is  best  to  be  found  in  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession of  1540.  A  reservation,  however,  was  distinctly  put  forth,  that  no 
compulsory  obligation  of  an  ecclesiastical  or  political  nature  was  thus  asserted 
in  behalf  of  the  symbolic  books,  (q)  In  Oldenlurg  alone  the  fovorable  mo- 
ment was  improved,  and  an  ecclesiastical  government  was  actually  set  np 
(1849)  by  a  synod  chosen  by  the  congregations.  Here  the  ecclesiastical  au- 
thority of  the  sovereign  was  set  aside,  and  the  affairs  of  each  congregation 
were  committed  to  an  assembly  of  its  adult  men,  and  a  council  chosen  by 
them  ;  the  common  business  of  the  congregations  was  intrusted  to  an  annual 
general  synod,  chosen  directly  by  the  people,  and  one  half  composed  of  cler- 
gymen ;  and  the  administration  was  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  ecclesiastical 
council  chosen  by  and  responsible  to  the  synod.  Though  this  constitution 
had  no  connection  with  the  civil  power,  it  was  proclaimed  by  tlie  Grand 
Duke ;  and  as  men  of  an  ecclesiastical  spirit  were  thosen,  it  was  not  unwor- 
thily carried  into  execution,  and  was  capable  of  throwing  off  any  defects 
which  might  be  found  in  it.  {r)  But  by  its  separation  from  the  state,  the  se- 
curity of  ecclesiastical  proj)erty  was  gone,  it  was  soon  left  without  sui)port  in 
conseijuence  of  the  hostility  of  the  civil  officers,  the  suspicions  of  tlie  orthodox 
party  for  the  indcfiniteness  of  its  creed,  (.v)  and  the  dislike  of  the  clergy  on 
account  of  their  dependence  upon  the  congregations,  and  in  a  time  of  general 
political  reaction,  few  would  defend  it  against  the  reproach  of  its  revolution- 
ary origin.  A  change  in  accordance  with  the  terms  of  the  fundamental  law 
of  1852  was  effected  (April,  1853)  by  the  Grand  Duke,  after  an  audience  with 
the  general  synod  and  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  council,  on  the  ground  that 
the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  of  Oldenburg  should  indejiendently  adiiiin- 

it)  Bil.  KZ.  lS-19.  N.  16.  80.  84.  89.  43.  18Ö0.  N.  84.  A.  K.  Z.  1S5.3.  N.  14». 

o)  Brl.  WA.  1S4S.  N.  60.  91.  104.  1849.  N.  6.  27.  4:J. 

2i)  Gutaeliton  tleutsclicr  ev.  th.  FacuUritun  ü.  den  der  K.  d.  bay.  Tfalz  zugedachten  VerfassunL'S 
entw.  Frkf.  Is'il. 

q)  A.  KZ.  1S5.3.  N.  WX 

r)  Verliandll.  d.  Syii.  ü.  d.  Vcrf.  d.  Oldenb.  cv.  K.  Oldenb.  1949.  4.  Verlmiidll.  d.  1.  Lande.vsj-n 
.S50.  4.— d.  2.  I.andcssyii.  1S.')1.  4.     Gesetz-  ii.  A'erordnutiüJ-bl.  d.  cv.  Kirche,  vol.  I.  St.  1 

k)  Per  Xothptand  d.  ev.  K.  Oldenb.  1^5-.'.  Kv.  KZ.  ISM.  X.  90s. 


576  MODERN  CIIÜRCII  IIISTORT.    rKR.  VI.    A.  D.  1C4S-1SM. 

istcr  its  nflhirH  in  scriptural  coiTCspondence  with  tlio  confessions  of  tlie  Re- 
formation, that  it  ought  not  to  infringe  upon  tlie  laws  of  the  state,  and  that 
the  Grand  Duke,  who  adhered  to  the  evangelical  confession,  should  have  the 
same  control  of  ecclesiastical  affairs  which  was  usually  conceded  to  tlie  evan- 
golical  i)nncc3  of  Germany.  This  control  was,  however,  to  be  limited  by  the 
constitution,  which,  in  addition  to  a  supreme  ecclesiastical  council  appointed 
liy  the  Grand  Duke,  establishes  a  triple  synodal  system  regularly  ascending 
from  the  congregations.  No  ecclesiastical  law  can  be  enacted  without  the 
consent  of  the  national  synod,  which  is  to  bo  composed  of  twelve  clergymen, 
seventeen  laymen  chosen  by  the  district  synods,  and  five  persons  nomina- 
ted by  the  Grand  Duke,  but  elected  by  the  supreme  ecclesiastical  council,  (t) 

§  45G.     7'?ie  Priissiaii  National  Church  and  its  Branches  since  1840, 

When  Frederic  William  IV.  ascended  the  throne  which  a  century  before 
had  been  occupied  by  Frederic  the  Great,  the  pietistic  orthodox  party  ex- 
pected to  have  complete  control.  Although  he  had  been  educated  in  a  school 
too  intellectual  and  modern  to  sympathize  with  every  kind  of  literal  orthodoxy, 
he  found  spiritual  benefit  at  the  baptismal  font  of  the  Prince  of  "Wales,  and  at 
the  laying  of  the  foundation-stone  of  the  portal  of  the  cathedral  of  Cologne.  But 
the  zeal  of  that  party  for  orthodoxy  he  regarded  as  only  an  excess  of  commend- 
able fidelity,  while  he  looked  upon  their  opponents  as  perjurers.  He  fully 
understood  the  feelings  of  St.  Louis  when  he  co-operated  with  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  in  the  establishment  of  the  bishopric  of  St.  James  in 
Jerusalem  (1 841),  but  so  unanimously  was  public  opinion  against  what  was 
supposed  to  be  a  new  attempt  to  transfer  the  English  ecclesiastical  system  to 
Prussia  (§  414),  that  this  pious  foundation  was  obliged  to  bo  brought  back  to 
its  essential  object,  which  was,  to  be  a  spiritual  union  in  spite  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal differences,  and  to  be  a  mustard-seed  of  Protestantism  on  Mount  Zion, 
which  has  since  sent  forth  its  first  shoots  under  Bishop  Gobat  (since  1846), 
though  not  without  some  danger  of  Anglicising  and  languishing,  (a)  "When 
the  king  bestowed  his  special  favors  upon  the  priests  of  a  mediaeval  Church, 
men  began  to  think  there  was  some  truth  in  a  prophecy  invented  near  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century,  but  ascribed  to  an  aged  monk  of  Lehnin 
(about  1300),  that  after  the  many  Avrongs  inflicted  upon  the  old  Church  by 
the  rulers  of  the  house  of  Ilohenzollern,  the  last  should  bo  the  king  of  all 
Germany,  and  should  then  re-establish  the  convents  and  restore  the  Church 
to  its  former  unity,  (b)     Indeed,  the  royal  assurance  was  not  needed  to  cou- 


t)  Verbandll.  d.  8.  Landessyn.  Oldenb.  1S53.  4  Gesetz-  u.  Verordnnngsbl.  d.  ev.  lutb.  K.  vol  II. 
St  l.—  Th.  V.  Wedderk-op,  die  Verf.  d.  ev.  lutb.  K.  Oldenb.  1S53. 

a)  (Schneckenhurger  and  Ilundeshagen)  Das  anglo-preuss.  Bisth.  zu  S.  Jacob  n.  was  daran 
Iringt  Frcib.  1S42.  {Schneckenh.)  Die  orient  Frage  d.  deutschen  ev.  K.  Berne,  lS-13.  Ihid.  die  ev. 
KZ.  im.  Kampfe  f.  d.  Bisth.  in  Jerus.  Berne,  1S44.— (^dftfAvn)  Das  ev.  Bisth.  zu  Jems,  gescbichtl. 
Darst  m.  d.  L'rk.  Brl.  1842.  Briefwechsel  (zw.  Gladstone  u.  Bunsen)  ü,  d.  deutsche  K.,  das  Episco- 
pal u.  Jerus.  Hainb.  1S44.— /*.  C.  Ewald,  Journal  of  Miss.  Labors  in  the  City  of  Jerus.  Loud.  1*46.— 
Brl.  KZ.  1S4.3.  N.  6.  1S46.  N.  52.  63ss.  1847.  N.  7.  1852.  N.  4.  1853.  N.  3.  18. 

V)  L.  de  Bouverot^  Extrait  d'un  manuscrit  relatif  ä  la  prophetic  dn  frCre  Hermann  de  Lehnin. 
Brux.  1846.  Mdnhnld,  in  d.  N.  Prcuss.  Ztg.  1849.  Append,  to  N.  ^.—  Gieseler,  d.  Lebnlnsche 
Weiss,  Erf.  1S49.     Comp.  M.  VT.  Uefftet;  Gesch.  d.  Kl.  Lehnin.  Brandenb.  1S51. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1858.    §  466.  PP.US9.  NAT.  CHURCH,        577 

vince  the  people  that  he  was  firmly  established  in  the  faith  of  his  fathers,  (c) 
From  his  ref,'aril  not  only  to  justice,  but  to  what  was  ancient  and  peculiar,  ho 
had  the  last  of  the  old  Lutheran  imprisoned  clergymen  set  at  liberty.  (</)  At 
a  general  synod  held  at  Breslau  (18-il),  these  Separatists  formed  a  Lutheran 
Church  of  Prussia,  under  a  av ell- constructed  constitution,  but  rigidly  exclu- 
sive with  respect  to  the  established  Church  and  the  civil  government,  {e)  and 
they  were  recognized  bj'  the  state  as  congregations  of  Lutherans  separated 
from  the  national  Church.  (/)  Since  the  cessation  of  persecution  they  have 
increased  with  less  rapidity.  They  now  consi.st  of  about  thirty  ministerial 
charges,  and  wc  hear  not  only  of  ajipcals  for  aid  for  the  "  Lutheran  Church 
involved  in  debt,"  but  confessions  that  the  love  of  many  has  waxed  cold,  and 
that  the  word  of  God  is  no  longer  heard  with  zeal,  (y)  In  consequence  of 
internal  dissensions,  sometimes  amounting  to  mutual  excommunications,  their 
ecclesiastical  ideals  have  been  carried  to  the  new  world,  and  there  continued 
with  brigliter  prospects.  (//)  But  even  witiiin  the  established  Church,  a  de- 
cided Lutheran  tendency,  like  that  which  has  risen  in  other  German  coun- 
tries, has  made  its  appearance,  under  the  direction  sometimes  of  great  learn- 
ing and  judgment,  subjecting  all  theological  principles  to  its  standard,  (/)  and 
sometimes  of  a  shallow  fanaticism.  (Jc)  At  an  early  period  of  his  reign,  the 
king  had  expressed  his  determination  to  allow  the  Church,  over  which  the 
crown  had  acquired  supremo  power  during  the  Eefonnation,  freely  to  form 
for  itself  its  own  external  organization.  Tlie  transfer  of  a  part  of  the  eccle- 
siastical administration  from  the  provincial  governments  to  the  consistories 
(1845),  {I)  might  be  construed  as  an  expedient  to  get  an  easier  control  of  the 
Church  by  the  appointment  of  persons  of  a  i)articular  party.  But  when  the 
provincial  synods  had  assembled  in  1844,  composed  of  the  superintendents  in 
each  of  the  six  eastern  provinces,  and  a  clergyman  chosen  from  each  dio- 
cese, (m)  the  king  called  a  Goieral  Si/nod  at  Berlin,  not  of  representatives, 
but  of  distinguished  persons  in  the  Church,  thirty-seven  of  whom  were  cler- 
gymen, and  thirty-eight  were  laymen.  Under  the  presidency  of  the  minister 
for  public  worship,  during  a  session  continued  from  June  2,  to  Aug,  29,  1846, 
this  body,  which  made  no  pretensions  to  a  legal  authority,  but  had  no  re- 
straint on  the  expression  of  its  opinions,  and  acted  on  conclusions  drawn  from 
the  proceedings  of  the  provincial  synods,  presented  its  views  of  the  existing 
wants  of  tlic  Cliurch.  (/<)  Its  jdan  for  a  future  ^ecclesiastical  constitution 
combined  the  consistorial  administration  proceeding  directly  from  the  crown, 

c)  D.  A.  Z.  ISOl.  N.  404.   IJrl.  KZ.  IVil.  N.  74.        rf)  A.  KZ.  1340.  N.  163. 

e)  Bcsclilüsso  (1.  V.  <1.  cv.  lutti.  K.  In  I'r.  peliiiltencn  Generalsyn.  Lps.  1S42. 

/)  Brl.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  S4. 

(?)  Dor  po|{cnw.  Slnn<l.  d.  ov.  lutli.  K.  In  I'r.  Vom  Obcrkirchencollogium.  Lp«.  1847.  Luth. 
URIatt  1S.V2.  N.  77.  l!rl.  KZ.  1SV2.  N.  W\. 

h)  Ev.  KZ.  1S4:1  N.  6*.   A.  KZ.  KA  N.  1.'). 

i)  Zellseh.  f.  (1.  (.'efiiiiiinlc  luth.  Tli.  u.  K.  v.  ItwleViach  n.  Gufricki;  j-lnce  1S40. 

k)  K.  M.  Ileijn,  dlo  In  d.  seino  Ni*tz  d.  Union  porntlieno  cv.  lutli.  K.  In  bos.  15ez.  a.  Hamburg. 
Ibid.  1844.        I)  Brl.  KZ.  IS«,').  N.  66. 

hi)  Protocollo  d.  Im  J.  IS-U  Ind.  oc!>tl.  Prov.  d.  Pr.  Monarrtilo  ab?eli.  Prov.  Synodon.  2  H.  4. 
Brnns,  Pop.  1846.  vol.  VI.  p.  2M»!>.  vol.  VI L  p.  47s9. 

n)  (;.  Kriii/fi-,  Borlclito  I'l.  d.  orstc  ov.  Gen.  Syn.  Prouss.  T,p«.  1^46.  Vorliandlungon  d.  ev.  Gen. 
Syn.  zu  Berlin  Amtl.  Abdruck.  Brl.  1846.  4.  /,.  liichter,  d.  Virliandlungen  d.  prou-^s.  Goncralsya 
Ucbcr.Hichtl.  DiirsU  Lp.'«.  1847. 

37 


578  MODKBN  cnriicn  iiisrouv.   pee.  vi.   a.  d.  icjs-ism. 

witli  tlio  BViiods  proooeding  directly  I'roin  the  con^acgalion.s  in  regularly 
usccn<rnig  circles,  'o)  Tliis  assembly  had  not  been  convened  without  some 
reference  to  i^,'^  nature,  and  only  a  single  voice  was  raised  in  it  in  behalf  of 
undis},'uiscd  rationalism.  But  as  the  great  majority  there,  as  -well  as  in  the 
previous  provincial  synods,  declared  itself  against  not  only  unconditional  free- 
dom of  instruction,  but  the  compulsory  obligation  of  creeds,  {j>)  the  party  of 
the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  found  itself  in  a  decided  minority.  Tho 
moral  impossibility  of  compelling  men  to  adhere  to  the  old  creeds  (7)  was  con- 
ceded, and  yet  it  was  thought  indispensable  to  the  completion  of  the  Union 
that  a  confession  of  faith  should  bo  formed,  to  serve  as  a  formula  for  ordi- 
nation. But  the  confession  then  composed  expressed  only  those  sentiments 
which  are  essential  to  Protestant  Christianity  in  Scriptural  language,  and 
without  the  precision  of  theological  science,  (r)  The  orthodox  minority  (14 
to  48)  tlierefore  had  reason  to  complain,  notwithstanding  all  that  was  said 
for  their  satisfaction,  that  the  adoption  of  the  new  confession  was  a  virtual 
abrogation  of  the  old.  It  was,  however,  decided  that  those  congregations 
and  patrons  who  were  especially  attached  to  the  Lutheran  or  the  Reformed 
type  of  doctrine  or  worship,  should  have  full  liberty,  without  endangering 
tho  development  and  existence  of  the  Union,  to  use  their  respective  confes- 
sions, if  they  wished  in  a  regular  manner  to  bring  those  clergymen  whom 
they  called  under  obligation  to  some  creed,  (s)  But  the  orthodox  opposition 
from  without,  in  whose  eyes  such  a  body  seemed  a  Robber-Synod,  in  which 
Christ  was  denied,  {t)  was  powerful  enough  at  least  to  postpone  the  execution 
of  these  enactments,  although  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  had  given  them  a 
unanimous  concurrence,  and  had  pronounced  them  of  urgent  importance. 
The  superior  Consistory  was  the  only  court  finally  formed  under  them  (Jan., 
1848),  but  as  this  was  not  sustained  by  any  contemporary  synodal  regula- 
tions, it  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere  party-authority.  In  opposition  to  the 
various  combinations  formed  by  the  pietistic  party,  a  free  association  of  Prot- 
estant Friends  was  organized  to  promote  the  interests  of  rational  and  prac- 
tical Christianity,  and  in  the  spirit  of  the  Scriptures,  and  with  all  the  means 
afibrded  by  the  nineteenth  century,  to  secure  both  Christianity  and  the  im- 
provements of  the  age  as  equally  inalienable  and  inseparable  possessions.  In 
the  district  of  Middle  Germany  reached  by  railroads,  this  association  soon 
increased  from  a  small  conference  of  clergymen  (1841)  to  a  large  popular 
assembly  under  the  presidency  of  Uli  I  ich,  a  country  pastor  of  simple  but  lib- 
eral views,  and  possessing  a  remarkable  and  continually  developing  talent  for 
presiding  over  sucli  a  multitude.  {>t)     The  rationalism  which  appealed  wholly 


o)  Richter,  p.  553s& 

p)  Review  in  Bruns.  Rep.  1S46.  rol.  VI.  p.  2"2ss.  Comp.  Ev.  KZ.  1S45.  X.  8. 

q)  Comp.  Brl.  KZ.  1S4C.  N.  C5.  66. 1S47.  N.  1.  3.— 1S46.  N.  31.  36.  1S47.  N.  30.  44.  4C. 

r)  Richter,  p.  8S2ss. 

«)  Krüger,  p.  12Sss.  lS5s.  Terlinnclll.  p.  lR4ss.  86Sss.  527.    Riclder,  p.  359ss. 

0  Ev.  KZ.  1S46.  N.  77.  7S.  Sis.  83s.  85.  66s.  95.  96s.  100.  108s.  1847.  N.  8ss.  14s.  2Gs.  29.  80s.  Rii- 
telhach,  in  d.  ZeiL^ch.  f.  luth.  Tbeol.  1S47.  H.  3.  C.  I/aver,  Beleucht  d.  Ord.  Form.  Barmen,  1846. 
Comp.  Brl.  KZ.  1847.  N.  47.— Apologctioal :  Dorner,  in  tlie  Liter.  Z.  1847.  X.  SOfs.  Jul  Müller,  ü. 
d.  ersle  Trcufs.  Gen.  Syn.  Brsl.  1S47.  On  the  oilier  side:  Sander,  die  moderne  Tbeui.  a.  d.  uralte 
blbl.  Gl.  Elhcrf.  1847. 

u)  A.  KZ.  1841.  N  IfT.   Brl.  KZ.  1S42.  X.  44. 103.  1813.  X.  47.  82.  1845.  N.  40s.  45.  5L  1&16.  N. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §450.  FRIENT)S  OF  LIGHT.         57G 

to  a  sound  common  sense,  hard  pressed  as  it  was  in  the  domain  of  science, 
found  its  natural  theatre  for  action  among  the  middle  classes,  and  in  these 
a.ssemblies  exliibited  itself  as  a  popular  power,  on  which  even  the  friends  of 
the  llegelian  philosophy,  now  almost  discarded  in  Prussia,  leaned  for  support. 
At  an  assembly  held  at  Cothea  in  the  spring  of  1844,  Wisliccnvs  started  the 
question  whether  the  Scriptures  or  the  Sjiirit  was  the  rule  of  our  faith,  and 
tlien,  in  opposition  to  the  common  self-delusion  of  the  rationalists,  came  to  a 
decision  exclusively  in  favor  of  the  Spirit.  But  by  the  Spirit,  he  meant  the 
spirit  of  truth  and  love  which  always  animates  every  man,  and  especially 
every  Christian,  and  by  which  the  Scriptures  were  themselves  essentially  pro- 
duced. Guericke  therefore  accused  him  and  the  Friendu  of  Light  generally 
of  having  renounced  Christianity,  and  in  order  to  uphold  the  absolute  author- 
ity of  the  Scriptures,  he  did  not  hesitate,  when  pressed  with  the  inquiry 
whether  he  believed  in  the  story  of  Balaam's  speaking  ass,  to  answer 
promptly  in  the  affirmative,  (f)  Although  a  general  Protestant  feeling  even 
among  the  Protestant  Friends  was  averse  to  an  abandonment  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, this  establishment  of  a  large  party,  and  this  discussion  of  abstract  doc- 
trines before  a  multitude  entirely  incompetent  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  them, 
ajjpeared  to  most  persons  of  doubtful  expediency,  (ic)  When  the  ministry 
of  state  in  Saxony  had,  in  accordance  with  their  oath,  prohibited  (July  17th, 
184;5j  all  eftorts  and  public  meetings  to  call  in  question  the  doctrines  of  the 
Augsburg  Confession,  and  other  creeds  of  the  same  general  character,  (j)  a 
royal  interpretation  of  the  law  against  poiiular  assemblies  in  Prussia,  applied 
it  to  the  promiscuous  meetings  of  the  Friends  of  Light.  The  consequence 
was,  that  they  soon  lost  their  importance,  and  became  once  more  nothing  but 
pastoral  conferences,  (ij)  Tlie  Evangelical  Church  Journal  in  public  adver- 
tisements announced  tliat  Wislicenus  and  his  associates  had  been  virtually 
excommunicated,  by  tlie  declarations  of  ministers,  who  in  some  instances  bad 
made  public  confession,  and  in  others  had  openly  renounced  the  conununion 
of  the  Church,  (z)  Hundreds  of  these  were  opposed  by  thousands  of  pro- 
tests from  persons  of  all  cla.sse?,  against  the  spirit  of  the  Evangelical  Church 
Journal.  ('/)  The  school  of  Schleiermacher,  and  some  other  friends  of  the 
Church,  though  not  belonging  to  the  orthodox  party,  threw  themselves  be- 
tween the  combatants  (Aug.  15j,  with  the  assertion  that  the  doctrinal  formula 
of  the  free  development  from  Christ  toChrist  belonged  to  the  same  basis  with 


7S.  Tlioir  Disans:  151  ittcr  f.  clirUtl.  Erbauung,  by  It.  FUcJier,  Z«ltscb.  f.  proL  GelsU.  by  IT.  Nie. 
meijer  and  Franke. 

c)  Guerickf  in  d.  Ev.  K^i.  ISU.  X.  -JO.  .V>.  r>7.  (W.  i',;.  TO.  7U  102.  G.  A.  ]Vii.lii'eitui>,  ob  Scbrift, 
ob  Ofist,  Vorantw.  gi-gin  Aiikläiror.  L].".  XMH.  C  R  Kantig,  d.  reclite  SUindp.  .Magdcb.  1S44.  On 
the  otluTfide:  /'.  SchetlUr,  Kriiii^rs  iiriniliiws  Wort  ».  unreclitcr  Standp.  ^.\<».  1S4-I.  Oufrickf,  ob 
Ptiir.,  ub  Gt.l>t?  Ein  O.initat  f.  d.  liaclipri-<!lj:t  <1.  Wisl.  llul.  l!<45.  Comp.  E.  S;hicart,  In  d.  Jen. 
A.  L.  Z.  1S44.  N.  131S9.  1S40.  N.  T.-^s. 

u)  Ue.  (I  ViTi'ln  d.  prot  Froundo.  I).iriii>t.  Isl'l.  A.  li.  FiiiJein,  ü.  d.  Gescllscb.  d.  prot  Fr. 
Mavidi'b.  \^i4.  Guericke,  LlclitOoiiniltliuin  ii.  Kiroliciitli.  \.\«,  1SI7. — C.  Z»chiesche,  die  prot  Fr. 
Kino  Solbslkrllik.  Altonb.  1S40.    Kritik  d.  prot,  Fr.  Horno,  154.'>. 

,()  lirl.  K.  Z.  N.  CO.  D.  A.  Z.  1^45.  N.  2S).  K.  Jhttthe».  ktintc  Rctr.  fi.  d.  neueste  Bukanntm 
d.  Sliiat>^niini>t,  iin  K.  Sacli?.  Altcnb.  1S45. 

;/)  15rl.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  75.   1S4C.  N.  51.  1S47.  N.  52. 

t)  Ev.  KZ.  1S^I4.  N.  CS.  73.  79.  S4s.  S9.  90.  92s.  95.  97.  102.  I'vl5.  N.  9.  17.  22.  SI. 

«)  Rrl.  KZ.  lS4.'j.  N.  59.  C3.  CS.  75. 


580  MO|ii;i:N  (-IIUIUJII  HIsToUY.     VIM.  VI.     A.  D.  1049- iVA 

that  -vvliicli  nsscrtcfl  tlmt  Clirist  was  the  only  ground  of  salvation,  (h)  Sue! 
ft  dechiratioii  was  iiiiniediately  denounced  as  the  ofispring  of  personal  uneasi- 
ness, as  the  creed  of  the  friends  of  twilight,  and  as  a  duel  in  the  day  of  bat- 
tle, (r)  Jurfihorn,  tlie  minister  for  public  -worship,  had  once  belonged  to  the 
circle  of  Schleiermacher's  friends,  but  he  was  urged  forward  by  the  party  of 
the  Church  Journal,  and  according  to  the  expression  used  by  that  party,  he 
sought  the  welforo  of  the  Church  though  in  weakness.  It  was  thought  that 
all  appointments  to  higher  offices  of  instruction  or  of  administration,  were 
made  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  tliat  party  at  the  expense  sometimes 
of  even  the  municipal  rights  of  election.  (jJ)  Solemn  addresses  from  the  mu- 
nicipalities of  Berlin,  Breslau,  and  Königsberg  jjrayed  for  protection  against 
the  threatened  encroachments  of  the  party  in  whose  spirit  the  ecclesiastical 
authorities  appeared  to  have  acted  in  opposition  to  the  religion  of  the  great 
majority  of  the  educated  class  among  the  peojile  and  the  legitimate  results 
of  the  Union,  and  they  entreated  that  the  freedom  of  Protestant  instruction 
might  be  secured  so  far  as  it  was  not  inconsistent  with  public  morals  and  the 
security  of  tlie  state.  In  the  king's  reply,  the  interference  of  the  petitioners 
was  repelled,  their  accusations  were  reproved,  and  their  anxieties  were  dis- 
pelled, (e)  In  Königsberg,  Hupp,  a  chaplain  of  a  division  in  the  army,  held 
that  Christianity  was  not  a  peculiar  form  of  religion,  but  a  universal  princi- 
ple of  life.  He  therefore  declared  from  the  pulpit  that  he  renounced  the 
damnatory  clauses  of  the  Athanasian  creed,  on  the  ground  that  they  were 
unchristian.  Having  been  deposed  by  the  consistory  of  that  place  (Dec, 
1845),  he  resigned  his  office  in  the  consistorial  church,  and  in  the  midst  of 
frequent  alternations  of  good  and  ill  fortune,  established  in  a  place  which  had 
previously  been  the  scene  of  political  agitations,  a  free  evangelical  congi-ega- 
tion  (Jan.  16,  1846),  which  recognized  the  Scriptures  as  a  merely  human  pro- 
duction, but  found  in  it  the  basis  of  a  faith  in  the  unity  of  God,  and  a 
supreme  rule  of  moral  conduct.  As  this  congregation  had  assumed  all  power 
over  its  own  religious  aflairs,  its  preacher  found  that  he  was  opposed  by  a 
party  in  this  very  ideal  of  a  fraternal  congregation  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
which  would  hardly  allow  him  to  administer  baptism  even  when  requested 
by  the  parents,  though  using  the  apostolic  formula  modernized  by  himself.  (/) 
TTklicenus  was  accused  of  elevating  himself  above  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
in  his  ordinary  ecclesiastical  practice,  of  virtually  dispensing  with  the  use  of  the 
apostolic  creed.  But  since  he,  according  to  the  ordinary  legal  usage  of  rational- 
ists in  the  established  Church,  and  the  annihilation  of  their  legal  connection 

b)  Brl.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  75. 

c)  StaU,  zwei  Seudschr.  an  die  TTnterzeicliner  d.  Erklär,  v.  15.  Aug.  Brl.  1S4Ö.  EengiUnlerg : 
Ev.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  84SS.  Harms :  Brl.  KZ.  1345.  N.  77.  On  the  other  side :  (£".  Ifenke)  Bemerk,  ü. 
atahls  Sendschr.  Brl.  1S4Ö.    Further  Lit  in  Brans,  Eep.  1346.  vol.  VI.  p.  82ss. 

d)  {Eilers)  Zur  Beurth.  d.  Ministeriums  Eichh.  v.  e.  Mitgliede  desselb.  1S49.  D.is  geistl.  Minist. 
In  Pr.  u.  d.  Min.  Eiclih.  (Bruns,  He]».  1S4S.  voL  XT.  H.  3.  vol.  XIX.  II.  1.) 

e)  Brl.  A.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  GS.  S9.  1S46.  N.  16.     Die  Theologie  des  Berl.  Magistrates.  MQnst.  1S45. 
/)  Brl.  KZ.  1S46.  X.  6.  9.  11.  46.  54.  94.  97.  1S47.  N.  12.  43.  47.  67.  70.  75.     Ulrich,  d.  Verfahren 

Wgen  Eupp.  in  d.  Eecursinstanz  v.  s.  Defensor.  Lps.  1S46.  //  HerOwldi,  Kritik  d.  Euppianisraus. 
\HC>.—Iiupp :  Ue.  d.  christl.  Staat  Künigsb.  1S42.  Die  Symbole  oder  Gotten  Wort  Lps.  1S46.  Off 
mr  Brief  an  Dr.  Bensch.  Lps.  1S47.  Die  freie  ev.  K.  in  Verbind,  m.  Gleichgesinnten.  Altenb.  1S41 
p.  1.     Christl.  Erbauungsbuch  f  freie  ev.  Gemc-indeu.  Kuniirsb.  lS4Cs.  3  yols. 


CHAP.  V.    EVAXG.  CIIUUCII  TILL  1953.    §456.  FEEE  COXGREGATIOXS.    581 

with  any  public  body,  was  uinvilling  to  be  controlled  in  Lis  doctrine  and 
nsages  by  any  authority  but  that  of  tlie  majority  of  his  congregation,  he  was 
deposed  (April,  18-40)  by  the  Consistor}-  of  Magdeburg  from  the  pastoral  office 
wliich  he  held  at  Halle,  for  gross  violations  of  the  established  order  with 
respect  to  the  liturgy  and  the  doctrines  of  the  Church.  (</)  He  collected  a 
small  congregation  professing  to  believe  in  an  always  progressive  revelation, 
and  constituting  a  serious  moral  association  with  agreeable  forms  of  social 
life,  in  which  baiitism  was  left  to  every  one's  own  choice,  and  no  one  claimed 
any  ecclesiastical  character,  (/<)  Merely  as  an  attempt  to  form  a  congrega- 
tion at  Marburg,  a  few  Friends  of  Light  in  that  place  prochiiraed  (Feb.,  1847) 
tliat  they  had  emancipated  themselves  from  the  dualism  of  humanity  and 
divinity,  and  of  time  and  eternity,  exemplified  in  the  person  of  Jesus,  and 
had  planted  themselves  on  the  universal  ft)undation  of  Christianity  and  Prot- 
estantism. They  professed  that  they  had  abandoned  the  fanciful  world  em- 
braced in  the  Church,  wliich  had  become  disgusting  to  them,  and  that  they 
had  now  advanced  to  the  more  fraternal  union  of  a  free  humanity.  (/)  But 
free  congregations  sprung  up  at  first  in  the  Prussian  towns  through  the  efforts 
of  pastors  who  had  either  been  deposed,  or  were  hard  pressed  by  the  author- 
ities. They  recognized  no  definite  confessions  of  faith ;  their  Christianity 
was  a  mere  humanity ;  the  only  remnant  of  the  Cluirch  whicli  they  retained 
in  varioas  degrees,  was  a  system  of  morality  free  to  all  wlio  were  disposed  to 
receive  it ;  and  the}'  looked  upon  themselves  as  a  particular  family  of  the 
great  human  race,  which  was  to  be  united  at  some  future  day  in  the  bonds 
of  peace.  They  kept  up  a  voluntary  form  of  association,  although  at  an 
assembly  of  their  doi)Uties  at  Nordhausen  (Sept.,  1847),  the  representatives 
from  Marburg  and  Halle  proposed  to  give  up  the  name  of  Christian,  thus 
reducing  to  practice  the  fanciful  idea  of  the  riiilahthcx  of  Kiel,  who  only 
wished  to  ignore  Cliristianity,  and  to  use  the  most  general  forms  of  piety,  (k) 
The  consistories  maintained  their  jurisdiction  over  these  separated  congrega- 
tions, and  punishment  was  inflicted  upon  particular  individuals  for  an  unau- 
thorized performance  of  ministerial  acts,  and  the  marriages  solemnized  by 
fhem  were  treated  as  illicit  until  the  EJlcl  of  Tulcration  (March  30,  1847), 
wliich,  on  the  one  hand,  dotined  the  existing  law  so  as,  in  the  sjiirit  of  Frederic 
tlie  Great,  to  permit  an}-  number  of  licensed  chajiels  of  another  failli  to  lie  built 
nround  the  Evangelical  and  Catliolic  national  churches ;  and  on  the  otiier, 
declared  the  principle  that  certain  civil  rigljts  were  not  dependent  upon  cer- 
tain religious  acts  of  a  religious,  society  recognized  by  the  state.  {I)  The 
orthodox  party  was  plea.sed  with  this  law,  because  it  proposed  a  way  by 

p)  G.  Eherty,  Scliutzsclir.  f.  Wlsl.  durch  s.  crwälilten  Vertlicldlgor.  Altcnb.  1S46.  Dlo  AnUsent- 
iAz.  <1.  Pfftmrs  G.  A.  Wlsl.  Actcniiiä.«fiK  dnrpost.  diircli.  G.  A.  Wisl.  Lps.  1?^8. 

/,)  Ril.  KZ.  ISIrt.  N.  508.  S3.  1S4T.  N.  T.  L<"ti.r  to  K.  nl?«lH;rj::  Ihi,l.  19-JC.  N.  41.  Organ: 
Kirclil.  liefoini.  Monatssclir.  f.  freie  rrotostatilen.  Hal.  ISIGss.— 7?.  Jienjltj,  d.  pn>t.  Freunde  u.  d. 
Juden.  Lps.  ISJT. 

i)  lirl.  KZ.  1S4«.  N.  M.  1S4T.  N.  7.  15.  Ji.ii/rfio/fr,  d.  walire  Weson  il  gogenw.  rcl.  Ecf.  in 
UfUlsdil.  Mannli.  1846. 

A)  Bil.  KZ.  1S45.  N.  93.  99.  lS4fi.  N.  102.  1S47.  N.  4.  6.  9.  6-1.  67.  Ed.  B.ilUtr,  d.  dcnt<clie  K.  Son- 
t'.ersl).  1S47.  2  H.— Eiilw.  c.  Bittsclir.  an  deutsclio  Fürsten.  Kiel,  1  MO.  Grunds,  d.  rel.  Walirbilts- 
TriMuide.  K.  ISSn.  Vorirmf.  Nacliriclit  v.  d.  iin  Miirz  1S12.  gcsliftcten  Holst.  PlillaU'llicnvereiii 
eZfiLScli.  f.  liist.  Til.  1S:J9.  H.  2.)         I)  IJil.  KZ.  1>47.  X.  29s. 


582  M<»l)Ki;.N  CIHJliCII  IIISTOUY.     I'KU.  VI.     A.  h.  lC4S-ltrA 

wliich  tlio  Rntionnlists  might  leave  the  Church.  Accordingly,  UhJich  (aftei 
1815),  the  prcaclicr  in  St.  Catharine's  church  at  Magdehnrg,  -was  thus  pro- 
voked to  leave  tlio  Church.  He  however  at  first  refused  to  do  so  on  account 
of  the  henetieial  inthienco  Avliich  he  liopcd  to  exert  upon  the  Great  Church, 
as  his  excmiilary  character  was  zealously  vouched  for  by  Ids  congregation, 
niid  the  city  in  which  he  ministered.  But  when  he  was  asked  by  the  consis 
tory,  whether  ho  would  subsequently  conform  with  punctuality  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  Agenda,  and  in  no  way  assail  the  creed  of  the  Evangelical 
Church,  he  licsitatcd  to  give  an  affirmative  answer  without  some  conditions, 
and  prayed  for  Christian  forbearance  and  indulgence.  Ilewastlien  suspended 
(Sept.,  1847),  that  by  a  regular  process  of  discipline  he  might  be  legally  de- 
posed. Referring  to  the  publicity  of  his  instructions  and  his  example,  ho 
appealed  to  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany,  in  opposition  to  a  consistory 
which,  under  the  influence  of  party  zeal,  he  said  was  about  to  rend  the 
Church  into  a  variety  of  sects,  (w)  and  as  a  defence  in  case  of  necessity 
against  the  present  ecclesiastical  government,  established  a  more  numerous 
congregation  than  had  before  been  formed  (in  the  time  of  its  highest  prosperity 
it  numbered  five  thousand  members).  The  legal  existence  of  this  congregation 
was  secured  by  a  compliance  with  the  terms  of  the  Edict  of  Toleration  (Jan., 
1848),  and  its  permanency  by  a  well-devised  congregational  polity,  through 
which  it  became  rich  in  works  of  charity.  In  its  original  charter  it  bore  also 
a  decidedly  evangelical  character,  («)  but  this  was  endangered  by  its  connec- 
tion with  other  free  congregations,  and  by  the  different  parties  which  had  an 
existence  in  it. — The  great  storm  of  March,  1848,  soon  destroyed  the  odious 
name  of  an  ecclesiastical  administration.  Count  Schwerin,  the  minister  for 
public  worship,  admonislied  the  consistories,  in  accordance  with  the  princi- 
ples of  religious  liberty  adopted  by  the  royal  government,  to  give  the  pref- 
erence to  no  dogmatic  or  theological  party  whatever,  and  to  look  only  that, 
in  the  spirit  of  evangelical  charity,  Christian  truth  be  promoted  on  the  basis 
of  the  word  of  God.  (p)  lie  dissolved  the  Superior  Consistory,  and  gave 
orders  for  a  committee  to  devise  a  synodal  constitution,  to  be  submitted  to  an 
imperial  synod  which  should  soon  after  be  convened,  that  thus  the  Church 
might,  according  to  a  frequently  expressed  wish  of  the  king,  construct  her 
future  organization  for  herself.  (^0  The  outline  of  the  electoral  law  for  the 
ai>pointing  synods,  was  published  and  defended  by  counsellors  of  the  crown 
versed  in  ecclesiastical  law.  It  proposed  that  the  deputies  should  be  elected 
by  the  congregations,  but  that  the  existing  synods  should  be  made  use  of  in 
the  "Western,  and  that  district  and  provincial  synods  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  serve  for  electoral  bodies  in  the  Eastern  provinces,  {q)  But  during  the 
patriotic  movements  which  so  happUy  corresponded  Avith  the  ideals  the  king 
had  formed,  his  piety  was  deeply  wounded  by  the  pedantic  outrage  which 

»0  ridich :  Bekenntnisse.  Lps.  1845.  Christenth.  u.  K.  Lps.  1S46.  IT  Sätze  in  Beziig  a.  d.  Ter- 
pflichtunpsformel  d.  Synode  in  Berl.  Wolfenb.  1S47.— Amtl.  Yerhandll.  (till  July  9,  1S47.)  betr.  den 
Pred  Uhlich.  Magdeb.  1S4T.  Weitere  Mittheill.  in  Sachen  d.  Uhlicli,  ed.  by  bimselC  Wolfenb.  1547. 
Brl.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  19.  65.  1S62.  K.  16.  \.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  154.  D.  A.  Z.  1S47.  N.  199.  316.  319.  Ubl.  Pro- 
!est :  A.  Z.  f.  Christenth.  u.  K.  1347.  N.  BL—JfoeUer  u.  Uhlich.  Lps.  1S4T. 

n)  IW.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  94.  o)  Of  April  24.  Brl.  KZ.  1S4S.  N.  SS. 

p)  Ibid.  N.  31.  36.         <j)  i..  Uichter.  Vortras  ü.  d.  Berufung  c.  ev.  Landcssyn.  Brl.  1S4S. 


CHAP.  V.    EVAXG.  CIIUKCII  TILL  1S53.    § -«.C.  LADENBEEG.    RAUMEK.      5S3 

aimed  to  deprive  royalty  of  its  claim  to  exist  by  the  grace  of  God.  Before 
the  appointed  synod  could  actually  come  together,  the  revolution  "vvas  over- 
thrown, and  the  Evangelical  Church  Journ.-il  denounced  the  clamor  for  a 
s^ynodal  constitution  as  an  ill-concealed  enmity  to  Christ,  and  the  whole 
scheme  of  an  election  by  the  ])eople  as  a  denial  of  God.(?')  The  provisional 
ministry  of  Ladenherg  inquired  (Jan.,  1849)  of  the  consistories,  faculties,  and 
select  men  of  learning,  what  measures  should  bo  taken  to  secure  to  the  Evan- 
gelical Church,  by  a  constitution,  the  independent  management  of  its  own  affairs. 
The  numerous  replies  which  it  received,  were  filled  with  doubts  as  to  the  ex- 
pediency of  any  synod  which  might  be  chosen  by  the  people  to  form  a  constitu- 
tion, (a)  The  constitution  of  Jan.  31,  1850,  granted  by  the  crown,  contained 
many  criticisms  on  itself,  but  the  deputies  united  in  it,  and  swore  allegiance 
to  it.  "With  respect  to  religion,  the  whole  essential  spirit  of  the  German  fun- 
damental laws  was  retained;  but  as  the  opposite  parties,  the  one  rejoicing 
and  the  other  lamenting,  had  fallen  into  the  notion  that  the  state,  by  its  sep- 
aration from  the  Church,  had  become  unchristian  and  atheistic,  it  was  added, 
that  whenever  the  state  made  any  regulations  with  reference  to  religion, 
they  should  be  on  the  basis  of  Christianity.  A  collegiate  supreme  council 
for  deciding  upon  the  internal  atlairs  of  the  Church,  was  formed,  by  the 
order  of  the  king,  from  the  evangelical  portion  of  the  ministry  of  public 
worship,  and  a  system  of  rules  for  the  regulation  of  congregational  afiairs, 
was  bestowed  upon  the  six  eastern  provinces.  (/)  The  supreme  ecclesiastical 
council  from  tliat  period  governed  the  Church  in  the  king's  name,  and  tan 
Ea\imei\  the  minister  for  public  worship,  in  the  presence  of  the  Chambers 
declared  tliat  the  new  doctrine  was,  tliat  the  Evangelical  Church  exercises 
her  constitutional  right  independently  to  regulate  and  administer  her  atlairs, 
by  its  entire  separation  from,  and  consequent  independence  of  the  state,  and 
its  government  according  to  its  ancient  constitution,  by  the  sovereign  as  its 
most  prominent  member,  {n)  By  this  happy  thought,  anxiety  {V)r  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Cliurch  was  tranquillized,  and  the  Chambers  succeeded  in 
repelling  all  complaints  about  violations  of  those  articles  of  the  fundamental 
law  of  the  state  which  relate  to  the  independence  of  the  Evangelical  Church.  (*■) 
The  plan  for  congregational  government,  which  was  looked  upon  as  the  basis  of 
true  ecclesiastical  freedom,  contained  a  suspicious  limitation  of  the  power  of 
choosing  thg  vestries,  and  an  extraordinary  requisition  that  the  jirivato  mem- 
bers should  be  bound  bj^  the  three  principal  creeds,  the  confessions  of  the 
Reforaiation,  and  certain  general  laws  for  the  Church  which  were  j'et  un- 
known. In  some  of  the  Ciistcrn  provinces,  this  plan  w;w  i)rotested  against 
by  parties  oi)poscd  to  each  oilier,  but  it  was  at  last  gradual!}'  admitted  into 


r)  Brl.  KZ.  1849.  N.  8. 

«)  Aiiitl.  Gutjulilon  <1.  Vorf.  d.  cv.  K.  In  Tr.  hcfr.   Iin  AiiflrBgo  I'urch  L  Kiclitor.  l?rl.  1«-J9. 

1)  Of  Jan.  2C.  I'^-lt».  mid  Juno  2'.l,  ISSn.  AlUrli.'clistiT  Krins».  botr.  d.  Grundzfiirc  e.  Gemeinde- 
Ord.  u.  (L  IClnsotx.  d.  Ev.  Oberklrclicnr.  nob>t  Aktiiist.  I5rl.  is:*.  Comp.  J.  .Mullet;  Dcntscbc 
Zeltsch.  f.  cbr.  Wiss.  IS:.I.  X.  Iss. 

v)  Feb.  8.  ls.51.   Krl.  KZ.  \<>\.  N.  18.  1,\  IT. 

v)  Die  Selb.'itändigk.  d.  ov.  Landesk.  u.  ihre  Vollzleluing  dnrcb  div»  Ciiltusn\ln.  Aktenm-i-ssig  dan- 
gest, u.  dir  zweiten  I'r.  Kammer  nebcrreicbt  v.  Jona-s  Sydow,  Eltestcr,  Kraus«,  Llsco,  Mueüer. 
Url.  1S51. 


584  MUDKKN  Cllirucn  IllSrOItV.     PKIJ.  vi.     a.  D.  164S-18M. 

most  of  the  congregations,  (w)  Tlie  Hiiiircinc  ecclcsiasti(-al  council  adde«! 
many  siilutary  provisions  for  the  order,  discipline,  and  temporal  wants  of  the 
national  Cliurch,  but  under  great  disadvantages  on  account  of  its  origin,  and 
ill  the  midst  of  much  opposition  to  its  jurisdiction,  (x)  As  a  natural  result 
of  the  political  reaction,  tlic  power  of  the  orthodox  party  was  increased,  and 
its  elo(iuent  legal  advocate  endeavored  to  show  that  the  revolution  was  the 
appropriate  consequence  of  liationalism ;  that  the  es.sential  spirit  of  both  was 
the  alienation  of  man  from  his  God  ;  (y)  that  authority  should  henceforth  take 
the  place  of  the  majority ;  and  that  the  king  might,  under  certain  pious 
forms,  be  properly  exonerated  from  his  sinful  oath  to  support  the  fundamen- 
tal civil  laws,  (z)  Some  ecclesiastical  authorities  at  ordinations  demanded  a 
stricter  adherence  to  the  articles  of  faith  than  had  been  usually  required ; 
and  even  pastors,  who  could  receive  the  confession  in  only  some  peculiar 
ideal  sense,  were  subjected  to  examinations  which  had  long  been  discontinued, 
and  which  terminated  in  their  deposition,  (a)  Questions  were  also  proposed  to 
candidates  for  theological  professorships,  which  could  not  be  answered,  as  was 
required,  in  the  affirmative,  without  a  renunciation  of  all  theological  investi- 
gation, (h)  The  free  congregations  (numbering  about  forty  in  Prussia  and  tlie 
contiguous  countries),  which  had  in  1848,  like  almost  all  associations,  taken 
some  part  in  politics,  and  whose  leaders  had  to  some  extent  been  involved  in 
the  movements  of  the  day,  had  nearly  all  their  houses  of  worship  closed  by 
the  police  under  the  new  law  against  political  societies.  These  proceedings 
were  partially  confirmed  by  the  judicial  courts,  but  some  measures  of  the 
police  seemed  so  inconsistent  with  the  freedom  of  conscience  guarantied  by 
the  fundamental  laws,  that  inquiries  were  instituted  respecting  them  even  in 
the  Chambers  (1852),  where  the  government  had  avowed  its  determination 
to  exterminate  by  every  legal  means  the  whole  system  of  dissent,  (f)  The 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council  excommunicated  all  the  free  congregations, 
without  reference  to  the  various  tendencies  among  them,  and  pronounced 
Iheir  baptisms  invalid,  (d)  yet  the  civil  courts  punished  every  official  act  of 
their  ministers  as  an  invasion  of  the  clerical  office,  (e)  But  no  mere  liberty 
without  religious  energy,  nor  connections  with  even  impious  men,  who  denied 
the  existence  of  a  living  God,  nor  popular  adulation,  to  whicii  their  best  lead- 
ers felt  constrained  to  resort,  nor  persecution  itself,  have  been  found  sufficient 
for  the  salvation  of  these  people.  (/)  Hupp,  however,  endeavored  to  obtain 
a  higher  degree  of  purity,  by  a  legal  dissolution  of  the  old,  and  the  formation 


«•)  Allg.  KBlatt  f.  d.  ev.  Doutsclil.  1S52.  >f.  8os?.  1S53.  N.  36is.—G.  Schwerins  Protest :  Brl. 
KZ.  1951.  N.  65. 

a-)  Aktenstücke  a,  d.  Verwalt  d.  Abth.  d.  Minist,  f.  d.  innern  ev.  KS.^ehen.  Brl,  ISöO,  Aktenet. 
».  d.  Vcrw.  d.  ev.  OKRaths.  Brl.  lS51s.  5  II. 

y)  F.  J.  Sta?il,  was  ist  die  Eev.  ?  BrL  1S52.  Yet  Comp.  Ihid.  d.  rrotest.inf.  .lis  polit  PriDci;:. 
(Ev.  KZ.  1S.>3.  N.  2S.) 

z)  Briefe  u.  Staatskunst  Brl.  1S5.3.    Tet  Ev.  KZ.  lSo3.  X.  Is. 

0)  U'.  /'.  Sintenis,  Moellers  Wirken  in  Consist,  n.  in  d.  Gen.  Super.  Lps.  1S49.  tK  II.  Saltser  e 
Glanbensgericht  in  der  Mitte  iL  19  Jalirh.  Lps.  1S50. 

1)  Zeitsch.  f.  unirtc  K.  1S5.3.  vol.  XV.  N.  SS.         c)  Brl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  C.  9. 

d)  Aktcnst  d.  OKRatlis.  H.  2.  p.  86ss.        e)  Brl.  KZ.  1S51.  N.  3T.  77.  1S52.  N.  11. 
/)   Wiissfjerlier,  Douai's  neue  rel.  Meusehv.  1S51.     C.  Z^chUsclie,  d.  freie  Gemeinde,  ihre  Vi'irk 
Mink.  »1.  ihre  StlnunlTirer  in  d.  Br.  Sachsen.  Il.ilbrst.  1;50. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIICRCn  TILL  1S53.    §  -150.  LUTIIEHANISM.  585 

of  a  new  but  small  congregation  (Oct.,  1853),  in  which  the  Bible  was  re- 
garded as  the  original  source  of  trutli,  and  the  imitation  of  Christ  was  made 
the  supremo  end  of  life,  iß)  The  orthodox  portion,  on  the  other  hand,  which 
had  recently  become  so  artificially  prominent,  was  compelled  once  more,  and  in 
more  general  relations,  to  be  as  exclusive  as  Luther  liimself.  I5ut  these  Luther- 
ans were  so  confident  of  success,  and  so  little  troubled  witli  conscientious  scru- 
ples, tliat  although  they  had  before  formed  an  association  at  Leipsic  composed 
of  clergymen  belonging  to  the  ditlereut  national  churches,  and  in  friendly 
connection  with  the  Separatists  for  tlic  maintenance  of  the  Lutheran  confes- 
sion ;  and  although,  according  to  this  association,  tlie  modern  notion  of  anion 
in  the  fundamental  doctrines  of  the  two  confessions  was  nothing  but  a  syn- 
cretism of  many  chameleon  forms,  (//)  they  refused  to  attacli  tlicniselves  to 
the  Church  of  Lutlier  which  tlie  Separatists  liad  formed,  but  under  the  con- 
duct of  the  fugitive  president  of  tlie  Consistory  of  Magdeburg,  they  consti- 
tuted over  the  graves  of  the  Reformers  a  league  (Sept.,  IS-iO)  for  carrying  out 
the  Lutheran  conJ'ession,  even  in  its  provisions  for  public  worship,  congrega- 
tional order,  and  the  government  of  the  national  Church.  (/)  In  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  they  had  in  their  favor  the  letter  of  the  law,  and  the  coun- 
tenance of  the  rulers,  and  in  Electoral  Hesse  they  had  at  least  the  latter 
advantage.  Li  Bavaria,  although  the  younger  clergy  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Rhine  had  been  educated  at  Erlangen  under  their  influence,  the  more 
zft-alous  portion  declared  that  they  had  already  taken  the  staff  to  leave  a 
Church  whose  altar  had  been  polluted  by  the  admission  of  tlie  members  of 
the  united  CImrch,  and  that  they  only  waited  to  see  if  it  could  not  be  freed 
from  this  impurity.  (Z)  Li  Prussia,  they  demanded  that  the  Union,  which 
they  declared  had  never  been  legally  formed,  and  denounced  as  confusiun  and 
revolution,  should  be  utterly  dissolved.  Internal  dissensions,  like  those 
wliich  usually  distract  a  triumphant  party,  began  already  to  prevail,  princi- 
pally with  respect  to  the  question,  whether  those  invested  with  the  clerical 
office  were  endowed  with  special  grace  as  the  sole  dejiositaries  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal power.  (/)  By  the  separated  Lutherans  their  whole  course  was  declared 
to  be  a  lie.  Gucrickc,  the  confessor  of  Luthoranism,  and  afterwards  much 
abused  as  an  apostate  from  it,  once  more  abandoned  the  fellowship  of  the 
rigid  Lutherans,  where  ho  had  vainly  hoped  to  find  a  Christian  spirit  and 
freedom  for  a  Lutheran  conscience.  (//()  AVhile  those  who  were  faithful  to 
the  Union  charged  the  supremo  council  with  having  sacrificed  it,  jjrayer  was 
ofi'cred  in  a  Lutheran  jjuljiit  for  an  orthodox  supreme  council,  and  even  then 
the  existence  of  that  which  then  ruled  the  Church  was  dec'ared  to  be  a 
sin.  (/<)     It  however  agreed  that  it  regarded  only  those  congregations  in 

0)  D.  A.  Z.  1S53.  X.  25.'}.        /i)  Ev.  KZ.  1849.  N.  SI. 

i)  I5rl.  KZ.  IMS.  N.  04.  1^9.  N.  TT.-Dlo  Lil|i/.clt;cr  Koiiforeiiz  am  ;U.  Aug.  nnj  1.  Sept  1S53. 
{Kiihiiin,  it.  (1.  Uiiionsiloetrln.)  Lps.  IS.'JS. 

k)  15rl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  K5.  IS.VJ.  N.  1.  Ilommd,  llcclit  <1.  K.,  Unl..n  u.  <1.  lay.  I>rot.  Lttudesk. 
Aiipp.  1S.')3. 

1)  J.  W.  F.  irößiug,  Oninrtsätzo  ev.  liitli.  KVirf.  Erl.  (1S50.)  \ir>\.—Fn,rkf,  z.  Lclire  v.  0.  K 
(Zeltsch.  f.  luUi.  Th.  1S52.  H.  1.) 

to)  Gueriikr,  Vorsiilitillclie.s  fi.  brcnncnik'  KEragi-n  d.  Ocpcnw.  Lps.  1S52. 

n)  I!rl.  KZ.  1S.V2.  N.  94.  Olto,  Sup.  In  N.iii:.',-iril,  In  d.  Pciiksoli.  d.  Itith.  Vorolns  In  roinincrn,  s 
d.  Antwort  (Ik-s  OKHhIIis:  Akt.tist.  II.  a.  p.  •oO>.*.     Comp.  Olio,  Monat.ssclirifl.  l.sM&s. 


5S6  MODKRN  CIIL'nCH  IIISTOUV.     PKIl.  VI.     A.  D.  1C1S-1S.'A 

Silosia  as  truly  united  in  tlic  Confession,  wliich  could  show  the  original  docU' 
nicnts  reliitiuR  to  the  Union  ;  it  delivered  tlio  whole  of  Pomerania,  which 
really  jxissosscd  tliem,  over  to  the  exclusively  Lutheran  Contes-sion ;  and  it 
concodeil  tliat  particular  i)astors  niiglit  disj)ense  at  will  witli  tlie  breaking  of 
the  broad,  which  was  looked  ui)()n  as  the  symbol  of  tlie  Union,  and  that  the 
Silesiaii  consistory  might  separate  into  three  parts,  so  as  to  form  a  Lutheran, 
a  Kefornicd,  and  a  United  division,  with  a  council  for  each  Confession,  {o) 
Even  the  Evangelical  Church  Journal  had  already  long  doubted  with  regard 
to  the  entliusiasra  it  had  displayed  for  the  Union  under  Frederic  William  IIL, 
and  it  found  an  occasion  for  a  change  of  course  in  its  opposition  to  a  Union 
wliich  absorbed  all  the  Confessions.  (/>)  The  king  made  known  to  the  Lu- 
theran association  (1850)  his  desire  to  establish  consistories  and  superior 
authorities  in  tlie  Church,  which  in  the  eastern  provinces  should  be  Lutheran, 
with  Eeforuied  assessors ;  (2)  and  he  gave  orders  that,  in  order  to  preserve 
the  independence  of  the  two  confessions  in  the  Union,  the  supreme  ecclesias- 
tical council  should  consist  of  members  from  both  confessions,  and  that  all 
business  which  could  projierly  be  decided  by  but  one  of  the  confessions, 
should  be  left  to  the  votes  of  those  Avho  belonged  to  that  confession.  The 
same  division  was  also  to  bo  made  in  the  consistories.  (/■)  The  supreme  coun- 
cil separated  into  tAvo  divisions,  according  as  they  were  members  of  the 
Lutheran  or  the  Eeformed  confessions.  Dr.  Nitzsch  alone  preferred  to  adhere 
to  the  consensus  of  the  two  confessions,  and  was  therefore  released  from  all 
participation  in  the  decision  of  confessional  questions,  but  he  was  held  up  as 
the  patron  of  the  congregations  united  in  the  confession  by  the  original  docu- 
ment. (.<)  These  proceedings  were  regarded  by  the  Lutherans  as  a  legal  dis- 
solution of  the  Union,  and  they  now  therefore  demanded  in  Luther's  name, 
that  the  monster  of  the  authorities  of  the  united  Church  which  still  existed 
should  be  completely  abolished ;  that  purely  Lutheran  faculties,  or  at  least 
professors,  should  be  appointed ;  and  that  the  patrimony  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  should  be  restored,  {t)  Even  those  advocates  of  orthodoxy  who  had 
formerly  been  moderate  in  their  demands,  now  raised  the  watchword  that 
those  Avho  governed  the  Church  appeared  to  give  their  countenance  not  to 
the  Union,  but  to  its  opponents,  and  that  the  natural  result  of  this  should  be 
the  separation  of  clergymen  and  congregations,  until  finally  the  royal  regent 
of  the  Church  Avould  be  the  only  individual  belonging  to  the  united  body.  («) 
Indeed,  the  old  traditions  and  necessary  policy  peculiar  to  the  HohenzoUern 
fomily  seemed  entirely  forgotten  in  the  pleasure  which  all  seemed  to  feel  in 
the  separation  of  the  confessions.  The  king  then  avowed  his  just  displeasure 
at  the  unfair  interpretation  given  to  his  orders  of  the  previous  year.  lie  de- 
clared that  he  had  never  intended  to  disturb  the  Union,  and  thus  produce  a 


o\  Aktenst  H.  1.  p.  408S.  II.  2.  p.  14ss.   BrI.  KZ.  1S53.  H.  30.    Aktenst  A.  Abtli.  d.  Minist,  p.  TOss 

V)  t'irst  in  1844.  N.  2s.  1847.  N.  1.— 1S49.  N.  5ss.   :S51.  N.  4. 

'/)  PrinteJ  by  Ilase,  K.  d.  dt  Eelclis.  p.  27T. 

»•)  Order  of  the  Cabinet,  March  6, 1852 :  Brl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  S3.  Instructions  for  tlie  consisturits- 
Ihid.  N.  41.         «)  Ibid.  X.  C;3. 

0  Open  Dcclar.  in  tlic  Monatsschr.  June,  1S52.  Lutli.  Gen.  Conf.  at  Witt  Sept.  1S52. :  Brl.  KZ 
19:.2.  N.  S2.   A.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  105. 

a)  Brl.  KZ.  1?Ö2.  X.  61.  00.     Deutsclie  Zeit^cli.  f.  clir.  Wiss.  1853.  N.  Iss.  lOss. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANO.  CnUT.Cn  TILL  1S5;5.    §  457.    BERLIN  EVANG.  CONFER.      5S7 

division  of  the  national  Church,  nor  to  renew  tlie  old  controversy  about  tlio 
confessions.  The  ecclesiastical  authorities  were  therefore  directed  to  oi)pose 
all  attempts  to  separate  the  two  confessions,  to  allow  no  synods,  or  even  indi- 
vidual clergymen  or  congregation.«,  to  Liy  aside  tlie  name  of  Evangelical  Con- 
gregations, or  the  ritual  prescribed  for  the  Union ;  and  only  on  tlie  united 
request  of  a  clergyman  and  his  congregation,  after  all  proper  means  and  per- 
suasions had  been  tried,  to  permit  ])articular  congregations  to  deviate  from 
the  regulations  prescribed  for  the  Evangelical  National  Church,  (r)  Two 
views  of  tliis  proceeding  were  expressed  among  tlie  Lutherans:  one  was  that 
of  painful  disappointment  from  a  conviction  that  this  order  of  the  cabinet 
was  a  complete  renunciation  of  the  previous  legislation  ;  and  the  otlier  looked 
npon  it  as  a  mere  check  to  the  wavering  course  of  the  whole  policy  for  the 
Union.  Or) 

§  457.  Comhinntions. 
The  Emngclical  Conference  assembled  at  Berlin  in  consequence  of  u  wish 
expressed  by  the  Kings  of  Wurtemberg  and  Prussia,  that  the  Evangelical 
Church  of  Germany  might  be  more  perfectly  united,  and  continued  in  ses- 
sion from  January  fith  to  February  Htli,  IS-iG.  Some  hopes  were  enter- 
tained in  it  of  forming  a  union  by  a  stricter  con.>truction  of  doctrines,  and 
some  violent  measures  were  proposed  for  the  accomplishment  of  such  an  ob- 
ject. But  as  the  great  majority  were  only  in  favor  of  securing,  on  the  basis 
of  the  confessions,  the  two  fundamental  doctrines  which  asserted  that  the 
Scriptures  were  the  only  source  of  the  knowledge  of  saving  truth,  and  that 
justification  was  by  faith,  tliis  dii)lomatic  a.ssombly  from  its  nature  could 
only  exchange  views  and  make  arrangements  for  an  intercourse  between  the 
ditferent  parts  of  the  common  church  by  annual  as-emblios.  ((/).  The  Church 
Conference^  which  had  been  for  a  while  suspended,  was  resumed  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  a  private  company  of  persons,  and  of  a  journal  used  as  an  officio 
organ  by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  all  Germany,  (b)  It  was  held  after 
Pentecost  1852  and  1853  at  the  foot  of  the  "NVartburg,  and  was  intended  to 
be  a  meeting  of  deputies  from  tlie  .supremo  autliorities  of  mo:-»t  of  the  national 
German  cluirclies  for  confidential  conference,  but  with  no  legi.slative  powers.  (<•) 
But  nltliongh  these  spiritual  and  .«ecular  authorities  of  the  Church  stood  in 
this  independent  position  with  respect  to  each  other,  some  of  thorn  believed 
in  tb.e  development  of  Protestantism  and  in  the  Union,  while  others  saw  no 
reality  in  either.  But  as  all  were  anxious  to  preserve  the  blessing  of  some 
visible  form  of  unity  for  tbo  whole  Protestant  Church  of  Germany,  questions 
of  a  deeper  and  more  dreaded  nature  were  held  at  a  distance.  The  expe- 
rience and  tlie  wi.shes  of  ditferent  individuals  were  here  compared,  and  a 

«•)  Cabinet  Order  of  July  12, 1S58:   Zcltsch.  f.  nnlrte  ev.  K.  1958.  N.  85. 

If)  Luth.  Gtn.  Coiif.  at  Witt.  Sept  1S53:  Ev.  KZ.  ISM.  N.  S3.  Comp.  73.  79s.  Counter  assertion 
of  tlic  king  to  tile  WltL  Conf.  of  Oct.  11 :   I).  A.  Z.  1853  N.  2T3. 

a)  Lllernr.  rrojrriinimo:  C.  tV/Hiun»!  (p.  572.  nt.  ?.)  OfTlclal  action  :  Locciimcr  Artikel.  (Pio  Vor- 
»cliliUrc  (1.  Dr.  Sncthlngc  k  Riippstrln  z.  Verein  d.  ev.  K.  Ueutsclil.  nilt|;ellieilt  v.  rerer.,  Grim.  1SJ6. 
BrI.  KZ.  IStC.  N.  7.  11.  1\  3:3 )— Account  In  I5le<lermnnn.  nnsre  Ge^enw.  u.  Zuk.  1310.  U.  2.  Die  Re- 
tnltiite  <1.  Hcrl.  Konf.  I.ps.  ISIO.     Comp.  IJruns,  R.p.  1^4(1.  v..i.  VI.  p.  22Ss.-(. 

b)  All;;.  Kirclienblntt  fTir  d.  ov.  Deiitscliiand,  ed.  by  C.  O.  Moser.  Stutt«.  I.  1S52.  II.  1S.M. 

c)  Protocols:  KDlatt.  \V>i.  N.  13.  1S58.  N.  29ss.  BrI.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  17.  3C.  89.  45».  1858.  N.  44  47. 


588  MODKUN  ciirucir  iiisTouv.   i*ki:.  vi.   a.  d.  icjs-iws. 

cTioicc  c(»llertion  of  liyiniis  I'or  a  general  liyiiiii-book  was  adoptcil,  (J)  tlioiigli 
not  till,  in  tlio  conniiittcü  of  invited  persons  conversant  willi  sucii  matters, 
ono  party  contciwling  for  tlio  adoption,  at  every  liazard,  of  tlio  old  text,  had 
been  excluded,  and  another,  wishing  to  preserve  the  ecclesiastical  poetry  of 
the  eiglitccnth  century,  had  been  set  aside  without  a  hearing  of  its  peculiar 
views.  (<■)  A  desire  which  had  been  expressed  at  a  secular  festival  on  tlie 
field  of  Lutzen,  to  erect  a  monument  to  the  heroic  death  of  Gustavus  Adol- 
pluls,  by  obtaining  minute  contributions  from  the  people,  was  so  modified, 
Avhcn  the  sovereign  himself  erected  a  monument  over  the  Swedish  stone,  as 
to  lead  to  the  idea  of  a  charitable  institution  bearing  his  name,  to  sustain  those 
evangelical  congregations  which,  in  the  neighboring  Catholic  countries,  were 
nnable  to  endure  the  expense  needful  for  their  ecclesiastical  support.  The 
Gustavus  AdoJphus  Institution  in  Saxony,  with  some  assistance  from  Sweden, 
collected  (after  1834)  a  small  capital,  tlie  interest  of  which  was  barely  suffi- 
cient to  render  the  necessity  of  such  aid  more  apparent.  Finally  an  appeal 
from  Darmstadt  (Oct,  31,  1841)  produced  another  effort  in  connection  with 
the  Saxon  institution,  though  in  a  superior  style  (1842).  An  assembly  was 
then  held  at  Frankfort  (1843),  at  which  a  wise  division  of  labor  was  made 
among  various  auxiliary  associations,  with  a  central  committee  at  Leipsic,  and 
a  superior  movable  assembly  of  deputies  returning  at  fixed  intervals.  The 
result  of  all  these  proceedings  was  the  establishment  of  an  Evangelical  Society 
of  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Institution,  which,  as  a  Protestant  German  popular 
cause,  collects  the  means  for  sustaining  and  building  churches  for  many  poor 
and  almost  extinct  congregations.  (/)  The  German  governments,  though  in 
some  cases  with  reluctance,  yielded  to  the  popular  influence  of  this  associa- 
tion, though  in  Bavaria  it  was  proscribed  until  1848,  on  the  ground  that  it 
was  hostile  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  inconsistent  with  the  German  char- 
acter, (g)  As  it  was  founded  principally  by  the  liberal  party,  Hengstenberg 
pronounced  the  association  a  great  lie,  {h)  and  the  Prussian  crown  was  unwil- 
ling to  sustain  any  but  an  independent  Prussian  society  under  the  patronage 
of  the  king.  (J)  But  as  every  effort  was  likely  to  be  paral^-zed  by  this  sepa- 
ration, the  government  finally  yielded  to  the  popular  will,  and  at  the  assem- 
bly at  Gottingen  (1844)  the  Prussian  deputies  extended  to  it  the  hand  of 
brotherhood,  {k)  The  internal  importance  of  the  society,  in  spite  of  the  lim- 
ited nature  of  its  external  object,  resulted  from  the  fact  that  it  was  a  neutral 
holy  ground  on  which  all  parties  in  the  Evangelical  Church  could  meet,  and 
on  which  that  Church  could  once  more  be  seen  as  an  undivided  power.  When 
therefore,  at  the  assembly  at  Gottingen,  it  was  asked  that  more  definite  quali- 
fications should  be  named  for  admission  to  the  association  than  a  mere  agree- 


d)  Deutsches  cv.  Kircliengesangbuch  in  150  Kernliedern. 

<■)  J.  Geffcken,  d.  nllg.  cv.  Gesangb.  u.  d.  darüber  geführten  Vcrhandll.  Ilamb.  1S5-9. 

/)  Leipz.  Z.  1832.  N.  164.  IS.33.  N.  11.  A.  K.  Z.  1835.  N.  9.  66.  1S41.  N.  19.  SO.  17-2.  159.  203.  1542. 
N.  107.  133.  139. 174.  Organ,  since  the  Assctiib.  at  Frankfort :  Der  Bote  des  er.  Vereins  d.  G.  A.  Stif 
Inrg.  issued  by  A'.  7Annnerm<tnn. 

O)  A.  K.  Z.  isu.  X.  34.  45.    Brl.  K.  Z.  15^19.  X.  76.    - 

A)  Kv.  K.  Z.  1*44.  X.  6.  yet  comp.  7ss.    A.  K.  Z.  1S44.  X.  41. 

t)  Oiblnct  ord<r  of  I'.-l..  14.  1S44  :  ücport  of  the  O.  A.  St  I.  p.  SSs. 

i")    Ibid.  p.  2-0  ^  !\r!   K.  Z.  1S44  X.  15.  17.  72. 


CHAP.  V.     EVANG.  CIIÜRCn  TILL  15ö3.     §  457.  GUSTATUS  ADOLPIIL'S  SOCC.    5SG 

ment  with  the  principles  of  the  Evangelical  Church,  the  request  was  at  once 
rejected.  (/)  Dr.  Rupp  was  sent  by  the  superior  association  of  Königsberg  as 
its  deputy  to  the  assembly  at  Berlin  in  1840.  A  vote  being  taken  on  the  va- 
lidity of  Ills  credentials  on  the  nlglit  of  September  7th,  a  small  majority  ap» 
peared  against  recognizing  him  as  a  member  of  the  assembly.  (//<)  Although 
the  general  sentiment  was  averse  to  a  perversion  of  the  society  to  objects 
foreign  to  its  nature,  yet  the  orthodox  party  demanded  his  exclusion  as  an 
apostate,  and  they  were  joined  by  some  of  the  liberal  deputies.  This  was 
done  by  the  latter  either  because  they  wished  to  prevent  the  society  being 
made  an  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  therefore  allowed  the  Evangelical 
Church  to  be  postponed  for  the  Established  Church,  or  they  had  a  superior 
regard  for  the  success  of  the  society  which  secTncd  of  special  Importance  in 
that  particular  locality.  Immediately  was  hoard  in  every  part  of  Protestani 
Germany  a  cry  of  extreme  displeasure  at  this  action,  and  an  immense  ma- 
jority appeared  in  the  local  societies  in  various  ways,  offering  protests  and 
asserting  that  the  decision  at  Berlin  was  based  upon  a  false  idea  of  tlio  Evan- 
gelical Church,  and  that  tlio  free  alliance  of  love  had  degenerated  into  an 
inquisitorial  tribunal.  (;/)  On  tlie  other  hand,  the  otlier  party  tlireatened  to 
withdraw,  and  eve-ii  then  Gustavus  Adolphus  Societies  with  separate  ecclesi- 
astical connections  had  been  formed  at  Koenigsburg  and  Berlin,  and  were 
readily  licensed  bj'  the  government,  but  never  exhibited  much  life,  (o)  The 
new  elections  threw  the  power  in  the  assembly  at  Darmstadt  (18-17)  into  the 
hands  of  those  opposed  to  the  decision  at  Berlin ;  but  as  all  dreaded  the  im- 
piety of  a  schism,  as  Kupp  had  witlidrawn,  and  as  tlie  subsequent  course  of 
the  free  congregations  themselves  was  such  as  to  render  their  right  to  a  mem- 
bership in  the  Evangehcal  Church  very  doubtful,  the  parties  agreed  tliat  with- 
out reconsidering  the  decision  at  Berlin,  whenever  it  became  necessary  to 
act  npon  the  exclusion  of  a  deputy  for  his  want  of  a  membership  in  the 
Evangelical  Church,  the  decision  should  belong  to  the  superior  assembly  un- 
der such  regulations  as  would  give  no  room  for  temporary  p:issions  and  preju- 
dices, and  as  would  allow  the  true  majority  at  the  time  to  show  itself.  It 
was  resolved  that  no  dei)uty  from  a  society  unconnected  with  the  established 
churches  should  be  entitled  to  a  seat,  (p)  After  a  decline  in  consequence  of 
the  sway  of  the  political  spirit  of  1848,  the  interest  in  this  cause  annually 
increased  as  in  former  times  until  1853,  when  the  yearly  revenue  amounted 
to  $38,000.  Numerous  churches  liave  been  erected,  those  which  were  decay- 
ing have  been  repaireil,  and  those  outposts  of  Protestantism  wliicli  seemed 
almost  lost  have  had  their  confidence  revived.     The  idea  of  an  Evangelical 

0  Report  of  ihe  O.  A.  St  I.  p.  869sa. 

»?()  Protocoll  Ü.  «1.  SltzuiiRil.  5.  Haiiptvers.  Lps.  15JÖ.  4.  Comp.  Ilrl.  KZ.  1?4'>.  N.  74s.  76*.  J. 
Gcffckfn,  lU'rIclit  ü.  <lie  zu  Horlln  pi'li.  Haiiptvers.  llanib.  HIO. 

n)  P.oport  iif  the  O.  A.  1^6.  p.  295,-s.  Brl.  KZ.  1*40.  X.  98.  95.  C.  Schwarz,  Dr.  P.upps  Aus.u-liliess. 
iral.  1S4G.  TheiU,  Riipp's  Aussclillo*.'».  Lp«.  lS4i).  Riipp.  d.  G.  A.  Verein  u.  d.  ev.  K.  Altenb.  1S47. 
EUe^Ur  u.  Kninin-,  1st  d.  O.  \.  V.  ein  Landesktrclil.  o.  e.  cv.  prutestantlsclier ?  IK  DitUnbtrger,  ü. 
d.  Aussohl.  V.  IJ.  Ileldelb.  1S47.  For  tlio  decision  :  ('.  Lampf,  ü.  d.  Aussclil.  d.  Dr.  Kupp.  Lps.  1S46. 
Lücke  u.  ninutnn,  Ü.  d.  Niclitnnnahiiio  d.  Künigsb.  Deputlrten.  Hanib.  1>47.  De  Wettt,  d.  AusscliL 
d.  Dr.  P.upp.  Lp.t.  l-i47.— Krisis  d.  G.  A.  Vereins.  Wocli.>ieIrtfden.  v.  /'.  ifallet  u.  H.  IIupMd.  Hal 
1847.  comp.  KiMiter,  It>>|>.  l'^47.  H.  Cs. 

0)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S47.  .\.  5.  Brl.  K.  Z.  1S47.  N.  0.  M.  09*.  75.        ;>)  IhUl.  N.  79. 


500  MODKKN  CIIUKCII  IllSTOi:V.     I'Ki:.  VI.    A.  J).  164S-1S.*.3. 

Cliurch  Alll(tui'c  wjis  slarteil  in  a,  circle  of  friends  .'it  tlio  Sandliof  near  Frank, 
fort,  but  tlic  association  itsolf  was  formed  by  persons  of  a  similar  siiirit,  called 
tofj^ethcr  by  u  public  ap[)eal  in  the  Castle  church  of  Wittenberg  CSept.  18iS). 
Its  general  aim  was  to  constitute,  in  a  time  of  fearful  division,  a  firm  bulwark 
for  the  faith,  and  the  two  special  objects  which  it  had  ia  view  have  been  well 
represented  in  the  persons  of  the  two  jurists  von  Bethnann-JIolltccg  and 
StahJ^  who  have  been  annually  but  regularly  elected  the  Presidents  of  its 
yearly  meetings.  One  of  these  was  to  satisfy  in  some  practicable  form  tlie 
desire  tlien  generally  felt  for  a  German  National  Church,  and  the  other  was 
to  modify  the  Union,  for  which  the  new  Prussian  regulations  had  left  no  other 
distinction  than  the  permission  for  each  confession  to  follow  out  its  own  pecu- 
liar system  of  government,  until  it  should  become  a  mere  confederation,  (q) 
Hence,  in  the  original  charter,  the  Church  Alliance  was  declared,  on  the  one 
hand,  not  to  be  a  union  in  which  the  confessional  cliurches  are  to  be  abol- 
ished, but  a  confederation  of  all  those  ecclesiastical  bodies  which  stood  on 
the  basis  of  the  reformed  confessions,  viz.,  the  Lutheran,  the  Keformed,  the 
United,  and  the  Moravian  Churches,  for  the  promotion  of  certain  common 
interests,  without  impairing  the  complete  independence  of  either  particular 
church ;  and  on  the  other,  to  have  no  actual  existence  until,  in  compliance 
with  the  request  of  a  committee  afterwards  to  be  chosen,  the  authorities  of 
the  respective  national  and  confessional  churches  should  send  deputies  whoso 
special  business  it  should  be  to  form  the  true  Ecclesiastical  Council  of  the 
Evangelical  Church  (of  Germany).  Stahl's  object  was  frustrated  by  the 
power  which  still  remained  in  the  Union,  and  that  of  B.  Hollweg  found  no 
support,  and  nothing  to  draw  men  together  during  the  political  revolutions 
then  taking  place.  The  only  effects  of  their  efforts  were,  the  separation  of 
the  Prussian  supreme  ecclesiastical  council  into  its  different  confessions,  and 
the  meeting  of  the  Conference  at  Eisenach.  But  the  assemblies  annually 
convened  by  the  invitation  of  the  permanent  committee  became,  like  the 
movable  assemblies  of  the  Gustavus  Adolphus  Society,  though  with  far  more 
comprehensive  objects  and  ecclesiastical  results,  great  pastoral  conferences,  to 
which  distinguished  preachers  were  invited  for  the  discussion  of  the  practical 
questions  of  the  day.  (/•)  With  no  other  limitation  than  the  equivocal  con- 
dition that  all  should  stand  on  the  Reformed  Confessions,  here  were  collected 
for  free  co-operation  and  sympathy  those  two  parties  especially  which,  at  the 
Prussian  General  Synod,  and  with  respect  to  that  synod,  stood  in  such  hos- 
tile relations  to  each  other.  At  these  Ecclesiastical  Diets  the  members  not 
only  poured  forth  the  warm  feelings  of  their  hearts  and  uttered  many  devo- 
tional sentiments  without  reference  to  each  other's  peculiarities,  but  many 
maxims  and  plans  of  Christian  wisdom  were  presented.  The  divided  state 
of  opinion  and  the  hesitation  apparent  in  it,  made  its  decisions  of  but  little 


q)  Donier  ü.  Reform  d.  ev.  Landeskirchen  im  Zusammenh.  mit  Ilerstell.  e.  ev.  deutschen  Xa- 
tiooalk.  Bonn.  1S4S. 

»•)  Die  Verbandlungen  d.  Witt.  Versamml.  by  Kling.  Brl.  1S48.  Verb.  d.  2.  Witt  KTases.  B. 
1S49.  2  H.  Verb.  d.  3.  deutschen  KTages  zu  Stuttg.  ed.  b.v  Lecblcr,  B.  1550.  2  II.  Verb.  d.  4.  KTages 
in  Elbcrfeld,  ed.  by  Kratrt,  B.  1S51.  2  II.  Verb.  d.  5.  KT.  zu  Bremen,  ed.  by  Toel,  B.  1S52.  2  IL 
Verb.  d.  6.  KT.  zu  Berlin,  ed.  by  KendtortT,  B.  1S53.— Entstehung  u.  bisher.  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  ev 
KTages.  Bil.  Isö^J. 


CriAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIUKCn  TILL  1S68.    §  «7.  DOMESTIC  MI^S10XS.         591 

avail,  but  they  were  generally  put  forth  against  the  unbeliuf  ami  partial  faith 
of  the  times.  Propositions  of  an  extraordinary  character  were  generally 
modified,  or  allowed  to  remain  fts  rash  threats ;  (•«<)  but  the  partial  reports 
which  particular  parties  sometimes  gave  of  the  proceedings  of  some  asseniblj*, 
acting  without  due  prepai-ation  or  skill,  were  in  danger  of  conveying  state- 
ments or  hasty  representations  to  the  minds  of  evangelical  princes,  and  thus 
suspicions  might  be  thrown  upon  the  etlbrts  of  more  liberal  [)ersüns,  and  the 
natural  development  of  their  plans  might  be  disturbed.  The  propositions  of 
a  committee  at  the  Ecclesiastical  Diet  at  Berlin,  to  leave  undisturbed  the  pe- 
culiar confession  of  each  church,  but  to  acknowledge  the  Augsburg  Confes- 
sion of  1530  as  the  common  record  of  evangelical  doctrine  in  Germany 
(according  to  the  programme,  as  the  fundamental  creed  of  the  whole  Evan- 
gelical Church  of  Germany),  was  almost  unanimously  adopted,  and  every 
attempt  to  modify  or  explain  it  was  repelled  in  a  dictatorial  manner.  From 
the  first  every  invitation  to  co-operate  in  this  movement  had  been  declined 
by  the  separatist  Lutheran  Cliurch.  A  few  Lutheran  doctors  of  Erlangen, 
Leipsic,  and  Rostock,  gave  their  testimony  against  the  resolution  of  the  Assem- 
bly at  Berlin,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  a  deceptive  act,  and  injurious,  not 
only  to  the  Lutheran  Church  which  claimed  the  Augsburg  Confession  as  its 
exclusive  property,  but  to  the  Confession  itself,  and  that  it  obliterated  all 
those  distinctions  which  God  had  placed  between  truth  and  error.  (/)  The 
ecclesiastical  diet,  from  its  first  organization,  was  principally  engaged  in  plans 
for  domestic  mUsiom  to  relieve  the  spiritual  and  temporal  necessities  of  evan- 
gelical people  by  means  of  evangelical  instruction  and  fraternal  supplies.  The 
Church  had  indeed  alwa3's  been  an  institution  for  ailbrding  such  relief,  but 
the  doctrine  of  the  merit  of  works  had  made  the  Catholic  far  more  efticient 
in  such  matters  than  the  Evangelical  Church,  and  the  practical  activity  of 
the  Reformed  had  always  exceeded  that  of  the  Lutheran  body.  "With  the 
increase  of  life  in  the  Church,  Christian  love  manifested  itself  also  more  ener- 
getically in  those  various  associations  which  had  been  devised  against  the 
miseries  of  social  life,  and  entered  with  more  or  less  earnestness  into  mea- 
sures for  the  spiritual  welfare  of  all  who  were  alienated  from  God.  (»)  TT7- 
chern^  a  licentiate,  and  the  superintendent  of  the  Rough  House  near  Ham- 
burg, for  the  rescue  of  neglected  children  (after  1833),  succeeded  by  enthusi- 
astic speeches  and  writings  in  making  the  cause  of  Domestic  Missions  a 
[)opular  object  even  in  circles  of  fashion,  and  the  hesitation  of  the  Luther- 
ans on  the  ground  that  it  might  be  an  interference  with  the  clerical  office, 
through  the  unrestrained  activity  of  associations,  and  that  it  was  a  develop- 
ment of  the  doctrine  of  the  universal  priesthood,  has  been  insufiicient  to 
check  its  progress.(()   The  centralization  of  the  quiet  but  complicated  action  of 

«)  Ev.  KZ.  1852.  p.  904. 

t)  l),as  Ikkeniiliilss  ik-r  liUli.  K.  gegen  d.  Dfk.  d.  Borl.  KTiigH  gewnlirt  von  elliclion  Lclirern  it. 
Til.  u.  d.  KUcclils.  Eri.  1S50.  Comp.  W.  F.  limser.  Union  u.  Confocd.  (Ziitsc'.i.  f.  luUi.  Tli.  1^4!». 
11.2.) 

V)  l)ia.M.iiis'iin-.\n«taU  /.u  KaNerswürlli.  (.V.  KZ.  \<iVä.  X.  li">.  1S40.  X.  41.1  Dio  '..arMili.  Bchwest- 
em  d.  cv.  K.  l^lli-iit.-i-liü  Vlorti'Ijalirsscli.  1S4'.'.  N.  lU.) 

r)  Dlo  ilif^'fii.li-n  IJIfilicr  (U"<  raulii'n  IlaiiM-?,  liuinli.  iJ.  l-jH.  Pic  \mww-  Mix-dun  d.  doutsclicn  CT. 
K.  Dcnkx'lir.  nn  d.  <1L  N'lition.  llaMi)>.  1S19. 


502  M()Ih:i:n  ciiukcii  iiistouy.   pkh.  vi.   a.  d.  icb-ism. 

the  local  associiitioMS  -wliich  some  liavo  attoinptcd,  v/ill,  perliaps,  only  give 
greater  importance  to  tlic  wliolo  by  the  increase  of  counsel,  and  by  the  pro- 
posed education  of  well  qualitied  laborers ;  (w)  and  tlie  ecclesiastical  diet, 
Avhile  it  serves  to  inflame  the  hearts  of  men  to  afford  an  ample  supply  for 
the  abyss  of  neglected  wretchedness  which  it  discloses,  will  make  the  Church 
Alliance  a  voluntary  alliance  of  faith  working  by  love.  The  progress  of  Catho- 
licism in  England  produced  such  a  spirit  of  co-operation  among  the  Protes- 
tants of  that  country,  that  many  Avere  prepared  for  a  plan  of  union  embracing 
all  truly  evangelical  communities.  After  a  preliminary  meeting  at  Liverpool 
(1845),  and  after  much  discussion  of  various  propositions  at  an  assembly  in 
London  (1840),  an  Eumgelical  Alliance  was  formed  with  great  rejoicings,  in 
which,  on  the  basis  of  nine  articles  as  a  common  platform  of  faith,  any  per- 
sons in  their  individual  capacity,  and  without  interfering  with  their  ecclesias- 
tical differences,  might  extend  to  each  other  as  Evangelical  Christians  the 
liand  of  fellowship.  Even  Germans  took  part  in  these  proceedings,  and 
Northern  and  Southern  Germany  were  marked  out  for  auxiliary  societies. 
But  such  was  the  nature  of  the  articles  that  no  union  based  upon  them  could 
be  of  much  importance  except  for  Great  Britain  and  North  America,  to  re- 
mind the  numerous  sects  of  those  countries,  who  are  divided  by  certain  rigid 
literalities,  but  are  united  in  the  many  fundamental  doctrines  of  primitive  or- 
thodoxy, of  their  higher  unity,  {x) 

§  458.     The  Scriptures.     Cont.from  §  379,  41 L 

De  Wette,  Einl.  in  das  A.  u.  N.  Test.  (p.  550.)  [Int  to  the  O.  T.  transl.  from  tbe  Germ,  of  De 
Wette,  with  copious  add.  by  Tlieod.  Parker.  Bost  1S43.  2  vols.]  in  d.  N.  T.  by  Credner,  Hal.  lS36ss. 
by  Keudecker,  Lps.  1S40.  Heuss,  Gesch.  d.  II.  Schrift,  (p.  44C.)  [Some  notices  may  also  be  found  ia 
T.  If.  Home's  &  Davidson's  Introductions.] 

The  peculiar  nature  of  Protestantism  was  exhibited  in  the  fact  that  all 
parties,  in  proportion  as  they  had  a  living  connection  with  the  Church,  met 
on  the  common  ground  of  the  Scriptures.  Although  these  had  lost  some- 
thing of  the  venerable  majesty  they  onco  possessed  as  a  holy  book,  modern 
Protestantism  made  it  easier  to  investigate  them  as  original  documents.  With 
respect  to  the  New  Testament,  Griesiach  (1745-1812)  examined  all  the  libra- 
ries of  Europe,  and  laid  down  the  principles  for  ascertaining  the  most  proba- 
ble reading  by  a  careful  weighing  of  testimony  and  a  preference  of  the  older 
Alexandrian  manuscripts,  (a)  Lachmann  (d.  1851),  without  regard  to  the 
sense  of  the  passages,  merely  sought  for  the  most  ancient  reading,  (J)  and 
Tischendorf  recovered,  manuscripts  which  had  been  lost,  and  restored  others 
which  had  been  defaced,  (c)    In  the  historical  investigations  for  determining 

ic)  Entsteh,  n.  Gesch.  d.  KTags.  p.  Ms.  BrI.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  1". 

0-)  Essays  on  Chr.  Union.  Edinb.  1845.  Brl.  KZ.  1S46.  N.  41ss.  45.  50.  633.  71.  74.  SI.  ST.  S9.  1347. 
N.  11.  34.  C.  Mann  &,  Th.  Plitt.  d.  ev.  Bund.  Bas.  1S47.  E.  Boehmer,  d.  ev.  Bundestag  in  London. 
1S51.  (Deutsche  Zeitjsch.  f.  chr.  W.  1S51.  N.  463  )  Journ.ils  of  the  Alliance:  Evangelical  Christea- 
dom,  &  Bulletin  du  Monde  chrefien. 

a)  J.  C.  W.  Augusti,  u.  Griesb.  Verdienste.  Bresl.  1S12. 

I)  N.  T.  Brl.  1S31.  Stud.  u.  Krit  1830.  U.  4. 1S32.  H.  4.  N.  Test  gr.  et  lat  C.  Lachmann,  r«* 
Phil.  Biittmannn.%  srx-  lect  auctoritates  apposuit  Ber.  1S42-50.  2  vols. 

c)  Cod.  Ephraenii  rescr.  Lps.  184-3-5.  2  vols.  4.    Monumra.  sacra  X.  T.  Lps.  1846.  4. 


CHAP.  Y.    KVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S58.    $459.  WINER.    LUCKE.  593 

ehe  genuineness  of  the  writings  of  tlie  Old  Testament,  especially  of  those 
which  bore  the  names  of  Mjses  and  Daniel,  then  generally  regarded  as  the 
work  of  later  authors,  every  effort  was  made  hy  the  newly  awakened  ortho- 
doxy to  prove  that  they  were  composed  by  those  whose  names  they  bore.  (</) 
Besides  those  books  of  the  New  Testament  whicli  had  been  subject  to  some 
suspicion  in  ancient  times,  the  first  gospel  lost  the  name  of  Matthew,  (e)  the 
pastoral  ei>istles  were  called  iu  question,  (/")  some  painful  but  easily  re- 
tracted doubts  were  raised  respecting  the  gospel  of  John,  which  had  been  so 
highly  extolled  fur  its  theology  of  feeling,  (g)  Xo  sooner  was  the  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Scriptures  released  from  the  service  of  Orthodoxy  than  it  was 
taken  up  by  the  party  of  the  Enlightenment.  The  ultimate  results  of  their 
efforts  may  bo  seen  in  the  ethical  ex[)03iticn3  required  by  Kant,  and  the 
rationalistic  explanation  of  the  miraculous  history.  "Wlien  science  itself  suc- 
ceeded in  overcoming  tliis  feeble  effort,  the  object  of  all  true  interpretation 
was  generally  acknowledged  to  be  a  faitliful  representation  of  the  literal 
sense  intended  by  tlie  sacred  authors.  Winer  (b.  1789)  made  use  of  the  de- 
velopment given  to  classical  philology  for  determining  the  idioms  of  the  New 
Testament,  that  he  might  terminate  all  uncertainty  about  the  meaning  of 
particular  words  by  the  highest  degree  of  grammatical  accuracy,  (h)  Lucie 
(b.  1791)  was  the  first  who,  in  the  spirit  of  the  recent  free  investigation,  re- 
ferred once  more  to  the  religious  element  as  it  may  be  learned  through  the 
sympathy  which  the  interpreter  should  feel  with  primitive  antiquity,  and  as 
it  is  indicated  by  ecclesiastical  tradition,  (i)  and  enriched  by  a  strong  predilec- 
tion for  the  explanation  given  by  the  ecclesiastical  fathers  and  reformers. 
The  Hegelian  school  insisted  that  it  was  the  highest  duty  of  an  interpreter  to 
bring  out  tlie  ideas  Avhich  lie  unconsciously  at  the  basis  of  the  biblical  repre- 
sentations and  figures.  (^•)  This  practice  was  afterwards  accommodated  to 
the  heterodox  metliod  of  mythical  interpretation  which,  so  far  as  relates  to 
the  application  of  antiquities  to  the  primeval  history  of  the  Old  Testament, 
was  for  a  long  time  in  vogue,  and  met  with  almost  universal  opposition  when 
it  substituted  an  ideal  general  truth  for  the  original  facts  of  the  Christian 
history.  (?)  Two  parties  were  at  hist  arrayed  in  direct  opposition  to  each 
other;  the  one  regarded  tlie  Scriptures  entirely  as  the  work  of  man,  and  the 
otlier  looked  upon  them  as  a  direct  revelation  from  God.  The  new  Tubingen 
school,  particularlj',  has  endeavored  to  sliow  that  the  writings  of  the  New  Tes- 


(0  ITeng»t«iiberg,  Bcitrr.  z.  Eliil.  in  d.  A.  T.  Hrl.  lS.11-.'59.  3  v.  [Tlic  8  flrst  vols,  of  Contrlbationa 
."»n  Zeoh.  &  Oan.  and  on  Pentateuch,  trans,  by  HyUtnJ,  &  publ.  In  Clarke's  For.  &  Tlieol.  Lib.  Eillnb. 
1S4T.  3v.  8.] 

e)  Sleffert,  Q.  d.  Urspr.  A.  ersten  kan.  Kv.  Koonl^'sb.  1*32. 

/)  §  449.  nt  e.    F.  C.  Baur,  dio  sogen.  Piistoralbr.  Stiitli,'.  \^''A. 

a)  BretschneiJer,  ProbiiWIlado  Ev.  et  Epp.  Jo.  indole ot  orf:t.  Lp».  Is^W. 

It)  Grninin.itik  d.  neut«st  Sprnchlillonis.  Li«.  1S2'2.  5  ed.  1S44.  [Gram,  of  tb«  Mioin»  of  tho  Or. 
Lanu'.  of  the  N.  T.  from  tho  Germ,  of  G.  IJ.  Winer,  by  J.  If.  Agii«ie  i  O.  G.  RObfi-f,  Plillad.  1S40.8.] 

i)  Grnndriss  d.  neutest  HcrnieneHUk.  Oi.tL  ISIT.  DrU  thcoL  Ztitsch.  1^22.  !L  3.  More  fully  In 
Ills  Cominentiir  Q.  d.  Schrr.  d.  Joh.  sine«  1520.  [Lücke  on  Uio  Epp.  of  John  Is  tmnsiL  *  pool,  ia 
Clark's  Bibl.  Cab.  Edlnb.  1S4Ö.] 

k)  Billroth,  Coiiini.  zii  don  Brr.  an  d.  Cor.  Lps.  1S33.  [flUlroVi  on  tho  Epp.  to  tho  Cor.  Is  transl 
t  publ.  in  Clark's  15lb.  Cab.  Ed.  1*5S.]    ]5rl.  Jahrbb.  1S83.  \.  5S. 

I)  K.  Jhtsu,  Leben  Jesu.  §  22.  nt,  <». 

38 


594  MuDKUN  CIIUKCII  IILSTOUY.     PEU.  VI.     A.  I».  ICCJ-ISSS. 

tnraont  wore  tlie  result  of  !i  series  of  conflicts  and  attempts  at  compromise  be- 
tween tlio  Jewisli  Cliristianity  of  Peter  and  the  Gentile  Ciiristianity  of  Paul. 
Certain  i)oints  of  development  following'  each  other  at  regular  i)eriods,  are 
supposed  by  these  writers  to  be  discoverable  in  the  doctrinal  contents  of  the 
Bacrcd  Avritings,  and  principally  on  the  basis  of  these  the  Kcvclation  of  John, 
and  the  four  great  epistles  of  Paul,  are  alone  regarded  as  genuine  monuments 
of  the  Apostolic  Church,  and  the  first  gospel  is  looked  upon  as  a  collection  of 
apostolic  traditions  made  very  near  the  same  period.  The  original  Gospel  of 
Luke  they  endeavored  to  find  in  tliat  of  Marcion,  tliough  in  this  they  have 
been  corrected  by  their  own  disciples,  and  in  the  fourth  gospel  they  have  dis- 
covered a  dogmatic  and  figurative  composition  formed  from  materials  sup- 
plied by  the  synoptic  gospels,  to  reconcile  all  ecclesiastical  parties  in  the  second 
century,  during  the  latter  part  of  which  the  notion  of  the  Logos  was  applied 
to  that  of  Christ,  and  so  attained  ascendency  in  the  Church  for  all  subsequent 
ages.  (»))  We  have  at  last  a  criticism  from  this  school  which  seems  to  have 
originated  more  in  a  love  of  offence  than  of  truth,  for  even  the  four  epistles 
of  Paul  are  thrown  by  it  into  the  general  abyss,  (n)  On  the  other  hand,  the 
new  orthodox  school  professed  to  take  a  higher  view  of  the  whole  sacred  his- 
tory ;  it  was  convinced  of  the  genuineness  of  all  the  books  of  the  Bible  ;  it 
found  in  every  part  of  them  not  only  divine  truth  but  the  Lutheran  theology, 
and  tlie  only  danger  was  that  the  theosophic  fancies  in  which  many  indulged 
might  carry  them  beyond  even  this.  In  their  fondness  for  the  supernatural 
they  delighted  in  extending  the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  and  of  redemption,  to 
material  things ;  and  while  they  conceded  that  the  account  of  creation  la 
perhaps  poetical,  and  addressed  to  the  outward  vision,  they  not  only  regard 
it  as  a  veritable  history,  but  have  discovered  that  before  the  day  of  creation, 
and  before  the  fall  of  the  angels,  the  earth  was  the  habitation  of  Satan  and 
his  angels,  (o)  Their  views  of  general  history  are  occasionalh^  full  of  interest, 
and  exhibit  some  traces  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy,  for  the  whole  history  of 
man  is  represented  as  a  gradual  revelation  of  Christ.  But  on  an  intermediate 
ground  between  these  schools,  some  men,  and  especially  some  learned  divines 
have  arisen,  and  have  long  been  tolerated  among  the  faithful  by  the  Evangel- 
ical Church  Journal,  who  make  a  distinction  between  what  is  divine  and 
what  is  human  in  the  Scriptures,  and  have  sought  reconciliation  with  the 
natural  science  of  modern  times,  not  merely  by  ironical  compromises,  but  by 
limiting  divine  inspii-ation.  to  that  which  is  strictly  religious,  and  even  de- 
scribing it  as  nothing  more  than  a  remarkable  tact  in  religious  matters,  (p) 
Although  they  feel  bound  by  tlieir  own  religious  consciousness  to  regard  the 
Scriptures  as  a  divine  revelation,  they  endeavor  to  treat  every  one  as  an  evan- 

"0  F.  a  B'lur,  (L  Christenth.  d.  3  ersten  Jahrhli.  Tab.  1S5.3.  E.irlior  points  p.  2i.  Comp.  Tbool. 
Jalirbb.  IS.^l.  II.  3.  p.  294ss. 

»0  B  Biiar,  Kritik  tl.  paul.  Briefe.  BrI.  ISSOs.  2  II. 

o)  Tineisch  (p.  24.)—/?.  Stiet;  Andeatt  f.  släub.  Schriftverständn.  Königsb.  Lps.  1S2-ISS.  4  vols.— 
F.Delit-Sih,  Gpsch.  d.  propli.  Th.  s.  Crnsius.  Lps.  1S45.  J.  C.  K  Jlo/mann  :  Weissag,  n.  ErfTilL 
Kr.nil.  1S41-4.  2  vols.  Schriftbeweis.  Ibid.  1S53.  vol.  I.  J.  II.  Km-U,  Gesch.  d.  alten  BunUos.  Brl.  2 
sd.  ISM.  2  vols. 

iA  ThiJuck:  Komm.  Ü.  d.  B.  an  d.  Hebr.  limb.  ISOii.  p.  ?:3ss.  Deutsche  Zeitscli.  f.  cUr.  Wisa 
IS50.  X.  ICss.  4-2ss. 


CHAP.  V.    EVAXG.  CnUECn  TILL  1S53.    §  459.  CALVINISM.    MOMIERS.         595 

gelical  companion  in  tlie  faitli  who  truly  believes,  even  if  he  does  not  believo 
correctly  in  the  authority  of  the  Scripture«,  and  in  justification  by  faith  in 
Christ,  {q) 

%  459.     Calvinism  as  a  Sect. 

Scliickedanz,  d.  K.  v.  Genf  Im  19.  Jalirli.  (Arcliiv  f.  KG.  vol  V.  St  1.)  J.  S.  Chfneviere,  Precis 
des  dibats  tlieol.  qui  depiiis  quelques  ann6es  out  adtt'S  la  ville  do  Göii'-ve.  Gen.  1824.  A.  Bost,  Dö- 
fense  des  Fideles  de  YisA.  do  Giin.,  qui  so  sont  constitues  en  egl.  indepcndant  Par.  1S2.5.  Hist  verita- 
ble des  Moiniers.  Par.  1S24.  2  vols.  Basi.  1S25  2  IL  Mulan.  lo  proccs  du  mctliodisme  du  Gun.  Gen. 
iSS5.  Genfs  kirchl.  Zustände.  (Deutsche  Z.Mtsch.  f.  ehr.  Wiss.  1S50.  N.  31ss.)  Also  Beincrkk.  by  L. 
77(omas.  (Ibid.  1S51.  X.  17.)  Die  friihern  rel.  Zustande  d.  Waadtl.  (Reuter,  P.op.  1S4".  U.  2s.)— 7! 
Fliedtier,  Collectenreise  n.  Holland.  Essen.  IS^Jl.  2  vols.  Anguiti,  Betr.  iL  d.  Ztist  d.  K.  u.  Tlieol.  d. 
Niederl.  (Beitrr.  z.  Gesch.  u.  Statist  d.  cv.  K.  Lps.  1S3T.  vol.  II.)  Die  Unruhen  in  d.  niederl.  rc-f.  K. 
1833-39.  By  X.  edit  by  Gie^eler.  Hamb.  1S40.  comp.  Acta  hist  ecc  153Ö.  p.  561ss.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S33. 
N.  SOss.     [A:  R.  nagenhach,  (p.  416.)  Vorles.  19.  Th.  2.] 

Even  in  the  time  of  Rousseau  the  ministers  of  the  Church  in  Geneva 
shrunk  from  answering  the  question  Avhethcr  Christ  was  God.  The  venerable 
Society  of  Pastors  enacted  a  law  (1817),  by  whicli  it  was  announced  that 
ev^eiy  minister  would  be  required  at  his  installation  to  promise  that  he  would 
abstain  from  the  discussion  of  certain  principal  points  of  Calvinistic  ortho- 
doxy. After  1813,  however,  some  persons  zealous  for  orthodoxy  became  ex 
cited,  and  were  strengthened  by  the  influence  of  Mad.  de  Krudener  (17G6- 
1824).  The  attention  of  this  lady  w;is  now  turned  from  palaces  to  cottages, 
that  she  might  preach  repentance  in  the  wililorness  of  civilization,  and  col- 
lect and  establish  out  of  all  churches  a  kingdom  for  the  Lion  of  Judah.  («) 
This  class  of  persons  became  numerous  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud,  and  under  the 
direction  of  some  suspended  ministers  many  Separatist  congregations  were 
formed,  with  various  individual  peculiarities.  According  to  a  popular  witti- 
cism they  were  called  Momicrti,  but  a  more  respectable  appellation  was  that 
of  Methodists.  The  people,  who  were  reproved  by  them  even  for  innocent 
mirth  and  harmless  usages,  not  unfreqnently  rose  upon  them  in  acts  of  vio- 
lence, and  the  leaders  of  the  new  church  were  punished  by  the  government 
with  imprisonment  and  exile.  Under  the  feeling  that  they  were  thereby  imi- 
tating the  primitive  Christians,  they  endured  these  persecutions  with  much 
courage.  After  the  Revolution  of  1830  the  conviction  became  nearly  univer- 
sal that  it  was  unbecoming  for  a  free  people  to  persecute  men  for  any  reli- 
gious creed  whatever.  An  Evangelical  Society  for  the  restoration  of  Calvin- 
ism after  a  Scriptural  model  was  then  formed  (1831),  by  which  a  theological 
seminary  has  been  established  (1832)  for  orthodox  student.«?,  (i)  But  although 
the  Clmrch  of  Geneva  had  been  accused  by  the  Momiers  of  apostasy  from  it- 
self, the  jubilee  of  the  Reformation  was  triumphantly  celebrated  tiiere,  (c) 
and  the  Grand  Council  of  the  Canton  of  Yaud,  after  a  protracted  debate, 
tore  ill  i)ieces  the  Helvetic  Confession  (1839)  becau.se  it  was  the  standard  of 


:l 


v)  Conversation  saliwns:  Studien  u.  Krit  ed.  by  Umbrelt  &  üllmann  since  192S.  Dcutscho 
Ztitscli.  f  chr.  Wiss.  u.  ehr.  Leben  since  1S5<).  Comp.  O.  F.  JCrausn,  die  sogen,  neuere  Theol.  (Theol. 
Jahrbb.  1S53.  II.  2.) 

a)  (I/iirtei;)  Frau  v.  Krndcner  In  d.  Schweiz,  liehet  1817.     Zeitgenossen.  Lps.  1818.  vol.  III. 

h)  A.  K.  Z.  1S;31.  X.  92.  1833.  N.  59.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1831.  X.  84.  1882.  N.  54.  Deutsche  Zeitsch.  t  chi 
W.  1850.  X.  50. 

c)  Jubile  de  la  Kef.  de  Geneve.  Gen.  18.35.  3  vols.    Acta  hist  ecc  1S35.  p.  44Sss. 


596  MODERN  CHURCH  IIISTOKY.    I'KK.  VI.    A.  D.  1M3-1W3. 

tlio  Momiers,  (</)  Tlio  Revolution  of  184G  overthrew  tlio  Calvinistic  aristo- 
cracy of  the  pastors,  and  a  Consistory,  elected  by  the  congregation,  and  -with 
a  majority  from  the  congregation,  wag  placed  at  the  head  of  the  National 
Church,  (e)  Tlio  various  congregations  of  dissenters  formed  themselves 
(1848)  into  an  Evangelical  Church,  wlioso  wants  have  heen  snpjplied,  and 
wliose  pious  clTorts  have  been  sustained  with  a  generous  liberality  from  Eng- 
land, in  a  noble  rivalry  with  the  E^itablislied  Olxurch.  (/) — Tlie  Church  of  the 
Netherlands  was  completely  re-organized  during  the  occupation  of  the  coun- 
try by  the  French,  By  the  fundamental  law  of  1816  the  synodal  form  of 
government  was  renewed  and  concentrated,  but  the  old  church  discipline  was 
abolished,  and  the  influence  of  the  state  retained.  Tlie  disposition  of  the 
people  was  favorable  to  a  merely  practical  Christianity,  and  tlie  educated 
clergy  were  partial  to  a  Scriptural  supernuturalisni,  Avhich  now  retained  no 
repugnance  to  the  Remonstrants.  In  consequence  of  the  poetic  interests  in 
the  Netherlands  of  former  times,  created  by  the  poet  Bilderdyk,  many  began 
to  long  after  the  orthodoxy  of  those  times,  and  tAvo  Israelites  "who  had  been 
converted  by  him,  displayed  much  zeal  in  opposition  to  the  constitution,  to 
vaccination  and  the  Remonstrants  (1823).  Gradually  a  party  was  formed 
which  demanded  that  every  thing  should  be  restored  to  the  condition  re- 
quired by  the  constitution  and  the  creed  of  the  Synod  of  Dort.  The  leader 
of  this  party,  a  young  minister  whose  name  was  De  C'ocJc,  was  at  first  sus- 
pended by  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  because  he  would  not  refrain  from 
interfering  in  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  parishes  of  others,  and  for  calling  iiis 
ministerial  brethren  wolves,  and  the  hymns  which  had  (since  1807)  sup- 
planted the  Psalms  the  songs  of  Sirens,  and  was  finally  deposed  (1834).  A 
portion  of  his  congregation  forthwith  declared  themselves  separated  with 
him  from  an  Established  Church  in  which  they  believed  so  many  heresies  were 
mingled,  and  in  a  short  time  their  number  was  increased  by  the  accession  of 
four  ministers  and  four  thousand  people.  Even  in  the  Established  Church 
many  were  alarmed  at  an  open  rupture  with  the  decrees  of  the  Synod  of 
Dort,  but  the  General  Synod  refused  to  explain  the  legal  oath  respecting  the 
public  confessions  of  faith  in  such  a  way  as  to  take  from  each  one  the  right 
of  judging  for  himself  whether  they  were  conformed  to  the  Scriptures  or  not 
(1835).  The  Separatists  were  fined  and  imprisoned  by  the  civil  courts  as  dis- 
turbers of  public  worship,  and  for  violating  the  law  which  forbade  more  than 
twenty  persons  to  assemble  without  permission  from  the  authorities.  They 
at  first  claimed  protection  on  the  ground  that  they  were  the  old  orthodox 
church,  and  not  a  new  sect,  but  they  finally  presented  their  statutes  to  the 
king,  together  with  a  renunciation  of  their  claim  upon  the  property  of  the 
Church,  and  obtained  the  royal  permission  to  form  themselves  into  separate 
Christian  congregations  (1839),  The  Synod  of  the  National  Church,  which 
met  in  1850,  in  view  of  the  numerous  changes  which  had  been  made  in  the 
fundamental  law  of  the  state,  formed  an  independent  synodal  system,  ac- 

d)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1839.  N.  26. 1S40.  N.  9. 

«)  Rapport  da  Consist  d.  I'cgl.  nationale  de  Gen.  1349.    Eeglement  organlque  poar  Tegl.  nat  Oen 
849. 
/)  Egl.  e\  ang.  a  God.  1S49.    Assemblee  gen.  do  la  Soc.  ev.  Gen.  1S49. 


CnAP.  V.    EVAXG.  CHURCH  till  1S53.    §  wo.  CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.       597 

cording  to  whicli  the  peneral  aftairs  of  the  Church  were  to  be  managed  by 
the  General  Synod,  which  met  annually  at  the  Hague,  and  consisted  of  dele- 
gates from  the  ten  provincial  synotls,  and  from  the  three  theological  facul- 
ties, and  by  a  commission  chosen  by  tiie  General  Synod  to  act  in  its  name 
during  the  intervals  between  its  meetings,  (g) 

§  -ICO.     Division  of  the  Church  in  Scotland  and  in  the  Pays  de  Vaud. 

A.  F.  Gemht^rg.  d.  fchott  Xationalklrche.  Hamb.  1S23.  K.  IT.  Sack,  d.  K.  v.  Schottland.  Heldlb. 
1844.  2  vols.  B.  W.  Xoel,  Case  of  the  Fre*  Church  of  Scotland  Ixjml.  IsH.  8.  A-i.  Si/doir,  d. 
schott  Kirclienfrase.  I'otsil.  1345.  J.  KoMin,  d.  «clmtt.  K.  Huinb.  1S.'>2. — With  respect  to  the  public 
acts  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  the  comments  of  the  Tres.  Drufij:  AUg.  Z.  Monatsbl.  Kcbr.  1S46.  Der 
waadtl.  KStreit  by  X.  (Schweglers  Jahrb.  d.  Oejenw.  Febr.  1S46.)— Rri-cis  des  falls  qui  ont  anient  et 
suivl  la  demission  de  la  majorite  des  pasteurs  et  ministres  de  Tcirl.  du  canton  de  Vaud.  Acconip.  des 
docura.  oOlc.  rocueil  par  Ch.  Baiip.  Laus.  1^46.  Also  on  this  subject:  Leopold  in  Zcit«chr.  f.  hL<  Th. 
1S46.  H.  4  1847.  H.  1.  i.—Al  Schweizer,  d.  kirchL  Zerwürfnisse  Im  Kanton  Waailt.  Zur.  1846.  E.  F. 
Gelpke,  d.  kirchl.  Bewc?.  im  K.  Waadt.  (Zeitsch.  f  hist.  Th.  1850.  H.  8.)  [IMheringUm,  Hist,  of  the 
Chh.  of  Scot.  E.linb.  184=3.  Xew  York.  1844.  p.  3G3ss.  ITitnna,  Life  of  T.  Chalmers.  New  York.  1850- 
2.  4  V.     jr.  L.  Alexander,  Kotes  of  a  Tour  it  Notices  of  the  Rel.  Uoilies  of  8wit2.  Ola.ig.  1&46.  S.] 

The  Church  of  Scotland  always  felt  a  peculiar  jealousy  in  behalf  of  its 
independence  in  all  spiritual  matters.  The  right  of  patronage  was  therefore 
abolished  in  the  fundamental  law  of  1690  (revolution  settlement.)  "When 
this,  however,  was  restored  by  secular  violence  (1712),  the  protests  of  the 
Church  were  generally  quieted  by  those  (Moderates)  who  found  their  own 
comfort  promoted  by  the  existing  state  of  things.  But  when  the  religious 
life  of  the  Church  was  revived,  and  the  puritanic  element  became  powerful, 
the  Avhole  energy  of  the  party  then  formed  (evangelical  party)  was  concen- 
trated in  the  efibrt  to  destroy  the  power  of  patrons  to  impose  upon  congrega- 
tions ministers  who  were  not  aecejttable  to  the  peojde.  In  1834  the  General 
Assembly  conceded  to  each  congregation  the  right  to  reject  such  ministers 
(veto  act).  When,  however,  the  royal  courts  took  under  their  protection  the 
rights  of  the  patrons,  and  in  consequence  of  the  resistance  made  by  the  Gen- 
eral Assembly,  interfered  in  various  ways  in  the  spiritual  atTairs  of  the  Church, 
and  finally,  when  redress  had  been  sought  in  vain  from  the  imperial  parlia- 
ment, on  the  opening  of  the  General  Assembly,  May  18,  1843,  the  friends  of 
ecclesiastical  freedom  (Xonintrnsionists),  including  a  largo  and  the  most  influ- 
ential portion  of  the  clergy,  with  the  noble-minded  Dr.  Chalmers  (d.  1847) 
at  their  head,  sepai*ated  theinsclves  by  a  solemn  protest  from  the  Established 
Church,  on  the  ground  that  violence  had  been  done  to  their  con.'*ciences,  and 
dishonor  had  been  inflicted  upon  the  crown  of  Christ  by  the  civil  power.  All 
their  churches  and  revenues  were  abandoned  by  these  seceders  with  no  other 
lioi)e  than  their  reliance  upon  the  free-will  oflferings  of  the  Scottish  people. 
As  on  the  one  hand  .some  projtrietors  refused  to  sell  the  neco-ivsary  ground  and 
materials  for  building  now  chun-liea,  so  particular  congregations,  on  the  other, 
attempteil  by  violence  to  exclude  from  thoir  churches  those  ministers  who 
were  obtruded  upon  thorn  by  patronage.   Millions  of  pounds,  however,  amply 


(7)  A.  KZ.  1=^1.  N.  S'^s.     C«inip.  H.id.  185.J.  N.  15.  Url.  KZ.  1^53.  N.  9.     Ullmanu,  z.  Charnkteris. 
tik  d.  holL  Th.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1844.  H.  8.) 


598  MODKIiM  C'HtTRCII  IMSTOUV.     I'KR.  VI.     A.  I>.  m9-19M. 

siifTuMont  for  .'ill  tlie  occlcsi.'isfical  wants  of  tlio  people,  Avere  oonfrihiited,  (a) 
and  with  tlie  ntniost  Avorldly  i)riHlenco,  a.s  well  as  tlic  most  earnest  piety,  tlie 
Free  rreshyteriau  Churcli  was  founded,  and  became  the  real  National  Clnircb 
of  Scotland. — In  tho  Canton  of  TvaaZ  the  spirit  of  the  metliodistic  piety  so 
far  penetrated  even  the  Established  Church,  that  sometimes  Avlien  its  minis- 
ters liad  performed  tho  duties  of  public  worship  many  would  hold  devotional 
assemblies  in  the  evening  (oratoires),  which  were  attended  esi)ecially  by  tho 
higher  classes.  In  direct  contrariety  to  the  traditional  doctrine  inculcated 
from  Berne,  that  the  Church  was  strictly  dependent  upon  the  state,  the  idea 
that  tho  Church  was  absolutely  independent  of  the  state  was  diffused  among 
the  clergy,  more  especially  by  the  labors  of  Vinet.  (V)  After  the  overthrow 
of  the  comparatively  aristocratic  government  (1845)  the  provisional  regency 
of  tho  sovereign  people  prohibited  the  clergy  of  the  Established  Church  from 
attending  the  oratories  which  had  been  already  threatened  by  the  populace, 
and  some  clergymen  who  disobeyed  we.re  suspended.  "When  the  new  demo- 
cratic constitution  was  about  to  be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people,  the 
government,  wishing  to  recommend  it  by  proclamation,  sent  it  to  the  clergy 
to  be  read  from  their  pulpits.  About  forty  clergymen  refused  to  comply  with 
this  request,  and  in  justification  of  their  act  appealed  to  a  law  which  ap- 
peared to  give  the  use  of  the  pulpit  to  the  government  only  fur  the  publica- 
tion of  acts  relating  to  religion.  For  this  refusal  they  were  accused  before 
their  ecclesiastical  courts,  and  acquitted,  but  they  were  punished  by  the  civil 
government  in  a  suspension  for  one  month  from  their  spiritual  duties.  To 
extricate  the  Church  from  this  thraldom  it  was  proposed  (Sov.  11,  184.5),  in 
an  assembly  at  Lausanne  of  the  clergy  belonging  to  the  establishment,  that 
every  clergyman  should  resign  his  office,  when  a  majority  immediately  re- 
nounced their  charges  and  their  salaries.  But  as  they  possessed  no  hold  upon 
the  popular  mind,  they  were  only  able  by  foreign  assistance  to  start  a  Free 
Church  in  small  conventicles,  which  were  persecuted  by  the  police  nntil 
1850.  In  the  mean  time  the  government  found  but  scanty  means  for  the 
spiritual  support  of  the  Established  Church. 

§  461.     The  Anglican  Church  and  the  Dissenters. 

Bogue  &  Bennett,  11.  of  Dissenters.  Lond.  lSOS-12.  4  vols.  (Archiv  f.  KG.  vol.  II.  p.  541.  III.  p. 
304.  49T.  IV.  1.  23Tss.)  Lond.  lS-33.  2  vols.  J.  Bennett,  II.  of  Diss,  during  thojast  30  years.  Lond.  1S39. 
K.  If.  Sack,  ft.  Kel.  n.  K.  in  Engl.  BrI.  1S13.  Funk;  Organisirung  d.  engl.  Staatsk.  Alton.  1329.  M. 
Boose,  Ecclesi-Tstica,  or,  The  Church,  her  schools  and  her  clergy.  Lond.  1S42.  S.  H.  F.  Chden,  d.  Za« 
stünde  d.  angl.  K.  Lps.  1843.  O.  V.  Gerlach^  ü.  d.  rel.  Zustand,  d.  angl.  K.  Potsd.  1S4Ö.  C.  Schoell, 
d.  kirchl.  Zustande  in  Engl.  (Gelzer.  prot  Monatsch.  1S53.  May.)  \J.  Grant,  H.  of  the  Engl  Church 
&  of  the  Sects  whicb  have  departed  from  her  Com.  Lond.  lSll-26.  4  vols.  S] 

The  principal  religious  activity  of  the  country  was  found  among  the  Dis- 
senters, who  constituted  about  one  third  of  the  whole  population,  and  in 
Wales  the  majority.  But  as  they  possessed  no  common  centre,  they  became 
broken  up  into  a  great  variety  of  sects,  among  which  might  be  seen,  in  their 

n)  Brl.  K.  Z.  1S4C.  N.  38. 1850.  N.  49. 

?'>  Ejsal  sur  la  manifestation  des  convictions  rellg.  et  sur  la  separation  do  I'egl.  et  de  T^tat.  Pe? 
•S42.  Kdlb.  1815.    Considerations  dediees  a  Mss.  les  ministres  demissionairos.  Laus.  1843. 


CHAP.  V.    EVAXG.  CnURCII  TILL  1S53.    §  461.  ENGLAND.  599 

extreme  form«,  every  {,'ratle  of  religious  life,  from  the  most  enthusiastic  exal- 
tation down  to  the  most  sceptical  rationalism.  Some  of  the  principal  sect? 
among  them,  however,  have  recently  attempted  to  unite  together  in  more 
intimate  fellowship.  They  were  protected  and  made  subservient  to  various 
party  purposes  by  the  opposition  in  Parliament,  but  with  all  his  eloquence. 
Fox  was  unsuccessful  when  he  pleaded  (1790)  for  their  civil  rights,  («)  But 
with  the  increasing  spirit  of  general  freedom,  public  sentiment  became 
changed,  and  after  many  attempts  at  partial  relief  the  test  act  was  finally 
abolished  in  1828,  and  the  exclusive  right  of  the  Episcopal  clergy  to  solem- 
nize marriage  and  baptism  for  dissenters  was  taken  away  in  183G.  They  were, 
however,  still  compelled  to  pay  taxes  to  the  Established  Church,  and  the 
House  of  Lords  thought  it  necessary,  by  lifeless  orthodox  forms,  to  protect 
the  Universities  under  the  patronage  of  the  State  against  the  intrusion  of  dis- 
senters. {l>)  But  many  powerful  associations  avowed  their  determination  to 
promote  the  principle  of  religious  freedom,  not  onlv  in  England  but  in  every 
quarter  of  the  Avorld.  {c)  A  charter  was  obtained  for  the  University  of  Lon- 
don (1836),  the  object  of  which  was  principally  the  education  of  dissenters. 
The  Established  Church  became  almost  a  sinecure,  while  the  actual  duties  of 
the  pastoral  otRce  were  either  evaded,  or  performed  by  poorly  paid  pastors 
and  hired  vicars,  ('/)  For  a  long  time  the  bishops  in  the  House  of  Lords, 
with  the  aristocracy,  set  themselves  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  the 
people,  and  persons  of  worldly  sagacity  lost  confidence  in  the  spiritual  privi- 
leges of  the  bishops,  as  well  as  in  the  divine  right  of  tithes.  The  injurious 
influence  of  an  Established  Church  was  demonstrated  by  the  dissenters,  and 
the  bishojis  were  warned  by  the  government  to  set  their  house  in  order. 
They  appealed  to  the  oath  taken  by  the  king  at  his  coronation,  that  he  would 
maintain  the  inviolabilitj'  of  the  Church,  and  by  virtue  of  which  he  held  his 
crown.  But  an  evangelical  party  had  now  been  developed  which  especially 
represented  the  Protestant,  as  the  High  Church  party  did  the  Catholic  ele- 
ment in  the  Episcopal  Church.  This  evangelical  party  expected  delivcr- 
<ance  only  in  such  a  reformation  as  was  demanded  by  the  times,  (t)  Certain 
literary  men  at  Oxford,  of  Avhom  the  i)rincipnl  were  Newman  and  Pusey 
(after  183;3),  raised  the  Catholic  clement  to  a  still  higher  position.  The  ob- 
ject of  these  persons  was  avowed  to  be  the  revival  of  genuine  Catholicity. 
Protestantism  was  disavowed,  and  many  Catholic  but  old  ecclesiastical  usages 
and  statutes,  so  far  as  they  wore  consistent  with  the  thirty-nine  articles,  were 
brought  once  more  into  practice.  These  etlbrts  were  favored  by  the  Iligh 
Church  party,  until  their  gradually  developed  tendencies  to  Roman  Catholi- 
cism aroused  the  Protestant  sjiirit  of  the  nation,  and  I'usei/Lsni  was  rejected, 
even  by  the  bishops.     Since  that  time  many  i)or.sons  have  passed  over  from 


a)  Sluüilliii,  Ocogr.  u.  Stat.  vol.  I.  p.  ICiss. 

h)  Aftir  ISeverleij:  A.  Z.  ISU.  N.  22'.'.  229.    KlielnwaKl,  Kep.  vul.  XXIX.  p.  92ss. 

c)  A.  Z.  ls:U.  N.  150.        </)  A.  K.  A.  1>:3I.  p.  312. 

e)  Lord  llftileij,  A  I'lan  of  Cliurch  Koform.  Lori.l.  oil.  -1.  I>a2.  [Eilinb.  Kovlow,  vol.  XXXVIII. 
p.  14.">.  I'll).  1^2:5.  XLIV.  p.  49n.  Sept,  1S2Ö.  (Sil.  tnm\  K.l.  I'.cv.  Tar.  Is3u.  vol.  V.  p.  aOl-324.)  Ji.  W. 
Koel,  Union  of  Clili.  Jc  State.  Loml.  A;  New  York.  1>49.  12.]  Furtber  liefunn  Literature:  A.  K.  Z. 
186a    LiL  Ul.  N.  49.  Stud.  u.  KrlU  IsJ«,  P.  Is. 


600  MODERN  CnUKCII  IIISTORV.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  184W858. 

tho  EstaMislioil  to  tlie  Catholic  Cliurcli.  (/)  During  tliis  collision  of  partip«., 
and  in  coiisciincnco  of  the  serious  spirit  of  practical  piety  excited  among  the 
people  (aCtor  1820),  a  new  and  fresh  life  was  awakened  in  the  bosom  of  tho 
Church  itself.  The  hierarcliy  gave  up  a  portion  of  its  titlics  that  they  might 
not  have  tho  Avholo  wrested  from  them.  In  1836  a  bill  for  the  reform  of  tho 
Church  was  introduced  into  Parliament  by  Lord  Russell.  It  diminished  the 
prodigious  inequalities  which  had  existed  in  the  revenues  of  the  bishops,  im- 
proved and  increased  the  parishes  by  means  of  a  portion  of  the  sinecures,  and 
jjlaced  restraints  upon  pluralities  and  the  perforiüance  of  pastoral  duties  bj 
hired  proxies.  Some  further  concessions  were  made  even  by  the  aristocracy, 
when  a  Commission  for  Inquiry  was  appointed  by  Sir  Robert  Peel.  The 
ministry,  however,  admonished  the  reformers  that  they  should  be  satisfied 
with  what  they  could  get,  rather  than  attempt  radical  changes.  The  conces- 
sions were  accepted  with  much  reluctance  by  the  majority  in  the  Lower 
House,  and  constituted  the  commencement  of  a  reform,  which  was  subse- 
quently carried  out  in  the  same  spirit  in  the  Ecclesiastical  Revenue  Bill 
(1840).  (g)  "When  a  number  of  bishops  had  been  consecrated  for  foreign 
countries  the  ministry  began  also  to  endow  dioceses  in  England  with  the  sav- 
ings of  the  hierarchy  (1847),  without  connecting  with  them  seats  in  the 
House  of  Lords,  (h)  The  Church  Pastoral  Aid  Society,  with  the  assistance 
of  Parliament  and  munificent  voluntary  contributions  from  the  people,  erected 
numerous  churches  in  the  commercial  towns,  and  sent  forth  assistant  preach- 
ers to  supply  the  spiritual  wants  of  an  increasing  population.  When  Goi'ham, 
a  vicar,  was  accused  of  teaching  that  the  grace  of  regeneration  does  not  ne- 
cessarily accompany  the  act  of  baptism,  and  when  the  Bishop  of  Exeter,  who 
was  favorable  to  Puseyism,  refused  to  admit  him  to  the  benefico  to  which  he 
had  been  presented  by  the  crown,  he  was  instituted  (1847-50),  in  accordance 
with  the  verdict  of  the  privy  council,  the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  (after 
1833),  in  spite  of  the  protest  of  his  bishop,  on  the  ground  that  his  view.« 
were  not  inconsistent  with  the  articles  of  tho  English  Church.  In  this  aÖair 
Avas  exhibited  on  the  one  hand,  the  stubbornness  of  episcopal  orthodoxy  ever 
when  not  much  sustained  by  public  opinion,  and  on  the  other,  the  impropriety 
of  submitting  theological  controversies  for  decision  to  the  civil  courts.  Bui 
jdl  attempts  springing  out  of  it  to  raise  the  assemblies  of  the  clergy  from  their 
nominal  existence  to  the  real  spiritual  powers  which  they  formerly  possessec 
(p.  442),  or  at  least  to  transfer  the  decision  of  controversies  on  ecclesiastical 
doctrines  to  the  episcopal  courts,  were  frustrated  either  in  Parliament  or  by 
the  ministry,  (i) 

/)  2^eicman)  Tracts  for  the  tlmos,  espec.  No.  9ö ;  Remarks  on  certain  passages  in  the  39  Artt  1S41. 
(Brl.  K.  Z.  ISU.  N.  31.  36.  42.)  K  B.  Puset/,  The  Articles  treated  on  in  Tract  90  reconsidered.  Oxt 
1S41.  n.  Aheken,  Letter  to  E.  B.  Pusey,  in  reference  to  certain  ch.arges  .isainst  the  Germ.  Church. 
Lond.lS42.  J/i  Petri,  HeMrr.  z.  Würdig,  d.  Pus.  Gott  184-3.  2  II.  C.  Fock,  d.  Pus.  (Schwcgler, 
Jahrbb.  1S44.  p.  742ss)  P.  Weaver,  d.  Pus.  A.  d.  Engl.  v.  Amthor,  Lps.  ISU.  Bruns,  Eep.  1346.  vol 
VI.  p.  ISlss.  vol.  VII.  p.  S9ss. 

g)  A.  Z.  1S.36.  N.  19S.    Suppleiu.  X.  211.  216.  2:».  Brl.  K.  Z.  1S40.  N.  73. 

A)  Brl.  K.  Z.  1847.  N.  35. 

0  Zcitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S53.  H.  1.  [.ludgment  of  the  Dean  of  tho  Arclies'  Court  n  tlie  case  ol 
Borham  r.  the  Bishop  of  Exeter.  Loud.  Is49.] 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIÜECII  TILL  1S58.     §  462.  NOUTII  AMERICA.  60 1 

§  4G2.     Ecclesiastical  Affairs  in  the  North  American  Republic. 

A.  Reed  and  J.  Matheson,  Visit  to  tlio  American  Ctiurclics.  New  York.  1833.  2  vols.  (Ev.  KZ 
1937.  N.  Sss.)  IL  Cimccll,  America  and  tlio  Airier.  Cliurcl).  2  eO.  Lond.  1S5;3.  (Ev.  KZ.  1839.  N. 
66ss.)  J.  D.  liiipp.  He  pasa  Ekklesia,  or  llist.  of  the  Rcl.  Denominations  in  tlie  U.  S.  Pliil.  1S44. 
Ji.  Baird,  Religion  in  tlio  U.  S.  Edlnb.  1S44.  Reviiwa  as  KGesch.  n.  kirclil.  Statist  by  C.  Brandes, 
Brl.  1S4-4.  [Ihid.  Chr.  Retrospect  and  Register.  N.  York.  tS50.  12.  Ibid.  Rel.  Denoinm.  in  the  U. 
S.  (in  Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union,  vol.  I.  N.  2. — vol.  III.  N.  4.)  Rel.  Denomm.  in  the  U.  S.  by  vari- 
ous authors.  Ilarrishurj.'.  2  cd.  1S49.  P.  D.  Gorrie,  Churches  and  Sects  In  the  U.  S.  N.  York.  1850.]— 
tT.  G.  BtUtner,  Briefe  aus  u.  ü.  N.  A.  Dresd.  1845.  2  vols.  F.  v.  Haumer,  [America  and  the  Amer 
.People,  from  the  Germ.  X.  York.  184G.  S.]  Lp<!.  1845.  2  voKs.—  W.  Klone,  d.  chr.  K.  in  d.  Verein.  St, 
N.  A.  (Zcitsch.  f.  hist.  Th.  1S43.  II.  1.)     {J.  Vixon,  Tour  through  tho  U.  9.  N.  York.  1S4S.  12.] 

[A  peculiar  form  of  ecclesiastical  life  lias  been  developed  in  the  united 
States  of  America.  Tho  religious  spirit  has  there  been  allowed  unlimited 
freedom  to  assume  every  variety  of  external  organization,  an<l  has  found  full 
scope  for  its  utmost  zeal.  The  national  and  State  governments  are  prohibited 
by  their  constitutions  from  all  interference  with  religion,  but  Christianity  is 
generally  recognized  as  a  part  of  the  common  law,  stringent  regulations  are 
in  force  against  blasphemy  and  the  profanation  of  tho  Sabbath,  and  public 
prayers  are  daily  otfered  in  connection  with  all  legislative  proceedings.  (</) 
Error  is  permitted  to  contend  on  equal  terms  with  truth,  no  civil  disability  is 
imposed  for  opinion's  sake,  and  all  may  propagate  their  views  in  public  and 
in  private  as  long  as  tho  rights  of  others  are  not  invaded.  As  yet,  there  is 
no  evidence  that  in  such  circumstances  Christianity  will  not  triumph.  In  the 
exercise  of  its  free  energies,  it  has  contended  with  a  highly  stimulated 
worldly  spirit  and  a  multitude  of  errors,  which  have  liere  found  their  best 
and  often  only  asylum  ;  and  not  only  is  it  almost  universally  received,  but  its 
most  prevalent  forms  are  those  of  the  strictest  evangelical  piety.  From  tho 
peculiar  origin  and  history  of  the  nation,  we  should  of  course  expect  to  find 
that  its  ecclesiastical  organizations  and  usages  resemble  those  of  tho  Old 
World.  But  the  Puritan  and  Methodistic  elements  have  been  especially 
attracted  there,  and  have  become  prominent  in  the  national  character.  The 
zeal  engendered  by  an  earnest  Christianity  thrown  into  such  i)Owerful  conflict 
with  the  world,  has  led  its  friends  to  an  intense  use  of  ordinary  and  extra- 
ordinary means  for  the  conversion  of  men,  and  the  religious  revivals  which 
have  sometimes  been  witnessed  in  other  lands,  have  here  become  frequent.  (5) 
Accustomed  also  to  rely  much  upon  the  poAver  of  numbers,  great  societies 
have  been  formed  for  the  removal  of  social  evils,  and  for  combined  effort  to 
plant  the  institutions  of  the  gospel  among  the  destitute  at  home  and  abroad. 
A  majority  of  the  wliole  population  luive  abandoned  the  habitual  use  of 
intoxicating  drinks,  and  seven  States  of  the  Union  have  already  prohibited 
the  sale  of  them  as  an  ordinary  beverage.  More  than  3,000  ministers  of  the 
gospel  are  sustained  principally  in  the  older  States,  to  labor  among  the  newei 


a)  Constitutions  of  tho  several  Stntes,  and  of  the  U.  8.  Ac.  N.  York.  8.  J.  Story,  Exposition  ol 
the  Const,  of  tho  U.  S.  N.  York.  184T.  ^f.  itcKinne;/,  Amer.  Magistrate.  (I'lillad.  1^0.)  p.  689.  193 
208.     G.  T.  Ciirtif,  lILst.  of  the  Const,  of  tho  U.  S.  N.  York.  1^54.  2  vols. 

I)  TV.  B.  Spragiie,  Ix^ott,  on  Revivals.  Albany.  1882.  8.  A.  Bitrnex,  On  Revivals.  N.  Yorlc 
1841.  C.  Finney,  Lectt.  on  Revivals.  X.  York.  1S35.  Collon,  Hist,  and  Char,  of  Amer.  Revivals. 
Lond.  1832. 


G02  MODKUN  ciii;i:oi[  irisTOK\.   i'ku.  vr.   a.  d.  i8-js-i9i3. 

scttlomeiits  of  llio  West  aii<l  Soutli.O-)  Tlicrc  is  one  Iioiibc  of  worship  fo 
every  04n,  mul  one  minister  for  every  600  of  tlie  entire  population.  Ql)  As 
encli  denomination  of  Cliristians,  in  case  of  general  disa;,'reenient  or  gwev- 
nncc,  find.s  its  ultimate  remedy  in  separation,  numerous  sects  have  sprung  up, 
■without  important  distinctions  in  doctrine  or  organization ;  but  the  evils  of 
disunion  are  in  many  instances  much  mitigated  by  an  interchange  of  corre- 
sponding delegates  through  their  superior  assemblies,  by  the  free  reception 
of  each  otlier's  ministers  and  members  on  prescribed  terms,  and  by  co-opera- 
tion in  many  of  tlie  national  charitable  associations.  The  lionvin  Catholic 
Church  has  in  some  instances  attempted  to  ingraft  upon  itself  popular  traits 
and  usages,  but  its  general  spirit  of  uniformity  has  resisted  thern,  and  its  pre 
vailing  character  here  is  the  same  as  in  the  Old  "World.  Its  growth  in  this 
country  has  been  for  a  few  late  years  remarkably  rapid,  almost  exclusively 
by  Catliolic  emigrants  from  Europe,  multitudes  of  whom,  however,  are  for 
ever  lost  to  tlie  general  Koman  fold,  (c)  The  vast  funds,  numerous  clergy, 
and  other  laborers,  with  which  foreign  societies  have  supplied  it,  have  ena- 
bled it  to  establish  many  institutions  for  education  and  charity,  and  erect  a 
splendid  hierarchy,  which  give  it  great  power  for  proselytism,  and  have 
raised  the  hope  that  Kome  might  recover  its  life  by  appropriating  to  itself 
the  youthful  energies  of  this  growing  nation.  (/)  But  by  its  conflicts  with 
educational  establishments,  by  its  unity  of  action  in  behalf  of  political  inter- 
ests, and  by  its  sympathies  and  connections  with  foreign  and  anti-republicau 
influences,  it  has  awakened  against  itself  a  powerful  political  and  religious 
feeling  which  has  sometimes  broken  forth  into  unlawful  violence,  (y)  I* 
probably  has  under  its  control,  principally  in  the  large  cities,  in  Maryland  and 
in  Louisiana,  about  one  in  twelve  of  the  whole  population.  The  Episcojjal 
Church,  though  the  oldest  (1607),  is  still  among  the  smallest  of  the  Protes- 
tant sects,  but  its  progress  has  recently  become  accelerated  especially  among 
the  Avealthy  and  conservative  classes.  It  ditiers  from  its  parent  English 
Church  by  its  want  of  a  connection  with  a  civil  establishment,  by  an  exten- 
sive participation  of  the  laity  in  the  legislative  and  administrative  power  of 
the  Church,  and  by  its  synodal  constitution  under  annual  diocesan  and  tri- 
ennial national  conventions.  (Ji)  The  Congrejationalists,  whose  first  church 
was  formed  in  the  ship  which  conveyed  the  pilgrims  to  America  (1619),  and 
Avho  are  principally  descendants  of  the  English  Puritans,  believe  that  each 
congregation  possesses  all  ecclesiastical  power  in  itself;  but  in  the  exercise  of 
this,  they  form  occasional  Councils,  composed  of  neighboring  ministers  and 
the  delegates  of  contiguous  churches,  for  the  ordination,  the  settlement,  and 
the  dismission  of  ministers ;  Dis-trict  Associations,  composed  of  a  few  minis- 
ters and  churches  who  may  permanently  associate  for  mutual  counsel  and 


c)  if.  Baird,  Retrospect  p.  218ss.  259ss.         d)  Abstmct  of  Census,  p.  29. 

e)  Amor,  and  For.  Clir.  Union.  Ang.  1S52.  p.  251.    N.  York  Observer,  June  10,  1S52. 

/)  Catholic  Almanac  for  1SÖ4.  Bait.  1S54.  Foreign  Conspiracy.  New  Yorli.  1S35.  X.  L.  liica, 
Komanism,  tlie  Enemy  of  Education,  Free  Institutions,  &c.  Cincin.  1852.  12. 

(/)  Komanism  incompatible  -nith  Republican  Principles.  N.  York.  1S34.  1?.  Our  Country,  its 
Danger,  Ä:c.  X.  York.  1S40.  IS.     G.  B.  C/teerer,  Eit:ht  of  the  Bible  in  Schools.  X.  York.  1S50.  16. 

h)  S  "V/i^r/yrc^  Hist  of  the  Prot  Eplsc.  Church  in  Am.  Lon.l  and  X.  Y.  (1S44.)  1S46.  12 
vr.  W/iiU,  II.  of  the  Churcli.  N.  York.  1S54.  S.    A.  B.  Chapin,  in  Hist  of  Eel.  Denom.  p.  601.-« 


CHAP.  V.    EYAXG.  CHURCn  TILL  1S58.    §  4G2.  NORTH  AMERICA,  603 

fellowship;  and  General  Associations  or  Consociations,  comprising  all  the 
ministers  and  churches  of  a  State.  Such  bodies,  however,  have  only  advi 
pory  power,  and  their  decisions  have  the  force  of  discipline  only  by  their 
moral  influence.  The  intelligence,  the  systematic  benevolence,  and  the  sober 
piety  of  this  people,  have  rendered  them  especially  influential.  They  prevail 
principally  in  the  si.x  Eastern  States,  in  New  York,  and  north  of  the  Ohio. 
They  acknowledge  the  absolute  authority  of  no  uninspired  creed,  but  great 
respect  is  paid  to  certain  Calvinistic  Confessions  of  Faith  and  Catechisms 
wliich  are  used  among  them,  and  some  of  their  divines  have  exerted  a  deci- 
sive influence  upon  the  theology  of  tlie  age.  (/')  Near  the  close  of  the  last 
and  the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  a  number  ot  the  Congrega- 
tional ministers  and  churches  of  Massachusetts  were  known  to  believe  Uni- 
tarian doctrines ;  but  a  general  separation  was  not  effected  until  (1815)  the 
orthodox  party  were  startled  by  some  announcements  respecting  the  progress 
of  Unitarianism  in  America  in  an  English  publication,.and  immediately  with- 
drew their  fellowship  from  all  who  were  suspected.  (7.-)  After  an  excited 
controversy,  the  Unitarian  Congregationalists  were  left  in  a  distinct  body, 
which  has  since  extensively  prevailed  \\\  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  with  an  ele- 
gant literature,  a  high  standard  of  morality,  and  a  liberal  philanthropy. 
There  are  said  to  be  in  the  United  States  not  less  than  250  congregations 
especially  connected  together  as  Unitarians  ;  but  a  still  larger  body  who  call 
themselves  by  the  simple  name  of  Christians,  the  Universalists,  and  a  seced- 
ing portion  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  agree  with  them  in  the  distinctive 
article  of  their  fiiith.  The  Baptixts  follow  next  in  the  order  of  time  (1639); 
and  if  we  include  under  the  appellation  all  who  deny  the  validity  of  baptism 
except  by  immersion,  and  on  the  professed  faith  of  the  subject,  they  must  be 
regarded  as  the  most  numerous  denomination  but  one  in  the  United  States. 
"With  but  few  exceptions,  they  are  rigidly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  but  they 
agree  with,  and  even  exceed  the  Congrogationalists  in  their  rejection  of  all 
human  authority  in  matters  of  faith,  and  in  their  practical  maintenance  of 
tlie  independence  of  tlie  congregations.  Tliey,  however,  have  their  occa- 
sional Councils,  their  Associations  for  small  districts,  tlieir  Conventions  for 
States,  and  until  the  recent  separation  of  the  Northern  and  Southern  sections, 
a  Triennial  General  Convention  for  the  whole  nation.  A  large  number  of 
Baptist  churches  are  never  represented  beyond  tlieir  district  Associations, 
and  differ  from  their  brethren  on  many  iiiii)ortant  articles  of  faith  and  prac- 
tice. (/)  Many  minor  sects  have  seceded  from  the  general  followsliip,  on  the 
ground  of  questions  connected  with  the  Sabbatli,  missions  to  the  heatlien,  the 
nature  of  tlie  faith  and  obedience  to  be  i)rofessed  before  baptism,  and  the 


t)  (r.  Punc'Aard,  View  of  Congregationalism.  Andover,  18891  Ibid.  Hist,  of  Cong.  And.  1S48. 
Cninbrlilfic  and  Snybnx.k  riutfonns  of  Cliurcli  PIsc  Boston.  183».  8.  T.  C.  i'jiliam,  Uutio  Dls 
ciiiUnne.  i'ditliind.  1S2'.).  L.  Harun,  Mim.  <if  t'liurcli  Meiid)crs.  New  lliiven.  1S33.  R.  Baird, 
Bkctchcsof  tlio  i;el.  Dcnoiii.  in  Am.  and  For.  Clir.  Union,  vol.  I.  N.  8.  p.  12:1. 

/.)  Jiclxhiim,  Meiniiirs  of  Llndscy.  Lond.  Isl2.  Ilnslon.  181.').  A.  Liimxon,  In  I'd.  Denom.  p.  636. 
LütttTS  on  the  Introd.  and  I'rog.  of  L'nitiirlanisn\  in  New  Kngl.,  In  f>i>irlt  of  tlio  rilgriins.  vol.  II.  and 
111.  Boston.  lS'J9-3i). 

/)  />.  Benedict,  Hist,  of  llio  Baptists.  N.  York.  1S24.  11'.  Uague,  Bap.  Clinrcb  Transplanted,  &Q 
N.  York.  ISUl.  12.     /'.  -I.  Om  and  J.  Ilolij,  Baptists  in  Aiiieriea.  Boston.  1S39.  12. 


GOi  MODERN  CIIUKCH  HI8TORT.     PKK.  VI.     A.D.  164S-IMA 

gt'iicriil  doctrine«  of  rclipion.  (m)  Of  lato  yearn,  some  portions  of  this  de 
nomination  liavo  done  niucli  to  redeem  tlieir  order  from  the  reproacli  of  in- 
difforenco  to  education,  and  they  have  now  under  tlicir  control  fourteen 
collcfjen,  and  eight  theological  seminaries.  The  Preslijtcrians  are  also  sepa- 
rated into  many  minor  divisions,  among  wliich  the  Dutch  Reformed  (since 
Ifilit),  the  Gcrnian  Keformed  (s.  1720),  the  Associate  (s.  1750),  and  the  Ke- 
forincd  Presbyterian  (s.  1752),  have  always  maintained  a  distinct  existence 
since  tlieir  first  settlement  in  this  country ;  and  others,  as  the  Cumberland 
(1810)  and  the  Free  Presbyterian  (1S4G),  were  offshoots  from  the  main  body. 
In  1838  this  main  body  -was  itself  divided  into  two  nearly  equal  portions, 
each  claiming  to  be  the  true  Presbyterian  Church,  but  differing  from  each 
other  in  their  construction  of  their  articles  of  faith,  and  in  their  views  of 
ecclesiastical  policy,  (ti)  With  a  slight  exception  with  res-pect  to  the  Cumber- 
land body,  (o)  all  these  members  of  the  great  Presbyterian  family  claim  to  be 
Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  and  most  of  them  are  in  fraternal  correspondence  with 
each  other  through  their  highest  judicatories.  Their  form  of  government  is 
essentially  the  same  "with  that  of  similar  European  bodies,  and  they  are  dis- 
tinguished for  their  intelligence,  their  stability,  and  their  attachment  to  truth. 
The  Lutherans  have  retained  the  faith  even  better  than  the  language  of  their 
ancestors ;  they  are  beginning  zealously  to  cultivate  the  orthodox  literature  of 
their  Fatherland,  and  are  providing  an  ecclesiastical  home  for  the  multitudes 
of  a  kindred  faith  who  are  landing  on  their  shores,  (p)  The  Jlcthodists  have 
adopted  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  the  English  Wesleyan  connection,  -with 
no  essential  change.  Their  Episcopacy  is  not  prelatic,  but  presbyterian,  since 
its  powers  originate  in,  and  are  continued  by  the  eldership,  and  its  duties  are 
simply  to  preside  in  the  conferences,  to  station  the  elders  and  preachers,  to 
ordain  bishops  and  deacons,  to  travel  through  the  connection,  and  to  oversee 
the  spiritual  concerns  of  the  Church.  They  have  been  especially  successful 
in  reaching  and  reclaiming  the  great  masses  of  society,  in  carrying  the  truth 
in  its  living  power  to  even  the  most  retired  districts ;  and  though  they  were 
the  last  to  commence  their  labors,  seventy  years  have  been  sufficient  for 
them  to  become  the  most  numerous  class  of  Protestant  Christians  in  the  Uni-  ■ 
ted  States.  Their  ardent  zeal,  tlieir  active  energy,  their  numerous  institu- 
tions of  learning,  their  earnest  literature,  and  their  thorough  system  of  polity, 
must  exert  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  future  character  of  the  nation.  A 
division  nearly  corresponding  with  the  geographical  boundary  between  the 
Northern  and  Southern  States,  has  taken  place  within  their  Churcli  on  ac- 
count of  slavery,  and  a  number  of  fragments  have  fallen  away  from  it  on 
account  of  its  government  and  discipline,  but  its  general  usefulness  and  sta 
bility  have  not  been  apparently  impaired,  (q)     Among  other  minor  bodies, 

»»)  History  of  the  various  Baptist  sects  In  Eel.  Denotnni.,  by  authors  l)elonglng  to  thera.  See  also 
Gorric's  Churches  and  Sects,  p.  13-2ss.    Sitird,  in  Amer.  and  For.  Chr.  Union.  voL  I.  p.  20Sss.  503ss. 

«)  lli-tory  of  the  Division  of  the  Presb.  Chnrch.  (by  a  Coin,  of  the  Syn.  of  N.  York  and  X.  Jer- 
•oy.)  N.  York.  1552.  J.  Woods,  Old  and  Xew  Theology.  Phila.l.  1S40.  12.  X  L.  ßice,  Old  and  New 
Schools.  Cincin.  ISO-l  12.        o)  L.  Jonen,  Plea  for  the  Cumb.  Prosb.  Church.  Louisville.  1S47.  12. 

/>)  Ev.  KZ.  1547.  N.  2.1SS.  Comp.  Brl.  K.  Z.  ISIS.  N.  45.  BUtUxer,  Briefe.  Dresd.  1S45.  2  vols. 
Comp.  Kliiinw.  Kep.  vol.  XLIV.  p.  iS2ss. 

(?)  A.  SltrenK  On  Church  Polity.  N.  York.  1550.  12.  Memorial  of  MethodUm.  N.  Y<rk.  1S51.  12 
a:  lUug»,  Ili>t.  ..f  ilic  M.  E.  Cluireh  till  15W.  X.  Y..rk.  lS-36.  4  vols  12. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CIIUECII  TILL  IsSa     §  462.  XOIiTU  AMERICA.  605 

there  are  about  G,000  Moratiana  in  twenty-two  congregations,  under  as  many 
ministers,  and  two  bishops  claiming  apostolical  succession  ;  (?)  about  150,00C 
Friends^  whoso  orthodoxy  and  efficiency  have  been  increased  by  a  recent 
secession,  and  who,  in  spite  of  some  decline  in  their  numbers,  quietly  main- 
tain their  amient  doctrines  and  usages  under  a  regular  system  of  Preparative, 
Monthly,  Quarterly,  and  ten  independent  Yearly  meetings ;  («)  about  0,000 
Shal-cr»^  who,  since  the  decease  of  the  "  Elect  Lady  "  (p.  546),  have  formed 
sixteen  comu)unities  in  which  all  things  are  held  in  common,  and  endeavor 
to  find  the  purity  and  bliss  of  Paradise  in  perpetual  virginity,  and  a  wild 
mode  of  worship  ;  {t)  about  8,000  Sicedenhor'jidus,  with  an  extensive  litera- 
ture, and  a  number  of  highly  learned  and  eminent  advocates  ;  («)  and  above 
1,100  societies  of  Univcrsalistn,  who  have  formed  a  regular  organization  under 
a  regular  ministry,  and  a  General  Convention,  and  have  collected  a  respect- 
able literature,  (r) — A  system  of  education,  from  which  all  sectarian  pecu- 
liarities is  excluded,  except  with  the  consent  of  the  local  inliabitants  of  a 
district,  is  ])rovided  for  by  law,  in  some  States,  with  great  liberality  and  intel- 
ligence, and  in  all  with  increasing  emulation  and  zeal,  so  tliat  already  one  in 
five  of  the  whole  free  population  are  under  its  instruction.  In  many  denomi- 
nations of  Christians,  candidates  for  the  ministry  are  required  by  ecclesiastical 
rule  to  pass  through  what  is  equivalent  to  a  complete  course  of  collegiate  and 
theological  instruction,  and  in  nearly  all  the  usage  is  more  and  more  in 
accordance  Avith  such  a  rule.  In  no  part  of  the  world  are  the  clergy  more 
respected  and  laborious;  and  though  in  most  instances  sustained  entirely  by 
the  voluntary  contributions  of  their  people,  their  position  and  comparatively 
small  number  render  them  independent  of  popular  caprice.  The  piety  of  tliis 
peopk,  being  entirely  spontaneous,  is  remarkably  sincere  and  fervent,  and 
many  of  its  exhibitions,  which  seem  peculiar  and  even  grotesque,  will  be 
found  not  ill  adapted  to  the  wants  of  a  peculiar  population ;  but  we  need  not 
bo  surprised  to  find  that  an  aristocracy  of  wealth,  and  a  regard  for  numerical 
power,  should  sometimes  divert  attention  from  the  refinements  of  a  graceful 
humanity.] 

§  4G3.  Legal  Conditions  icith  respect  to  Catholic  Goternmcnts. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  could  not  agree  with  regard  to  the  expressions 
by  which  the  constitution  of  the  Cathohc  and  Protestant  churches  of  Ger- 
many were  to  be  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Alliance.  The  sixteenth 
article  of  the  Act  of  the  Alliance  was  therefore  merely  so  formed,  that  no 
dirterences  between  the  parties  professing  tlie  Christian  religion  wore  to  create 
any  inequalities  in  municipal  or  political  rights.  Tlie  perfect  equality  of  both 
Churches,  so  far  as  relates  to  the  law  of  the  land,  has  accordingly  been  more 
or  less  expressly  acknowledged  by  most  of  the  states  coimected  with  the 
Alliance,  (u)     In  JJuvaria,  however,  in  addition  to  other  violations  of  Prot- 

r)  L.  D.  9on  &-hireinitK,  In  tlie  lllst  of  R«>1.  Honoinm.  p.  850as. 

«)  T.  Kvum  ami  IK  Oi'ilxms,  Illstorlos  in  II. iJ.  p.  'JTOsks.  290ssl 

t)  C.  Green  and  Ä  )'.  HW/«,  A  luminary  View  of  the  Millenolal  Church.  N.  York.  1S23.  14. 

ft)  New  .lerusaloiii  Magiulue.  Biv-tun.  2C  vols.  IS'27-ISM. 

v)  T.   Whittemore,  Mixl.  Hist  of  I'nlvcroiili.-'ni.  I{o«fon,  IsSO.  12. 

«)  Klüler,  Ucl'er^  il.  Verli.  d.  W.  Congr.  AMIi.  3.  p.  3'.)7.  441ss.     Tittmann,  Qii»«ett.  de  art.  16 


60G  MODKRN  CllUnCII  mSTOItV.     PKO.  VI.     A.  D.  lWS-1%88. 

I'stnnt  privik'f^OM,  an  order  «lictateil  by  a  new  zeal  in  favor  of  Catliolicism, 
reiiiiired  all  i)orsons  connected  ^vitll  the  army  to  bow  the  knee  to  the  sacra- 
mental liost  (Ang.  14th,  1838).  This  was  regarded  by  the  Protestants  as  a 
measure  intended  to  compel  them  to  commit  what  seemed  to  them  an  act  of 
idolatry,  or  at  least  as  an  illegal  imposition  upon  their  consciences.  Although 
it  wius  described  to  them  as  legally  only  a  military  ceremony,  it  was  practi- 
cally adliered  to  as  if  it  were  a  triumph  of  the  Catholic  Church  ;  and  after  a 
long  series  of  forced  and  partial  concessions,  it  was  not  com])letely  yielded 
to  the  bitter  complaints  of  the  whole  Protestant  population,  until  (Dec.  12th, 
1845)  the  diet  threatened  to  adopt  the  grievances  of  the  Protestant  deputies 
as  its  own.  (b)  In  the  Austrian  hereditary  states,  Protestantism  was  but  par- 
tially tolerated,  and  until  the  movement  of  1848,  its  churches  were  inter- 
dicted the  use  of  names  and  spires,  and  were  deprived  of  important  rights.  (<•) 
To  take  from  them  the  necessity  of  going  to  foreign  universities,  a  theologi- 
cal school  was  opened  for  them  at  Vienna  (1821).  In  Bohemia,  recollections 
of  the  Hussites  were  awakened  with  the  revival  of  the  national  spirit  of  the 
ancient  Czechen.  In  the  Zillerthal,  certain  ancient  traditions  preserved  at 
Salzburg,  and  evangelical  influences  upon  some  Tyrolcse  travellers,  produced 
a  party  strongly  opposed  to  the  CathoKc  Church.  This  opposition  was  still 
further  increased  by  the  perusal  of  the  Scriptures,  and  finally  induced  a  few 
families  to  make  application  (182G)  for  liberty,  in  conformity  with  the  spirit 
of  the  Edict  of  Toleration,  to  join  the  Evangelical  Church.  But  as  the  states 
of  Tyrol  were  opposed  to  a  Protestant  form  of  worship  in  their  country,  and 
contended  that  the  Edict  of  Toleration  was  never  published  for  such  cases 
and  as  the  evangelical  party  continued  to  increase  even  under  the  oppression 
of  a  decidedly  Catholic  popiilation,  and  with  no  services  for  public  worship, 
the  emperor  finally  commanded  them  either  to  settle  in  some  other  province, 
or  to  emigrate  to  another  country.  In  these  circumstances  they  addressed 
themselves  to  the  King  of  Prussia,  who  erected  for  them  a  church  and  pri- 
vate dwellings  on  his  domain  of  Erdmansdorf  in  Silesia.  Thither,  in  the 
autumn  of  1837,  about  four  hundred  of  them  removed,  although  a  hundred 
never  became  settled  there,  or  in  1838-39  left  their  new  Zillerthal,  to  connect 
themselves  with  some  of  the  Lutherans  who  had  separated  themselves  from 
the  established  churches,  (d)  In  Hungary^  when  the  partial  privileges  con- 
ceded by  the  law  respecting  religion  had  been  in  many  ways  violated,  and 
tlie  comiilaints  of  three  millions  of  Protestants  had  been  for  a  long  time  dis 


Foederis  Germ.  L.  19:30.  W.  v.  Hohenthal,  d.  Parität  d.  Rechte  zw.  d.  katli.  u.  nichtfcath.  Unterth. 
1.  Riindesst  L.  1&81. 

I)  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S44.  N.  6"6S. — {E.  «.  GUc?i)  Die  Eniebeng.  d.  Protestanten  vor  d.  Sanctissiranm  d. 
ksth.  K.  Ulm.  1S41,  With  " Offenen  Bedenken"'  of  1844-45  against  later  insufficient  modifications. 
J.  If.irlens:  Offene  Antw.  Munch.  1S43.  u.  Zeitsclir.  f.  Prot.  u.  K.  1S4;3.  vol.  VI.  K  Thiersch,  ü. 
Protest  n.  Knicb.  8  Sendschr.  an  Diillinger.  Marb.  1S44.— Ji  Dvllivger :  Die  Frage  v.  d.  Knieb.  d. 
Prut  V.  d.  rel.  u.  Maat^rechtl.  Seite.  Munch.  1S43.  Der  Prot  in  Balem  n.  d.  Knieb.  Kegcnsb.  1&43. 
Lit  Uebors.  bv  Schoder  in  d.  Jen.  Lit  Z.  1S45.  N.  202s8.  Bruns,  Kep.  1S45.  vol.  IIL  p.  24ss.  BrL 
K.  Z.  1>4G.  X.  15.  25s. 

c)  J.  ll.lfirt,  d.  Rechte  n.  Verf.  d.  Akatboliken  im  östr.  Kaiscrst  Vien.  (ied.  1927.)  1943. 

(1)  {Hheinicdlfi)  Die  Evangelischgesirinten  im  Zillerthal.  Brl.  Ij3".  In  4  ed.:  Die  ev.  Zillerthaler 
la  Schlesien.  1S3S.  Acta  hi>t  ecc,  18-37.  p.  655ss.  Rlieinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXXVIL  p.  s4ss.  [Exiles  of 
Zilleril-.al.  (Ptibl.  by  the  Am.  and  For.  Chr.  Union.)  X.  York.  1840.  18.] 


CHAP.  7.    EVANG.  CnURCII  TILL  1553.    §  463.  HUNGAET.    FRANCE.         607 

regarded,  tlieir  cause  became  identified  in  public  estimation  with  the  free 
development  of  the  state.  At  the  Diet  of  1833,  the  great  majority  appeared 
enthusiastic  for  justice  to  their  Protestant  fellow-citizens,  but  the  State-Table 
preferred  eutirely  to  dispense  with  the  mutilated  bill  of  religious  grievances 
propo.sed  to  tlicin  by  the  magnate«,  and  rather  than  take  up  with  a  partial 
grant,  to  trust  to  their  chances  for  the  future,  (t)  At  the  Diets  of  1839—40, 
both  Tables  united  in  presenting  to  the  crown  certain  bills  by  which  the 
members  of  the  Evangelical  Church  were  guarantied  absolute  freedom,  and 
equality  of  legal  privileges.  But  when  the  papal  brief  of  April  30,  1841, 
against  the  ecclesiastical  confirmation  of  mixed  marriages  without  security 
that  the  children  should  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  had  received  the 
royal  sanction,  the  courts  began  to  infiict  penalties  upon  all  bishops  and  pas- 
tors Avho  acted  in  accordance  with  this  measure.  At  the  Diet  of  1843,  bold 
voices  were  raised  in  both  Tables  in  opposition  to  this  system  of  mediaeval 
Church  polity  ;  and  although  there  was  still  an  episcopal  majority  among  the 
magnates,  which  succeeded  in  modifying  the  demands  of  tho  other  Table, 
both  houses  were  oi)posed  to  the  royal  order  of  July  5th,  respecting  mixed 
marriages.  They  declared,  that  while  they  were  agreed  with  regard  to  the 
principle  advanced  in  that  enactment  on  the  subjects  of  freedom  of  con- 
science and  complete  reciprocity,  tho  only  proper  application  of  it,  as  well  as 
the  only  way  to  satisfy  the  minds  of  the  people,  Avliich  they  could  discover, 
was  the  enactment  of  a  law  by  which  the  children  should  be  disposed  of 
according  to  the  religion  of  the  father,  except  where  special  jtromises  had 
been  conceded  by  one  of  the  parties  (reversales)  to  the  contrai*y.  Accord- 
ingly, the  whole  subject  was  virtually  disposed  of  by  the  royal  ordinances  of 
March  25th  and  Nov.  11th,  1844,  which  left  the  education  of  the  children  of 
mi.\'ed  marriages  to  be  determined  by  the  agreement  of  the  i)arents,  acknowl- 
edged the  validity  of  marriages  solemnized  in  the  Evangelical  Church,  and 
prohibited  tho  clergy  from  arbitrarily  interfering  when  persons  were  dis- 
posed to  pass  from  the  one  to  the  other  Church.  (./")  But  tho  storm  which 
since  1848  lias  passed  over  Hungary,  has  for  a  while  committed  to  the  mili- 
tary power  the  Church  as  well  as  the  country  of  the  orator  from  whose 
mouth  issued  a  sword.  Q/)  In  tho  st)Uth  of  France,  the  long-restrained 
hostility  of  the  Catholic  poi)nlace  broke  out  on  the  restoration  of  tho  Bour- 
bons (1815),  and  for  three  months,  in  Nismes  and  its  vicinity,  the  members 
of  the  Reformed  Church  were  robbed,  murdered,  and  driven  from  their 
dwellings  by  the  flames.  No  notice  of  these  excesses  was  taken  by  the  gov- 
ernment until  exi)ression3  of  indignation  from  all  parts  of  Franco  and  of 
Europe  found  their  way  to  tlie  throne.  Individual  instances  of  outrage  were 
rejieated  in  1810,  the  perpetrators  of  whieh  were  never  punished;  and  the 
Protestants  were  always  treated  with  contempt,  until  they  reco%ered  their 
privileges  at  tho  revolution  of  1830.  (//)     But  their  Church  was  never  able 

e)  BerzeH»!/,  Naclir.  fi.  d.  Ziist  <l  Evv.  In  IT.  Ljkh,  1S23.  Friedrich,  Br.  ü.  d.  La?e  <L  ev.  K.  In 
C  Lps.  1S2.'>.  Die  nelijrlonFboscliwcrdon  d.  Trot,  in  U.  a.  d.  Reichst  lin  J.  WH.  edit,  by  Klin* 
TibiHcanun,  Ljis.  VS33  [Hist,  nf  tho  I'rot.  Church  In  Hunjt.  from  flic  Kef.  to  ISJO,  with  reference 
«Iso  to  TransylvRiiia,  fimn  tlio  Curiimn  by  ./.  CVdi'f/,  I^und.  1^M.  8,] 

/)  J.  r.  .Viiil.itJi,  d.  Rel.  Wirren  in  I'.  Ilntlsb.  1 W).  2  vols.  Nachtr.  i:ati>b.  1S4Ö. 

a)  Brl.  KZ.  18.VI.  N.  17.  20.  1S51.  N.  6.  9.  1S.V2.  N.  !t2. 

A)  Defen.'«  df»  Pnitcstnns  dn  Hiis-Lanjjiiedoc  ISlö.  -t.  (.Archiv  f.  KG.  vul.  III.  p  C2.jss.)     ^f'^U■s, 


608  MODEEN  CnUKCn  III3T0KY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  104S-1S58. 

to  come  to^otlier  in  a  poncral  sj-nod,  and  by  a  decision  of  the  Coiirt  of  Cas- 
sation (1843),  notwithstanding  the  fundamental  law  of  religious  liberty,  no 
evangelical  congregation  could  be  established  under  the  statute  respecting 
associations,  without  the  arbitrary  permission  of  the  government  and  the 
local  authorities.  (/)  Under  the  republic,  the  Lutheran  Church,  especially  in 
Alsace,  at  a  freely  elected  General  Assembly  in  Strasbourg,  and  the  Reformed 
Church  at  a  Synod  in  Paris,  deliberated  about  the  best  means  of  developing 
in  an  independent  manner  their  old  established  constitutions  (1848).  (/.) 
Louis  Napoleon  ordained  (March  2Cth,  1852)  that  the  congregations  should 
be  governed  by  presbyteries,  and  their  districts  by  consistories,  freely  chosen 
by  them,  but  both  under  the  presidency  of  chosen  pastors  approved  by  the 
government ;  that  the  churches  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  should  have  for 
their  superintending  and  legislative  authority  a  supreme  consistory,  to  be  con- 
vened annually,  and  to  be  composed  of  the  presidents  and  lay-deputies  of  all 
the  consistories,  and  for  their  administrative  authority,  a  directory,  half  of 
whose  members  were  to  be  appointed  by  the  government,  and  half  by  the 
supreme  consistory ;  and  that  the  Reformed  churches  should  have  a  Central 
Council  at  Paris,  with  indefinite  powers,  and  consisting  for  the  first  time  of 
distinguished  Protestants,  and  the  two  oldest  Parisian  pastors.  (Z)  In  the 
elections  held  under  this  edict,  all  persons  were  allowed  to  vote,  and  the  pres- 
byteries which  had  been  previously  in  existence  were  confirmed.  The  Ecan- 
gelical  Society^  a  free  association  formed  under  English  Influence,  undertook 
to  evangelize  France  from  Geneva  (p.  595)  and  from  Paris  (since  1833);  for  it 
endeavored,  by  its  colporteurs  and  evangelists  with  Bibles  and  tracts,  not  only 
to  win  the  Catholics,  but  to  bring  back  the  Reformed  Church  to  its  original 
principles,  (/«)  while  the  Society  for  the  General  Interests  of  Protestantism 
aimed  only  to  unite  the  orthodox  portion  of  the  Church  in  the  pursuit  of 
general  objects.  («)  Although  the  Reformed  Church  has  since  increased,  not 
only  by  persons  coming  from  other  bodies,  but  by  the  accession  of  those 
whose  preferences  had  either  been  unformed  or  concealed,  in  these  intellec- 
tual contests  its  spirituality  has  been  exposed  to  great  hazard.  When  the 
Synod  of  1848  resolved  to  disregard  all  confessions  of  foith,  that  it  might 
keep  the  Church  practically  united,  pastor  Fred.  Monod  and  Count  Gasparin, 
the  noble  champion  of  French  Protestantism,  abandoned  it.  On  their  invi- 
tatiou,  thirty  congregations  which,  from  a  desire  to  possess  a  more  rigid  disci- 
pline or  a  purer  faith,  had  previously  been  independent,  now  united  in  a  Synod 
at  Paris  (18-49),  and  formed  a  Union  of  evangelical  congregations  on  the  basis 
of  a  new  confession,  whose  articles  were  merely  devotional,  in  the  style  of 
the  apostles  John  and  Paul.  These  congregations  had  been  formed  -with  a 
distinct  creed,  received  no  support  or  assistance  from  the  state,  and  were 

n.  of  the  Persecutions  endured  by  the  Prot  of  the  south  of  France.  Lond  1S21.  2  vol&  (Kllist. 
Archiv.  1S23.  II.  3s.) 

i)  IT.  Keuchlin,  d.  Christenth.  in  Fr.  Hamb.  1837.  p.  33Tss.  Le  proces  de  Sennevillo.  Affaire  da 
liborte  des  cultes,  plaidöe  par  OdOlon  Sarrot  Par.  1S43.  {A.  Mäder)  Die  prot  K.  Fr.  17S7-1S46.  ed. 
by  Gicseler,  Lps.  ISiS.  2  vols. 

A)  Brl.  KZ.  1548.  N.  75.  89.  90.  98.  102.— 76.  95.  1849.  N.  7. 

t)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  28.   A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  143.        m)  Organ  :  Archive  dn  Christianisme. 

fi)  Aginor  de  Gasparin,  Les  IntilTcts  generaux  du  Protest,  franr.  Par.  1543.  Essen.  1S43. 


CJIAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHUPXn  TILL  1SÖ3.    §  463.  FEANCE.    ITALY.  GOG 

independent  in  government  and  worehip  ;  but  they  now  resolved  to  maintain 
unity  by  means  of  a  biennial  synod,  and  a  synodal  commission  for  the  inter- 
vening period,  (o)  But  even  in  the  Reformed  National  Church  there  are  two 
opposite  parties :  the  Evangelical,  under  Ad.  Monod,  agreeing  in  doctrine 
witli  the  Separatists,  and  anxious  to  preserve,  as  for  as  possible,  the  old  con- 
fession and  the  old  customs;  (^/)  and  the  Liberal  under  Coquerel,  rejecting 
every  creed  except  the  Scriptures  as  the  word  of  God,  and  before  the  altar 
cf  the  Lord.  The  number  of  ministers  in  each  of  these  parties  is  nearly  the 
same ;  they  remain  united,  and  both  are  rich  in  works  of  pious  charity.  (<■/) 
The  theological  faculty  at  Strasbourg  maintains  an  intimate  fellowsliip  with 
German  science,  and  the  other  at  Montauban,  with  a  clergy  trained  by 
rhetorical  rules  and  with  a  practical  spirit,  is  conversant  principally  with  de- 
votional subjects.  (?•)  By  its  acquisition  of  territory  in  1815,  and  by  its  Con- 
stitution of  1842,  Geneva  lost  its  Protestant  independence.  (.•«)  In  /to??/,  an 
evangelical  public  Avorship  was  needed  only  for  foreigners  residing  there. 
The  policy  of  the  governments  of  Milan  and  Florence  did  not  lead  them  to 
oppose  the  formation  of  particular  congregations.  A  regard  for  England, 
Prussia,  and  America,  disposed  Naples  and  the  ecclesiastical  states  to  tolerate 
Protestant  chapels  ;  and  after  the  old  prophecy  had  been  twice  fulfilled,  Ger- 
man Protestantism  found  an  abode  in  the  Capitol.  (/)  When  the  national 
desires  of  the  Italians  began  to  come  in  conflict  with  the  hierarchj',  an  incli- 
nation towards  Protestantism  showed  itself  here  and  there  under  English 
influence,  and  the  pope  found  himself  threatened  by  a  host  of  reforming 
spirits  and  Italian  Bibles.  After  the  re-establishment  of  the  legitimate  au- 
thorities, the  revolutionary  religion  was  put  down,  and  many  a  victim  was 
sacrificed  in  the  prisons,  (u)  But  when  the  Madial  family  in  Florence  were 
condemned  (June,  1852)  to  an  imprisonment  for  several  years,  on  a  charge 
of  endeavoring  to  make  proselytes  to  Protestantism  by  reading  the  Bible,  the 
zeal  of  their  Protestant  friends  in  England  became  powerfully  excited  against 
this  anachronism.  In  opposition  to  the  deputation  of  the  Evangelical  Alli- 
ance, and  the  intercession  of  the  King  of  I'russia  and  the  English  govern- 
ment, the  Grand  Duke  asserted  tlio  independence  of  his  judicial  courts,  and 
his  obligation  to  protect  the  religion  of  the  state ;  but  so  menacing  became 
the  popular  excitement  in  England  in  support  of  the  ministry,  that  the  Tus- 
can government  thought  it  best  to  get  rid  of  their  troublesome  prisoners  by 
sending  them  out  of  the  country  (March,  1853).  (c)  In  consequence  of  this 
aff"air,  an  association  was  formed  in  Hamburg  (Aug.  1853),  under  the  presi- 

o)  Union  des  <:••[.  cvang.  do  France.  Par.  Is'O.  Jf.  Ihllmar,  Entst.  d.  Unlonsklrclio  in  Fr. 
(Zeitscli.  f.  hist  Tli.  1S51.  H.  8.) 

p)  Adolphe  Monod,  pourquol  je  dcniourc  dans  I'r^l.  etablie.  Par.  ISIO. 

q)  A.  Dammitn,  d.  pmt  K.  in  Fr.  (ZoiUcl).  f.  List.  Tli.  1S50.  H.  1.)  E.  S.  Q.  d.  rd.  Zust  Fr. 
CGelzer,  prot.  Monatscli.  Is53.  Aug. -Oct.) 

/•)  E.  lieunx,  d.  wiss.  Tlieol.  unter  d.  fr.  Prot.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1344.  IL  1.) 

X)  Comp.  I5rl.  KZ.  1S4'.'.  N.  2C.   A.  KZ.  Ib&J.  N.  149.   E.  CiiniU  in  d.  Jon.  I..  Z.  1S43.  N.  242.<9. 

t)  Niebuhr's  Briife,  v(d.  II.  p.  4oG.  Fleck;  wlss.  Kclse  Lps.  lS:t5.  vol  II.  1.  p.  124ss.  li.  Baird, 
Blcetchcs  of  Protestantism  in  Italy,  paet  and  present.  IJoston.  1S46.  12. 

u)  Brl.  KZ.  1S49  N.  73.  96.  1S.V).  N.  21.   Ev.  KZ.  1^52.  N.  9.3.   A.  D.  Z.  1^3.  N.  264 

V)  Ev.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  102.  Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  16.— Hist.  pol.  1511.  ISM.  vol.  XXXI.  p.  7S.3.sa  [Story 
üi  the  Madiai.  N.  York.  1S63.     Anicr.  and  For.  Clir.  Union,  vol.  IIL  p.  SOTss.  vol.  IV.  p.  G5ss  ] 

;J9 


610  MODKUN  ClinUCII  mSTOUV.     PER.  VI,     A.  D.  lC^S-1858. 

(Icnoy  of  Lord  Sliiiftesluiry,  witli  an  executive  committee  in  London,  to  assist 
by  every  means  sanctioned  by  tlie  gospel  all  who  might  sutler  persecution  for 
their  contossion  of  Christ,  or  for  reading  and  distributing  tlie  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, (ir) 

§  404.  Old  and  Kcw  Sects. 
1.  Tlic  WnMcnsc9.i  wlio  were  connected  with  the  Hussites  by  fraternal 
ties,  recognized  finally  in  tbc  Reformation  (Synod  of  Angrogna,  1532)  the 
very  objects  which  their  ancestors  had  been  obscurely  seeking,  (a)  They 
were  therefore  exterminated  in  France,  with  the  exception  of  some  remnants 
living  in  the  High  Alps  of  Dauphine,  but  they  have  been  preserved  under  a 
synodal  system  of  pastors  and  elders  in  three  Alpine  valleys  in  Piedmont. 
Here  they  came  sometimes  under  the  influence  of  distinguished  persons  be- 
longing to  the  Genevan  Church,  though  generally  they  retained  the  character 
of  great  pious  simplicity.  They  have  been  much  oppressed  by  their  own 
authorities,  but  since  the  time  of  Cromwell,  they  have  received  pecuniary  aid 
from  the  English  government.  Napoleon  favored  them,  but  after  the  restora- 
tion they  were  thrown  back  under  their  former  oppressions,  and  confined  to 
the  narrow  valleys  of  their  ancestors.  (V)  The  flag  of  liberty  on  the  throne 
of  Piedmont  opened  to  them  the  whole  country  (Feb.,  1848;,  the  inclination 
generally  felt  toward  Protestantism  found  among  them  a  primitive  legal  form, 
and  a  great  Waldensian  church  was  dedicated  with  much  solemnity  in  the 
city  of  Turin  itself  (1853).  (r)  2.  Among  the  Mennonites  in  Holland,  the 
Arminian  party  obtained  the  ascendency,  and  when  the  different  factions  of 
the  Gross  became  united,  all  distinct  creeds  were  abandoned  (1800).  {d)  The 
Ba2)fists  of  England  and  North  America  had  their  origin  principally  among 
the  Independents  (since  1630).  The  largest  portion  adhere  strictly  to  Cal- 
vinistic  orthodoxy  and  discipline,  but  a  part  are  Arminians  (General  Bap- 
tists), and  some  have  no  ecclesiastical  discipline.  Some  minor  communities 
among  them  have  originated,  in  some  instances,  fi-om  their  adoption  of  the 
Jewish  Sabbath  (Sabbatarians) ;  in  others,  from  their  inculcating  opposi- 
tion to  the  slave-trade  as  a  religious  duty  (Emancipationists) ;  and  still  in  oth- 
ers, from  the  principle  of  abstinence  from  all  controversies  on  the  ordinary 
orthodox  doctrines  (Christians),  (e)  In  Germany,  persons  sometimes  became 
Anabaptists  from  pietistic  scruples,  or  from  some  religious  extravagances,  and 
a  few  small  congregations  have  here  and  there  been  baptized  by  the  English 
missionary  OncJcen,  of  Hamburg  (since  1834).  (/')     In  Denmark,  they  were 

w)  A.  KZ.  1S53.  N.  IToss. 

a)  Herzog,  röm.  Waldenser.  p.  833ss. 

h)  M'.  Dieterici,  A.  Wald.  u.  ilir  Verli.  z.  Trenss.  Staat.  Brl.  1S31.  Mayerhoff,  d.  W.  in  unsern 
T.igen.  Brl.  1S34.  Fleck,  Eeise.  vol.  II,  1.  p.  21ss.  [JK  Henderson,  Tour  in  the  Valleys  of  Pied- 
mont, in  lSi4.  Lond.  1S45.  S.] 

c)  J.  U.  \Yeisa,  d.  KVerf.  d.  Picm.  W.  Zur.  1S44.   Brl.  KZ.  1548.  X.  21.  77.   A.  KZ.  1S53.  X.  173. 

d)  FUedner.  CoUectenroise.  vol.  I.  p.  133ss. 

e)  Buckuii,  II.  of  the  English-American  Baptists.  Boston,  177-2-S4.  2  vols.  [D.  Douglas,  II.  of 
Dapt,  Churches  in  the  North  of  Engl.  Lond.  1S4G.  S  ]  A.  F.  Cov  and  J.  Ilohy.  (p.  668.)  Archiv,  t 
KG.  vol.  II.  p.  5769.S.    KHist.  Archiv.  1S24.  St  3.   Ev.  KZ.  1S32.  N.  95.  1S39.  N.  91ss. 

/)  Pitpikofer,  d.  neuer  K.  in  der  Schweiz.  St.  Gall.  lSo4.  C.  Grüneisen.  Abriss  e.  Gesch.  d.  rel. 
Ojmelnschafton  in  WQrtcmb.  in.  bes.  KQcks.  a.  d.  neuen  Taufgesinnten.  (ZciUcli.  f.  hist  Th.  1S41 
II.  1.)  Brl.  KZ.  15.40.  X.  74.  1S41.  N.  "9.  S".  ISol.  X.  34.  3T 


CHAP.  T.    EVANG.  CnUKCn  TILL  1S53.    §  464.  UNIT.    PLYMOUTH  EUhTH.    611 

ftt  first  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment ;  but  when  this  course  was  found 
to  be  ineffectual,  they  were  allowed  to  have  a  single  congregation  in  Fi-ederi- 
cia  (1842),  It  was,  however,  found  impossible  to  confine  them  within  this 
limit,  (y)  3.  As  Unitarinnium  could  be  propagated  simply  as  an  opinion,  it 
had  less  occasion  to  be  extended  as  a  sect.  In  Transylvania,  the  Unitarians 
have  maintained  a  well  constructed  ecclesiastical  system,  and  have  developed 
their  views  in  consi.^teney  with  their  supernaturalist  concessions.  Qi)  In  Eng- 
land they  lived  legally  subject  to  the  axe  of  the  executioner,  and  although  the 
laws  against  them  had  long  since  ceased  to  be  enforced,  even  in  1792,  Parliament 
refused  formally  to  abolish  the  statutes  against  them,  and  it  was  not  till  1813 
that  they  were  finally  tolerated  by  law,  Lindsey  (d.  1808),  whose  gentle 
spirit  led  him  voluntarily  to  withdraw  from  a  congregation  connected  Avith 
the  Established  Church  (1773),  and  the  natural  philosopher  Fiuesthy  founded 
a  few  Unitarian  congregations,  and  an  academy  for  free  theological  inquiry,(/') 
When  Priestley  was  obliged  to  retire  to  America  before  the  storm  of  the  pop- 
ular will  (1794),  he  there  encountered  every  kind  of  opposition.  But  after 
his  death  (180-4),  a  kind  of  Katiuuallsm  began  to  spread  in  opposition  to  the 
prevalent  sentiment  of  the  people  there,  and  found  a  peculiarly  favorable 
home  in  the  general  isolation  and  freedom  of  the  churches.  Several  hundred 
congregations  among  the  Independents  and  Baptists  have  enibraced  it,  and 
for  some  time  it  has  had  the  ascendency  in  the  State  of  Massachusetts,  (k) 
In  England,  the  greater  pai't  of  the  Presbyterian  and  General  Baptist  congre- 
gations have  adopted  the  same  sentiments.  When  they  thus  denied  the  doc- 
trine of  a  Triune,  incarnate  God,  the  orthodox  Dissenters  maintained  that 
they  had  forfeited  their  right  to  all  ecclesiastical  property  derived  from  foun- 
dations established  for  the  promotion  of  the  Christian  faith.  This  view  was 
sustained  by  the  civil  courts,  and  many  congregations  were  deprived  of  their 
former  splendor  m  public  worship,  until  by  a  new  law  (Dissenters'  Chapel 
Bill,  1844),  which  gave  a  legal  title  to  such  as  had  enjoyed  immemorial  pos- 
session of  the  fund,  a  termination  was  given  to  this  scandal.  (/)  4.  The 
I'll/mouth  Urethren^  a  society  founded  by  Darby,  an  English  clergyman,  and 
propagated  from  Plymouth  to  the  Canton  of  Vaud  (1840),  felt  constrained  to 
abandon  the  Protestant  Cliurch,  on  the  ground  that  it  also  had  become  a 
Babylon,  but  they  remained  strictly  Calvinistic  in  doctrine,  and  were  diligent 
in  religious  labors,  liegarding  themselves  as  the  elect  children,  and  there- 
fore universally  the  priests  of  God,  they  relied  on  the  promise  of  our  Lord 
(Mattli,  18,  20),  dispensed  with  a  regular  clergy,  and  in  small  domestic 
churches  waited  for  the  approaching  second  advent  of  Ciirist,  {in)      5,  A 


(7)  BrI.  KZ.  1S48.  N.  9.  1S4G.  N.  18.  80.  1S47.  N.  12. 

h)  (G.  Jfitrk-on,)  Sumina  Thcul.  unlv.  fee.  Uiiilarlos.  Clnudiopoli,  l"sT.  Arcliiv  f.  KGoscb.  vol 
IV.  St  1. 

t)  Th.  lidnham.  Memoirs  of  Lind-cy.  Loud.  ISiO.  Mimoir?  of  J.  rrifntlfi/,  (by  liimself  nml  his 
son.)  Lond.  ISOCs.  2  vols.     H'.  Turner,  Llvis  of  Kiiilncnt  Unitarian!!.  I.ond.  lS40?s.  2  vols, 

X)  JI'((/./i,  list.  rel.  Gesell,  vol.  V.  p.  175.  Yll,  34Tss.  Arclilv  f.  KO.  voL  I.  p.  88.  IV,  149ss.  Ev. 
KZ.  ISoO.  N.  l.S.  1H31.  N.  40. 

I)  J.  iturch,  lIlsL  of  the  Pres,  and  Oen.  IJaptlst  Clmrches  In  the  West  «f  Engl.  Lond.  1885.  K. 
A.  Crediier,  l;irchl.  Zust  .nde.  (Heidlb.  Julirb.  ISJS.  II.  1.) 

vi)  J.  J.  lUrzog,  les  Frires  dc  Plymouth  et  .lohn  Darby.  Laii<>.  1S45.  Ev.  KZ,  1844.  N.  28.  23 
Bil.  KZ.  Isjl.  N.  00.     [('.  F.  LeopoUl,  in  the  S^tiid.  n.  Krit.  1S4S.  II.  4.J 


61-2  MODKUN  CIIURCn  niSTORT.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  lC45-li53. 

runmiico  founded  on  tlio  story  tliat  tlic  ten  tribes  of  Israel  liad  been  driven 
to  America,  and  been  converted  under  tlio  jjcrsonal  ministry  of  our  Lord 
there,  was  turned  into  a  holy  hook  Avhicli  Jo^exih  Smith  (b.  1805)  claimed  to 
liavo  discovered  by  revelation,  and  found  to  be  an  historical  record  by  Mor- 
mon, an  old  prophet  among  that  people.  Professing  to  be  himself  an  inspired 
l)rophct,  ho  collected  around  him  an  active  host,  which  were  driven  from  a 
number  of  places,  but  at  last  commenced  the  erection  of  a  city  and  a  splen- 
did temple  in  the  State  of  Illinois.  Their  pious  claims  upon  the  property  of 
their  neighbors  soon  armed  a  multitude  of  fanatics  against  them,  by  whom 
their  temple  was  destroyed  and  their  prophet  was  slain  (1844).  During  two 
subsequent  years,  and  in  the  midst  of  indescribable  troubles,  the  Mormons 
went  through  the  wilderness  and  across  the  Kocky  Mountains  to  the  great 
ocean,  and  founded  on  the  Salt  Lake  (Utah  Territory)  a  city  and  a  flourishing 
state,  which  is  preparing  to  take  its  place  under  the  starry  banner  of  the  United 
States.  From  this  point  their  messengers  are  going  forth,  full  of  faith  in  old 
and  new  prophecies,  into  all  parts  of  the  world,  to  baptize  the  Latter-Day- 
Saints  and  to  assemble  them  in  their  new  Zion  on  the  Salt  Lake.  Their 
Catechism  has  an  evangelical  and  almost  an  orthodox  tone  ;  they  take  some 
pains  to  deny  the  limited  polygamy  which  is  practised  among  them,  and  their 
community  of  goods  is  limited  to  one  tenth  of  all  property  and  annual  rents, 
to  be  used  for  objects  of  common  utility.  The  purpose  of  their  theocratic 
government  is  to  establish  a  firm  social  and  military  system,  and  it  offers 
those  who  have  come  to  them,  especially  from  Scotland  and  Scandinavia,  the 
prospect  at  least  of  a  temporal  kingdom.  (//) 

§  465.     Missionary  and  Bible  Societies. 

The  ordinary  Annual  Reports,  esp.  of  the  London,' Edinburgh,  Basle,  Halle,  and  Berlin  Bible  So- 
cieties. For  a  Gen.  View:  Knapp,  Abriss  e.  prot.  Missionsgcsch.  (Hall.  Jabresb.  1S16.  St  66.) 
Fortschritte  d.  ev.  Missionsw.  im  1.  Viertel  d.  19.  Jahrh.  Bas.  1S26.  F.  Lücke,  Missionsstudien. 
Glitt  1S41.  F.  ^Y.  Klumpp,  d.  ev.  Missionswesen,  s.  weltgesch.  u.  nation.  Bedeut  Stuttg.  1541.  J. 
Wiggers,  (p.  510.)  J.  IT.  Brauer,  d.  Missionswesen  d.  ev.  K.  St.itistik.  Uamb.  1S47-51.  I.  vol.  1.  2  H. 
A'.  J.  Kitzsch,  cl  Wirk.  d.  ev.  Chr.  auf  kulturlose  Völker.  Brl.  1S52.  Comp.  Wisemann,  d.  Un- 
frnchtbark.  d.  v.  Protestanten  unternommen.  Miss.  Augsb.  1835.— Ji  Oicen,  Hist  of  the  Orig.  and  first 
teji  years  of  the  Bible  Soc.  Lond.  1S16.  3  vols.  Lps.  lS2t  Archiv.  £  KG.  vol.  II.  p.  229ss.  III.  ITlss. 
A.  KZ.  1S25.  N.  123.  1828.  N.  25.  1829.  N.  86.  [F.  Schobert,  Present  State  of  Christianity,  and  of  the 
Miss.  Establishments.  Lond.  182S.  12.  J.  0.  Choules,  Hist  of  Missions.  Boston,  1883.  2  vols.  B.  R 
Edwards,  Miss.  Gazetteer.  Bost  1832. 12.  (7.  WüUa7ns,  Miss.  Gaz.  Lond.  1S2S.  12.  J.  Tracy,  H.  ol 
tho  Am.  Board.  Boston,  1838.  12.] 

In  the  spirit  of  the  present  age,  which  accomplishes  great  enterprises  by 
means  of  private  voluntary  associations,  the  extension  of  Christianity  has 
become  a  popular  cause.  Boards  for  missionary  societies,  each  of  which  is 
peculiar  and  distinct  in  its  character,  were  organized  at  London  in  1795,  («) 
at  Edinburgh  in  1796,  at  Boston  in  1810,  at  Basle  in  1816,  {l>)  at  Is'ew  York 

n)  Book  of  Mormon.  Book  of  Covenants.  The  former  work  has  been  several  times  printed  sinca 
1880,  even  in  German.  Pratt,  e.  Stimme  d.  Warnung  u.  Beleb.  C  alle  Völker,  from  the  Engl.  Hamb. 
1S53.— TMrn^r,  Mormonism  in  all  Ages.  N.  York.  1S4;3.  Caswell,  The  Prophet  of  the  19lh  Cent 
lond.  1S42.  Jiaumer,  (p.  601.)  vol.  II.  p.  154ss.  Brl.  KZ.  1S51.  N.  69. 1852.  N.  100.  1S53.  N.  6.  42.  45 
A.  KZ.  1S53.  N.  Sss. 

a)   Vr.  Ellis.   Hist  of  the  Lond.  Miss.  Soc  Lond.  1844.  vol.  1 

I)  W.  Hoffmann,  Eilf  Jahre  in  d.  Miss.  Stuttg.  1853. 


CUAR  V.    EVANG.  CUUECU  TILL  1S53.    §  4C5.  MISS,  i  BIBLE  SOCIETIES.     613 

in  1820,  at  Berlin  in  1823,  at  Barmen  in  1828,  and  at  Dresden  in  1836. 
Wherever  Protestants  were  found,  auxiliaries  to  these  societies  were  formed, 
and  about  five  millions  of  dollars  are  annually  collected  for  the  education  and 
support  of  five  thousand  native  and  foreign  laborers  in  the  missions  of  nearly 
fifteen  hundred  stations  on  the  globe.  Every  party  in  the  Church,  especially 
in  England  and  America,  contriljutes  of  its  money  and  its  prayers,  under  the 
conviction  that  the  more  a  Cliristian.  gives  for  objects  abroad,  the  more  he 
will  have  of  spiritual  blessings  in  his  own  heart.  The  English  missions  aim  ^ 
to  make  their  converts  thoroughly  English,  but  the  American  missionaries  I 
avow  that  they  wish  to  become  national  pastors,  wherever  they  may  be  sta-  ' 
tioned.  In  consequence  of  the  peculiar  organization  of  the  London  Society, 
it  was  obliged  to  confine  its  attention  to  the  simple  proclamation  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  to  leave  the  ecclesiastical  connection  to  be  determined  by  the 
converts,  or  rather  by  the  missionaries  themselves.  The  Church  Missionary 
Society  recognized  indeed  only  the  system  of  Christian  faith  professed  by  the 
Episcopal  Church,  but  it  employed  even  German  missionaries,  and  allowed 
them  to  manage  their  ecclesiastical  afiairs  in  their  own  way.  The  difiiculties 
experienced  by  Ehenius  (d.  1838),  so  remarkable  for  his  powerful  faith,  and 
who  was  the  first  that  fell  out  with  the  society,  sprung  entirely  from  his  de- 
cided literary  tendencies,  (c)  Tlie  Xorth  German  Missionary  Society  (1830) 
was  much  endangered  by  its  controversy  about  the  Lutheran  and  the  Re- 
formed Confessions,  but  with  respect  to  missionary  operations  it  always  per- 
ceived the  necessity  of  a  union.  (</)  The  missionary  societies  of  all  countries 
tvhere  the  German  language  was  spoken,  were  united  (1846)  into  one  gen- 
eral body,  that  concert  in  missionary  operations  might  be  secured  by 
means  of  periodical  general  assemblies  and  a  central  Board,  whose  location 
might  be  changed  according  to  circumstances.  {>■)  But  when  the  Dresden 
mission  was  transferred  to  Leipsic  (1847),  it  placed  itself  decidedly  on  the 
ground  of  the  Lutheran  Confession,  and  the  Bavarian  Lutherans  pronounced 
all  contributions  to  the  society  of  Nuremberg  sinful,  until  it  received  a 
Lutheran  name  and  character  (1852).  (/)  As  most  of  the  missions  were 
commenced  under  the  management  of  what  was  called  the  Methodistic  party 
and  the  Moravians,  it  was  found  that  none  but  those  of  a  kindred  spirit 
would  enter  lieartily  into  the  work  of  conducting  them.  Gradually,  there- 
fore, a  certain  degree  of  coolness  with  regard  to  them  sprung  up  among  the 
Kationalists.  (y)  Although  the  doctrines  of  many  of  the  missionaries  may 
have  reminded  one  more  of  the  Formula  of  Concord  than  of  the  gospel, 
there  were  certainly  some  missionaries,  as  e.  /;.,  those  who  proceeded  from 
the  school  of  the  sincere  Jtunikc  of  Berlin  (since  1800),  whose  virtues  and 
Bacrifices  remind  us  of  apostolic  times.  (//)     Not  only  ministers  with  a  regu- 

c)  n/ieiniralil,  Kep.  vol.  XXIV.  p.  lS4s.s 

d)  Iloporl  iifllie  Nonlii.  Miss.  G.  llamb.  18.30.  A.  K'A.  1S47.  N.  1.V2.   AIL-.  Mi3>ion?zoilutig,  cd.  by 
Brauer,  Ilatiib.  lS45ss. 

e)  Brl.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  70. 

/)  L.  A.  Petri,  d.  Mis.i.  u.  d.  K.  Hnnn.  1S41.     K.  Graul,  d.  ov.  lutli.  M.  zu  Dresden  an  die  hitb 
K.  Lps.  1S45.    Ev.  Iiitli.  .Misvslonsbl.  Dr.  u.  \.\i\  s.  lS4Cs9. 

0)  Röhr,  rre-l.  Blbl.  vol.  XII.  If.  4.    Noiizuiibl.  and  oft.   A.  KZ.  19-30.  N.  S3.s 
//)  Ev.  KZ.  1S81.  N.  90. 


oil  MODKUX  CIIUnCH  IIHTOUV.     I'KR.  VI.     A.  I).  1G4S-1963. 

lar  ediicatinii,  Imt  in  some  cases  meclmiiics  of  a»  elovatod  religious  spirit, 
wore  si'iit  Ibrfli.  Tlieir  principiil  influence  has  been  exerted  by  means  of 
])OpiiInr  scliools,  and  generally  nono  have  been  admitted  to  baptism  until 
tlieir  tidolity  has  been  proved. — When  the  Pietists  of  Halle  had  begun  fl7l2) 
to  provide  cheap  Bibles,  (0  this  attempt  to  supply  those  who  in  different 
places  were  found  destitute  of  the  word  of  God,  suggested  to  some  benevo- 
lent people  in  England  the  idea  of  supplying  every  nation  on  earth  with  tho 
Holy  Scriptures  in  their  own  language.  The  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
at  London  was  the  first  and  the  most  important  of  all  those  enterprises.  The 
single  penny  of  the  poor  soon  became  a  million,  and  innumerable  Bibles  are 
now  distributed  in  more  than  a  hundred  languages.  That  the  whole  power 
of  all  parties  may  be  combined  for  the  accomplishment  of  this  object,  nothing 
is  printed  by  this  society  but  the  word  of  God,  in  a  faithful,  and,  when  it  is 
possible,  in  an  ecclesiastical  translation,  without  note  or  comment.  The  rela- 
tions of  the  English  society  to  foreign  societies  were  disturbed  by  its  resolu- 
tion to  withdraw  from  all  co-operation  in  the  circidation  of  the  Apocrypha 
(1827) ;  but  although  the  difficulty  was  nearly  settled  by  mutual  conces- 
sions, (k)  it  Avas  made  the  subject  of  controversy  in  the  orthodox  party  in 
Germany,  because  those  who  maintained  the  divine  authority  of  the  Scrip- 
tures were  against,  while  those  who  regarded  them  as  merely  traditionary 
records  were  in  favor  of  the  Apocrypha,  and  the  practical  interest  might 
therefore  be  so  explained  as  to  be  on  either  side.  (/)  The  proposition  in  Lon- 
don, to  banish  from  the  society  all  who  did  not  believe  in  a  Triune  God,  was 
voted  down  with  great  unanimity  (1831),  but  its  advocates  withdrew,  and 
formed  a  separate  society,  (m) 

§  466.     Sjtread  of  Christianity. 

In  consequence  of  the  revolutionary  wars  in  the  south  of  Europe  and 
America,  the  dominion  of  the  seas  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  Protestant  pow- 
ers, and  all  the  shores  of  the  earth  were  open  to  their  missions.  Hence, 
when  peace  was  concluded,  the  gospel  was  proclaimed  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  with  more  power  than  ever  before,  and  with  a  powerful  popular  sym- 
pathy in  its  favor.  In  the  South  Sea  Islands,  even  among  the  milder  tribes, 
Christianity  had  to  contend  with  the  most  licentious  practices,  and  the  terri- 
ble sanctity  of  the  Tabu.  At  Tahiti,  the  dissenting  missionaries,  since  1797, 
never  despaired  even  in  the  most  hopeless  seasons,  and  have  finally  obtained 
possession  of  tho  native  children.  Xing  Pomare  II.  learned  to  read  and 
write ;  an  insurrection  in  favor  of  the  old  religion  was  quelled  after  a  san- 
guinary struggle  (Nov.  12th,  1815),  and  the  magic  work  of  the  first  printing 
press  was  hailed  (1817)  with  the  most  joyful  anticipations.  At  the  Sand- 
wich Islands,  king  liiho-riJio  had  already  destroyed  the  old  gods  when  the 
American  missionaries  first  landed  on  his  shores  (1820).  (a)  Since  that  time, 
most  of  the  Society  and  Sandwich  Islands,  as  they  could  not  escape  the  vices 


i)  A.  IT.  Xiemei/er,  Gesch.  d.  Canstcin.  Bibelanst.  Hal.  1S2T.     ^l-)  A.  KZ.  1S27.  N.  12.  1530.  X.  Sa 
^)  Drl.  KZ.  1?53.  N.  4;^.  m)  Ev.  KZ.  1S81.  N.  C-3s.  1S.32.  N.  S4.  95. 

a)  E.  ProHt,  Mem.  of  tho  Life  of  J.  Williams.  Loud.  1S4:3.     W.  J.  Bes'ier,  J.  W.  d.  Apostel  d 
Südsec.  Brl.  2  cd.  ISiT. 


CHAP.  V.    EVANG.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §466.  EAST  INDIES.  G15 

of  civilization,  have  accepted  also  of  the  virtues  of  a  Puritanic  form  of 
Christianity,  and  submitted  themselves  to  the  theocratic  government  of  the 
missionaries ;  (7^)  but  the  English  missionaries  have  been  driven  from  th« 
Marquesas,  and  the  evangelical  churches  of  Tahiti  have  been  wasted  by 
French  ships  of  war  with  Catholic  priests  (since  1842).  (c)  The  old  land  of 
Avonders,  the  land  of  Brahma,  had  now  become  subject  to  the  merchants  of 
England.  Tlie  East  India  Company  has  sometimes  favored  Brahminism  be- 
cause it  believed  that  the  security  of  its  dominion  might  be  promoted  by  the 
jealousies  of  the  Brahmins  and  the  Mussulmen.  But  public  oi)iniim  in  Eng- 
land demanded  that  the  government  should  act  in  consistenc}'  with  the 
Christian  religion,  and  accordingly,  in  1829,  the  suttees  ceased  to  receive  the 
protection  of  the  laws,  and  in  1831,  all  offices  open  to  any  natives  were  made 
free  to  Christian  Hindoos.  The  system  of  caste  still  presents  very  great 
obstacles;  the  manner  in  Avhich  the  Brahmins  have  been  educated  enables 
them  to  propose  objections  ('?)  which  an  uneducated  missionary  finds  it  hard 
to  answer :  the  number  of  converts  is  small,  and  the  missionaries'  native 
helpers  have  very  little  influence  with  those  wliom  tliey  have  forsaken.  The 
Anglican  Church  is  the  only  body  which  has  laid  the  basis  of  an  external 
polity  there.  The  diocese  of  Calcutta  has  been  established  (1815),  and  the 
suffragans  of  Bombay  and  Madras  have  been  since  attached  to  it  (1833). 
But  the  foundations  of  the  old  temples  have  been  powerfully  shaken  by  the 
quiet  influence  of  Christian  dominion  and  improvements,  by  the  schools,  a 
free  press,  and  trials  by  jury.  In  the  promotion  of  these  objects.  Bishop 
Heber  (d.  1826)  spent  the  brief  day  of  his  administration  in  his  immense  dio- 
cese laboring  principally  for  the  Christian  education  of  the  people,  (e)  Bishop 
Wilson  has  declared  all  distinctions  of  caste  abolished  among  such  as  profess 
the  Christian  religion  (1833),  since  the  gospel  has  placed  all  men  of  every 
nation  and  condition  on  tlie  same  footing.  (/)  On  the  other  hand,  the  great 
liammohun-Iii'ii  (1780-1833),  in  possession  of  the  treasures  of  Indian  and 
Chiistian  learning,  has  proclaimed  that  the  purely  moral  worship  of  the  one 


6)  E.  W.  Löhn,  ü.  <L  Rel.  d.  Polyiicsier,  a  d.  Tapnländer.  (Zeltsch.  f.  hist  Th.  1S42.  U.  4.)— 0.  r. 
KoUehu«,  Kcise  um  d.  Welt  Weim.  1S30.  {Röhr,  Pr.  Bibl.  vol.  X.  H.  5.  XII,  4.  XIII,  5.)  To  b« 
modiftod  by:  Ellis.  Pdlyncsian  P.csearclies.  Loud.  ISJO.  2  vuls.  (Kv.  KZ.  1S30.  N.  SOss.)  [N.  York. 
1S31.  2  vols.]  /'.  Krohn.  (L  Missionswcson  d.  Süilsoo.  Hiiib.  ISIW.  J.  Williams,  Xarr.itivo  of  Miss. 
Enterprises  in  the  South  Sea  Islands.  Lond.  1S3'.  C.  E.  Meinickf,  d.  Südsocviilker  u.  d.  Christonth. 
I'rcnzl.  1S4-L     //.  Wetjener,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  a.  d.  Gesellschafw-Areliipol.  lirl.  1S44.  vol.  L 

c  //.  Lutlerofh,  Gesch.  d.  I.  Tahiti,  u.  Hirer  Besit/nahme  durch  d.  Franzosen,  from  the  Fr.  by  Hriins. 
Rrl.  1S48.  ir.  E.  Benser,  d.  Ml.sslonür  u.  8.  Lohn,  (fnini  J'ritchard,  The  Missionary's  RewanL  Lond. 
1S44.)  Hal.  1S40.— iS".  Michaelis,  d.  Völker  d.  Südsce  u.  Gesch.  d.  prot  u.  kath.  Mis-s.  unter  dons. 
Munst  1S4T. 

(/)  An  Apology  for  IIcathenLsrn,  and  Controversi.il  Trcatis««  against  Christianity,  by  a  Brabinin. 
Translated,  with  notes  by  Bp.  Wilson.  Bombay,  li,i2.  (.Mitgcth.  v.  Porot  in  Stud  u.  Krit  185^). 
n.  2.) 

e)  Luchaniin,  nst  Unters,  u.  d.  Zust  d.  Clirlsfen  in  A.«Icn.  A.  d.  E.  Stuttg.  1S1.3.  [Christian  Re- 
searches in  Asia.  Lond.  ISll.  S.  and  ufl.]  Kiemeyer,  nenero  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss,  in  Ostind.  (Ha!. 
1^0.  St  77.)  Ihhei;  Journal.  Lond.  1S26.  2  vols.  4.  Life  of  Heber.  Lond.  lS.3i>.  2  vols.  4.  United 
in:  Krohn,  Hebers  Leben  n.  Naclirr.  Ü.  Ind.  Brl.  1S31.  2  vols.  ,;:  Hough,  Hist  of  Christ  In  Inilin. 
Lond.  ISSO-rn.  4  vols.  Die  Entw.  d.  chr.  Mls.s.  in  OsUnd.  (Has.  Mag.  1>41.  H.  1.  2.  4.  1S42.  II.  1.  .Ss 
1*43.  11.  Iss.  1S44  H.  2s.  1S45.  II.  2  )  J.  J.  Weithredit,  d.  prot  Miss.  In  Ind.  ni.  bes.  Rucks,  a.  Bca 
galen.  Ileidlb.  1844. 

/)  Ev.  KZ.  1S34.  N.  73s. 


616    '  MOnKRN  CIIUKCII   IIISTOUY.     PPMl.  VI.     A.  D.  1043-1853. 

God  is  TiuTi'ly  tlic  restoration  of  orifjinal  Bniliiniiiism,  and  that  tliis  doctrine 
con.'^titntc's  llio  unity  of  tliat  system  -with  tlic  essential  principles  of  the  gos- 
pel. ((/)  At  Malacca,  a  Christian  school  was  opened  for  the  cduciition  of  tke 
Chinese  residing  there,  and  Morrison  (d.  1844)  translated  the  Sorii)tures  for 
their  use.  English  cannons  have  compelled  the  Celestial  Empir.e  to  open  its 
gates  for  the  reception  of  the  gospel  as  -well  as  opium  (1842),  and  the  Hessian 
Misüioiiary  Society  has  avowed  its  sjjecial  interest  in  the  conversion  of  China. 
Giitzhnf  (1803-51),  born  a  missionary,  and  trained  in  the  scliool  of  Jaenike. 
in  the  full  costume  of  a  native,  and  sometimes  in  connection  with  Englisli 
merchants,  has  penetrated  with  some  violence  into  the  interior  of  China 
(since  1831).  At  first  he  was  obliged  to  communicate  Christianity  to  the 
Chinese  only  in  a  manuscript  form,  but  after  a  time  he  succeeded  in  sending 
forth  in  every  direction  a  large  number  of  native  preachers  from  the  Anglo- 
Chinese  seminary,  which  has  been  removed  from  Macao  to  IIong-Kong,  and 
finally,  as  a  friend  of  China,  has  pleaded  its  cause  in  the  different  countries 
of  Germany.  Qi)  The  insurrection  created  by  the  new  Son  of  Heaven 
(Tien-ti),  has  already  destroyed  the  idols  (since  1852),  threatens  to  over- 
throw the  Tartar  dynasty,  and  has  adopted  many  ideas  peculiar  to  Christian- 
ity. (()  Missions  of  all  denominations  have  been  established  among  the 
colonies  on  the  coast  of  Southern  Africa^  where,  in  consequence  of  the  rev- 
erence which  the  negro  generally  feels  for  the  white  man,  the  difficulty  has 
been  not  so  mucb  with  the  decided  opposition  as  with  the  indiflterence  of  a 
stupid  barbarism.  The  Ehenish  Missionary  Society  looks  with  pious  expec- 
tations to  the  miniature  likeness  of  its  own  native  valley  in  the  Wupperthal 
belonging  to  the  Colony  of  the  Cape,  but  when  the  Hottentots  rose  against 
the  white  men  (since  1850),  they  forgot  their  catechism.  At  Sierra  Leone  has 
been  formed  the  germ  of  freedom  and  of  Cliristianity  (since  1810),  at  an 
expense  of  millions  of  money,  but  it  is  continually  threatened  by  a  most 
noxious  climate.  (})  To  secure  the  benefits  of  European  civilization  for  hit 
subjects,  King  Radama  allowed  Christianity  to  be  freely  introduced  intc 
Madagascar  (since  1818).  The  queen  who  succeeded  him,  however,  com- 
manded her  subjects  to  think  no  more  of  the  new  doctrine ;  the  missionarie:- 
abandoned  the  island  (1836),  and  the  native  Christians  were  impaled  alive. 


g)  Translation  of  several  principal  books  of  tlie  Teds.  ed.  2.  Lend.  1S.83.  Appe.il  to  Cliristians 
Calcutta,  lS20s.  2  vols.  Correspondence  rel.itive  to  the  prospect  of  the  reception  of  Christ,  in  India. 
Lond.  1S24.  A.  KZ.  1824.  N.  43.  Gescb.  d.  ev.  Miss.  Hal.  1837.  St  S3,  p.  9ü6s.  [Christ  E.\am- 
iner,  Sept  and  Oct  1826.  Spirit  of  the  Pilgrims,  vol.  II.  p.  270ss.  North  Amer.  Eeview.  voL 
XX.  p.  S98ss.] 

h)  W.  If.  Medhurat,  Ch\M,  \is  State  and  rro.^peets.  Lond.  1S3S.  Freely  revised.  Stuttg.  1S40.— 
GuUlaf,  Sketcli  of  Chinese  Hist,  Ane.  and  Mod.  N.  York.  1S40.  2  vols.  12.— C  Gutzliff,  Journal  of 
Throo  Voyages  along  the  Coast  of  China.  N.  York,  1S33.  Lond.  1834.  (Ev.  KZ.  183.3.  N.  56.  1S34.  N. 
TOss.)  Gaihan's  (Gützl.)  chin.  Berichte,  1841-16.  ed.  by  the  chin.  Stiftung.  1850.  A.  KZ.  1S40.  N. 
181.  1847.  N.  143.  1S50.  N.  202ss.  1851.  N.  40. 

«')  Koltrr.  z.  Kunde  Chinas  in  Bez.  a.  d.  Miss.  ed.  by  A".  L.  BiernaUl->,  Cass.  1SÖ3.  vol.  L  11.  2. 
A.  KZ  1853.  N.  ISO. 

k)  (0.  V.  GerhicJi,)  Gesch.  d.  ev.  Miss,  im  sfldl.  Afr.  Brl.  1832.  (7.  and  S.  Eep.  of  the  BerL  Soc.) 
Reports  of  the  Rhenish  Miss.  Soc.  Barm.  ISSOss.  Hist  of  the  Civilization  and  Christianizatlon  of 
louthern  Afr.  Kdlnb.  1880.  Some  circulars  sent  from  South  Afr.  to  Bishop  Xcander,  ed.  bv  G.  G.'lcl 
Ilamb.  1^10. 


CUAP.  VI.     CATII.  CHÜRCn  TILL  1S53.     §  4C7.  PIUS  VIL     CONSALVL         G17 

but  Christianity  was  Ly  no  means  extinguished,  (T)  The  remnants  of  the 
aboriginal  tribes  of  XortJi  America  betook  themselves  to  the  deeper  shades 
of  their  primitive  forests ;  and  although  some  of  them  acknowledged  the 
God  of  the  whites,  others  replied  to  the  solicitations  of  the  missionaries,  that 
they  had  previously  lived  happily  under  the  protection  of  the  Great  Spirit, 
and  that  what  they  had  witnessed  in  their  white  brethren  had  only  made 
them  doubt  the  expediency  of  any  change. — About  sixty-five  millions  of 
people  are  at  present  adherents  of  the  Evangelical  Church. 


CHAP.   VI.— THE   ROMA:?^   CATHOLIC   CHURCH   UNTIL  1853. 
§  4G7.      Re-establishment  of  the  lioman  Hierarchy.      Cont.  from  §  439. 

With  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons,  a  party  bound  together  by  the 
most  intimate  relations,  and  ramified  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  became  dif- 
fused in  all  parts  of  Southern  Europe,  and  formed  a  secret  connection  until 
1830  with  tlie  apostolical  congregation  as  the  nucleus  of  all  their  operations. 
The  object  of  this  party  was  to  obliterate  all  vestiges  of  the  Revolution,  and 
under  the  name  of  the  absolute  monarchic  system,  once  more  to  divide  the 
world  between  the  Priests  and  the  Barons.  Tlieir  watchword,  tliat  the  altar 
cannot  fall  without  the  throne,  and  the  terrible  experience  of  the  few  past 
years  was  sufficient  to  draw  toward  them  the  hearts  of  the  princes.  Tlie 
result  was,  that  tlie  state  received  an  ecclesiastical,  and  the  Church  a  politi- 
cal element.  By  this  dangerous  connection,  the  hierarchy  obtained  many 
unexpected  concessions,  but  the  Church  was  involved  in  all  the  changes  of 
tlie  political  system,  and  its  true  power  was  much  impaired.  And  yet  the 
newly-awakened  religious  zeal  Avhich  now  took  possession  of  the  leading 
spirits  of  the  age,  sometimes  the  result  of  enthusiasm,  and  at  other  times  of 
deliberate  purpose,  was  beneficial  to  the  cause  of  Catholicism,  and  raised  up 
many  a  dilapidated  and  fallen  jtillar  for  its  support.  Vius  VII.  once  more 
entered  his  capital  (May  24th,  1814),  which,  having  been  reduced  to  a  mere 
French  provincial  town,  now  received  him  with  acclamations,  {a)  The 
Ecclesiastical  States  had  their  former  limits  assigned  them  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  district  beyond  the  Po.  The  pro- 
vinces beyond  the  Apennines  Avere  exposed  to  the  rapacity  of  Austria,  now 
the  dominant  power  in  Italy.  The  Diplomatists  of  Vienna  smiled  when 
Consalvi  sülemiily  protested  against  the  dismemberment  of  the  country  on 
the  Po,  the  Austrian  occupation  of  the  castle  of  Ferrara,  the  refusal  to  sur- 
render Avignon,  and  the  secularization  and  dissolution  of  the  (German  em- 
pire, {h)  The  nations  licard  with  amazement  that  the  pope  had  pronounced 
the  Bible  Society  a  pestilence  (1817).  (')  The  bull  Sollicitudo  Omnium  (Aug. 
7th,  1814),  in  compliance  with  what  it  called  the  almost  unanimous  entreat} 

0  EUia,  n.  of  Madnst.  Lond.  1S8S.  2  vols.  (Ev.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  15ss.)  llrl.  KZ.  ISIL  N.  25.  Ftld 
Iter,  (1.  Ev.  0.  Madag.  Künigsb.  Ii45. 

a)  Pucca,  Moiiiorio.  Orv.  IS*?,  vol.  V.  Aii?sb.  1884.  vol.  V. 

I)  Klüher,  Acten  d.  Wiener  Conjrr.  vol.  IV.  p.  825.  VI.  441ss. 

c)   IJuW,  Decreta,  qulK  soclett.  bibl.  it  P.  K.  dnninontiir.  lieg   131S. 


618  MOHKEN  CHÜUCH  niSTORr.     PKR.  VI.     A.  D.  1045-1  SM. 

of  CiiriHtendom,  restored  the  order  of  tlic  Jesuits  tlirougliout  the  -world, 
Nowhcro,  except  in  tlie  Ecclesiastical  States,  Lowever,  was  it  able  to  regaiu 
possession  of  any  i)ortion  of  its  former  property ;  but  it  received  from  the 
former  society  an  inheritance  of  suspicion  and  hatred,  which  its  members 
Bonght  to  remove  from  tlie  popular  mind  by  a  course  of  strict  morality  and 
manners.  In  Naples,  Belgium,  Ireland,  and  in  most  of  the  American  States, 
they  were  tolerated  ;  in  Sardinia,  they  were  richly  endowed,  and  intrusted 
with  the  education  of  the  youth ;  and  in  some  of  the  cantons  of  Switzerland 
they  erected  edifices  for  instruction,  which  were  resorted  to  by  many  chil- 
dren of  the  French  and  German  nobility.  Austria,  after  a  protracted  refu 
sal,  opened  a  few  of  her  provinces  to  them  (after  1836).  They  Avere  excluded 
from  Russia  for  their  abuse  of  confidence  (1820).  (d)  As  they  became,  under 
General  Iiooi/iaan,  after  1829,  more  and  more  decidedly  the  prominent  cham- 
pions against  all  freedom  both  in  Church  and  State,  not  indeed  from  any 
warmth  of  natural  character,  but  by  cold  calculation  and  untiring  diligence, 
their  intrusion  into  the  western  states  of  Europe  depended  upon  their  uncer- 
tain victory  over  liberal  institutions,  (c)  Every  condition  which  they  had 
desired  in  behalf  of  the  new  order  of  things  in  the  Church,  had  been  con- 
ceded to  them  by  the  Eoman  court,  and  by  the  governments  of  Turin  (1814, 
1817)  and  Naples  (1818),  since  every  limitation  of  the  hierarchy  was  sus- 
pected in  those  countries  as  a  democratic  element.  (/)  Every  ecclesiastical 
measure  indicated  that  it  was  the  design  to  bring  all  things  back  to  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  were  before  the  time  of  Cl^nent  XIV.  In  the  civil 
administration,  Consalvi  endeavored  to  strike  out  a  middle  way  between  the 
hierarchical  and  liberal  parties.  A  Motu-Proprio  of  July  6,  1816,  confirmed 
the  legal  equality  of  all  citizens,  just  as  it  had  been  introduced  by  the  French 
when  they  abolished  all  municipal  and  provincial  privileges.  But  when  the 
French  code  had  been  abolished,  nothing  was  substituted  in  its  place ;  the 
prelates  once  more  seized  upon  all  the  civil  offices,  the  privileged  classes  were 
opposed  to  a  re-establishment  of  the  financial  system,  and  even  robbers  col- 
lected annuities.  It  may  therefore  with  propriety  be  said,  that  there  was  no 
security  for  the  government  but  in  the  pious  recollections  of  the  people, 
and  in  the  proper  management  of  the  confessional,  (g)  After  experiencing 
such  extreme  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  Pius  VU.  died  (Aug.  21,  1823),  his  last 
days  having  been  beclouded  by  the  burning  of  St.  Paul's  church,  and  the 
threatened  approach  of  a  new  revolution.  (//)  Although  he  was  a  theologian, 
his  education  was  by  no  means  extensive  ;  he  had  no  great  confidence  in  his 
own  abilities,  displayed  great  powers  of  endurance,  and  his  countenance  wa? 
that  of  a  saint,  and  an  image  of  a  noble  soul. 

d)  rater,  Anbau,  vol.  11.  p.  39ss.  KITist.  Archiv.  1S2.3.  P.  2.  p.  22s3.  WesUivUder,  ü.  d.  Wie 
derh.  d.  Jes.  1818.  Cretineau-Joly,  Gesch.  d.  GescUsch.  J.  from  the  French.  Vienna  lS45ss.  6  vols.- 
//.  Liilteroih,  la  llussie  et  les  Jesuites.  Par.  1844  Ü.  v.  Birch,  Stuttg.  1S46. 

e)  Pas  Innere  d.  GescUsch.  Jesu.  Lps.  1S45.  Der  Jes.  O.  u.  s.  Unverträgliclik.  m  A.  deutscheii 
Verli.  Stuttg.  1S4G. 

/)  Orig.  Docc.  In  Vator's  Anbau,  xol  I.  p.  65ss.  14Is?. 

0)  Tounion,  i:tudes  statistiques  sur  Eome.  Par.  1S31.  Z.  HanUe,  Rom.  1S15-23.  (Hist,  pol 
Zeltachr.  1S:3».  P.  4.) 

/()  P.  BtihliitMri,  Relazione  dcUe  aversita  c  patimenti  del  P.  Pio  Til.  negU  Ultimi  trc  anni  del 
•uo  iK>ntif.  ed.  2.  Bolog.  1S40. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CnUECH  TILL  1853.    §468.  LEO  XII.    GEEGCRT  XVL      619 
§  468.     The  Popes  lefore  the  Last. 

{KijUe,)  Eom  im  J.  IS.'JS.  Stuttg.  1SS4.  E.  Munch,  Küm.  Zustände  u.  Kirehcnfragen  d.  neuesten 
Zelt.  Stuttfr.lS.38.  (TT.  HeuehHn,)  Bilder  n.  Skizzen  a.  Rom.  Statt?.  1S44— J!  G.  Köhet-le :  Horn  unter 
den  letzton  drei  Päpsten,  u.  d.  zweite  Eef.  in  Deutsclil.  I.ps.  1S4G.  3  vols. — ArUind  de  Movtnr,  Ilist 
du  P.  Leon  XII.  Par.  1<!4:3.  revised  \<y  Ch.  ScJterer,  ScliatTh.  1S44.— du  P.  Pie  VIII.  Par.  1&44.— Aus 
d.  Leben  P.  Greg.  XVI.  Vien.  1S31.  i.    Beruh.  Waanei;  P.  Greg.  XVI.  Sulzb.  1S4Ö. 

Leo  XIL  (dollii  Genpa,  Sept.  28th,  1823-Feb.  lOtli,  1829),  wlio  belonged 
to  the  party  opposed  to  Consalvi's  liberal  policy,  endeavored  to  regulate  the 
atitiirs  of  tlie  Cliurch  beyond  the  Alps  and  the  ocean,  and  to  snj)ply  it  "with 
bishops  distinguished  for  piety  and  science.  He  also  improved  the  system  of 
education  in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  canonized  the  Minorite  Julianus,  "who 
had  ordered  fried  birds  to  fly  away,  {a)  and  appointed  the  year  of  Jubilee  to 
be  a  season  of  general  expiation  and  grace,  in  which  believers  from  all  parts 
of  the  earth  might  come  up  to  tlie  metropolis  of  the  world,  to  thank  God 
for  the  victory  which  had  been  obtained  over  the  great  conspiracy  of  this 
century  against  all  human  and  divine  rights,  and  to  pray  for  the  extermina- 
tion of  heretics.  (/')  He  had  not  been  distinguished  for  his  abstemiousness  in 
Germany,  where  ho  had  resided  as  a  nuncio,  but  when  he  became  pope  he 
was  extremely  temperate.  On  his  accession,  he  was  received  at  Rome  with 
great  rejoicings,  but  at  his  death  he  was  hated  for  his  strictness  and  indepen- 
dence, not  only  by  the  officials  of  his  court  and  the  cardinals,  but  by  the 
people.  Pius  VIIL  (Castiglioni,  March  31st,  1829-Xov.  30th,  1830),  a 
favorite  of  his  predecessor  of  the  same  name,  a  sickly,  benevolent  old  man, 
and  always  afraid  of  the  machinations  of  the  philosophers,  the  Bible  socie- 
ties, and  the  Carbonari,  (r)  put  forth  his  last  and  best  energies  to  confer  bless- 
ings on  his  city  and  the  world.  The  longings  of  the  Italians  generally  after 
national  independence  and  a  popular  constitution,  had  become  powerful  espe- 
cially in  the  Ecclesiastical  States,  quite  as  much  in  consequence  of  the  decided 
opposition  made  to  them,  as  of  the  weakness  of  the  government.  Even  dur- 
ing the  session  of  the  conclave,  an  insurrection  became  formidable,  and  deter- 
mined the  vote  in  fiivor  of  Capellari  von  Belluno,  the  General  of  the  Camal- 
dolites,  Grcgorrj  AT/.  (Feb.  2,  1831^June  1,  184G),  who  had  once  celebrated 
the  triumph  of  the  holy  see  over  the  as.saults  of  those  innovators.  (-/)  The 
insurrection,  relying  upon  the  aid  of  Franco,  broke  out  in  tlie  Legations, 
extended  be^^ond  the  Marquisate  of  Ancona,  and  finally  reached  Rome,  where 
its  object  was  to  compel  the  pope  to  abdicate  liis  temporal  sovereignty. 
From  this  he  was  preserved  by  the  interference  of  Austria.  He  however 
paid  only  an  apparent  attention  to  the  admonition  of  the  European  powers, 
to  conform  his  administration  to  the  spirit  t>f  the  age.  The  rebellion  had 
been  indeed  suitjjressed,  but  was  by  no  means  radically  exterminated,  and 
hence  it  was  soon  awakened  to  new  activity  (Jan.,  1832).  The  troops  sent 
forth  to  quell  it,  being  wholly  composed  of  banditti  and  criminals,  ravaged 
peaceable  towns  and  sacred  spots,  until  finally  it  became  necessary  to  call  in 
the  Austrian  military  to  rescue  the  papal  government  and  its  territory  from 


a)  A.  KZ.  1825.  N.  70.         V)  Ibid.  1S24.  N.  83. 

c)  EUemchmid,  r«im.  Unllar.  Lps.  1S3I.  vol.  II.  p.  SOSss. 

Trlonfo  della  Santa  Sede.  Rom.  1799.  Ven.  1S32,  and  oft  Augsb.  13*i. 


320  MODERN  CHÜROn  HISTOKY.    PKIt.  VI.    A.  D   1648-135«. 

Us  own  Foldici'}'.  To  [ircvc.it  Austria  from  obtaining  complete  sovereignty 
over  Itnly,  tlio  French  fleet  took  possession  of  Ancona  by  a  single  blow  (Feb 
23,  1832).  Tlio  Roman  court  protested  against  this  violation  of  national 
law,  declared  tlie  city  of  Ancona  under  an  interdict,  and  thus  finally  availed 
Itself  of  the  weak  side  which  necessity  offered.  There  was  no  denying  that 
tlic  deficit  in  tho  revenues  Avas  annually  increasing.  An  attempt  to  intro- 
duce a  new  code  of  civil  law  was  defeated  by  tlie  opposition  of  the  provinces. 
Ancona  was  given  up  by  the  French  and  Bologna  by  the  Austrians  simul- 
taneously, Dec.  3d,  1838.  The  Legations  were  disturbed  by  an  almost  per- 
petual guerilla  war  during  the  years  1843-44.  (e)  The  inhabitants  of  Eimini 
(Sept.,  1845)  demanded  Avith  arms  in  their  hands,  since  every  other  form  of 
petition  and  complaint  was  denied  them,  the  very  moderate  concession  of  the 
legal  forms  of  a  civilized  state.  The  Swiss  regiments  and  a  f^inatical  band  of 
papal  volunteers  stifled  this  insurrection  in  blood,  and  a  great  part  of  the  edu- 
cated Roman  youth  sighed  in  prisons,  or  in  the  mere  possession  of  life  in  foreign 
lands.  The  pastoral  epistle  of  Gregory  (Aug.  15,  1882)  is  full  of  expressions 
indicating  that  the  author  was  conscious  that  the  Roman  Church  stood  on 
the  brink  of  an  abyss,  and  that  it  could  be  saved  only  by  the  firm  union  of 
all  true  believers  in  opposition  to  modern  science  and  popular  freedom,  but 
that  his  unshaken  reliance  rested  upon  the  protection  of  the  Holy  Virgin.  (/') 
Gregory  lived  to  witness,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Alps,  both  defeats  and 
triumphs,  but  he  seemed  always  to  understand  with  firm  moderation  what 
the  papacy  might  according  to  circumstances  demand  or  endure  from  others. 
The  festival  of  the  canonization  of  five  saints  (May  26th,  1839),  was  a  cele- 
bration of  victory  and  a  season  of  excitement,  (y)  Gregory  lived,  according 
to  his  own  convictions  of  duty,  the  abstemious  life  of  a  cloister,  or  at  least 
under  all  the  restraints  of  a  monkish  spirit,  but  he  could  not  control  the  ava- 
rice of  his  subordinate  courtiers ;  he  had  no  confidence  in  his  people,  and 
therefore  put  himself  under  the  counsels  of  a  gloomy  party ;  and  he  finally 
left  his  personal  servants  and  his  nepotes  rich,  the  country  impoverished,  and 
the  government  distracted. 

§  469.     Fills  IX.  {June  10,  184G)  and  Italy. 

Pius  IX.  u.  s.  Eeforinen.  Lps.  1S47.  IT.  Stieglitz,  Erinn.  an  Eoin.  u.  d.  KStaat  itn  ersten  Jahr.  sr. 
Verjüng.  Lps.  184S.  Curci,  d.  Papst  als  Staatsoberli.  u.  d.  Demagogie,  from  the  It»I.  of  E.  v.  Moi/ 
Insb.  1S49.  Fil.  di  Boni,  Pio  nono.  Torino.  1850.  Die  Gegenwart  Lps.  lS49ss.  vol.  III.  p.  149,  GOi^s. 
vol.  VII.  p.  458S. 

The  election  was  for  some  time  undecided  between  the  Genoese,  Lambrus- 
chini,  who  had  been  the  real  ruler  during  the  last  years  of  Gregory's  reign, 
and  Mastai  Feretti  (b.  1792),  of  Sinigaglia,  once  a  resident  in  Chili,  and  when 
a  prelate  much  interested  in  the  establishment  for  the  poor,  and  a  father  to 
all  orphans.  The  influence  of  the  Roman  nobility  to  which  he  belonged,  and 
the  perilous  condition  of  the  ecclesiastical  government,  finally  determined  the 
choice  of  the  conclave  on  the  second  evening,  in  favor  of  Feretti.  Fins  IX. 
was  regarded  by  his  intimate  acquaintances  as  the  friend  of  moderate  progress 

e)  A.  Z.  1S4-3.  N.  2S0.  /)  A.  KZ.  1S32.  N.  lS3s. 

g)  A.  KZ.  1S3.<.  N.  101.    Ebcinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXVL  p.  91ss. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1553.     §  469.  PIUS  IX.     GIOBEKTL  621 

but  his  mind  was  raised  to  a  consciousness  of  a  divine  vocation  to  be  the  re- 
former and  deliverer  of  the  Ecclesiastical  States  by  the  enthusiasm  of  the  Ro- 
aian  jieople  in  his  belialf,  and  the  opposition  he  had  to  encounter,  llis  popu- 
lar manners  won  the  hearts  of  the  people  even  when  his  reforms  appeared  to 
them  too  tardy  and  incomplete.  An  amnesty  for  all  who  had  been  imprisoned 
or  exiled  for  political  offences  was  merely  in  accordance  with  what  had  now 
become  established  usage  on  the  accession  of  a  new  pope,  but  he  pronounced 
the  word  of  grace  with  so  much  cordiality  and  good-natured  confidence 
(July  17)  that  an  act  which  brought  such  consolation  to  thousands  of  families 
filled  all  Italy  with  joy.  (a)  He  commenced  his  retrenchments  in  his  own 
hou.'?ehold,  allowed  the  press  to  indulge  in  a  much  greater  liberty,  strength- 
ened the  commissions  previously  appointed  for  digesting  a  code  of  laws  and 
forms  of  judicial  proceedings  by  the  addition  of  approved  men,  granted  per- 
mission for  the  construction  of  railroads,  opened  to  the  laity  the  path  to  the 
higher  civil  ofBces,  decided  upon  a  general  taxation  of  all  convents  in  the 
Ecclesiastical  States,  gave  a  liberal  municipal  constitution  e.«pecially  to  the 
city  of  Rome,  invited  men  from  the  provinces  in  whom  the  public  had  con- 
fidence, to  his  council  of  state,  entered  upon  negotiations  for  the  dismission 
of  the  Swiss  troops,  and  took  initiatory  steps  for  a  confederation  of  the  Italian 
states.  His  kind  intentions  with  respect  to  the  Jewish  quarters  in  the  city 
were  frustrated  by  the  opposition  of  the  Christian  population,  (h)  A  portion 
of  the  clergy  sincerely  ranged  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  pope,  his  elo- 
quent preacher,  Ventura,  j)roclaiiiied  that  genuine  Catholic  piety  must  neces- 
sarily become  reconciled  with  political  freedom,  (c)  and  even  the  Jesuits  de- 
clared themselves  the  friends  of  progress.  But  so  numerous  were  the  injuries 
committed,  and  threats  received  by  those  who  lived  upon  abuses,  and  espe 
cially  by  those  who  had  formerly  sustained  ofiices  (la  setta  Gregoriana),  and 
so  complete  Avas  the  change  of  position  from  that  which  the  modern  papacy 
had  hitherto  occupied  with  respect  to  the  political  parties,  that  an  open  and 
a  secret  opposition  to  this  "  devouring  germ  and  chief  of  young  Italy  "  was 
unavoidably  called  forth.  {<I)  As  there  were  two  political  powers  on  the  op- 
posite confines  of  the  Ecclesiastical  states  threatening  his  government,  because 
they  were  tlireatened  by  the  spirit  emanating  from  it,  this  opposition  formed 
a  coalition  with  them.  To  overcome  this  which  was  magnified  by  the  popu- 
lar imagination  until  it  assumed  the  character  of  a  murderous  conspiracy, 
Pius  ventured  to  place  weapons  in  tlie  hands  of  the  citizens  (guardia  civica, 
July  5,  1847).  (e)  By  this  act  lie  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  Italian 
national  movement,  and  was  obliged  earnestly  to  protest  against  the  Austrian 
occupation  of  Ferrara,  and  ho  seemed  actually  to  be,  what  the  learned  Abbot 
Giolerti  had  dreamed  that  the  papacy  might  become,  the  head  of  an  Italian 
confederacy  of  prince.«,  for  the  unity,  national  independence,  and  civil  liberty 
of  Italy;  and  by  reconciling  faith  with  intellectual  improvements,  the  peaceful 
umpire  among  the  nations,  liolding  up  the  cro.ss  as  the  standard  of  freedom,  (f) 

a)  D.  A.  Z.  1S46.  N.  220.        b)  Ibid.  1S47.  N.  195. 

c)  Eloglo  funebro  di  Dnnlello  O'Connell.  Hoina  1S4T. 

d)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  297.  306.        e)  Ibid.  1847.  N.  109.  2.^8. 

f)  Primato  morale  e  civile  dcsrli  ItalLini.  Par.  1843.    Dulle  nondlzloni  presente  c  ftitnro  d"Itiil.  Lon- 
in  1848.     Comp.  J.  F.  yeigehour  d.  Papst  u.  s.  Ilcich.  Lps.  1847. 


622  moi>i:i:n  ciiukcii  iiistorv.   riiu.  vi.   a.  d.  ic48-i->53. 

His  posiuoi»  with  respect  to  the  Church  was  strictly  Catholic.  "When  he 
camo  before  tho  public  his  appearance  was  thoroughly  sacerdotal,  and  he 
made  even  the  pulpit  subservient  to  liis  designs,  (fj)  Uis  pastoral  epistle 
(Nov.  9,  1840)  was  an  echo  of  that  of  Gregory,  only  his  complaints  respect- 
ing tlio  i)ress  and  popular  freedom  were  confined  to  those  books  which  tempted 
men  to  sin,  and  to  what  he  called  communism.  (/<)  His  personal  inquiries 
into  the  condition  of  convents  and  hospitals,  his  circulars  to  tho  generals  of 
the  orders  (June  17,  18-47),  and  the  commissions  appointed  with  reference  to 
the  convents,  were  intended  to  re-establish  the  canonical  regulations,  and  to 
bring  the  monastic  life  to  its  former  flourishing  state,  by  enlisting  it  in  pious 
offices  and  learned  labors,  {i)  All  the  Italian  states  had  cauglit  the  spirit  pro- 
ceeding from  Rome,  when  the  French  revolution  gave  free  scope  to  all  the 
hopes  and  passions  of  the  nations.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  of  his  conscience, 
the  pope  yielded  to  the  importunities  of  his  people  by  giving  them  a  constitu- 
tion, providing  for  two  chambers,  one  chosen  by  himself,  and  the  other  by 
the  people,  but  reserving  for  his  inviolable  authority  all  matters  relating  to 
the  Catholic  faith  and  to  morals  (March  14,  1848),  {h)  and  by  appointing  for 
his  minister  a  layman  who  had  just  returned  from  exile.  Gioberti  accused 
tho  Jesuits  of  being  the  authors  of  all  the  distress  and  disgi-ace  to  be  found  in 
Catholic  nations.  {I)  They  were  generally  driven  from  the  streets  by  the 
people,  and  although  the  pope  steadily  refused  again  to  abolish  the  order,  he 
was  obliged  to  witness  their  expulsion  from  the  Ecclesiastical  States.  When 
Lombardy  rose  against  the  Austrian  dominion,  and  Charles  Albert,  the  sword 
of  Italy,  to  gain  the  Lombard  crown  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  insurrec- 
tion, Pius  refused  to  take  any  part  in  the  national  war.  In  spite  of  his  dis- 
approbation, however,  12,000  modern  crusaders  (crociati)  went  forth  to  a 
holy  war,  in  which  they  found  neither  wounds  nor  honor.  The  pope  de- 
clared that  the  Father  of  Christendom  should  never  participate  in  a  war  be- 
tween brethren  belonging  to  Catholic  nations,  and  he  allowed  the  Austrians 
to  enter  Bologna,  and  the  people  there  to  defend  themselves  as  they  could. 
Since  tJien,  the  people  who  had  so  often  sung  hosannas  before  him,  forsook 
him,  and  the  republican  party  under  JIazzini,  which  at  that  time  aimed  at  an 
indivisible  republic  of  all  Italy,  under  the  presidency  of  the  pope,  came  into 
power.  (?«)  In  Lombardy  national  independence,  and  in  Naples  civil  liberty, 
were  overthrown  by  cannons  ;  in  Rome  a  club  (circolo  popolare),  and  in  the 
provinces  unrestrained  licentiousness,  bore  rule,  when  Count  Bossi,  once  a 
professor  in  Bologna  and  a  fugitive  because  he  had  hoped  for  the  freedom  of 
Italy,  and  afterwards  an  ambassador  of  Louis  Philippe  in  Rome,  undertook 
the  ministry,  and  held  the  parties  under  his  firm  control. .  He  was  assassi- 
nated (Nov.  15,  1848)  while  ascending  the  steps  conducting  to  the  Chamber 
of  Deputies,  and  on  the  next  day  the  people  demanded  a  democratic  niinis- 


g)  D.  A.  Z.  1S4T.  X.  25.    Ck)nip.  N.  lUX 

fi)  Die  Erwartungen  d.  kath.  Cliristenh.  iin  19.  Jahrb.  v.  h.  Stuhle.  Zur.  1S47. 
I)  Brl.  KZ.  1547.  N.  67.  69.        A)  Ibi.l.  1S4S.  N.  37. 
I)  II  Gesuita  moderno.  Cosanna.  1S47.  S  vols. 

«0  La  GioviDe  Itilia.  1S.32.  83.    De  I'ltalie  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  liberto  et  la  civilisatiou  mo 
(lerne.  Lps.  1S46.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  VL    CATU.  CHURCH  TILL  1553.    §  469.  AXTONELLL    SICCAKDI,       623 

tn',  a  constituent  national  assembly  for  the  Ecclesiastical  States  and  for 
Italy,  and  a  participation  in  tlie  national  war.  The  pope  besieged  and  at- 
tacked with  cannon  in  the  Quirinal,  finally  yielded  with  a  heavy  heart,  was 
guarded  as  a  prisoner,  and  escaped  into  the  Neapolitan  territories  (Nov.  25). 
A  provisional  government  ordered  that  the  constituent  national  assembly 
should  be  chosen  by  the  popular  voice,  and  although  the  pope  at  Gaeta  ex- 
communicated all  who  should  take  any  part  in  the  matter,  the  jjcople  elected 
their  deputies,  and  the  National  Assembly  on  the  night  of  Feb.  9,  1849, 
decreed  that  the  temporal  sovereignty  of  the  pope  was  at  an  end,  that  the 
government  of  the  Roman  state  should  henceforth  be  a  pure  democracy,  and 
that  the  Supreme  Pontiff  should  receive  full  security  for  his  independence  in 
the  exercise  of  his  spiritual  powers.  All  ecclesiastical  possessions  were  de- 
clared the  property  of  the  nation  (Feb.  13),  to  be  disLi'ibiited  on  perpetual 
leases.  But  the  European  ].  jwers  ofiered  ilieir  assistance  to  the  holy  father, 
the  French  Republic  anticipated  even  Austria,  a  French  army  under  the 
appellation  of  allies  of  the  Roman  republic,  after  an  heroic  defence  by  the 
people,  entered  the  city  of  Rome  (July  3),  and  an  Austrian  army  took  pos- 
session of  the  Legations,  (n)  A  committee  of  cardinals  by  order  of  the  pope 
undertook  the  government  (July  15),  and  began  the  work  of  vengeance.  The 
pope  promised  (Sept,  12)  some  municipal  and  provincial  limitations  to  the 
absolute  authority  restored  to  the  priests,  but  the  amnesty  which  he  pro- 
claimed was  so  full  of  exceptions  that  it  gave  opportunity  for  all  kinds  of 
persecution.  When  Pius  IX.  finally  returned  to  Rome  (April  12,  1850)  his 
heart  was  embittered,  the  patriotic  ideals  he  had  once  formed  wore  broken, 
and  the  people  received  him  in  gloomy  silence.  His  sovereignty,  under  the 
able  management  of  Cardinal  ÄntoncUi,  his  Secretary  of  State,  is  sustained 
entirely  by  French  and  Austrian  garrisons.  As  an  ecclesiastical  prince  his 
feelings  may  have  been  touched  during  his  restoration,  but  he  received  from 
Tuscany  a  Concordat  full  of  concessions  to  the  ecclesiastical  authorities,  (o) 
he  has  issued  jubilee  indulgences,  (p)  he  has  encouraged  the  Catholic  world  in 
the  hope  that  the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin  Mary  to  whoso  pow- 
erful protection  he  ascribes  his  deliverance,  Aviil  soon  be  established,  (^)  and  he 
has  once  more  committed  to  the  Jesuits  the  business  of  pubhc  education,  (r) 
In  Piedmont  alone  the  Jesuits  are  excluded,  not  only  by  the  people  but  by 
the  king  (March  3,  1848).  Here,  where  Gioberti  himself  in  difficult  times 
stood  at  the  head  of  the  ministry,  they  could  not  bo  received,  for  the  suc- 
cessor of  Cliarles  Albert,  in  harmony  with  the  educated  portion  of  the  na- 
tion, adheres  firmly  to  the  free  dovclo])mont  of  the  state  as  their  best  conso- 
lation for  misfortunes  in  tiie  battle-field,  (v)  To  carry  out  the  article  of  the 
constitution  which  jirovides  for  the  equality  of  all  citizens  before  the  law, 
and  for  the  independence  of  tho  state  upon  the  clorgj-,  the  laws  proposed  by 
Siccardiy  the  minister  of  justice,  and  accepted  by  tho  chambers,  abolished 
the  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  of  tlie  clergy  in  civil  and  criminal  causes,  and 

n)  C.  Uiiscotti,  la  republica  ßotimn.i  del  1&49.  Tor.  1850. 

o)  A.  KZ.  Is51.  N.  120.        /'t  IJrI.  KZ.  1S.V2.  N.  2:J.        <j)  IbUl.  1SUI9.  K.  37.  1S50.  N.  4T. 

r)  Ibid.  IsW.  N.  12. 

»)  F.  Cruller,  d.  Kunljjr.  Sardiii.  (Gcgeinv.  1S5.3.  vol.  VIIL  p.  524ss.) 


024  MODKKN  CIIUP.CH  inSTOHY.     TER.  VL     A.  D.  1649-1S58. 

their  control  over  cliaritablo  establishments,  abrogated  the  right  of  asylum, 
and  gave  some  reason  to  exi)ect  that  marriages  by  a  civil  act  would  be  recog- 
nized as  valid,  (t)  Framoni^  Archbishop  of  Turin,  whose  pastoral  epistle 
cc)m|)laincd  of  tliese  laAvs  as  sacrilegious,  was  summoned  before  the  civil 
court,  and  on  liis  refusal  to  appear  he  was  imprisoned  and  condemned  to  per- 
jictnal  exile  for  resisting  the  law  of  the  state,  and  for  exciting  others  to  rebel  • 
lion  against  the  civil  authorities  (Sept.  1850).  (m)  Pius  IX.  extolled  his  martyr- 
dom, and  protested  against  a  legislation  in  conflict  with  legal  concordats,  and 
the  subversion  of  the  sacred  rights  of  the  Church,  (i-)  Tlie  government  replied 
that  concordats  were  not  international  treaties  between  independent  powers, 
but  concessions  made  by  the  state  to  its  own  established  Cliurch,  and  there- 
fore so  far  as  related  to  its  own  department,  jnigbt  be  revoked  by  a  legislative 
act.  As  the  Koman  court  persisted  in  its  established  policy  of  resisting  in 
one  country  as  a  violation  of  the  inalienable  rig;, is  of  the  Church  as  long  as 
any  hope  of  success  remained,  what  in  another  country  had  become  law  by 
the  force  of  circumstances,  the  only  point  on  which  the  two  parties  could 
come  to  any  agreement  was  with  respect  to  a  diminution  of  the  number  of 
festivals.  The  masses  of  the  people  in  ditTerent  places  were  kept  in  an  un- 
happy state  of  excitement  against  the  government  by  the  perpetual  clamor 
of  the  clerical  party  under  the  direction  of  Franzoni  from  his  place  of  exile, 
against  the  laws  of  Siccardi,  against  the  civil  marriages,  under  which  all  births 
were  declared  to  be  illegitimate,  against  the  courts  which  took  any  action 
against  priests,  and  which  were  immediately  excommunicated,  against  lay 
professors  in  the  university,  against  even  clergymen  who  ventured  to  obey 
the  government,  and  against  the  whole  process  by  which  they  declared  that 
the  state  was  to  be  Protestantized  and  unchristianized.  The  king  himself 
was  threatened  with  excommunication,  and  the  Church  with  a  division,  (w) 
The  state,  on  the  other  hand,  is  continually  holding  forth  its  signals  of  free- 
dom in  a  seductive  manner,  and  whenever  a  revolution  threatens  Italy,  to 
which  Giolerti  (d.  1852)  has  bequeathed  the  lessons  and  the  hopes  to  be 
gathered  from  her  not  altogether  undeserved  misfortunes,  {x) 

§  470.     The  Gallican  Church. 

1.  The  Charter  with  which  Louis  XVIII.  entered  the  land  of  his  fathers, 
recognized  Catholicism  as  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  guarantied  to  every 
form  of  public  worship  the  protection  of  the  government.  The  priests  who 
accompanied  him,  the  martyrs  of  the  Eevolution,  had  become  by  long  absence 
estranged  from  the  people  and  the  spirit  of  the  age,  and  now,  while  they 
demanded  the  proper  reward  of  their  fidelity,  they  promised  to  secure  the 
throne  of  their  sovereign,  and  to  regenerate  their  country.  The  youth  who 
had  grown  up  in  the  midst  of  the  revolutionary  heathenism  stood  in  need  of 
the  gospel,  the  people  longed  for  the  blessings  of  the  Church,  even  polite 
usage  regarded  all  ridicule  of  religion  as  disreputable,  and  De  Lamartine,  at 

0  Brl.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  33.        w)  D.  A.  Z.  1S50.  N.  226.  246. 

r)  Brl.  KZ.  ISTjO.  N.  39.  51.  94. 

T)  15rl.  KZ.  1S51.  N.  41.  55.  103.  Hist.  pol.  Bll.  1S50.  vol.  XXYl.  U.  6s. 

a:)  Del  rinnovamento  civile  d'lulia.  Par.  1S51.  2  vols. 


CHAP.  YI.    CATII.  CIIÜECH  TILL  1S53.     §470.  FRANCE.    CHARLES  X.        625 

that  time  still  a  knight  devoted  to  royalty,  succeeded  by  the  pious  sadnesJ  of 
his  harmonies  in  becoming  the  favorite  poet  of  the  higher  classes,  (a)  Be 
Lamennais  (b.  1781)  defended  the  doctrine  of  the  absolute  necessity  of  an 
infallible  Church  as  the  objective  manifestation  of  tlie  divine  reason  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  frenzy  of  this  individual  reason  of  man,  contrasted  his  own 
glowing  feelings  of  love  and  hatred  with  the  indifference  which  prevailed 
around  him,  and  in  his  honesty  did  not  conceal  his  position  that  he  regarded 
the  theocratic  right  of  the  i)apacy  as  superior  to  tlie  foundation  on  which  the 
monarchy  rested.  (//)  Count  de  Mnistre  (d.  1821)  proved  that  infallibility 
belonged  as  necessarily  to  the  pope  as  sovereignty  to  the  king,  (c)  But  the 
clergy,  instead  of  endeavoring  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of  the  past  with 
the  present,  seemed  determined  to  render  both  more  prominent.  Rehgious 
enthusiasm  once  more  beheld  the  cross  of  Constantine  in  the  sky,  and  intoler- 
ance founded  a  kingdom  of  its  own  in  the  name  of  God.  Priests  of  the  mis- 
sion traversed  the  land  in  great  pomp,  contending  not  only  for  the  faith,  but 
in  opposition  to  every  thing  which  Franco  had  purchased  at  such  prodigious 
sacrifices.  {iT)  Tlie  principles  of  freedom  which  formerly  prevailed  in  the 
Gallican  Church  were  now  inveighed  against  as  heresies.  The  apostolic  con- 
gregation in  connection  with  the  heir-ai)parent  and  the  illustrious  daughter 
of  misfortune,  by  persevering  obstinacy,  and  in  opposition  to  the  inclinations 
of  the  prudent  king,  obtained  a  Concordat  (1817)  by  which  the  Concordat  of 
1801  was  revoked,  and  that  of  1516  was  substituted  for  it.  So  decidedly  was 
public  opinion  expressed  in  opposition  to  this  ghost  of  former  times  that  no 
one  ever  ventured  to  lay  a  plan  of  the  law  before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  {c) 
"Without  the  consent  of  the  Chambers,  however,  the  government  did  as 
much  for  the  clergy  as  was  in  its  power.  But  no  sooner  had  the  Cathedral 
of  Kheims  witnessed  once  more  a  royal  coronation,  for  which  even  the  Holy 
Chrism  was  once  more  found  (p.  16G),  than  the  hierarchy  received  from  the 
chambers  a  pledge  of  its  victory  in  the  law  against  sacrilege  (1825),  which, 
in  the  true  spirit  of  the  middle  ages,  threatened  with  terrible  punishments 
every  injury  done  to  the  Established  Church.  (/)  Once  more,  however,  the 
government  listened  to  the  demands  of  the  popular  will  expressed  even  iu  the 
House  of  Peers,  and  a  royal  ordinance  (June  IGth,  1828)  closed  the  schools 
against  the  Jesuits  who  had  intruded  into  them  in  the  character  of  fathers  of 
rlie  faith,  ig)  But  Charles  X.  allowed  himself  to  be  hurried  into  violent 
measures,  for  which  he  was  obliged  to  atone  by  the  loss  of  liis  throne  (1830). 
2.  Instead  of  a  king  anointed  and  appointed  by  God,  a  citizen-king  was  now 

rt)  Md'dltat  poot  Par.  1S20.    narnionies  poet  et  rel.  Par.  1S.30.  2  vols. 

h)  Essai  siir  riiulltVOrcnco  en  nuitlcro  de  la  rel.  Pur.  ISl's.  cd.  4.  l*2i.  4  vols.  Defense  do  I'Essai 
Par.  1S21.  De  la  rel.  dans  scs  rapports  ovec  I'ordre  poUiiiiiic.  Pur.  1S25.  ed.  3.  1S26.  Des  progr6s  da 
la  rev.  et  de  la  guerre  contro  I'cgl.  Par.  1S29. 

c)  Du  Pape.  Par.  lS2i). 

<l)  Die  Hier.  u.  ihre  Riindesiren.  In  Fr.  Aar.  1S23.  Coup-d'oell  sur  la  situation  actuello  et  los  vrals 
Interets  de  IV'gl.  fr.  Par.  \v2r>.     Otiove,  lie!,  u.  Plill.  in  Fr.  Gott,  1S20. 

e)  De  Prallt,  los  quatre  Cone.  Pur.  ISH.  vol.  IIL  (Arcliiv.  f  KOesch.  vol.  IV.  p.  379s3.) 

/)  A.  K.  Z.  1S25.  N.  82.  44.     Dti  Loiret,  HIsL  Abrep.o  du  sacrilO'po.  Par.  1S2.'>. 

g)  MoiUlosier,  Memoire  \\  consultcr  sur  un  .«ystein-3  rel.  ct  pol.  tendont  i  rcnvorsor  la  rel.,  la  so- 
ciete  et  le  tr.,ne.  Par.  1S26.    With  Vorw.  by  Paulus,  Stuttj.  1S2C.  A.  K.  Z.  1826.  N.  189.  1S2T.  N.  20.— 
KS2S.  N.  104. 14S.  174.  1S2!).  X.  9.  11. 
40 


62G  MODKRN  CHUliCH  HISTORY.     PER.  VI.     A.  D.  161=5-1S58. 

flioson  by  tlio  pco])lc.  Tlio  Jesuits  and  TrajJijists  fled,  tlie  palace  of  the  arch 
hislioi»,  and  a  i'cw  churches  in  Paris  which  had  heen  used  for  political  purposes, 
were  stormed,  the  cros.ses  together  with  the  lilies  Avere  renrioved,  the  salaries 
of  the  prelates  were  diminished,  and  Catholicism  lost  the  prerogative  of  being 
the  religion  of  the  state.  (A)  But  an  intimation  from  the  pope  (i)  determined 
the  clergy  to  offer  their  prayers  for  the  new  kingdom,  although  their  minds 
were  full  of  rancor  toward  it,  and  they  were  connected  by  many  pious  bonds 
with  the  family  of  the  exiled  king.  Louis  Philippe  made  as  great  concessions 
to  the  hierarchy  as  the  origin  of  his  own  authority  would  allow,  that  a  moral 
basis  and  a  peaceable  form  might  be  given  to  his  own  dynasty.  The  Arch- 
bishop of  Paris,  IT.  de  Quelen  (d.  1839),  an  honorable  priest  and  a  father  to 
the  poor,  (h)  was  yet  willing  to  deny  Christian  burial  to  the  honest  Gregoire, 
who  died  immovably  faithful  to  his  ecclesiastical  character  (1831),  (?)  and 
the  Bishop  of  Clermont  refused  the  last  consolations  of  the  Church  (1838)  to 
the  Count  Montlosier^  who  had  once  heroically  defended  the  cross  of  Christ, 
but  had  appealed  to  the  laws  in  opposition  to  the  Jesuits.  (?w)  The  recollec- 
tions of  all  that  is  great  in  the  past  history  of  the  French  nation  stand  in 
striking  opposition  to  the  views  of  the  Church,  {n)  and  the  abyss  between 
Catholic  and  secular  France  is  daily  becoming  more  profound.  Lamennais, 
consistently  with  his  general  opinion  that  ecclesiastical  piety  is  to  be  valued 
above  every  thing  else,  perceived  the  compatibility  of  Catholicism  with  the 
sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  demanded  that  the  clergy  should  not  only  give 
up  all  their  salaries  but  all  interference  in  political  matters,  and  so  be  once 
more  poor  and  free.  The  Journal  of  the  Future  (I'Avenir,  1830s.)  was  pow- 
erful in  France  until  it  struck  upon  the  rock  of  a  contradiction  between  the 
freedom  of  the  mind  and  the  Roman  infallibility.  Lacordairc^  the  intelligent 
disciple  of  Lamennais,  submitted  himself  to  the  pastoral  epistle  of  Pope 
Gregory  (§  475),  became  a  mendicant  friar,  (o)  and  was  apparently  willing  to 
bring  the  sacrifice  of  obedience.  But  in  his  solitude  his  spirit  became  in- 
llamed,  and  he  sent  forth  to  the  world  the  words  of  a  true  believer.  As 
Christianity  had  previously  been  abused  to  throw  a  sanctity  around  despot- 
ism, he  here  attempted  to  give  the  democratic  side  of  the  gospel  and  of  the 
theocracy,  that  he  might  in  anticipation  of  a  mighty  revolution,  announce  in 
prophetic  and  apocalyptic  imagery  the  overthrow  of  the  monarchy  and  the 
universal  equality  of  the  children  of  God.  But  even  this  revolutionary 
prophecy  is  pervaded  by  a  spirit  of  profound  and  sincere  piety,  (ji)  As  La- 
mennais in  his  visions  of  the  dead  had  never  mentioned  the  name  of  the 


h)  A.  K.  Z.  1S31.  N.  155.  1?82.  N.  8T.  97.  lG7ss. 

i)  After  Rozet,  Chronique  de  Juillet :  Minerva.  lS-33.    Apr.  p.  SSss. 

k)  Klieinw.  Rep.  1S41.  vol.  XXXIII.  p.  93ss. 

I)  Chr.  Antiromaniis.  d.  starb.  Gres.  u.  d.  venl.  Krzb.  Neust.  1531.     Krüger,  (p.  530)  p.  S'Sss. 

m)  A.  Z.  ISoS.  N.  354.  Append.  N.  C92.  S39.  N.  2. 

M)  Kunstblatt  1S37.  N.  99.    Acta  hist  ecc.  1S37.  p.  67. 

o)  X(/<.-orrf</i/v,  Memoire  pour  le  retablissement  en  France  de  Tordre  des  frCres  precheurs.  Par. 
IS3S.  Augsb.  1S39. 

p)  Paroles  dun  crovant  Par.  1S33.  (In  the  Brussels  pirated  impression,  1S34.  12.  also  Bautain, 
3  Eckstein  &  S-auite-Beuve.)  Bautain,  ROponso  dun  chretien  aus  paroles  d'uu  crovant  Str.isb.  1S;J4 
Baumgartfn-CruMiui,  Betracht  ü.  einige  Schriften  v.  de  la  Menu.  Jen.  1534.  [Article  in  Hcgs;"s 
Cbr.  Instructor,  in  Eclectic  M.ig.  for  Oct  1550.  p.  260ss.] 


CHAP.  YI.    CATII.  CIIUIICU  TILL  1S53.    §  470.  LAMENNAIS.    CHATEL.        G27 

pope,  SO  iu  liis  rejection  of  t!ie  "  "Words  of  a  Believer  "  (June  25,  1834),  tlio 
pope  never  used  the  name  of  Lainennais,  but  as  a  sorrowing  father  spoke  of 
the  man  whom  France  once  esteemed  as  the  hist  of  the  ecclesiastical  fathers. 
But  Laraennais  found  himself  urged  on  to  a  position  in  which  he  saw  the 
pontificate  with  its  antiquated  claims  on  the  one  side,  and  the  human  race 
with  its  ever  fresh  religious  energies  upon  the  other,  {q)  Instead  of  the 
Church  he  has  put  the  universal  reason  of  man,  and  instead  of  the  pro;)itiatory 
death  at  Golgotha,  an  oblation  of  the  deity  commensurate  with  tlio  uni- 
verse, (r) '  He  has  been  declared  by  the  civil  courts  guilty  of  attempts  to 
excite  hatred  and  contempt  with  respect  to  the  royal  government  (1840),  (s) 
but  he  has  now  been  abandoned  by  free  as  well  as  by  Catholic  France.  After 
an  attempt  to  revive  the  sect  of  the  Theophilanthropists  by  a  decree  which 
numbers  the  years  from  the  time  of  the  martyrdom  of  Socrates,  the  Abbe 
Chatcl  preached  (Aug.  1830)  in  the  spirit  of  an  extravagant  liberalism  a 
French  Catholic  Churcli.  In  consequence  of  the  strong  dislike  felt  by  tho 
great  body  of  the  people  for  tho  Romish  hierarchy,  a  few  congregations  were 
collected  together  with  this  view  ;  but  the  modern,  useless,  political  and  nega- 
tive character  of  this  system  made  it  soon  dwindle  away,  and  the  doors  of  its 
advocates  were  finally  closed  by  the  police  (1842).  (0  In  the  spirit  of  the 
new  monarchy,  Guizot,  an  earnest  Protestant  literary  man,  once  more  estab- 
lislicd  a  ])lan  of  national  education,  in  which  a  system  of  schools  was  carried 
out  (1833),  except  that  no  one  ventured  to  introduce  into  it  the  education  of 
the  clergy,  nor  to  assert  the  universal  obligation  of  attendance  on  the  schools. 
He  also  proposed  that  France  should  become  tlie  protector  of  Catholicism  in 
every  part  of  the  world,  though  without  prejudice  to  the  freedom  of  religion 
under  it.  The  clergy  demanded  as  the  price  of  their  reconciliation,  the  free- 
dom of  education,  i.  e.,  liberty  to  control  it.  Tlie  University,  Avhich  had  tlio 
general  direction  of  this  whole  business,  was  described  by  them  as  the  Mo- 
loch to  whose  antichristian  instruction  the  youth  of  France  were  sacrificed.  («) 
When  the  two  parties  had  measured  their  relative  strength  by  a  discussion  in 
the  Chamber  upon  instruction  in  the  gymnasium  (1844),  they  did  not  venture 
to  come  to  a  vote  on  tlie  law  relating  to  it.  (e)  A  few  bishops  tlireatcned  to 
deprive  some  obnoxious  institutions  of  the  blessing  and  countenance  of  tlie 
Church.  On  the  otlier  hand,  the  oM  system  of  Jesuit  morality  which  had 
been  used  i'or  the  instruction  of  the  clergy,  made  up  as  it  was  of  ambiguities 


q)  Affaires  dc  Rome,  Tar.  1S30.  Le  llvre  du  pciiple.  Par.  1S8S.  12.  Lo  paj's  ct  \e  gouvernemcnt. 
Par.  184n. 

r)  l'>qnis«e  d'une  Plillosnplile.  Par.  1S41.  Svols.  Par.  &  Lp«.  1*-11.  .3  vols.— Anisclinspaiuls  et  Dar- 
vamls.  Par.  1S4.'?.    Los  Evangile.s.  Par.  184C. 

k)  Hrl.  K.  Z.  1811.  N.  11. 

t)  ITiii  Deo.  A.  K.  JC.  1829.  N.  20G.— ProfossU.ii  do  f,.|  do  VC-^l  catli.  franral^o.  Par.  ls.?I.  Catö- 
cliisiiio  il  I'lisaire  de  ripl.  cath.  ff.  Par.  IS'JT.  Heuchliii,  p.  •i'JS»».  J/olsap/el,  <\.  K.  do  .Vbbo  Cliatel. 
(Zoitschr.  f.  liisL  Tli.  18lt.  P.  3.) 

n)  Code  ITiiivorsltaire  ou  lols  et  rriiloniotis  do  ri'nivcrsHö  do  France,  Par.  1S:V>.  Pßiiii:,  p.  72ss. 
113.  lieuchlin,  p.  8i:ss.  Brl.  A.  K.  Z.  1S13.  X.  hi.—Dengitret»,  lo  Monopole  iiniversltairo,  da-^tructour 
de  la  rcl.  ct  des  lois,  oil  la  Charte  et  la  libertu  do  rensolsnement  Lyon.  1843.  f'edrhif,  simple  coup 
d'ooil  siir  Ics  doulcurs  ct  los  espörances  de  IVgl.  aux  prises  avec  Ics  tyrnns  des  consciences  et  les  vices 
du  XI.K.  SiCcle.  Lvon.  1843. 

n)  (0.  /.'«»sv)  Uec.  d.  betr.  Solirr.  In  d.  .Ton.  L.  Z.  IStC.  X.  33-40. 


628  MODERN  CIIÜRCn  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1618-1353. 

and  obscenity,  "\v;is  again  bronglit  to  public  notice.  3Ilc7iclet,  to  whom  all  the 
dreams  of  the  middle  ages  were  quite  familiar,  and  Quinct^  who  regarded 
every  authorized  creed  as  a  direct  promise  on  the  part  of  all  who  profess  it, 
ficnt  forth  from  their  Mount  St.  Genevieve  to  the  whole  French  nation  in  op- 
jjo-sition  to  the  Jesuits  who  had  now  become  more  numerous  than  under  the 
Re.storation,  full  pictures  of  all  that  these  fathers  had  done  for  the  destruction 
of  freedom,  and  of  what  other  nations  had  become  under  their  influence,  (w) 
When  Thiers  called  up  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  the  laws  still  in  existence 
against  the  Jesuits,  they  were  enforced  with  the  utmost  possible  mildness  by 
the  government,  and  through  the  mediation  of  the  pope  the  General  of  the 
Jesuits  was  induced,  apparently  at  least,  to  dissolve  all  the  houses  belonging 
to  the  order  in  France,  and  to  recall  from  that  country  all  who  were  not  na- 
tives (July,  1845).  {x)  At  this  time,  when  the  Church  was  not  in  the  service 
of  the  court,  and  when  Affre^  Archbishop  of  Pari:»,  demanded  not  ecclesiasti- 
cal protection  but  liberty,  the  influence  of  the  Church  became  very  consider- 
able, in  behalf  not  only  of  the  hierarchy  but  of  general  Christianity,  in  con 
sequence  of  its  works  of  practical  piety  and  spiritual  learning,  (y)  3.  In 
Feb.  1848,  when  France  was  surprised  by  the  sudden  introduction  of  the  re- 
public, the  Church  felt  bound  by  no  ties  of  gratitude  to  the  dethroned  royal 
family.  One  party  beheld  in  that  event  a  mere  point  of  transition  to  a  le- 
gitimate monarchy ;  the  dispersed  school  of  Lamennais  haUed  in  the  new 
watchword  of  Liberty,  Equality,  and  Fraternity,  which  the  state  now  pro- 
claimed, nothing  but  the  old  principles  of  the  Church ;  the  aspiring  lay-leader 
of  the  Catholic  party  discovered  that  the  Catholic  Church  might  be  con- 
nected with  any  form  of  civil  government  from  which  it  could  expect  ecclesi- 
astical freedom,  {z)  and  even  the  priests  did  not  hesitate  to  bless  the  tree  of 
liberty,  and  pray  for  the  sovereign  people.  («)  The  Constitution  of  the  Re- 
public promised  freedom  to  every  creed,  protection  for  every  form  of  public 
worship,  and  salaries  to  the  ministers  of  every  form  of  worship  recognized 
by  the  government.  (5)  The  law  respecting  instruction  (May  15,  1850)  gave 
the  clergy  so  much  influence  in  the  supreme  council  for  education,  and  so 
much  freedom  in  the  establishment  of  the  schools,  for  the  formation  of  which 
a  great  independent  association,  much  lauded  by  the  pope  had  been  organized, 
that  the  Catholic  party  willingly  accepted  of  it  as  an  earnest  of  greater  fa- 
vors, (c)  The  Archbishop  Affre  fell  in  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  his 
vocation,  at  the  barricades  (June  28,  1848).     CJiatcl  celebrated  Christmas  by 

ic)  Decouvertes  d'un  bibliophile,  ou  lettres  sur  differents  points  de  morale  enseignes  dans  quelques 
eiminalres.  ed.  2.  Strasb.  1843.— The  organ  of  the  clergy:  V Universe,  and  that  of  the  University: 
Journal  des  Debats,  esp.  for  May — Nor.  lS-13.  De  Lamartine,  Totat,  Teglise,  et  renseignement  Par. 
1843.  L.  A.  WarnKnig,  d.  K.  Frankr.  u.  d.  Unterrichtsfrcih.  Freib.  1S45.  Des  Jesuites,  par  J//- 
chelet  et  Quinet.  Par.  1S43.  in  5  ed.  Uebers.  by  StOber.  Bas.  1843.  [Jlichelet,  Priests,  AVomen.  and 
F.imilios,  transl.  by  Cocks,  Lond.  1S4S.  The  People,  transl.  by  Cocks.  Lond.  1849.  Quinet,  Ultra- 
montanism,  transl.  by  Cocks,  Lond.  1S45.] 

a-)  Der  Process  Affenaer  vor  d.  Pariser  Assisen.  Brl.  1845.  L.  ITahn,  Gesch.  d.  Anflos.  d.  Jes.  Con 
greg.  in  Frankr.  Lps.  1S46. 

y)  Pflanz,  d.  rel.  u.  kirchl.  Leben  in  Fr.  Stuttg.  1830.    lieuchlin,  (p.  60S.) 

s)  C.  de  ifontalemhert,  des  interets  catholiques  au  XIX  Siöcle.  Par.  1552.  in  3  ed. 

a)  Brl.  KZ.  1S4S.  N.  30.  62.  1849.  N.  2.        I)  Ibid.  1S43.  X.  95. 

c)  Ibid.  1S49.  N.  61.  1SÖ0.  N.  73.  1851.  N.  85. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CHURCH  TILL  1S5.3.    §  470.  NAPOLEON  IIL    §  4T1.  SPAIN.    629 

a  Socialist  banquet  in  honor  of  the  sansculotte  who  was  once  born  in  a  sta- 
ble. When  the  dread  of  the  red  republic  could  be  so  turned  as  to  favor  the 
clergy  on.  the  ground  that  they  were  friends  of  social  order,  (d)  the  priests 
made  use  of  it  to  secure  millions  of  votes  for  the  President  and  the  Empei'or 
by  the  grace  of  God  and  the  will  of  the  people.  Louis  Xaj)oleon  increased 
the  salaries  of  the  bishops,  {e)  richly  endowed  the  chapter  of  St.  Denys,  re- 
stored the  Pantheon  to  the  service  of  St.  Genevieve,  (/)  brought  the  Holy 
Father  back  to  Kome,  and  would  have  been  glad  to  be  crowned  by  the  papal 
bands.  Without  reference  to  the  organic  articles  (p.  533)  the  emperor  re- 
gards the  Concordat  of  1801  as  having  the  force  of  law.  The  strict  Catliolic 
party  are  anxious  to  banish  modern  paganism  by  the  substitution  of  the  eccle- 
siastical fathers  for  the  classics  in  the  schools  of  learning,  (y)  they  reject  all 
philosophy  of  reason,  and  they  advocate  the  government  of  tbo  Church  by  the 
civil  power,  and  the  government  of  the  Church  by  the  pope.  Sibour,  the 
new  Archbishop  of  Paris,  took  decided  ground  against  this  party,  and  the 
"  Universe,"  through  whose  columns  its  influence  was  exerted,  but  an  open 
controversy  was  avoided  through  tlie  mediation  of  Pius  IX.  (//)  Even  under 
the  reign  of  Xapoleon  I.  who  despised  it,  philosophy  had  desisted  from  the 
deification  of  the  flesh,  and  by  the  influence  first  of  Scotch  and  then  of  Ger- 
man metaphysicians,  confidence  was  gained  in  the  supremacy  of  the  mind. 
But  the  literature  of  each  of  the  three  revolutions,  whether  it  be  regarded  as 
a  prophecy  of  the  future,  or  a  reflection  of  the  past,  has  something  terribly 
destructive  and  relaxing  in  its  nature.  It  is  not  the  cold  scofiing  of  a  self- 
complacent  and  satisfied  spirit,  but  the  oftspring  of  a  torn  and  lacerated 
heart.  For  this  very  reason  it  has  much  that  is  seductive  to  the  present  age, 
and  even  in  its  general  corruption  is  not  without  some  germs  of  life. 

§  471.     Spain.     Portugal.     South  America. 

{PfeiUchifUr.)  Die  kiroh).  Zustrin<le  in  Span.  Würzb.  1S42.  Manuel  razonatlo  de  hist  y  legisla- 
tion de  la  iglesia.  Madr.  1S45.  4.  Block,  I'Esp^ne  en  1S50.  Madr.  1S.")1.— (?.  ßaliiß,  I'America  un 
tempo  spagnuola  sotto  I'aspetto  rellgloso  sine  at  1S43.  Ancona  1S45.  3  vols.  Uebers.  v.  F.  M.  M.  1S4S8. 
8  vols. 

1,  When  Ferdinand  VIT.  tore  up  tlie  constitution  (1814),  the  clergy  ral- 
lied around  the  throne,  tlie  Inquisition  was  re-established,  and  the  Jesuits  re- 
turned. Tiio  cause  of  the  Church  tlieu  represented  by  those  who  were  called 
the  Apostolicnls,  and  that  of  liberty  rei)reseMted  by  tlie  Liberals,  appeared  to 
be  completely  separated  from  each  other.  Hence,  when  the  latter  obtained 
the  victory  (1820-23),  all  hierarchical  measures  were  entirely  frustrated.  («) 
An  army  for  the  defence  of  the  faith  was  then  collected  by  the  clergy,  with 
a  Trappist  at  its  head,  which,  after  the  victory  obtained  by  French  interven- 
tion, produced  a  sanguinary  reaction.  As  the  Apostolic  party  had  connected 
itself  with  Don  Carlos^  then  recognized  as  the  legitimate  heir-apparent.  Queen 
Christina,  who  desired  to  obtain  the  government  for  herself  and  her  daugh- 

(l)  Carnot,  Ic  niinistOTe  do  Tinstraction  pnbliqno  ot  des  cnltes.  Par.  1S48. 

i)  Brl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  47.       /)  IlOt.  ISM.  N.  2.  comp.  1S5I.  N.  24. 

g)  J.  Gtiiime  le  vor  ronfrciir  des  socletes  modernes  oti  le  paganisme  d.ms  IVdiiMtion.  Bru.v.  1S51. 

h)  Brl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  4S.  ISM.  N.  31.  32. 

a)  .V  KZ.  1S22.  N.  1.  9.  11.  10.  19.  2Ss.  53.  74. 


(j^^O  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1C4S-1858. 

tcr  by  tlio  ;i])olition  of  tlie  Salic  law,  was  obliged  (1830)  to  unite  her  interest» 
with  (hoso  of  the  Liberals.  After  the  death  of  the  king  (1833)  Don  Carlos, 
who  was  ])owcrfid  tlirough  tlio  support  of  the  olergy,  by  whom  much  had 
boon  sacriliced  in  his  behalf,  made  a  desperate  effort  to  obtain  possession  of 
the  throne.  But  some  horrible  events  which  then  took  place  evinced  thai 
even  the  old  veneration  of  the  people  for  religion  Avas  now  wavering.  A 
number  of  convents  in  Madrid  were  destroyed  (July  17,  1834)  by  a  mob  ex- 
citL'd  by  reports  of  poisoning  during  the  prevalence  of  the  cholera,  and  no 
punishments  were  inflicted  on  the  jjcrpetrators.  (h)  A  more  general  insurrec- 
tion broke  out  in  the  summer  of  1835,  in  which  many  convents  and  monks 
were  consumed  in  the  flames  as  auto-da-fes  of  the  revolution,  until  finally  it 
seemed  necessary  to  abolish  the  convents  to  save  the  monks,  (c)  By  a  decree 
of  July  25,  1835,  nine  hundred  houses  belonging  to  the  several  orders  were 
closed,  that  by  means  of  their  wealth  and  the  property  of  the  Inquisition  and 
of  tlie  Jesuits,  which  had  previously  been  confiscated,  the  public  debt  might 
be  liquidated,  (d)  The  government  accused  the  clergy  of  sowing  dissensions 
among  the  people,  and  required  that  every  candidate  for  future  appointment 
in  the  Church  should  produce  a  certificate  from  the  civil  authorities  vouching 
for  his  patriotism,  (e)  As  the  revolution  rolled  on  and  the  necessities  of  the 
state  became  urgent,  all  the  convents  were  confiscated  (1836)  and  taken  pos- 
session of  by  the  government,  and  the  sacred  utensils  were  sold  to  cover  tho 
expenses  of  the  civil  war.  (/)  The  Cortes  abolished  the  tithes,  and  declared 
that  all  the  property  of  the  Church  belonged  to  the  Spanish  nation  (1837).  (g) 
In  the  ruin  of  Don  Carlos,  which  occurred  principally  in  consequence  of  the 
demoralization  of  his  court  (1839),  a  portion  of  the  clergy  were  inextricably 
implicated.  Gregory  XVI.  had  not  recognized  the  queen,  and  had  rejected 
the  bishops  appointed  by  the  regency,  but  the  act  by  which  this  was  done 
was  accompanied  by  an  expression  of  desire  that  the  existing  relations  of  the 
country  might  not  be  disturbed.  But  when  the  nuncio,  who  then  represented 
the  pope,  wished  to  guard  the  rights  of  the  Church,  Fspartero,  the  victorious 
soldier  who  had  driven  away  the  queen-mother,  ordered  him  to  be  transported 
beyond  the  borders  of  the  country  (Dec.  29,  1840).  (h)  The  pope  hereupon 
declared  in  an  allocution  dated  March  1,  1841,  that  all  those  decrees  of  the 
Spanish  government  by  Avhich  the  Church  had  been  despoiled  of  its  property 
were  null  and  void,  (i)  "While  Christina  obtained  for  herself  absolution  in 
Rome,  (k)  the  Spanish  Regent  treated  every  recognition  of  the  papal  allocu- 
tion as  a  crime,  wished  to  abolish  all  intercourse  with  Eome  and  aU  foreign 
jurisdiction  in  Spain,  because  the  regent  in  Rome  was  disposed  to  sacrifice 
his  secular  to  his  ecclesiastical  interests.  (?)  The  Cortes  determined  upon  a 
new  organization  of  the  clergy,  by  which  the  bishop's  sees  were  much  dimin- 
ished, the  sinecures  were  abolished,  the  property  of  the  Church  was  sold,  and 
moderate  salaries  to  be  paid  from  taxes  which  it  Avas  hard  to  collect  were 
assigned  to  the  clergy,  (m)    Nothing  now  remained  for  the  pope  but  to  call 


b)  AZ.  1S34  N.  214        c)  Jbid.  1835.  N.  227.  23Ts. 
d)  Acta  hist  ecc  1S35.  p.  25s3.        e)  A.  Z.  1S35.  N.  84S. 

.0  Acta  hist.  ecc.  15^36.  p.  51ss.  1387.  p.  10.        (?)  A.  Z.  1837.  N.  223.    Act.i  hist.  ecc.  1S37.  p.  la 
A)  A.  Z.  1S41.  X.  24*3.        i)  A.  Z.  1S41.  N.  70s.        k)  A.  Z.  lS4i.  X.  89. 
I)  Bri.  A.  K.  Z.  1S42.  N.  13.        m)  ßrl.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  43.  69. 


CHAP.  VL    CATII.  CIIURCn  TILL  1S53.    §  4"1-  SPAIN.    PORTUGAL.  63  i 

npon  the  whole  Church  to  pray  for  the  distressed  condition  of  the  Cliurch  ic 
Spain,  with  the  promise  that  all  who  would  comply  should  receive  plenary 
absolution,  (n)  All  priests  who  gave  attention  to  these  acts  of  the  pope  were 
deposed  and  banished  by  the  regent,  (o)  But  even  the  liberal  prelates  now 
began  to  withdraw  from  tlie  country,  tlie  afflicted  Church  succeeded  in  in- 
ducing the  nation  to  abandon  Espartero,  and  Qneen  Isabella  JI.,  not  yet  of 
age,  was  declared  (1843)  competent  to  govern.  Her  ministry  soon  perceived 
the  necessity  of  reconciling  the  Church  with  the  new  legal  system  created  by 
the  revolution.  The  expelled  priests  were  reinstated,  and  the  pajjal  right; 
in  Spain  were  acknowledged.  As  the  price  of  his  recognition  of  the  queen 
the  pope  demanded  what  was  now  sliown  to  be  an  impossibility,  tlie  restora- 
tion of  the  jn-operty  of  the  Church.  But  tlie  sale  of  all  that  remained  being 
about  one  fourth  of  the  whole,  was  now  suspended,  Gregory  conferred  the 
canonical  investiture  upon  six  of  the  bisliops  appointed  by  government  (1846), 
and  Pius,  in  compliance  with  the  Avislies  of  France,  rather  hastily  bestowed 
a  dispensation  upon  the  queen  for  her  Tuarriage  with  lier  cousin.  After  a 
long  period  of  vacillation  according  to  the  political  complexion  of  the  fre- 
quently changing  ministry,  (p)  a  concordat  was  agreed  upon  (18Ö1),  by  which, 
notwithstanding  the  bibles  sent  from  England,  (q)  the  Cathohc  religion,  to  the 
exclusion  of  every  other  form  of  worship,  was  recognized  as  the  religion  of 
Spain  for  all  future  time  ;  the  instruction  of  the  young  was  committed  to  the 
supervision  of  the  bishops,  to  whom  a  pledge  was  given  that  the  government 
would  co-operate  in  the  suppression  of  injurious  books;  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  new  dioceses,  of  wliich  tliere  Avere  six  less  than  before;  all  that 
remained  of  ecclesiastical  or  monastic  property  was  restored ;  all  new  acqui- 
sitions by  the  Church  were  allowed ;  and  to  provide  against  any  deficiency  a 
support,  moderate  only  when  compared  with  their  former  wealth,  was  secured 
to  the  clergy  from  the  sale  of  the  Church  property,  and  from  the  contribu- 
tions in  the  ditferent  communes,  (r)  2.  It  was  not  till  the  Cortes  had 
threatened  the  wealth  and  privileges  of  the  clergy  (.■<)  that  the  sanguinary 
reign  of  Dom  Miguel  (1829-33)  was  i)0ssib]e,  and  accordingly  his  principal 
support  was  derived  from  that  body.  Hence  Dom  Pedro  could  indulge  in  uo 
hope  of  gaining  the  patrimonial  kingdom  for  his  daughter,  except  in  the 
name  of  liberty.  Througli  the  exertions  principally  of  the  clergy  the  people 
were  induced  to  take  up  arms  against  him,  and  hence,  when  Pedro  obtained 
the  victory,  the  age  of  Pondjal  returned  to  Portugal.  Tlie  government  de- 
clared all  prelitic  sees  filled  by ajipointment  at  Rome  on  Miguel's  presentation 
vacant,  and  placed  all  the  riglits  of  ecclesiastical  patronage  in  tlie  hands  of 
the  government  (Aug.  5, 1883).  All  ecclesiastical  orders  were  dissolved  (May 
28,  1834),  all  monastic  property  was  confiscated,  and  nothing  but  friars  truly 
mendicant  were  left,  (t)  The  tithes  were  also  abolislied,  and  when  the  pas- 
tors could  not  obtain  the  salaries  assumed  by  the  state  treasury,  they  were 

n)  Of  Feb.  22, 1S42 :  Brl.  K.  Z.  1843.  N.  22.        o)  Iblil.  1842.  X.  31. 

;>)  Ibid.  1844.  N.  31.  39.    D.  A.  Z.  1844.    X.  23S.  1S45.    N.  61.  023.  1S4C.     N.  22.  ]S4r.    X.  21.  ISi 
iS5.  29T. 

g)  G.  Borrow,  The  Bible  In  Spain.  X.?w  York.  19)5.  S.  T^n.I.  ed.  8.  194-3. 
/•)  15rl.  K'A.  IS.'il.  X.  44.  47.  87.        «)  \.  K.  Z.  1322.  X.  49.  1828.  X.  43. 
t)  A.Z.  IVU.  X.  173. 


532  MODKKN  cniTKCir  HISTORY.     TER.  VI.     A.  D.  16-)S-18r,3 

unfortunately  <lircctc<l  for  tlicin  to  tlieir  congregations,  (ti)  The  pope  threat 
oned  to  jilaoo  tlie  king  under  tlic  ban,  and  the  exiled  usurper  was  received  hy 
him  as  the  lawful  king.  But  the  property  of  the  convents  found  purchasers. 
and  the  dioceses  -were  administered  by  the  capitulary  vicars.  The  dreac" 
•which  Gregory  felt  lest  a  complete  separation  should  be  produced,  conspired 
with  the  conscientious  scruples  of  Donna  Maria  herself  to  induce  both  par- 
lies to  come  to  an  agreement  (1841)  under  mutual  pledges.  The  golden  rose 
was  presented  by  the  nuncio  Capaccini  to  the  queen,  as  a  godfather's  present, 
and  a  few  bishops  ajjpointed  by  the  government  received  canonical  investiture 
from  the  pope  (1843).  (p)  But  the  vast  demands  of  Eome  and  the  commo- 
tions of  an  unsettled  constitutional  government  delayed  the  conclusion  of  a 
concordat.  3.  As  the  idea  of  independence  first  awoke  in  Spanish  America 
(1810)  when  the  mother  country  was  oppressed  by  a  power  which  had  no 
friendly  connection  with  the  Church,  the  clergy  were  generally  partial  to  tlie 
cause  of  freedom,  and  remained  in  the  unmolested  possession  of  their  wealth. 
In  most  of  the  republics  religious  toleration  was  proclaimed  merely  from  re- 
spect to  liberty  and  the  English,  but  Catholicism  still  remained  the  religion 
of  the  state.  In  the  mean  time  the  privileges  of  the  clergy  necessarily  came 
in  conflict  with  the  demands  of  liberalism.  In  Chili  and  Peru  the  number 
of  holy  days  and  convents  was  diminished,  the  Congress  of  Central  America 
pronounced  monastic  vows  of  no  force  in  the  eye  of  the  law  (1830),  the  Con- 
gress of  Mexico  took  into  its  own  hands  the  riglit  of  patronage,  banished  those 
prelates  who  protested  against  their  proceedings,  and  seized  upon  their  reve- 
nues (1834).  A  powerful  party,  however,  in  the  latter  country,  arose  in  op- 
position to  every  interference  of  the  state  with  the  privileges  of  the  clergy. 
During  the  war  with  the  United  States  of  North  America,  when  the  necessi- 
ties of  the  country  were  extreme.  Congress  resolved  (Jan.  1847)  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  ecclesiastical  property  (15  millions  of  dollars)  should  be  sold  for 
the  deliverance  of  their  native  land,  (ic)  The  keys  of  the  old  Jesuit  College 
in  Buenos  Ayres  were  presented,  August  26th,  1880,  to  six  priests  belonging 
to  the  Society  of  Jesus.  After  a  brief  dream  of  freedom,  Paraguay  was  ty- 
rannically but  patriarchally  governed  by  Dr.  Francia  (1814—40)  with  as  great 
a  seclusion  as  was  maintained  by  the  former  Jesuit  government.  This  dicta- 
tor broke  the  power  of  the  clergy,  converted  all  property  belonging  to  the 
convents  into  state  property,  and  declared  cannons  better  safeguards  than 
saints,  (.r)  From  respect  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  Pius  YII.  was  deterred  from 
recognizing  the  republics  which  had  thrown  olf  its  authority,  and  accordingly 
he  refused  to  bestow  canonical  investiture  upon  their  bishops.  Leo  XII.,  as 
late  as  the  year  1824,  enjoined  upon  all  American  prelates  to  adhere  to  the 

V)  A.  Z.  1S3S.    Append.  N.  447. 

'•)  BrI.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  51.  54.  60.  SI.  1S42.  N.  5S.  1S43.  N.  43.     • 

'"  P.  r.  A'ohhe,  Gosch.  d.  Freilieit.<=kaiiipres  im  sp.'in.  u.  port.  A.  ITann.  1332. '  K  Jfuhlenp/ordt, 
Schllilcrunj:  d.  Rep.  Mexico.  Ilann.  1S44.  2  vols.  Ev.  K.  Z.  1S31.  N.  25.  A.  Z.  1S34.  N.  205.  D.  A, 
Z.  1S47.  N.  70.  77. 

r)  nengg^r  &  LimpcJiamp,  d.  Rev.  v.  Tarn?.  i\.  d.  Dictatorialro'rierun?  d.  Dr.  Francia.  Stuttg. 
18S7.  B.  J.  P.  &  w.  P.  PoherUo'i,  Letter?  on  Varus.  Lond.  1S-3S.  2  vols.  [Franci.Vs  Reign  of  Terror 
Lond.  1S37.  S.  Carlijlt's  Essays  Crit.  vt  Mis.  p.  547,  (Fur.  Qnar.  Rev.  1S43.  &  Eoloc.  Mag.  1S42. 
Septp.  75.)] 


CHAP.  VI.     CATir.  CnUECII  TILL  1853.    §  4T1.  8.  AMERICA.     §  47-2.  BELGIUM.     633 

legitimate  government.  But  as  there  was  danger  that  in  tliis  way  the  people 
would  become  completely  alienated  from  the  Holy  See,  the  principle  waa 
finally  recognized  at  Rome  (1825)  that  in  matters  relating  to  the  Church,  ne- 
gotiations should  be  conducted  with  any  government  actually  in  power,  with- 
out thereby  deciding  any  thing  with  resjject  to  its  legitimacy.  "When  the 
pope  refused  to  confirm  the  appointed  Bishop  of  Rio  Janeiro,  he  was  re- 
minded by  the  Regency  of  Brazil  that  he  had  mistaken  the  age  in  which  he 
lived  (1834).  (y)  In  ISTew  Grenada  the  priests  were  made  subject  to  the  civil 
authorities  (1845),  tithes  were  abolished,  the  Jesuits  were  expelled  (1849),  all 
who  forsook  the  convents  were  promised  the  assistance  of  the  state,  the  con- 
gregations were  required  to  choose  their  own  pastors,  and  the  Archbishop  of 
Bogota  was  banished  (1851).  Pius  IX.  held  a  sorrowful  allocution  (Sept.  27, 
1852)  with  reference  to  these  proceedings,  and  in  opposition  to  the  wild  lib- 
erty which  every  one  in  that  country  enjoyed,  to  publish  through  the  press 
every  wild  abortion  of  the  brain.  (2)  But  the  popular  faith  in  South  America 
clung  to  its  connection  with  Rome. 

§  472.     Behjium  and  Holland. 

6ophronizon.  lS2ß.  P.  2.  Tub.  Qiiartnlsclir.  1S26.  P.  1.  Rom  u.  Belg.  Neust  1S;31.  Le  livre  noir. 
Brux.  1S3T.  3  ed.  übers,  (by  Bruns)  m.  Bemerkk.  by  Rlicinwald.  Altenb.  1S3S.  Rlieinw.  Rep.  vol. 
XXIV.  1).  76.  1G9.  276.  XXV.  p.  HSss.  XXVI.  p.  71ss.  Hist  pol.  Ell.  vol.  VIL  p.  627.  vol.  VIIL  p. 
45.  210.  411.  501.  731.  IX.  p.  7S3s8.  //.  Ileugh,  Notices  of  the  State  of  Rel.  in  Geneva  and  Belgium. 
Edinb.  1844.    Junius,  d.  Jesultisinus  in  Belg.  Lps.  1S46. 

1.  Against  a  Protestant  government  which  had  afli.xcd  the  effigy  of  the 
traitorous  Bishop  of  Ghent  to  the  public  gallows,  had  closed  the  schools  of 
the  Jesuits,  and  had  attempted  to  educate  a  liberal  clergy  by  means  of  a 
philosophical  school  in  the  "College  of  the  Pope"  at  Lou  vain,  the  apostoli- 
cal party  did  not  hesitate,  although  the  Concordat  of  1827  was  formed 
according  to  its  will,  on  tlic  model  of  that  of  Napoleon,  (n)  to  conclude  an 
alliance  with  the  revolution  by  which  Bthjium  Avas  to  be  separated  from 
Holland  (1830).  Catholicism  was  thereby  obliged  to  accede  to  liberal  fonns, 
and  to  a  free  toleration  in  matters  of  faith  as  well  as  of  education.  After 
the  victory,  however,  these  parties  again  separated,  since  the  bishops  held  in 
their  hands  the  fate  of  the  lower  clergy,  by  the  power  of  arbitrarily  deposing 
all  who  were  sincerely  inclined  to  connect  themselves  with  tlie  interests  of 
liberty.  As  botli  partiee  were  well  aware  that  ultimate  victory  was  to  be 
decided  by  tlie  education  given  to  tlie  next  generation,  the  Liberals  founded 
by  their  own  contributions  a  university  at  Brussels,  and  the  bishops  a  free 
Catholic  university  at  Maline.s,  which  was  afterwards  removed  to  Louvain, 
and  was  solemnly  opened  in  the  College  of  the  Pope,  that  the  old  Louvain 
might  once  more  bo  restored,  {h)  By  the  law  of  1842,  the  clergy  were 
allowed  to  c.xerci.se  mucii  more  than  a  religious  inlluenco  ujion  popular  edu- 
cation, but  the  State-Gymnasia  were  guarded  (1851)  against  it,  and  were 

y)  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  23.        e)  Ibid.  18.->0.  X.  68.  13Ö1.  N.  48.  1S.j2.  N.  70. 

rt)  A.  KZ.  1827.  N.  165.  1829.  N.  109.  174s. 

h)  A.  Z.  18:J4  Suppl.  N.  465s.  1885.  Suppl.  N.  518.  515.  Discussion  de  la  loi  snr  ronseifrnonient 
suporieur  de  27  Sept,  1835,  et  de  la  lol  sur  le  jury  d'e.vamcn  du  S  Avril,  1344;  prOccdOe  d"un  nperre 
list  sur  Tortjan.  univcrsitaire  en  Btliri'iue.  Brux.  1844.  4, 


G34  moi)Ki:n  cin-ncir  iirsToitv.   rKU.  vi.   a.  d.  icis-is-vj. 

therefore  deprived  by  the  Archbi.sliop  of  Mechlin  of  tlie  customary  mass  at 
All-Saints.  The  Bishop  of  Liege  refused  to  grant  absolution  to  the  Liberali 
by  -withholding  it  from  the  Freemasons  (1837j,  (c)  and  the  ardent  efforts  made 
in  belialf  of  missions  aroused  all  the  elements  in  the  state  in  ojiposition  to 
each  other  (1838),  When  the  Catholic  party,  by  means  of  the  liberal  law  of 
elections,  the  eflfect  of  which  was  to  give  a  controlling  influence  to  the  people 
from  the  country,  had  obtained  for  the  most  part  a  majority  in  the  Chambers, 
the  cities  collected  their  strength,  and  from  the  altered  position  of  the  Cham- 
bers proceeded  a  liberal  ministry  (Ang.  1847),  which  pronounced  the  state 
entirely  a  secular  (laique)  instituticm.  The  Protestant  king  has  hitherto 
understood  how  to  govern  the  two  parties  with  much  prudence,  by  balancing 
their  powers  against  each  other.  2.  In  UoUcnid,  the  Concordat  of  1827  was 
never  fully  carried  out,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  population,  amounting  to 
more  than  a  million,  were  called  the  Dutch  Mission,  and  were  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  an  apostolic  vicar.  («7)  The  Constitution  of  1848  secured 
comjilete  freedom  of  faith  to  every  one,  and  equal  protection  to  all  religious 
societies  in  the  kingdom.  Accordingly,  the  government  declared  that  noth- 
ing prevented  a  systematic  arrangement  of  Catholic  affairs  under  its  super- 
vision. But  without  reference  to  this  supervision,  Pius  instituted  a  hierarchy 
for  Holland  and  Brabant,  consisting  of  four  bishops  under  the  Archbishop  of 
Utrecht  (March  4,  7,  1853),  placed  it  under  the  conduct  of  the  Propaganda, 
and  solicited  for  it  the  alms  of  the  faithful.  The  consequent  storm  of  popu- 
lar rage  among  the  Protestants  accomplished  only  the  overthrow  of  the  lib- 
eral ministry  of  Thorbecke.  The  Netherlandic  government  made  known  to  the 
Roman  Curia  the  unhappy  impression  produced  upon  it  by  the  language  of  the 
allocution  in  which  these  proceedings  were  announced,  and  made  some  inqui- 
I'ies  respecting  the  oath  which  the  bishops  had  taken.  Cardinal  Antonelli 
promised  to  erase  from  the  latter  the  otiensive  passage  respecting  the  perse- 
cution of  heretics.  In  the  Hague,  the  opinion  gained  the  day  that  protection 
was  to  be  found  in  a  Avell-guarded  system  of  freedom,  and  after  some  very 
excited  discussions  in  the  Chambers,  a  law  was  passed,  Sept.  10,  declaring 
that  all  ecclesiastical  societies  were  entirely  free  to  arrange  their  own  eccle- 
siastical aiiairs,  and  were  merely  bound  to  inform  the  government  of  their 
proceedings,  and  were  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  civil  authorities  only  as 
far  as  the  co-operation  of  such  authorities  was  necessary ;  that  the  royal  con- 
sent should  be  required  with  respect  to  the  place  in  Avhich  the  business  of  the 
synods  should  be  transacted,  the  place  in  which  its  supreme  authority  should 
reside,  and  the  acceptance  of  an  ecclesiastical  office  by  a  foreigner,  but  that 
this  consent  should  generally  be  refused  only  when  the  public  tranquillity  re- 
quired it;  and  that  no  ecclesiastical  titles  or  offices  should  be  allowed  to  con- 
flict with  the  dignities  or  interests  of  the  civil  powers,  or  of  the  other  religious 
Bocieties.  (<) 


f)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  1637.  p.  22s.  Brl.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  7. 

il)  O.  yiejei;  Propaganda,  vol.  11.  p.  SOss. 

e)  The  orij:.  Docc  :  BrL  KZ.  1S53.  N.  34.  S6.   A.  KZ.  1S53.  K.  "Is.  113s.  115. 121s.  lOSi^ 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CnURCn  TILL  1S5S.    §  4T3.  GERMAN  CHURCH.  635 

§  473.     Restoration  of  the  German  Church. 

Neueste  Grundingen  d.  teutsclikath.  Kirchenverf.  in  Actenst  Stuttg.  1S21.  Siipplein.  in  Vater'» 
Anbeo.  vol.  IL  p.  Clss.  Orig.  Docc.  in  Mtiitch,  Couc.  vol.  IL  Drosle-IIüluhojf,  KReclit.  Münst 
1S28.  vol  I.    O.  Mejer,  Tropaganda.  vol.  II.  p.  8S5ss. 

An  ecclesiastical  constitution  for  the  whole  of  Germany  was  not  perfected 
at  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  («)  Austria  had  preserved  her  ecclesiastical  con- 
dition untouched,  and  had  just  quietly  modified  the  prominent  points  of  the 
laws  which  Joseph  11.  had  given  to  the  Churcli.  (?/)  The  ecclesiastical  rela- 
tions of  the  small  :uunher  of  Catholics  dispersed  in  various  parts  of  Saxony^ 
were  arranged  hy  the  civil  laws.  These  could  easily  ho  maintained  in  the 
Grand  Duchy  in  spite  of  the  complaints  of  the  Vicar-General  at  Fulda  (1823), 
and  in  the  kingdom,  notwithstanding  the  royal  favor  toward  the  Catholics 
there,  the  acceptance  of  an  apostolic  vicar,  and  the  displeasure  of  the  papal 
court  (1827).  (f)  Tn  other  places,  the  legal  doctrine  prevailed  that  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  was  to  he  arranged  hy  special  treaty  with  Rome.  The 
papal  court  avoided  estahlishing  a  German  national  Church  hy  negotiations 
with  the  German  Confederacy.  The  first  power  which  separated  from  the 
others  was  Bavaria^  hy  which  a  Concordat  was  concluded  in  1817,  which, 
after  much  debate  whether  it  was  consistent  with  the  constitution  of  the 
country,  was  introduced  in  1821.  Negotiations  were  entered  into  by  Prusnia 
with  reference  to  the  five  millions  of  Catholics  residing  especially  in  the  bor- 
der provinces  ;  and  in  the  treaty  which  was  concluded,  the  mere  form  of  a 
Concordat  was  guarded  against.  ((/)  This  example  was  followed  by  the  king- 
dom of  Hanover  (1824).  An  association  of  the  other  states  situated  generally 
in  the  southern  part  of  Germany,  Avas  formed,  after  many  great  schemes  had 
been  rejected,  and  the  parties  had  become  wearied  with  a  series  of  negotia- 
tions continued  through  many  years,  and  was  called  the  Ecclesiastical  jiro- 
vince  of  the  Copper  Ii'hinc,  with  five  bishoprics,  and  Freiburg  as  an  archiepis- 
copal  see  (1827).  When  the  princes  made  a  condition  with  respect  to  tiie 
Roman  enactments  on  this  subject,  Teserviug  every  thing  which  might  seem 
to  be  demanded  by  their  sovereign  rights,  the  national  peculiarities  of  the 
Church,  and  the  equal  rights  of  Protestants,  Pius  VIII.  reminded  the  bishops 
concerned  (1830),  that  when  ojjposed  by  laws  tending  to  destroy  the  souls 
of  men,  they  should  obey  God  ratlier  than  men.  {<)  These  treaties  are  princi- 
pally confined  to  the  now  limitations  of  the  episcopal  dioceses,  to  the  boundaries 
of  the  provinces,  to  the  endowment  of  the  Church,  and  to  the  appointment  of 
the  higher  ecclesiastical  oflicers,  which  was  to  bo  divided  between  the  sov- 
ereign and  the  pope.  The  various  measures  necessarj'  for  this  division  of  the 
appointing  power,  was  tlie  i)rincipal   subject  of  negotiation.      That  which 

«)  Klüber,  üobers.  d.  dlpl.  Verb.  d.  W.  Congr.  Abth.  III.  p.  «Sss.  u.  Acten  d.  W.  Congr.  toI.  1 
r.  2.  p.  23ss.  vol.  IV.  p.  810>8. 

h)  J.  L.  E.  V.  Barih-Burihenhtim,  Oistr  pcl>tl.  AnicURoiili.  In  p-.lit.  mlniln.  H.zlcli.  Vien.  1S4L 

I')  Actonstücko  ü.  d.  Vvrli.  d.  katli.  Glnnbensgcnosiien  ini  K.  S^acbscn.  DresiL  1S8L  DrMte 
Iluhhoff,  p.  417.  3S2S8.   A.  KZ.  1S24.  N.  139»s.  1S25.  N.  SO. 

i1)  Klithfr,  nst.  Kinriclif.  d.  katli.  Kirchcnwes.  In  Prcuss.  Frkf.  1822.  A.  Müller,  Pr.  u.  Baicra 
m  Cone.  ni.  Rom.  Neust.  1">24. 

e)  Eineriicliniid,  niillarluin.  vol.  II.  p.  SlSsj.  fg.  Longner,  DarsL  d.  Reehtaverliältnlssc  d 
Be»;boto  in  d.  obiTrli.  Kirclienprov.  Tub.  1^4Ü. 


63G  MODERN  CIIUKCII  IIISTOKT.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1C4S-1«». 

could  liardly  liave  been  exiicctcd  at  tliat  time  from  Protestant  prince«,  but 
"wliicli  was  iievcrtliolcas  (leiiiandcd  in  tlio  principal  article  of  the  inifterial  depu- 
tation, was  accoiiiplished  tliroiif^di  the  mediation  of  the  pope,  and  the  superior 
clergy  -were  richly  endowed  with  worldly  property  ;  but  as  the  Church  itnelf 
was  not  represented  in  these  negotiations,  no  peculiar  legal  jurisdiction  was 
secured  for  it.  The  manner  in  which  WcHsenlenj  was  abused  and  dispos- 
Besscd  of  his  episcopal  authority,  proves  that  no  degree  of  merit  for  services 
done  for  the  Church  can  bo  sufficient  to  obtain  pardon  at  Rome  for  a  free 
and  German  spirit,  (/)  even  when  a  quiet  and  genuine  piety  was  not  excluded 
from  the  episcopal  sees,  {g)  The  whole  of  Protestant  Germany  was  looked 
upon  as  missionary  ground.  "When  an  apostolic  vicar  was  sent  by  the  pope 
to  the  North,  to  take  up  his  residence  in  Hamburg,  prei)aratory  to  tlie  erec- 
tion of  a  bishopric  of  Hamburg,  the  governments  concerned  forbade  all  per- 
sons to  hold  any  official  intercourse  Avith  him  (1839s.),  and  this  vicariate  was 
attached,  as  it  had  been  at  first,  to  a  "Westphalian  bishopric.  (/() 

§  471.     The  Ecclesiastical  Controversy  in  Fn/ssian  Germany. 

Loftpeyres,  Gesch.  u.  heutige  Verf.  d.  kath.  K.  Preuss.  Hal.  1S40.  vol.  I. — /  ,  hist.  ec&  ls36.  p. 
2C4SS.  1837.  p.  879s8.  Die  kath.  K.  in  d.  preuss.  Eheinprovinz  u.  d.  Erzb.  Clemens  Aug.  Frkf.  1838. 
{Gieseler)  Ue.  d.  coin.  Angelegenh.  v.  Irenaeus.  Lps.  1S38.  Die  uffentl.  Zustände  im  Grossherz, 
Posen.  Hal.  1839.  K.  Hase,  d.  beiden  Erzbisch.  Lps.  1839.  Personen  u.  Zustände  a.  d.  kirchlich  pol. 
Wirren  in  Pr.  Lps.  1840.  Lit  Summary:  A.  KZ.  Lit.  Bl.  1838.  N.  106ss.  1S39.  N.  22ss.  1340.  K.  30ss. 
69.  113SS.  1841.  N.  40s.    [Ä'.  R.  Ilagenbaeh,  KGesch.  des  18.  u.  19.  Jahrb.  Vorles.  XV.  vol.  IL] 

Frederic  William  III.  had  bestowed  upon  the  clergy  an  ample  amount  of 
wealth,  and  he  had  established  schools  and  built  churches  for  them.  But  the 
dislike  felt  by  the  Catholic  Church  to  its  subjection  to  a  Protestant  state 
where  it  had  once  borne  sway,  was  increased  to  new  religious  fervor  as  it 
recollected  tlie  state  of  things  during  the  middle  ages,  and  it  found  an  open 
expression  in  Prussia  when  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  laws  came  into  collision 
on  the  subject  of  mixed  marriages.  The  Catholics  had  been  in  the  habit  of 
applying  to  the  case  of  Protestants  the  long-established  usage  condemning  all 
marriages  with  heretics.  But  after  the  thirty  years'  war,  the  custom  of 
mixed  marriages  had  become  established  among  the  people.  According  to 
ordinary  German  usage,  where  no  marriage  compact  determined  the  matter 
otherwise,  the  children  were  educated  according  to  the  faith  of  the  parent 
with  whom  they  corresponded  in  sex.  A  peculiar  legislation,  based  on  the 
principle  of  a  certain  legal  equality,  was  gradually  formed  in  the  different 
states  on  this  subject,  with  respect  to  which  nothing  was  said  by  the  Roman 
authorities.  In  Prussia,  the  common  law  was  so  changed,  that  where  the 
unanimous  wish  of  the  parents  was  not  opposed  to  it,  the  children  were  re- 
quired to  bo  educated  m  the  Church  of  the  father.  By  an  order  of  the 
Cabinet  issued  in  1825,  this  requisition  was  extended  to  the  province  of  the 
Rhine,  and  to  "Westphalia,  by  declaring  that  any  obligations  of  betrothed 


/)  Denksclir.  ü.  d.  Verfahren  d.  rum.  ITofs.  Carlsr.  1918.  Wess.  Angel.  Lps.  1820.  On  the  contro- 
versy, for  and  a?.iinst :  Paulm,  beurth.  Anzeige.  Ildlb.  ISIS,  and  ncruies.  1S19.  Sect  1.  1S20.  Sect  a 
Bull  later:  A.  KZ.  1*27.  N.  175. 1S28.  N.  10. 

0)  E.  s.  A.  KZ.  18.32.  N.  115.    £.  v.  Schenk;  d.  Bischüfe  Sailer  u.  TTittmann.  P.atisb.  1883.  12. 

A)  Brl.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  4S.    Jffjer,  vol.  II.  p.  507ss. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CIIUKCn  TILL  1SÖ.3.    §  4'4.  DEOSTE.    HEKMES.  637 

persons  to  the  contrary  were  not  binding,  and  any  requirements  made  as  con- 
ditions of  the  marriage  rite  by  the  Church  were  nnlawful.  But  the  cere- 
mony of  marriage,  without  a  promise  that  the  children  should  be  educated 
in  the  Catholic  faith,  had  previously  been  performed  frequently  in  Eastern, 
and  rarely  in  Western  Prussia.  ('/)  In  the  latter  country,  therefore,  the 
Catholic  clergymen  now  generally  refused  to  solemnize  marriage  unless  such 
promises  were  volunfarily  otiered.  At  the  same  time,  the  Catholic  bride  had 
her  scruples  of  conscience  so  excited,  and  was  so  much  terrified  by  what  she 
must  meet  at  the  confessional,  that  she  was  never  satisfied  with  a  Protestant 
ceremonial.  When  requested  by  the  government  in  some  way  to  accommo- 
date this  matter,  the  Western  Prussian  bishops  addressed  themselves  to  the 
pope,  to  know  whether  there  was  any  way  in  which  they  could  comply  with 
the  law  of  the  state.  Pins  VIII.,  in  an  apostolical  brief  of  March  25,  1830,' 
pronounced  all  mixed  marriages  improper,  but  valid  ;  he  did  not  forbid  the 
ecclesiastical  benediction  where  securities  were  given  for  the  Catholic  educa- 
tion of  all  the  children,  but  in  all  instances  permitted  the  parties  to  enter  the 
maiTiage  relation  in  the  presence  of  the  pastor,  without  any  ecclesiastical 
rites  (praesentia  passiva),  though  without  ecclesiastical  censures.  (/»)  The 
government  did  not  publish  this  brief,  until,  by  a  secret  agreement,  the  bish- 
ops interested  in  the  matter  had  granted  what  had  been  refused  at  PkOme, 
viz.,  that  as  a  general  rule,  marriage  should  be  solemnized  according  to  the 
forms  of  the  Church,  and  that  only  in  rare  cases,  easy  to  be  evaded,  the 
limitation  of  the  passive  assistance  should  be  applied.  ('•)  This  agreement  of 
1834  was  denied  by  the  bishops  in  Rome,  until  a  written  confession  of  the 
dying  Bishop  of  Treves  brought  the  truth  to  the  full  knowledge  of  the  pope 
(1836).  Clemens  Droste,  the  suffragan  Bishop  of  ]'if<c?tcri?)(/,  who  had  i)re- 
viously  defended  the  unconditional  freedom  of  the  Church,  was  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Cologne  (1836),  after  giving  a  promise  that  he  would  peaceably  and 
sincerely  conform  to  the  agreement  entered  into  with  respect  to  the  Brief  of 
1880.  (d)  With  him,  however,  a  party  came  into  ja-ominence,  determined  at 
all  hazards  to  deliver  the  Church  from  what  they  called  the  yoke  of  the 
state,  (e)  When  the  archbishop  came  to  know  the  contradiction  which  ex- 
isted between  the  agreement  of  the  bishops  and  the  papal  brief,  he  forbade 
his  clergy  to  solemnize  the  marriage  rites  of  the  Church  without  a  promise 
that  the  children  shoxdd  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith.  In  vain  he  was 
reminded  by  tl.e  government  of  the  promise  he  had  made  previous  to  his 
appointment.  The  offence  he  thus  gave  was  much  increased  by  his  informal  pro- 
ceedings with  respect  to  the  Ilermesians.  In  opposition  to  the  doctrine  of  con- 
fidence in  authority,  which  it  was  said  could  never  rise  above  doubt,  Iltrt?ics 
(1775-1831)  had  atteuipted  to  find  proof  of  the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic 
Church  in  the  absolute  necessities  of  human  reason,  (/)  and  left  behind  him  a 
school  which  extended  itself  from  Boon,  and  prevailed  in  all  the  institutions 


a)  J.  RntscMcfr,  <1.  pom.  Ehon  r.  kath.  Stnndp.  Vlcn.  (1S37.  1S3S.)  1941.— (7.  F.  Jacobnoii,  i. 
d.  geii).  Elicn  in  DcutschlunJ,  Itisb.  In  Pr.  Lp».  1S38.    Ch.  F.  v.  Amnion,  d.  gem.  Ehen.  Dresd. 
•d.  lS-39. 

b)  Acte  hist  ecc.  1S.35.  p.  IHs».         c)  Ibid.  1S.37.  p.  425s8.         d)  Ibid.  1S36.  p.  SlSsa. 
«•)  Beitrüge  z.  Kirchenpesch.  d.  19.  Jahrli.  in  Donfjclil.  .\up«ib.  1935. 

/)  Einl.  in  d.  clir.  katli.  Tliool.  Münst.  vol.  I.  (1S19.)  1S.31.  vol.  H.  (1S29.)  1SS4.     Clirlstk.sth.  Dog 


638  MODERN  CIIÜECII  HISTOnV.    PKR.  VI.    A.  D.  1C4S-18Ö3. 

for  odnration  on  the  Rhino.  Tlio  oj>ponent.s  of  tliis  school  obtained  a  bear 
ing  at  Koine;  nnd  in  consequence  of  a  trial,  the  most  responsililo  actor  in 
■which  was  afterwards  found  to  bo  utterly  unacquainted  with  the  German 
languape  and  literature,  ((j)  the  -writings  of  tiic  deceased  Hermes  were  con- 
denmed  in  an  apostolical  brief  of  Sept.  26,  1835.  As  his  system  had  not  been 
explained  with  much  precision,  and  a  distinct  deviation  from  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church  had  not  been  proved,  the  Ilermesians  were  not  -without  hopes 
that  they  might  convince  the  Holy  Father  of  the  orthodoxy  of  their  instruc- 
tor. Archbishop  Droste  impaired  the  intluence  of  the  theological  faculty,  at 
Bonn,  by  forbidding  the  students  at  the  confessional  to  hear  lectures  from 
the  Ilermesians.  (//)  In  the  negotiations  of  the  government  Avith  the  arch- 
bishop, an  amicable  understanding  -was  obtained  on  this  subject ;  but  -with 
respect  to  the  mixed  marriages,  he  adhered  to  the  declaration  that  he  could 
comi)ly  with  the  agreement  of  1834  only  so  far  as  it  was  consistent  with  tlie 
Brief  of  1830.  He  -«-as  therefore  threatened  with  a  suspension  of  his  official 
duties,  imprisoned  Nov.  20,  1837,  and  finally  brought  to  the  fortress  of  Min- 
den, on  the  ground  set  forth  in  a  ministerial  decree,  that  be  bad  violated  his 
promise,  undermined  the  laws,  and  excited  the  minds  of  the  people  under  the 
influence  of  two  revolutionary  parties.  Gregory  XVI.,  as  early  as  Dec.  10, 
protested  against  the  violence  thus  committed  against  the  Church,  extolled 
the  martyrdom  of  the  archbishop,  and  rejected  the  illegal  evasion  of  the 
Brief  of  1830.  (/)  The  Prussian  ambassador  declared  that  the  measure 
against  the  archbishop  was  merely  a  temporary  act  of  self-defence,  and  ac- 
knowledged the  pope  himself  as  a  final  judge  in  the  case.  (I)  The  pope, 
however,  demanded  that  before  any  negotiations  could  be  entered  upon,  the 
archbishop  must  be  restored  to  his  former  position.  Both  parties  then  ap- 
pealed to  public  opinion,  by  presenting  to  the  world  representations  of  the 
original  grounds  of  the  quarrel.  (/)  O'öd'cs,  as  a  voluntary  advocate  of  the 
archbishop,  made  an  attack  upon  Protestantism,  and  the  whole  official  body 
of  the  Prussian  government.  (?«)  The  party  on  the  other  side  regarded  the 
controversy  as  a  struggle  between  German  liberty  and  Roman  dominion. 
Every  existing  element  of  discontent  was  for  the  time  involved  in  this  reli- 
gious contention.  The  sullen  humor  of  the  Catholic  people  on  the  Rhine 
and  in  "Westphalia,  was  exhibited  in  individual  acts  of  violence.  The  other 
West  Prussian  bishops  announced  their  renunciation  of  the  agreement ;  and 
although  the  government  refused  to  receive  it,  the  Cabinet  declared  that  it 
never  intended  to  compel  a  pastor,  contrary  to  his  conscience,  to  solemnize 

matik,  ed.  by  AchterfeldU  Münst  1S34.  2  vols.— C^.  G.  Xiedner,  Philosopliiao  ITermesü  explicatio  et 
exislimatio.  Lps.  1S8S.     Perrone,  z.  Gesch.  d.  Hermesianism.  A.  d.  Ital.  Eatisb.  3S39. 

O)  Acta  bi>t  ecc.  1S36.  p.  oO'ss.  Perronius,  Theologus  Eomanus  vapulans.  Col.  1S40.  Elvenich., 
d.  llerinesianisinus  u.  Perrone.  Brl.  1S44. 

/()  Elrenich,  Acta  Hermesiana,  Gott  1S36.  Bravnet  Elvenieh:  Meictemata  tlieol.  Lps.  IS-SS. 
Acta  Koniana.  Han.  1S3S.  (by  Rehfuen)  Die  Wahrli.  in  d.  Uermes'schen  Sache.  Darmst.  lS;3r  Zf/4 
Acta  antiherm.  Uatisb.  1S39. 

»■)  Acta  List  ecc.  1S87.  p.  5ss.         Ic)  Ibid.  p.  5T5ss. 

T)  Dar!e2;ung  d.  Verfahrens  d.  Preuss.  Regierung  gegen  d.  Erzb.  v.  Ki.ln.  Brl.  153?.  4.  Esposlzione 
di  fatti)  dc<?utnenlata  su  qnanto  ha  preceduto  e  seguito  la  deportazione  di  Monsignor  Drostu,  boma, 
1S3S.  Ratisb.  1n3S. 

m)  Athwiaslas.  EaUsb.  1S3S.  1.  ed.  In  Jan.,  4.  ed.  at  Easter. 


CHAP.  VL    CATII.  CHURCH  TILL  1853.    §  474.  DUMN.    FItED.  AVM.  IV'.        639 

mixed  marriages,  or  to  forbid  biin  to  make  discreet  inquiries  respecting  the 
education  of  the  children  (1838).  (//)  iJunin^  Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  Posen, 
had  even  in  1837  besougiit  the  government,  in  order  to  correct  the  abuses 
^vhich  bad  gained  ground  ■\vitliin  liis  jurisdiction,  that  either  the  Brief  of 
1830  might  be  publislied  in  liis  diocese,  or  that  bo  niiglit  be  permitted  to 
apply  for  a  decision  of  the  apostolic  see.  On  being  refused  botli  requests,  he 
secretly  issued  a  pastoral  epistle  (Feb.,  1838),  in  -which  he  declared  every 
priest  suspended  who  should  thereafter  solemnize  a  mixed  marriage  without 
a  security  that  the  offspring  should  be  Catholic,  {o)  The  government  de- 
prived this  order  of  all  force,  promised  its  protection  to  every  priest  who 
should  be  threatened  on  accoimt  of  his  non-observance  of  it,  and  arraigned 
the  archbishop  before  tiio  superior  court  for  high  treason  and  disobedi- 
ence, {i')  He  denied  the  competence  of  the  court,  but  coiiii)lied  with  a  cita- 
tion to  Berlin.  After  ineffectual  negotiations,  a  judicial  decision  was  here 
pronounced  (April,  1889),  which  deposed  him,  and  condemned  him  for  dis- 
obedience to  a  six  months'  imprisonment  in  a  fortress.  The  king,  however, 
condescended  to  regard  a  letter  of  the  archbishop  as  a  request  for  pardon, 
and  therefore  suspended  the  sentence  of  deposition,  and  remitted  the  punish- 
ment of  imprisonment,  though  on  condition  that  lie  should  not  leave  the  city 
of  Berlin.  lie  immediately  fled  from  the  city  to  Posen  (Oct.,  1839),  where 
he  was  seized,  and  brought  to  Colberg.  All  the  churches  in  his  diocese  were 
hung  in  mourning.  {//)  Frederic  William  IV.  found  this  complicated  state 
of  affairs  still  unsettled  at  his  accession.  All  the  Prussian  l)is]iop3  had 
adopted  the  views  of  the  Roman  court,  except  the  Prince-bisboi)  of  Breslau, 
who  was  compelled,  by  the  conflict  between  his  couvictiims  and  tlio  circum- 
stances in  which  lie  was  i)lac.d,  to  resign  his  pastoral  staff  (Aug.,  1840).  {r) 
The  Archbishop  Dunin  (d.  1842)  was  allowed  by  the  king  to  return  to  his 
diocese  ;  and  having  exhorted  his  clergy  to  be  lovers  of  peace,  lie  gave  orders, 
that  as  they  were  forbidden  by  law  to  require  securities  for  the  education  of 
the  children ;  in  all  mixed  marriages  the}'  should  ab.stain  from  every  act  which 
ooidd  be  construed  as  an  as.sent  to  them,  (.v)  Tiic  king  established  a  Catholic 
department  in  tlie  ministry  for  public  worsliij),  renounced  the  Phtrct  in  mat- 
ters of  faith,  and  gave  full  liberty  to  the  bisliops  to  hold  intercourse  with  the 
Roman  see  (Jau.  1,  1841).  Negotiations  Avere  also  opened  with  the  papal 
court,  in  consequence  of  which.  Archbishop  Droste,  with  his  own  consent, 
on  account  of  his  ill  health,  was  api)ointed  coadjutor,  with  the  right  of  being 
the  successor,  to  John  of  6\'/.w<7,  Bishop  of  Speyer.  By  an  open  royal  letter, 
the  archbishop  was  honorably  released  from  his  conlinement,  and  from  all 
imputations  of  a  guilty  participation  in  revolutionary  movements.  (/)     lie 

H)  A.  Z.  18.SS.  N.  TO.  Suppl.  N.  ST.  Siiin.l. 

o)  A.  Z.  lS:iS.  N.  as.  Supj.!. 

;/)  A.  Z.  1>:?S.  N.  2CSs.  I'roiis*.  Sla.it<;7,  IS-^S.  X.  «02.  A.  Z.  1S39.  N.  a">.  Ksposiziono  ill  tlirillo  e 
rti  fatto  eon  autiiilitl  <lücimionll.  Koiiin,  11  Apr.,  ISM».  Katisb.  1S39.  Ilinftt,  Vcrtlicldlguiig  il.  KrzU 
Duiiln.  WQrzb.  1*W. 

fj)  Brl.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  S8.  in2. 

>■)  A.  Z.  1*!!».  N.  20.    A.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  81.   I).  A.  Z.  134.^  N.  5. 

*)  Hrl.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  64.  OO.  T4,    K  Pohl.  M.  v  Diinln  Marienb.  IS  ».3. 

0  l!rl.  KZ.  1S41.  X.  11.  "J  comp.  111.  ISli  N.  3 


n  to  MODKUN  CHURCII  niSTORY.     PER.  VI.     A.  J).  1645-1858. 

now  (loclnroil  that  lie  only  wi.shod  henceforth  to  spend  liis  life  In  prnylng  for 
his  »liooo.sc  (Marcli  9,  1842),  (w)  and  as  an  autlior,  somewhat  awkwardly  bnt 
lioncstly  (lofcndc'd  the  liberty  of  both  sides,  and  the  iniitnal  friend^^liip  of 
Church  an<l  State  (d.  1845).  (i)  The  Ilermesians  had  already  given  up  their 
own  cause;  and  when  their  two  last  advocates  maintained  at  least  that 
Ilcnncs  had  not  taught  what  the  papal  brief  had  imputed  to  him,  on  an  ap- 
idication  from  the  coadjutor,  they  were  dismissed  from  their  offices  (1844). 
Even  Pius  IX.  repelled  their  reference  to  his  Circular  (§  47u)  as  an  act  of 
insolence,  (ir)  AVith  regard  to  mixed  marriages,  the  most  rigid  interpretation 
of  the  Brief  of  1830  has  been  adopted  as  the  rule  of  action,  hut  the  possibil- 
ity of  a  ceremony  performed  by  Protestants  is  conceded  and  acted  upon,  (j) 
In  this  controversy  the  Catholic  Church  has  exhibited  a  powerful  self-reU 
ance,  (y)  which  might  proceed  so  far  as  to  threaten  once  more  a  division  or 
Germany.  In  other  countries,  where  the  circumstances  were  similar  to  those 
which  existed  in  Prussia,  the  clergy  were  obliged  to  make  use  of  the  same 
influences.  (<)  In  Wurtemierff,  when  the  ministry  proclaimed  that  all  those 
priests  should  be  displaced  who  refused  to  solemnize  mixed  marriages  accord- 
ing to  the  law  of  1800,  which  provided  that  both  Churches  should  be  placed 
on  an  equal  footing.  Bishop  Keller  of  Eottenburg  (d.  1846),  an  old  and  fsiith- 
ful  servant  of  the  government,  was  induced  to  present  a  proposition  (Nov. 
13,  1841)  in  the  assembly  of  the  states,  in  which  the  grievances  of  the  ditfer- 
eut  parties  were  set  forth.  This  provided  that  the  free  exercise  of  those 
rights  which  the  civil  authorities,  in  direct  opposition  to  the  essential  objects 
of  the  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church,  had  exercised,  should  now  be 
restored  to  the  Church  and  its  bishops.  In  both  Chambers,  though  in  differ- 
ent ways,  the  full  rights  of  the  government  were  acknowledged,  and  a  con- 
fidence was  expressed  that  it  would  remove  every  well-founded  complaint. 
But  an  anonymous  letter  filled  with  threats  was  repelled  with  disgust  even 
by  the  Catholic  party.* 

§  475.     The  German  Church  since  1848. 

From  the  revolution,  the  clergy  obtained  charters  which  were  partially 
fulfilled  even  when  the  reaction  took  place,  in  consequence  of  their  agree- 
ment with  political  parties  hostile  to  each  other.  Although  the  expulsion  of 
the  Jesuits  and  their  allies  from  Austria,  and  their  exclusion  from  all  Ger- 
man territories,  bad  been  resolved  upon  in  the  first  glow  of  popular  feeling, 

7()  Brl.  KZ.  1S42  N.  26. 

r)  Uebor  den  Frieden  unter  d.  Kirche  n.  d.  Staaten.  Münst.  1^13.  2  ed. 

«•)  Bonner  Zeitschr.  1S4;3.  P.  4.  Actenstücke  z.  geh.  Gesch.  d.  Hermesian.  by  Eltenich-,  Brsl. 
1?45.  Stttpp,  die  letzten  llerinesianer.  Siegen,  1S41.  Comp.  Bruns,  Eep.  ISiO.  vol.  YIL  p.  2ö9ss.— 
Brl.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  72. 

ar)  BrL  KZ.  1S41.  N.  37. 1842.  N.  31. 

y)  J.  V.  Gorres,  K.  u.  Staat  nach  Ablauf  d,  Cölner  Irrung.  "Weissenb.  1S42. 

e)  Die  kath.  Zustände  in  Baden.  Eatisb.  1S41.  On  Ihe  other  side:  Keheniiu,  die  kath.  Zuständo 
in  Baden.  Carlsr.  1S42.    Der  Streit  ü.  gem.  Ehen.  n.  d.  KUoheitsrecht  im  G.  Baden.  Karlsr.  1547. 

•  A.  KZ.  1842.  N.  98.  103.  114-116.  123-126.  Brl.  KZ.  1S42.  N.  6.  23.  30.  50.  ^.  21.  J.  Hack, 
Cstholica,  Mittheill.  a.  d.  Gesch.  d.  kath.  K.  in  Wärt,  Tüb.  1S41.  Briefe  zweier  Freunde  ü.  d.  Motion 
d.  B.  V.  Kott  Stuttg.  1842.  2  ed.  Neueste  Denksch.  d.  Würt  Staatsreg.  au  d.  rüm.  Stuhl.  Beleuchtet. 
Bchaffb.  1S44. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATir.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    J  4TÖ.  GERMANY  SINCE  1343.        G41 

it  was  regarded  as  a  permanent  law  of  the  German  nation.  Jesuit  missions 
tlien  traversed  tlie  country  (after  1850),  and  penetrated  districts  densely 
populated  by  Protestants,  (n)  With  the  view  of  forming  an  imposing  author- 
ity for  determining  political  and  social  questions  on  Catholic  principles,  a 
popular  society  was  commenced  at  Cologne,  aud  named  after  Pius  IX.  (Aug., 
1848).  At  the  suggestion  of  the  pope,  and  in  consequence  of  the  altered 
state  of  the  times,  though  not  without  some  resistance  and  occasional  relapses, 
the  political  and  democratic  tendency  of  these  Pius- if n ions  on  the  Rhine 
was  given  up,  and  their  general  uhject  became  the  promotion  of  all  Catholic 
interests.  Branches  of  tliis  organization  were  extended  to  a  great  distance, 
but  they  had  no  permanent  place  of  meeting,  and  their  annual  assemblies 
itinerated  from  place  to  place,  (h)  But  the  General  Assembly  at  Vienna 
(1853)  found  that  the  masses  were  not  attracted  toward  them,  and  that  the 
spectators  at  their  meetings  were  always  the  same.  (<•)  The  German  bishops^, 
at  a  conference  in  WurUburg  (Nov.,  1848),  proclaimed  that  the  Church,  in 
living  connection  with  its  Holy  Father,  had  not  abandoned  the  work  of  re- 
generating their  native  laud  ;  that  it  accepted  with  confidence  the  assurance 
that  all  should  have  liberty  of  conscience ;  that  it  would  now  enter  upon  the 
full  enjoyment  of  tbe  independence  which  had  so  long  been  crippled;  and 
that  while  it  maintained  its  divine  right  to  educate  its  members  from  the 
common  to  the  high  school,  it  would  devote  itself  to  the  advancement  of 
true  progress  by  tlio  elevation  of  science,  the  establishment  of  ecclesiastical 
discipline,  and  the  restoration  of  the  synodal  system.  ('/)  Accordingly,  trust- 
ing to  a  sacred  influence  pervading  the  present  age,  and  which  no  secular 
power  could  withstand,  they  put  forth  a  series  of  demands  upon  the  govern- 
ments, that  in  spite  of  the  existing  law  and  the  modern  state,  the  ideal  of  the 
canon  law  which  had  never  been  renounced  should  now  be  realized,  (e)  In 
Austria^  the  ecclesiastical  law  of  the  Emperor  Joseph  was  abandoned  in  tlie 
httempt  to  carry  out  the  idea  of  the  two  Schwartzonbergs,  according  to 
which  the  mutually  conflicting  nationalities  were  to  bo  held  together  under 
the  house  of  Ilapsburg  by  the  interest  of  the  episcopate,  and  all  that  was 
Catholic  in  German  countries  was  to  be  rallied  around  the  throne  of  his 
apostolic  majesty.  (/)  The  imperial  patent  of  Apiil  18,  1850,  {g)  dispensed 
with  the  requirement  that  all  papal  and  episcopal  edicts  should  have  the  con- 
sent of  the  state  to  their  promulgation,  made  the  clergy  independent  of  the 
secular  autliorities  and  proportionally  dependent  upon  the  bishops,  and  abol- 
ished every  thing  which  had  impeded  the  exertion  of  the  i>enal  powers  of  the 
Church.  The  right  of  nominating  the  bisliops  w;vs  reserved  by  the  emperor 
to  himself,  as  one  which  had  descended  from  his  ancestors,  and  which  ho 
promised  to  exercise  for  the  good  of  the  Church,  aud  with  the  counsel  of  tho 

rt)  K.  A.  Leihbrand,  d.  Miss.  d.  Jcs.  u.  Uedeinptorlston  in  DoutscliL  u.  d.  ov.  Wahrli.  Stuttg 
IS51. 

t-)  nrl.  KZ.  1S4S.  N.  M.  77. 1S49.  N.  41.  61».         c)  D.  A.  Z.  ISM.  N.  251. 

d)  I$rl.  KZ.  1843.  N.  92.  99.  101.     A.  KZ.  131S.  N.  2(HK 

e)  0.  Mfjer,  d.  dt.  KKnlh.  ii.  d.  künftige  l;ath.  I'artcl.  Lps.  ISIS.     C.  Knie»,  d.  katii.  Ulerarcliie 
In  d.  dt,  Stiiaten  s.  1843.  Hal.  13:.2. 

/)  Actonstüfko,  d.  blj^clicill.  ViTsaminl.  zu  Wien  betr.  Wien,  1S.V).   (by  Lonotic»)  Der  Josepbl* 
uins  u.  iL  knls.  Vcrordn.  v.  13.  Apr.  .\.  d.  Ung.  Wien,  1s51. 
g)  BrI.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  S4s. 
41 


642  MdincuN  c'Hi;j:rii  iiisTonv.   per.  vi.   a.  ]>.  ic4i-is:<8. 

hisliops.  Tlio  pi\)si)ect  of  H  more  perfect  regulation  by  a  concordat  wüs  also 
lielil  out.  And  yet  sucli  was  tlie  state  of  tilings  during  tlie  wars  iu  Hungary 
and  Italy,  tliat  bisliops  were  soinetiuies  imprisoned,  and  priests  Avere  hung. 
in  JJiicariit,  the  national  bisliops  demanded  (//)  tlie  comiilete  execution  of  the 
concordat  for  the  adjustment  of  the  ecclesiastical  and  civil  powers,  for  op 
this  they  professed  to  think  the  welfare  of  Europe  depended.  For  this  pur 
l)ose  they  asked  for  the  recognition  of  certain  rights  as  inalienable  to  the 
Church,  the  possession  of  which  would  have  threatened  to  render  the  clergy 
not  only  independent,  but  superior  to  the  civil  power.  In  its  reply,  (/)  the 
government  refused  to  surrender  its  position,  that  the  royal  assent  was  indis- 
pensable to  ecclesiastical  edicts,  to  investitures  of  livings  by  bishops,  and  to 
missions  by  foreigners,  and  demanded  that  no  change  should,  be  made  in  the 
administration  of  Church  property,  and  that  every  member  of  the  Church 
should  have  a  right  to  appeal  to  the  sovereign  for  protection  against  all 
abuses  of  ecclesiastical  power.  Only  such  decisions  of  the  ecclesiastical 
courts  as  exercised  no  influence  upon  civil  relations,  were  exempted  from  the 
necessity  of  having  the  royal  confirmation ;  and  with  respect  to  the  royal 
patronage  of  benefices,  and  to  the  school  system,  it  was  agreed  that  the  opin- 
ions of  the  bishops  should  be  consulted.  The  Catholic  party  thus  found  that 
the  government  had  conceded  only  non-essential  points,  and  had  maintained 
a  position  which  had  been  abandoned  even  iu  some  Protestant  states.  After 
I'russia  had  proclaimed  the  independence  of  the  Church  (Dec.  5,  1848),  the 
bishops,  instead  of  complying  with  the  invitation  of  the  Minister  to  enter 
into  some  definite  arrangement  with  the  state,  published  a  memorial  (Aug., 
1849),  (Z)  in  which  they  claimed,  as  the  necessary  result  of  the  independence 
granted ;  that  all  Church  property  should  be  transferred  to  their  hands ;  that 
the  state  should  exert  no  influence  in  the  appointment  of  ecclesiastical  ofli- 
cers ;  that  the  complete  direction  of  the  education  of  the  Catholic  clergy,  and 
of  Catholic  schools,  should  be  committed  to  them  ;  and  that  the  sacrament 
of  marriage  should  be  allowed  to  be  administered  without  any  reference  to 
the  civil  law.  The  Constitution  (Jan.  31,  1850)  left  the  principle  of  indepen- 
dence as  it  Avas,  and  allowed  all  persons  freely  to  hold  intercourse  with  eccle- 
siastical superiors,  but  subjected  the  promulgation  of  ecclesiastical  edicts  to 
the  same  restrictions  as  were  imposed  upon  all  other  publications,  and  relin- 
quished the  investiture  of  ecclesiastical  oflicers  only  so  far  as  they  did  not 
depend  upon  patronage,  or  some  special  legal  title.  But  since  that  time,  the 
government  has  made  a  sei'ies  of  concessions,  {I)  some  of  which  relate  even 
to  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  constitution,  (in)  The  limitation  of  theo- 
logical studies  in  foreign  Jesuit  institutions,  and  of  the  Jesuit  missions,  was 
again  discussed  (1852),  and  the  mildest  construction  given  of  it  which  the 
language  would  allow.  («)    A  small  Catholic  party  was  formed  in  the  Cham- 

/()  Denkscli.  der  v.  1-20.  Oct  1S50,  zu  Freysing  versammelten  Erzbiscbüfe  n.  Biscli.  Bayerns. 
.Munich,  ISÖO.  4.  i)  Of  April  S,  ISöO:  Allg.  Z.  1&52.  N.  IIS. 

k)  PrinlcU  in  the  Katholit.  Mayence,  Proceoüings  of  the  Chambers  in  Sept.:  Drl.  KZ.  1S49.  X. 
-l.-^.  SS.  S9.  ISOO.  N.  4. 

0  //icc",  ov.  prot  K.  d.  dt.  Reichs,  p.  8S9-<s.    Knies,  p.  13s. 

»n  15rl.  KZ.  ISöO.  N.  4.  m.  203.  Der  Conilict  d.  preuss.  Rej.  m.  d.  kath.  Bisch,  iu  Betr.  d.  Ver 
t-issunjjseides.  Livs  1S50.  n)  Brl.  KZ.  liöi.  X.  tö.  SOs.  103. 


CHAP.  TL    CATII.  CnURCII  TILL  13.Ö3.    §  475.  PRUSSIA.    MECHLENBUPvO.    643 

bers,  wliich  did  noi  scruple  to  connect  itself  with  the  Right  or  the  Left, 
according  to  circumstances ;  and  as  the  government  were  obliged  to  rule  by 
a  part}',  these  were  often  strong  enough  to  give  the  preponderance  where 
they  pleased.  But  a  complete  independence  of  the  clergy  was  not  effected, 
for  a  general  dislike  was  felt  to  the  establishment  of  an  independent  sacerdo- 
tal power,  subjeft  only  to  a  foreign  sovereign,  whose  decisions  were  formed 
by  divine  authority,  and  Avere  regarded  by  the  bi.^hops  as  their  rule  of  right, 
to  wliich  the  heretical  ruler  of  so  many  ancient  ecclesiastical  countries  would 
be  tolerable  only  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  and  by  which  a  portion  of  the 
people  would  be  so  educated,  that  very  soon  a  second  "Westphalian  Peace 
would  become  indispensable.  Even  the  complaints  from  Posen  respecting 
the  non-fulfilment  of  the  conceded  right  to  spiritual  jurisdiction,  the  admin- 
istration of  Church  property,  and  the  Protestantizing  and  denationalizing  the 
schools,  («)  v^'ere  not  regarded.  "When  ArnohU,  Bishop  of  Treves,  required 
(March  12,  15,  1853)  the  jjastors  under  his  jurisdiction  to  aUow  of  mixed 
marriages  only  when  tlie  non-Catholic  party  promised  upon  oath  to  have  all 
the  children  to  be  educated  in  the  Catholic  faith,  and  even  then  to  withhold 
the  ecclesiastical  benediction,  (p)  a  general  astonishment  was  expressed  at 
this  extravagant  application  of  the  papal  enactment  of  1830.  Tlie  king  pro- 
claimed, that  every  officer  of  his  army  wjio  contracted  marriage  under  such 
dishonorable  conditions,  should  be  immediately  dismissed  from  service.  The 
general  belief  that  an  apostolical  brief  of  such  a  tenor  had  been  issued  to  all 
the  Prussian  bishops,  was  partially  corrected  at  Treves ;  and  it  was  shown 
that  an  attempt  had  been  made  to  ascertain  whether  such  a  proceeding  would 
be  then  tolerated  in  Prussia,  by  such  a  limitation  im])osed  upon  each  bishop 
by  the  Propaganda  at  the  renewal  of  his  quinquennial  faculties  (p.  460).  (//) 
In  J/(Ec7/i(V(?y«/y/-Schwerin,  the  return  to  orthodoxy  which  was  lavored  by  the 
higher  classes,  was  in  some  instances  carried  too  far  ;  and  a  landed  proprietor 
who  had  recently  become  a  Catholic,  employed  a  priest  of  Mayence  as  his 
domestic  chaplain.  This  priest  was  conveyed,  by  order  of  the  government 
(Sept.,  1852),  out  of  the  country,  on  the  ground  that  the  stated  employment 
of  a  priest  was  not  implied  in  the  privilege  of  domestic  worship,  and  that 
the  Catholic  wor.ship  was  tolerated  merely  by  an  arrangement  with  the  sov- 
ereign (1788,  1809,  1811),  under  certain  local  restrictions.  (/•)  A  complaint 
with  respect  to  tliis  proceeding,  founded  upon  the  sixteenth  article  of  the 
Act  of  Confederation,  was  sent  back  by  tlie  diet  in  accordance  with  the  ex- 
isting law,  and  by  the  Diet  of  the  Confederation  on  tlie  ground  of  incompe- 
tency. (.'<)  The  five  bishops  of  the  Jicclcsiu.sticdl  Province  of  (lie  Upper 
Iikine  (f)  disclosed  also  to  their  respective  governments  what  they  regarded 
as  essential  to  the  ecclesiastical  independence  promised  them,  viz.  :  free  inter- 

o)  Proiromnrin  betr.  d.  üfelntriclit.  tl.  k.itli.  K.  im  G.  Posen.  Pos.  1S4'J.  f. 

//)  lirl.  KZ.  IS'A  N.  *}.  30.  -ir.. 

<j)  D.  A.  Z.  1S.'.3.  N.  ICl.— A.  KZ.  IS.W.  N.  134. 

f)  (A.  ir.  I'.  Schroetfr,)  Die  kntli.  Pel.  Uebiin?  In  Mcckl.  Gcsclilclill.  u.  rechtlich.  Jen.%  1S52.  Or. 
the  other  hand:  J.  T.  B.  v.  Linde,  Q.  d.  rccl.ll.  Gliich.-tell.  d.  clir.  Pel.  Parteien  In  d.  dt  Bnndesst. 
Insb.  in  Mcclcl.  Giess.  1852. 

*)  l!rl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  10Ü.  1S5.3.  N.  .in.    I).  A.  Z.  ls.V.>.  X.  441. 

t)  For  lliein:  J/".  Lieber,  in  Saclien  d.  ulierrh.  KProv.  ni.  Actenst.  Fre'.b.  1S53.    F.  Iiies%  kirch- 


641  MODERN  CIItTRCII  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  164S-1«(M. 

oonr.'Jo  villi  Koine;  tlio  validity  of  paj)al  and  episfojml  edicts,  -without  thi 
coiicnrrenoo  of  tlio  states ;  the  unrestrained  adminrstration  of  Cliurch  pro- 
perty ;  the  necessity  of  the  con.sent  of  the  bi.shop  to  the  instruction  given  in 
pchools  of  all  kinds ;  the  establishment  of  seminaries  under  the  care  of  the 
hishoj) ;  an  alteration  of  the  academical  studies,  and  of  the  chapter,  so  as  to 
miikc  them  conform  to  the  principles  of  the  canon  law ;  a  recognition  of  the 
episcopal  right  to  examine  their  clergy,  to  the  exclusion  of  an  examination 
liy  the  state ;  the  investiture  of  all  clerical  officers  by  the  bi.shop,  as  far  as 
was  consistent  with  a  well-established  right  of  patronage  ;  the  restoration  of 
the  episcopal  right  to  control  priestly  functions  and  popular  mis,sions ;  and 
the  unrestrained  exercise  of  the  power  of  punishing  all  members  of  the 
Church,  without  being  subject  to  an  appeal  to  the  civil  authorities,  (u)  The 
government  of  Darmstadt  refrained  from  enforcing  the  institution  of  the 
candidate  whom  it  preferred  for  the  see  of  Mayence,  and  who  had  been 
elected  by  the  chapter  in  the  informal  way  sanctioned  by  a  frequent  Roman 
usage,  0)  allowed  a  bishop  to  be  invested  (1849)  who,  it  well  knew,  would  be 
the  leader  of  the  opposition,  and  saw  the  very  last  student  forsaking  its  own 
tlieological  faculty  at  Giessen,  in  consequence  of  the  constitutional  freedom 
of  studies  proclaimed  in  the  seminary  he  re-established  at  Mayence  (1851.)  {w) 
When  the  commissioners  of  the  government  assembled  at  Carlsruhe  made 
them  no  reply,  the  bishops  remarked  that  they  would  in  any  case  act  as  if 
their  demands  had  been  complied  with  (Feb.  22)  ;  and  when  these  demands 
were  finally  for  the  most  part  rejected  (March  5,  1853),  (.<•)  they  declared 
that  they  should  obey  God  rather  than  man ;  and  that,  in  accordance  with 
the  doctrine  generally  received  in  their  Church,  and  the  laAv  founded  upon 
it,  they  should  oppose  the  regulations  prescribed  by  the  government,  on  the 
ground  that  their  supreme  ecclesiastical  head  had  long  since  condemned 
them  as  anticatholic  and  illegal  (April  12).  (y)  It  was  determined  that  an 
attempt,  which  should  be  an  example  for  all  other  places,  should  be  made  in 
Baden,  where  the  revolution  had  been  most  radical,  and  where  the  youth  of 
the  ruler  presented  the  greatest  hope.  Herman  of  Vicari,  Archbishop  of 
Friburg,  who,  contrary  to  all  precedent,  had  prohibited  the  funeral  solemni- 
ties prescribed  by  the  government  for  the  late  Grand  Duke,  on  account  of 
the  course  that  prince  had  pursued  toward  the  Church  (1852),  (5)  by  his  own 
authority  nominated  a  pastor  for  Constance  and  an  ecclesiastical  council,  had 
the  seminaries  examined  without  a  commissioner  fi'om  government,  and  threat- 
ened to  excommunicate  the  members  of  the  supreme  council  of  the  Church,  un- 
less they  would  either  act  according  to  tlie  episcopal  memorial,  or  resign  their 
offices.    He  was  admonished  by  the  ministry  (Oct.  31, 1853)  to  revoke  these 

)icli-pol.  Blätter  a.  d.  oberrh.  KPr.  Stnttg.  1S53.  Ag.'iinst:  S.  B.  Leu,  Warnung  v.  Neuer  u.  Ueber- 
treibungen.  Lnz.  1S53.  Bisdiüfl.  Theorien  u.  posit  llecbt  Stuttg.  1SÖ3.— Z.  A.  VTarnkönig,  ü.  d. 
Conflict  (1.  Episcopats  d.  oberrh.  KProv.  Erl.  lSr>3. 

")  Memorial  of  March,  1S51,  in  Liehet:  p.  :Sss.     Abstract:  Brl.  K2J.  1951.  N.  45. 

r)  Leop.  Schmid,  ü.  d.  jüngste  Mainzer  Biscbofswahl.  Giess.  2  ed.  1850.  Comp.  Ibid.  Geist  d. 
Catholicism,  o.  grundl.  d.  chr.  Irenik.  Giess.  1S4S.  vol.  I. 

u)  Brl.  KZ.  1851.  N.  45.         a-)  Decree  of  the  Baden  Gov.  in  Lieber,  p.  47ss. 

;/)  Brl.  KZ.  1S53.  N.  S3.  Tue  reasons  for  the  Act  of  June  IS:  Denksch.  d.  Episcopates  d.  oberrb 
KPr.  in  Bezug  a.  d.  Würt  Bad.  Hess.  u.  Nass.  Entscbliessung  v.  5.  Marz.  Freib.  1S5-3. 

z)  Brl.  KZ.  1S5-:.  N.  SSs,  40.  59. 


CHAP.  VI.     CATII.  CIIURCn   TILL  1S53.     §  475.  BADEN.    §  47Ö.  SWITZERLAND.     645 

acts,  wliieli  were  opposed  to  the  laws  he  had  sworn  to  observe,  and  the  eccle- 
siastical constitution  which  had  been  peacefully  in  force  for  half  a  century  ; 
but  he  replied,  that  he  could  no  longer  yield  obedience  to  laws  in  conflict  with  the 
right  of  ecclesiastical  self-government  guarantied  by  international  treaties,  and 
which  annihilated  the  order  Christ  had  bestowed  upon  the  Church.  The 
govorninent  then  appointed  an  otHcer  (Xov.  V),  whose  indorsement  was  made 
indispensable  to  the  validity  of  all  archiepiscopal  edicts;  those  clergymen 
who  ventured  to  obey  such  edicts,  regardless  of  this  arrangement,  were  threat- 
ened with  punishment  by  the  police,  and  those  who  obeyed  the  government 
were  assured  of  its  protection.  The  archbisliop  dismissed  the  oflicer  of  tlio 
government  with  his  excommunication  (Nov.  10);  published  a  hauglity  pastoral 
epistle  (Nov.  11),  in  whicli  he  expressed  a  desire  of  martyrdom  ;  openly  chal- 
lenged the  ministry — though,  as  was  proper  under  a  constitutional  govern- 
ment, only  the  ministry — to  a  war;  protested  against  this  ministerial  inter- 
ference, proceeding  from  Protestant  views,  with  his  holy  office ;  uttered  an 
excommunication,  to  be  read  from  every  pulpit,  against  each  member  of  the 
supreme  ecclesiastical  council  (Xov.  14) ;  and  gave  orders  that  this  matter 
should  be  explained  to  the  people  in  the  pari-sh  churches  on  four  Sundays,  on 
the  basis  of  the  episcopal  memorial  and  the  pastoral  epistle,  (a)  The  govern- 
ment did  not  venture  to  lay  hands  upon  the  aged  archbishop,  but  the  subor- 
dinate executors  of  his  will  were  fined  and  imprisoned.  These  imprison- 
ments, however,  often  involved  the  members  of  the  congregations,  and  could 
not  be  carried  out  against  the  multitude.  Contributions  also  flowed  in 
from  abroad,  amply  sufKcient  to  make  up  for  all  tines,  and  fur  any  retention 
of  revenues.  But  the  Catholic  people  could  not  be  aroused  by  the  fanatical 
pamphlets  scattered  an)ong  them,  (h)  to  make  any  very  imposing  demonstra- 
tion ;  the  councils  of  the  congregations,  and  even  clergymen,  prayed  to  be 
excused  from  the  not  very  edifying  four  discourses,  and  the  archbishop  was 
obliged  to  depose  a  number  of  deacons.  The  pope,  however,  higldy  extolled 
his  remarkable  firmness  against  a  government  which  was  continually  worry- 
ing the  Church ;  (c)  and  almost  all  German,  Belgian,  and  French  bishoi)s 
have  expressed  their  joyful  api)robation  of  the  archbishop's  course,  and 
joined  with  him  in  directing  that  solemn  prayers  should  be  ofiiired  up  in 
their  churches  against  the  persecutors  of  the  Church. 

§  470.     The  SicUs. 

I..  Snell,  C.  ir.  Giricl;  u.  A.  Ifenne,  iirnt'in.  Erzälil.  «1.  kirclil.  Erclpi.  in  <1.  katb.  Pcliw.  M.innb. 
1  W>^.  2  vols.— Die  rum.  Curio  ii.  d.  kirclil.  Wirren  il.  Sdiw.  OlTonb.  \<n.  Die  Pcliwelz.r  Josuilon- 
IViige  in  Staats-  u.  volkerrcclitl.  Indent.  (Scbwesricr,  Jalirb.  1S45.  II.  8.)  Gcscb.  d.  Jesuitonkampfes  in 
d.  Schwolz.  Zur.  1S.J5.— Tnb.  Qiiartalschr.  1S35,  P.  4.  F.  I/urttr,  d.  Befeindung  d.  katb.  K.  in  d. 
Scbw.  8.  1S31.  SclialVb.  1S42.N  4  Ablli. 

According  to  ancient  u>age,  the.Swi-^s  had  a  metropolitan  connection, 
some  with  Besan<jon,  and  others  with  Mentz,  and  of  course  sympathized  with 
these  churches  in  their  tendencies  to  freedom.  The  connection  of  the  former 
portion  in  the  western  part  of  Switzerland  with  the  Gallicaa  Church,  was 


rt)  Orig.  Docc. :  D.  A.  Z.  19.'.«.  N.  251?.  2C8.  27:1.  279.    Append.  2s0.  .303.     A.  KZ.  lSöi3.  N.  I?6s8. 

h)  "  Katbollki'n,  liabt  acbt !  " 

c)  Alldeiition  of  Dee.  10:  D.  A.  Z.  1S54.  N.  .V 


bir,  MODKUN  CIM'IICH  lIISTOnT.     I'KU.  VI.     A.  D.  1C4S-195!> 

broken  ort"  liy  flie  revolution.  Tlie  most  important  part  of  the  confederacy 
belonfrod  to  tlio  bishopric  of  ComUrncf^  and  had  received  from  tliat  source 
not  onlv  nn  ocoiioinical  administration  of  their  affairs,  ])ut  protection  against 
tiio  clainis  of  the  ntmcio  at  Lucerne.  The  people  in  tliis  part  were  now  en- 
joying much  prosperity  under  the  influence  which  Wcssenburg  exerted  for 
the  iini)rovcment  of  the  people  and  the  clergy.  Hence,  when  a  political 
reaction  took  place  in  1814,  the  nimcio  thought  a  favorable  time  had  come 
for  etlectiug  a  separation  of  Switzerland  from  Constance.  Pleased  vrith  the 
promise  of  nn  independent  national  diocese,  the  Confederates  applied  for  a 
division  at  Rome,  and  in  violation  of  every  canonical  form.  Pius  VIT.  hastily 
rent  asunder  a  connection  which  liad  existed  for  a  thousand  years.  («)  As 
olmost  every  canton  was  anxious  to  have  the  national  bishopric  within  its 
bounds,  and  hopes  were  secretly  encouraged  in  each,  the  administration  of 
ecclesiastical  affairs  came  into  the  hands  of  a  vicar-general  appointed  by  the 
poj)e,  the  Jesuits  got  the  control  of  all  education  in  Freiburg  and  in  the 
Valais,  and  Switzerland  became  the  headquarters  of  the  hierarchy.  Keller 
of  Lucerne,  who  about  this  time  swore  that  this  party  should  never  obtain 
the  victory  as  long  as  he  continued  a  magistrate,  was  soon  after  found  dead 
in  the  waters  of  the  Eeuss  (1816).  After  tedious  intrigues,  it  was  decided 
that  a  few  small  dioceses  should  in  some  instances  be  continued,  and  in  oth- 
ers be  newly  formed  (1828) ;  and  all  of  them,  instead  of  being  placed  under 
nn  archbishop,  were  made  directly  dependent  upon  Rome.  This  victory  soon 
became  of  but  little  importance,  in  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  1830. 
In  the  midst  of  many  controversies  between  the  lay  and  the  clerical  author- 
ities, the  cantons  of  the  progressive  party  united  at  Baden  (1834s.),  to  effect 
by  common  measures  the  establishment  of  a  national  archbishopric,  or  the 
formation  of  a  German  Metropolitan  connection,  a  powerful  supervision  of 
the  Church  by  the  state,  a  free  national  education,  and  the  appropriation  of 
the  aid  of  the  convents  to  pious  objects  of  general  utility,  (b)  Gregory  XVI. 
condemned  these  articles  adopted  by  the  conference  as  an  attempt  to  subject 
the  Church  to  the  laity ;  (c)  the  nuncio  withdrew  from  Lucerne,  and  took  up 
his  residence  at  Schwitz  (N"ov.  14,  1835),  and  Catholic  associations  excited 
the  people  against  the  new  constitution  of  the  state.  But  the  Roman  party 
found  in  the  decided  popular  will  which  had  been  awakened  by  this  agency 
among  the  Catholic  or  mixed  cantons,  a  pious  but  rude  sovereign,  while  in 
the  overthrown  aristocracy  of  the  reformed  cantons  they  found  an  important 
aUy.  The  Catholic  insurrection  in  Pruntrut  (1835)  was  suppressed  by  Berne. 
The  Catholic  clergy  in  Glarus  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the 
new  constitution,  except  with  a  reservation  in  favor  of  their  ecclesiastical 
obligations,  which  was  finally  allowed  to  them  (183T).  (f7)  St.  Gall  unani- 
mously abolished  the  convent  of  Pfaefer  (1838),  the  Catholic  population 
merely  insisting  that  the  property  of  the  convent  belonged  exclusively  to 
their  charitable  institutions,  {e)  Aargau  undertook  the  administration  of  the 
property  of  its  convents ;  and  when  the  convents  protested  against  such  a 

a)  Arcliiv.  f  KG.  vol.  II.  p.  CSlss.  V)  Acta  hist,  ecc  1S35.  p.  4.Sss. 

c)  Ibiil.  p.  3ss.  (f)  Ibid.  IS-ST.  p.  125ss. 

t)  A.  KZ.  ISSS.  Jf.  45.   A.  Z.  1S3S.  Sfuppl.  N.  21".   Brl.  A.  KZ.  1S89.  N.  101. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CllUßCn  TILL  1353.    §  476.  SWITZ.    SONDEEBUND.        647 

course  as  an  injury  to  tliemselvcs,  the  government  replied  that  this  yvas 
apparently  the  tirst  step  for  the  aholition  of  convents  which  had  been  guaran- 
tied in  the  treaty  of  the  league  (1837).  (,/')  But  an  insurrection  of  the 
Catholic  minority,  in  opposition  to  the  constitution  revised  so  as  to  make  it 
conform  to  the  views  expressed  in  the  articles  of  conference,  was  made  use 
of  as  a  reason  for  taking  possession,  by  a  decree  of  the  great  council  (Jan, 
20,  1841),  of  eight  convents,  especially  of  the  wealthy  monastery  of  Muri, 
which  had  been  founded  by  the  house  of  llapsburg.  It  was  alleged  that 
these  convents  were  used  as  places  of  rendezvous  for  those  wlio  were  en- 
gaged in  insurrection,  and  their  revenues  were  now  appropriated  to  objects 
connected  with  education  and  charity,  (g)  The  complaint  and  petition  for 
the  re-establishment  of  the  convents  was  under  discussion  for  a  long  time  in 
the  diet  with  doubtful  success,  until  more  than  twelve  cantons  declared 
themselves  satisfied  with  the  concessions  made  by  Aargau  for  the  establish- 
ment of  tlirce  nunneries  (Aug.  31,  1843).  On  the  other  hand,  Lucerne,  at 
the  head  of  those  cantons  favorable  to  Rome,  protested  against  them,  on  the 
ground  that  they  were  an  infraction  of  the  terms  of  the  league,  (//)  For  in 
Lucerne,  at  the  revision  of  the  constitution,  the  Eomish  party,  under  the 
influence  of  the  robbery  of  the  convents  of  Aargau,  had  obtained  the  as- 
cendency (May  1,  1841),  and  the  nuncio  returned  with  great  pomp  (Jan.  22, 
1843).  Switzerland  was  now  divided  into  tAvo  hostile  parties,  distinguished 
by  their  apparently  external,  though  really  internal  affinities  and  antipathies 
of  Jesuitism  and  liadicalism.  In  the  Vulais^  the  liberals  were  overthrown  at 
Trent  (May  1,  1844)  in  a  sanguinary  battle  by  the  sacerdotal  party,  and  the 
aflairs  of  the  canton  were  then  directed  according  to  the  wishes  of  the  vic- 
tors. (/)  In  Litceme,  also,  a  majority  of  votes  was  obtained  by  means  of  the 
country  people,  in  favor  of  a  recall  of  the  Jesuits,  and  intrusting  the  theo- 
logical schools  to  their  instruction.  (/.)  The  party  which  had  previously  held 
the  suiiremacy,  was  now  supported  by  the  voluntary  assistance  of  thoso 
Catholics  who  were  of  the  same  views,  and  by  Protestants  from  all  the  can- 
tons. This  undisciplined  liost  of  volunteers,  which  attempted  to  wrest  Lu- 
cerne from  the  possession  of  the  Jesuits  by  a  single  blow,  Avero  entirely  dis- 
persed (Dec.  8,  1844,  March  31,  1845)  by  the  army  of  Lhe  original  cantons, 
and  all  domestic  opposition  was  overthrown.  (/)  In  view  of  this  victor}',  as 
well  as  of  the  dangers  which  threatened  them.  Lucerne  innaediately  con- 
cluded a  military  alliance  Avith  the  three  original  cantons,  and  Avith  Valais, 
Freiburg,  and  Zug,  for  mutual  protection  against  invasion  or  internal  commo- " 
tion,  and  the  allies  then  demanded  in  a  threatening  manner  the  restoration 
of  the  convents  of  Aargau,  (m)     The  liberal  party  demanded  the  general 

./O  Acta  liist.  ecc.  183T.  p.  ISTfs. 

g)  Die  Aiifliebung  d.  Aarg.  Klüstcr.  Donksclir.  an  d.  Lidgeniiss.  Stiinde.  Aarau,  1S41.  4,  (Kliciiiw. 
Rop.  vol.  XXXIII.  I).  170.  2C4.-S.)   I5il.  KZ.  1S41.  N.  14. 

h)  Ibid.  1843.  N.  103.   A.  Z.  184-3.  N.  173.  24T.  297.  034. 

«■)  Die  Ereignisse  im  AVall.  Tran.sl.  of  the  work:  !a  contrc-revnl.  en  Valais,  by  J/".  Jitrrnidiii),  willi 
Introd.  by  L.  Snell,  Ziir.  1S44.  (a  partisan  piil;l.) 

k)  Brl.  KZ.  1844.  N.  03.  1840.  N.  1. 

I)  D.  A.  Z.  184-1.  N.  352.  Erl.  KZ.  1S1.5.  X.  31.  Dji-s  rotlio  Lücldoln  o.  d.  Frelfüluiaronziif:  Bern 
\SKj.         m)  D.  A.  Z.  1S4C.  N.  27. 


548  MODERN  CHUUCII  IIISTOPwY.     PEU.  VI.     A,  D.  1C4S-1858. 

expnlsion  of  tlie  Jesuits  as  indispensable  to  the  tranquillity  of  tlie  Confed- 
eracy, and  after  many  negotiations,  the  diet  declared  (July  20,  18-4Y)  by  ? 
small  majority  that  the  separate  alliance  (Sonderbund)  -was  inconsisteat  with 
the  general  confederation,  and  was  therefore  dissolved,  and  that  the  seven  can- 
tons should  be  held  responsible  for  its  continuance.  («)  To  this  division  into  re- 
ligious parties  was  added,  on  the  one  side,  a  struggle  for  a  more  efficient  unity 
of  the  states,  and  on  the  other,  for  the  maintenance  of  the  sovereign  rights 
of  the  separate  cantons.  Pius  IX.  still  exhorted  them  to  the  cultivation  of 
peace,  (o)  but  he  did  not  venture  on  the  recall  of  the  Jesuits  as  the  measure 
most  likely  to  reconcile  all  parties,  but  it  appeared  probable  that  a  decision 
could  be  attained  only  by  a  civil  and  religious  war.  A  superior  army  was 
called  into  the  field  by  the  diet,  and  the  miraculous  pennies  purchased  from 
the  Jesuits  to  secure  the  immediate  protection  of  the  Virgin  against  the  bul- 
lets of  the  enemy,  (jj)  were  found  insufficient.  The  foreign  aid  was  too 
scanty;  Freiburg  capitulated;  the  small  affair  near  Gislicon  (Nov.  23)  be- 
came as  important  for  the  Protestants  as  that  at  Oappel  once  was  for  the 
opposite  party,  and  all  the  cantons  were  obliged  to  renounce  the  Sonderbund, 
and  submit  to  the  diet.  The  Jesuits  universally  had  fled,  and  from  the  pro- 
perty they  left,  the  conquered  cantons  paid  a  part  of  their  quota  for  the 
expenses  of  the  war.  (q)  These  events  produced  an  important  change  in  the 
administration,  for  in  Lucerne,  in  consequence  of  a  revolution  in  public  sen- 
timent, the  party  which  had  for  years  been  trampled  under  foot  now  gained 
the  ascendency,  and  in  Freiburg,  the  faction  which  had  long  governed  merely 
by  the  aid  of  foreign  arms,  was  now  obliged  to  defend  itself  against  a  series 
of  revolutionary  attempts.  In  1848,  Switzerland  availed  itself  of  the  oppor- 
tunity, when  Austria  and  France  had  enough  to  do  at  home,  to  form  itself 
into  a  confederacy.  In  the  new  constitution,  Avas  secured  liberty  of  con- 
science for  all  the  confessions  recognized  by  the  state,  and  equal  rights  for  all 
citizens  ;  the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  excluded  from  the  country,  and  every 
governmental  guarantee  for  the  monasteries  was  withdrawn,  (r)  The  federal 
authorities,  by  a  special  law  respecting  mixed  marriages  (1850),  have  entirely 
divested  them  of  ecclesiastical  restrictions,  have  made  the  education  of  the 
children  dependent  upon  the  will  of  the  father,  and  in  every  instance  have 
permitted  a  Protestant  clergyman  to  solemnize  a  marriage,  when  a  Catholic 
priest  has  refused  to  do  so.  (s)  In  many  cantons,  monasteries  have  beer 
either  abolished,  or  condemned  to  die  by  a  gradual  process.  Freiburg,  in 
connection  with  the  four  cantons  in  its  diocese  (Lausanne),  concluded  a  con- 
cordat containing  the  essential  principles  of  the  articles  of  the  Conference 
of  Baden,  (t)  The  Bishop  Marilley  sent  forth  secret  and  public  admonitions 
against  the  new  constitution.  "When  asked  if  he  would  unconditionally  sub- 
ject himself  to  it,  and  submit  his  public  acts  to  the  approbation  of  the  gov- 
ernment, he  replied  that  he  would  prefer  death  to  such  a  servitude.  Chillon 
became  once  more  the  prison  of  an  illustrious  captive  (Oct.  29,  1848),  who, 


«)  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  8T.  1S4T.  N.  20S.  252.  297.  299. 

o)  Ibid  1S4T.  N.  803.  p)  Ibid.  1S4T.  N.  850. 

q)  Ibid.  N.  344.  r)  Art.  44-lS.  5S. 

s)  Brl.  KZ.  :850.  N.  S3,  but  comp.  1S51.  N.  39.  i!)  Ibid.  1S4S.  N.  86. 


CHAP.  VI.     CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.     §  477.  IKEI.AND.  649 

however,  soon  exchanged  liis  confinement  for  banishment.  («)  The  holy 
father  wept  with  him,  (y)  appealed  to  the  federal  law  with  respect  to  freedom 
of  conscience,  to  justify  his  att«Qpt  to  secure  the  independence  of  his  clergy, 
and  protested  against  all  aggressions  since  1847  upon  the  rights  of  the 
Church,  (w)  For  the  sake  of  a  general  reconciliation,  the  Bishop  of  Basle 
recommended  what  had  also  been  proposed  in  a  popular  society,  that  the 
remainder  of  the  debt  for  the  war  of  the  Sonderbund  should  be  paid  by  a 
voluntary  offering,  (.v) 

§  477.     Ireland  and  England. 

Irische  Zustünde.  (Klieinw.  Ecp.  vol.  XIIL  p.  2C3ss.  XIV,  6Sss.)  F.  I/(urter),  Irl.  Zustand.  (Tub. 
Quartalsch.  1840.  H.  4.)  la.  F.  Vogel,  pragni.  Gesch.  d.  pol.  u.  rel.  Verb.  zw.  Engl.  u.  Irl.  Lps.  1842. 
R.  Murray,  Irel.  and  her  Church.  Lond.  ed.  3.  1845.  3  vols. — 0.  Mejer,  d.  Propaganda  in  Engl. 
1851. —  O.  de  Beavmont,  Tlrland  sociale,  politique  et  rellgieuse.  Par.  1839.  2  vols.  [Ireland,  from  the 
French  of  Beaumont  by  Taylor,  Lond.  1840.  2  vols.] — J.  G.  Kohl,  [Travels  in  Ireland,  from  the 
Germ.  New  York.  1844.  8.    F.  v.  Jiaumer,  Engl,  in  1835.  in  Letters  from  the  Germ.  Lond.  1836.  8.] 

The  iniquity  of  the  fathers  had  descended  in  the  form  of  a  curse  of  mis- 
ery and  hatred  to  the  sons  both  of  the  spoilers  and  the  spoiled.  The  im- 
portance of  reconciling  seven  millions  of  its  subjects  to  the  state  under  which 
they  lived,  was  fully  acknowledged  by  the  government.  But  the  first  attempt 
which  it  made  to  relieve  them  of  their  burdens,  led  to  an  insurrection  in 
London  (1780).  Every  mitigation  of  their  lot  was  obliged  to  be  carried 
through  Parliament  with  the  utmost  difficulty,  in  opposition  to  the  selfishness 
of  the  privileged  classes,  and  the  passions  of  the  Protestant  multitude.  Tlie 
Irish  people  were  under  the  direction  of  O'^Connell  (1809-47),  a  demagogue, 
but  one  who  aimed  at  what  was  indispensable.  By  the  aid  of  the  priests,  he 
kept  the  people  in  a  state  of  tremendous  excitement,  which  he  alone  could 
restrain  within  the  bounds  of  the  law.  The  spirit  of  justice  finally  obtained 
the  victory  in  the  bosoms  of  the  English  nation,  while  the  aristocracy  were 
alarmed  at  the  threatening  state  of  despair  in  which  they  beheld  the  Irish 
people.  Constrained  by  this  necessity,  Wellington  was  able  and  was  obliged 
to  accomplish  what  even  Canning  could  not  eflect  with  all  the  magic  of  his 
eloquence  in  behalf  of  universal  freedom.  An  act  of  Parliament,  passed  April 
13th,  1829,  presented  a  citizen's  oath  compatible  with  the  Catholic  faith,  by  tak- 
ing which,  every  Catholic  became  eligible  to  a  seat  in  Parliament,  and  with  few 
exceptions  to  all  offices  in  the  state  and  parish,  (a)  But  a  people  who  lived 
as  tenants  in  their  own  country,  with  a  foreign  hierarchy  and  aristocracy, 
and  in  terror  of  starvation  every  winter,  could  see  only  a  distant  hope  in 
concessions  like  tliis.  When  they  found  the  fulfilment  of  this  hope  still  de- 
layed, the  whole  nation  entered  into  an  open  conspiracy  (1831),  the  tithes 
were  refused,  and  whoever  dared  to  act  contrary  to  the  known  will  of  the 
people,  was  secretly  tried  and  executed.  The  expense  of  collecting  the  tithes 
was  greater  than  they  were  worth.     The  government  received  extraordinary 

■it)  Snell,  vol.  n.  2.  p.  509ss.  Der  Terrori,<nuis  im  K.  Freib.  (Hist.  pol.  Bll,  1850.  vol.  XXXI.  p. 
I45SS.)        V)  Brl.  KZ.  1S49.  N.  IS. 

ID)  Ibid.  184S.  N.  80.  103.  1851.  N.  23.  «■)  Ibid.  1852.  N.  20. 

a)  Wi/se,  Hist,  of  the  late  Catli.  Assoc.  Lond.  1329.  2  vols.  A.  Theiner,  Samir.l.  wicht.  Actenst 
z.  Gesell,  d.  Einano.  d.  Kath.  in  Engl  Mavence,  1835. 


G50  MODKUN  CIILTUCII  HISTOUY.     I'KR.  VI.     A.  D.  ICIS-IS»! 

powers  fruiii  rarliiimcnt  (1833)  for  jjiitting  down  tlicse  violent  proceedings, 
and  proposed  to  reform  the  Protestant  Oliurch  of  Ireland.  The  changes  con- 
templated in  this  reform,  Avere :  the  aholition  of  taxes  for  the  erection  of 
chnrches ;  the  transfer  of  the  tithes,  with  an  abatement  of  their  amount, 
from  the  tenant  to  the  projirietor ;  the  diminution  of  the  number  of  tho 
bishoprics ;  a  tax  upon  all  livings  according  to  their  vahie,  and  the  abroga 
tion  of  all  sinecures.  (I)  In  the  House  of  Lords,  however,  the  inviolability 
of  the  property  of  the  Church  Avas  resolutely  maintained.  The  cause  of  free- 
dom in  general  became  identified  with  that  of  justice  for  Ireland.  The  lib- 
eral ministry  was  divided  upon  the  proposition  (May  27th,  1834)  to  apply  the 
suri:)lus  of  ecclesiastical  property  to  objects  of  general  utility  in  the  state, 
under  the  direction  of  Parliament,  (c)  Even  the  Tory  ministry  under  Sir 
Kobert  Peel  acknowledged  the  necessity  of  a  reform,  but  contended  that  it 
should  be  Avithout  depriving  the  Church  of  its  property.  The  tithes  were 
again  collected  at  the  point  of  the  bayonet,  and  the  only  son  of  a  Avidow  Avas 
shot  doAvn  (Dec,  1834).  (d)  The  Peel  ministry  retired,  and  then  Russell  earned 
a  proposition  in  the  loAver  House  (April  7th,  1835),  (e)  which  required  that  all 
ecclesiastical  property  not  really  needed  for  the  support  of  the  established 
Church,  should  be  applied  to  the  education  of  the  people.  This  principle  of 
appropriation  Avas  rejected  in  the  upper  House  as  a  robbery  of  the  altar,  and 
a  commencement  of  the  work  of  destroying  the  establishment.  When  the 
Irish  Church  Bill  Avas  returned  to  the  lower  House,  it  Avas  so  mutilated,  that 
this  body  preferred  to  leave  every  thing  in  an  alarming  uncertainty  to 
attempting  any  change  then  practicable  (Aug.,  1836).  (/)  Lord  Lyndhurst 
Avished  to  knoAV  nothing  of  justice  in  behalf  of  aliens  in  faith,  in  blood,  and 
in  manners,  {g)  The  tithe  bill  was  finally  passed  (Aug.,  1838),  without  the 
clause  for  the  appropriation  of  the  surplus.  It  transferred  the  tithes  in  the 
form  of  a  ground  rent,  with  an  abatement  of  25  per  cent.,  to  the  proprietor 
of  the  soil,  and  the  previous  arrears  were  to  be  paid  from  the  treasury  of  the 
state.  (A)  Even  O'ConneU  advocated  this  laAV,  although  it  was  merely  an 
adjournment  of  the  question  respecting  the  existence  of  a  Protestant  Church 
supported  by  a  Catholic  people.  To  assist  the  people  in  the  work  of  deliver- 
ance by  their  own  exertions,  the  Dominican  Father  Matthew  (since  1840)  has 
excited  a  prodigious  enthusiasm  in  favor  of  total  abstinence  from  aU  intoxi- 
cating drinks,  (0  and  during  the  spring  of  1843,  O'Connell  was  able  to  collect 
around  himself  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people,  at  Avhat  he  called  his  mon- 
ster meetings.  The  object  of  these  assemblies  Avas  to  demand  justice  for 
Ireland,  with  threats  that  if  this  were  denied  them,  the  xmion  of  the  legisla- 
ture of  the  two  countries  shoxild  be  legally  dissolved,  and  the  jurisdiction  of 
the  Anglo-Saxons  should  be  thrown  off  (repeal).  For  language  used  on  these 
occasions,  he  Avas  sent  to  prison  by  the  House  of  Lords,  but  Ireland  Avas  nc 
less  governed  by  him  in  his  confinement  than  before.     The  ministry  of  Si] 

V)  A.  KZ.  1S33.  N.  88.  48.  A.  Z.  1S34.  N.  220.  229. 
c)  A.  Z.  1S3-1.  N.  155.  d)  A.  Z.  1S35.  N.  4.  Suppl.  N.  9. 

e)  A.  Z.  183").  N.  llOs. 

/)  A.  Z.  1S35.  N.  245.  1S3G.  N.  223.   A.  KZ.  1836.  N.  löG.  g)  A.  Z.  1S36.  Suppl.  N.  ST7. 

/i)  A.  Z.  1S38.  N.  191.  199.  206.  208.  212.  232. 
J)  Brl.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  4.  16.   A.  Z.  134^.  Supplem.  N.  143s. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CnUECn  TILL  1S53.    §  47T.  IRELAND  &  ENGLAUfD.        65  1 

Robert  Peel  introduced  the  Legacy  Bill,  wliicli  allowed  the  Catholic  Cbarcli, 
with  the  exception  of  the  monastic  orders,  to  acquire  property  in  its  own 
name,  (l)  and  carried  through  an  act  for  bestowing  a  splendid  endowment 
on  the  seminary  at  Maynooth,  for  the  education  of  tlie  Catholic  clergy 
(1845),  (/)  A  system  of  common  schools  supported  by  government,  but  care- 
fully avoiding  all  distinction  of  churches,  liad  been  some  time  before  (183-i) 
established,  and  now  four  royal  colleges  were  founded  by  Parliament  (1847) 
for  higher  education,  but  no  provision  was  made  for  religious  instruction, 
each  sect  being  left  to  secure  its  own  foundation  for  that  purpose  by  volun- 
tary efforts.  The  opinions  of  the  Irish  episcopacy  were  divided  respecting 
these  schools,  but  the  Archbishop  of  Tuam  excited  the  prejudices  of  the 
pope  against  them  on  account  of  their  destitution  of  religion,  and  they  were 
rejected  (1851).  (m)  Even  the  proposition  of  the  government,  after  having 
abolished  the  last  of  the  old  penal  laws  against  Catholic  worship,  (n)  to  grant 
a  salary  to  their  prelates,  on  condition  that  it  should  have  a  right  to  an  influ- 
ence in  their  election,  was  declined.  Emigration  to  the  Xew  "World  since 
the  last  famine  has  entirely  removed  the  surplus  population  from  the  coun- 
try. The  real  estate  of  the  great  landholders,  which  had  been  brought  to  a 
public  sale  in  consequence  of  enormous  poor  rates,  came  to  a  considerable 
extent  into  the  hands  of  a  Protestant  middle  class.  A  mission  of  a  hundred 
preachers,  belonging  to  different  Protestant  sects  from  London,  in  the  sum- 
mer of  1853,  and  preaching  in  the  streets  as  in  a  heathen  country,  was  the 
occasion  of  more  offence  than  of  edification  to  the  people,  (o)  But  some  per- 
manent missions  have  labored  during  the  last  ten  years  with  no  inconsidera- 
ble success,  by  scriptural  instruction  from  house  to  house,  by  the  distribution 
of  tracts,  and  by  schools  in  different  sections  of  the  country ;  although,  in 
consequence  of  their  supply  of  food  and  work  to  a  hungry  people,  the  con- 
verts were  stigmatized  as  soup-eaters  by  the  Catholic  population,  and  many, 
whose  consciences  had  not  been  carried,  returned  after  a  plentiful  harvest,  or 
when  dying,  to  the  Church  of  their  fathers,  (p)  The  hopes  of  the  Catholics 
in  England  were  much  awakened  in  consequence  of  the  ecclesiastical  stand- 
ing of  some  Puseyites  who  went  over  to  them,  and  the  popular  basis  supplied 
by  immigrants  from  Ireland,  for  the  number  of  these  converts  was  for  oppo- 
site reasons  much  exaggerated  by  Protestant  and  Catholic  public  journals. 
Relying  upon  such  hopes,  Pius  IX.  once  more  took  possession,  as  it  Avere,  of 
this  lost  territory,  by  appointing,  instead  of  the  four  apostolical  vicariates 
Avhich  had  previously  governed  the  English  Catholics,  a  complete  episcopal 
hierarchy  for  all  England  (Sept.  29,  1850),  under  Cardinal  Wiseman,  the 
learned  and  ingenious  defender  of  his  Church,  as  the  Archbishop  of  West- 
minster, (-7)  and  contributions  were  invited  for  the  erection  of  a  splendid 
church  of  St.  Peter  in  the  very  heart  of  London,  (r)  Parliament  could  not 
but  yield  to  the  indignation  of  the  Protestant  community  produced  by  this 

k)  D.  A.  Z.  1845.  N.  11. 14.  T)  A.  KZ.  1845.  N.  82. 

m)  A.  D.  Z.  184T.  N.  300.    Synod  of  Thurles:  Brl.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  SO.  85. 
n)  ßrl.  KZ.  1S4T.  N.  23.  o)  A.  KZ.  1853.  N.  104. 

ji)  Ag.iinst  one-.sided  Trot,  nccounts,  but  still  not  lees  onc-.M<led  itself:  Ilist  pol.  Ell.  1S53.  TOl 
XXXIl.  H.  6.  comp.  Ev.  KZ.  1852  N.  92.   Brl.  KZ.  1853.  N.  10. 
if)  1)1-1.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  90.  r)  Ibid.  1S5I.  N.  hr,. 


652  MODEEN  CIIUUCII  lIISTOUr.     PEU.  VI.     \.  D.  1G43-.85Ä. 

proceoding,  (■<)  but  it  was  difficult  to  devise  any  legal  measure  against  tli« 
papal  aggression  which  woidd  not  apply  equally  to  Ireland.  After  a  pro- 
tracted contest,  however,  the  matter  was  terminated  by  the  adoption  of  Rus- 
scU's  proposition  (1851),  providing  that  all  papal  edicts,  and  all  jurisdictions, 
rank  or  titles  created  by  them  in  the  United  Kingdom,  should  be  null  and 
void  ;  that  every  person  who,  without  legal  authority,  accepted  of  any  eccle- 
siastical title  derived  from  the  name  of  any  place  in  the  kingdom,  should  be 
fined  one  hundred  pounds  for  every  instance  in  which  he  should  make  use  of 
it,  and  that  complaints  might  be  received  from  any  private  individual  with 
respect  to  offences  of  this  nature,  (t)  A  serious  difficulty,  however,  appears 
to  have  been  discovered  in  the  way  of  substantiating  such  a  charge.  (»<) 

§  478.     Forms  of  Catlwlicis)n, 

The  special  friends  of  the  Eoman  Curia  and  of  the  bishops  have  become 
more  decidedly  opposed  to  one  another,  under  the  name  of  Uliramontanists 
and  Liberals.  The  former  defend  the  infallibility  of  the  pope,  and  the  im- 
possibility of  improving  the  Church,  by  planting  themselves  on  the  groimd 
of  established  usages,  and  of  the  necessity  of  an  external  universal  authority. 
This  Eomish  Catholicism  Avas  not  long  since  popular  among  the  lower  classes 
in  Spain,  and  was  there  embraced  with  all  the  earnestness  and  energy  of  the 
national  character.  But  in  consequence  of  the  festivals  of  the  inquisition, 
and  the  political  parties  of  the  day,  it  there  assumed  a  gloomy  and  passion- 
ate character.  It  appeared  in  the  most  harmless  form,  until  the  revolution,  in 
Italy,  especially  in  the  south,  where  even  the  personal  ridicule  heaped  upon 
the  hierarchy,  and  the  more  dangerous  opposition  of  the  commercial  inter- 
ests, were  not  generally  prejudicial  to  the  ecclesiastical  system.  The  sensu- 
ous form  of  a  system  of  saint-worship  was  there  a  matter  of  necessity. 
Illuminations,  rockets,  and  the  roar  of  cannons,  form  necessary  parts  of 
divine  worship,  and  the  miracles  must  annually  be  repeated  at  the  joyful 
festivals.  The  Epistle  of  the  Virgin  Mary  to  the  people  of  Messina  must  be 
X'ead,  ((i)  the  domestic  animals  must  be  sprinkled  with  holy  water  under  the 
direction  of  St.  Anthony,  Q>)  and  the  lambs  from  whose  wool  the  pallium  is 
woven,  must  receive  a  benediction  at  the  altar  of  St.  Agnes.  Every  thing  is 
there  connected  with  some  joyous  festival,  and  Mary's  tears  are  regarded  as 
at  least  equally  efficacious  in  the  work  of  atonement  with  the  blood  of 
Christ.  The  Church  has  not  done  much  for  the  intellectual  improvement  and 
morals  of  the  people,  but  it  has  kept  up  a  certain  kind  of  discipline,  pro- 
tected cheerful  and  pleasant  customs,  and  never  repressed  the  natural  talents 
of  this  highly  intellectual  people.  The  clergy,  with  their  olBcious  but  pleas- 
ant inefficiency,  are  only  the  culminating  points  of  the  popular  life,  and  as 
long  as  they  are  undisturbed,  they  are  kindly  disposed.  But  in  Germany  and 
France,  where  this  party,  as  a  peculior  section  of  Catholicism,  has  been  made 

«)  Brl.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  92s.  94.  101s. 

0  Kccksiaslieal  Titles  Act:    Brl.  EZ.  iS51.  N.  55.  u)  Ibid.  N.  70. 

«)  Deutsche  Zeitschr.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1S52.  N.  49. 

h)  A.  KZ.  1S2S.  N.  192.    The  matter  was  pretty  much  as  it  is  there  related,  although  I  sav\-  notn 
tng  "  blasphemous "'  in  it. 


CHAP.  VI.  CATII.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.   §  473.  ULTKAMONTANISTS.  LIBERALS.     653 

to  feel  that  the  spirit  of  the  times  is  fatnl  to  its  interests,  it  has  come  inta 
conflict  with  every  kind  of  intellectual  freedom,  and  every  where  is  abhorred 
DV  the  friends  of  liberty.  Hence  the  Ultraraontanists  look  with  horror  upon 
all  universities,  +he  freedom  of  the  press,  pliilosophical  studies,  and  the  read- 
ing of  the  Scriptures,  and  they  often  intentionally  encourage  superstition,  or 
at  least  mere  excitements  of  the  fancy.  (')  In  consequence  of  old  traditions, 
much  impaired  however  by  modern  intelligence,  Bavaria  became  the  prin- 
cipal home  of  this  enthusiasm,  and  after  1838,  its  ministry  fell  completely  under 
its  sway.  The  mild  earnestness  of  the  dying  Bishop  Schwaebl,  and  of  the  king 
himself,  was  sometimes  indeed  aroused  against  the  rigid  Ultramontanism  of 
this  ministry,  when  its  zeal  against  every  thing  of  a  Protestant  nature  did 
violence  to  their  feelings,  but  it  was  not  till  1847  that  it  was  overthrown  by 
a  travelling  danseuse.  {d)  The  Liberals  possessed  much  influence  in  conse- 
quence of  the  education  which  the  clergy  of  Germany  received  at  universi- 
ties where  Protestants  and  Catholics  were  taught  together,  the  protection  of 
the  governments,  and  the  total  disinclination  of  the  spirit  of  the  age  to  all 
forms  of  mental  slavery.  They  demanded  that  public  worship  should  bo 
conducted  in  the  language  of  the  people ;  that  the  Scriptures  should  be  freely 
circulated ;  that  instead  of  inculcating  dependence  upon  mere  outward  forms, 
the  education  of  the  people  should  receive  a  spiritual  tendency ;  and  that 
national  churches  and  synods  might  be  so  constituted,  that  the  rights  of  the 
pope  might  remain  merely  honorary,  or  definitely  determined  by  the  consti- 
tution. Such  views  were  sometimes  expressed  only  in  literary  works,  and 
Bometimes  through  petitions  and  associations.  From  Silesia,  they  generally 
came  connected  with  disclosures  of  all  kinds  of  abuses,  by  the  learned 
brothers  Theincr^  the  theologian  and  the  canonist.  (<•)  The  principal  object 
against  which  almost  every  kind  of  disposition  and  plan  was  directed,  was 
the  celihacy  of  the  clergy.  Petitions  for  its  abolition  have  been  presented  to 
the  episcopal  authorities  by  pastors  in  Silesia  (1826),  and  associations  have 
been  formed  against  it  in  Southern  Germany  (1830).  These  efforts,  however, 
have  been  sternly  repelled  by  the  bishops  and  by  the  government  of  "Wurtem- 
berg.  (/)  The  chambers  of  Southern  Germany  (since  182-i),  to  whom  ad- 
dresses on  this  subject  were  sent  up,  declared  that  they  had  no  jurisdiction 
in  the  case  ;  until  finally  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  in  Baden  recommended  that 
the  government  (1831)  should  adopt  suitable  measures  for  the  abolition  of  the 
law  relating  to  celibacy.  (;;)    In  France,  priests  were  married  who  had  pre- 

c)  Miraculous  Medals:  Pflanz,  d.  rel.  L.  in  Frankr.  p.  222.  On  the  other  side:  Acta  hist.  ecc. 
J8.3T.  p.  314.    6.  Benedict's  pence:   D.  A.  Z.  1S47.  N.  120.  comp.  §  430. 

d)  S.  Sugenheim,  Baicrns  K.-  a  Volks-Zuständc,  Giess.  1S42.  Brl.  KZ.  1&41.  N.  22.  41.47.  C& 
1S45.  N.  32.    D.  A.  Z.  1S4C.  N.  IS.    A.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  40. 

e)  If.  Amman,  Bestreb,  d.  Hochschule  Freiburg  im  KRechte.  Freib.  lS.32-6.  2  Bcitr.  (We/iaen- 
herff,)  Die  deutsche  K.  (Zur.)  1815.  Fetser,  Deutsdil.  u.  Rom.  Frkf.  18.30.  Kopp,  d.  kath.  K.  im 
19.  Jhh.  Mentz.  1330.  J/«/-»y,  sind  Reformen  in  d.  kath.  K.  nothwcndig?  Beantw.  v.  d.  Pastoral- 
confer,  zu  Offenburg.  13.32.  2  ed.  verm,  durch  Belciicht.  des  darauf  erfolgten  Erlas.«es  des  erzb.  Ordi- 
nariats. Oflenb.  18-33.  (Ant.  u.  Aiig.  Tfieiimr,)  Die  kath.  K.  Schles.  Altenb.  1S26.  and  often,  comp. 
Ant.  Theiner,  ref  Bestreb,  in  d.  kath.  K.  Altenb.  1340.  P.  2.  p.  66ss.-V:  R  Ilaßn,  Möhler  u.  We». 
Bcnb.  o.  Strengkirchlichk.  u.  Liberalism.  L'lin.  1342. 

f)  Erster  Sieg  des  Lichtes  u.  d.  Finsterniss.  Han.  1S2C.  Merkw.  Umlauftchr.  d.  Furstbisch.  v. 
Bresl.  Han.  1927.  Uebcr  d.  Bildung  e.  Vereins  f.  d.  kirohl.  Auf  lieb.  d.  C  .iibatge-.  Ulm.  1S31.  A.  KS 
'.331.  N.  70.  121  174.  193.        g)  A.  KZ.  1323.  N.  73.  103.-1S31.  X.  174s.  ISl.  133.  1832.  N.  3.  14T. 


654  MODERN  CHUKCII  HISTOUT.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1619-1S53. 

viously  taken  tho  vow.  The  French  courts  declared,  that  even  the  marriage 
of  priests  who  had  given  up  the  duties  of  their  oflSce  was  invalid,  (h)  Tlie 
Lihernls,  in  some  instances  as  Protestant  Catholics,  were  the  first  who  took 
part  in  Protestant  literature  and  science.  As  Febronius  had  assailed  and 
sliaken  the  fundamental  principles  of  ecclesiastical  law,  JJlau  also  undermined 
the  princijiles  of  ecclesiastical  foith.  (/)  In  place  of  the  only  saving  Church, 
he  wished  to  substitute  the  only  saving  religion  found  in  every  pious  heart.  {/.) 
Others  labored  with  honest  intentions  in  behalf  of  Catholicism.  Instead  of 
the  religion  of  the  monks  and  the  virtues  of  the  saints,  Wcrlmeister  (d.  1823), 
who  had  acquired  an  education  of  an  entirely  Protestant  character  in  the 
Benedictine  convent,  held  up  the  religion  of  the  gospel  and  the  moral  system 
which  Geliert  had  taught.  (/)  Eincher  presented  the  simple  faith  of  the 
Bible,  in  contrast  with  the  scholastic  system  of  the  Church,  but  he  submitted 
to  the  papal  judgment  upon  his  treatise  for  the  reconciliation  of  the  Catholic 
Church  with  the  science  of  the  present  day,  (w)  Hug  vied  with  the  Protes- 
tant theologians  in  ingenious  investigations  with  regard  to  the  canon  of  the 
Xew  Testament,  (/;)  and  Scholz  turned  attention  once  more  to  the  manuscripts 
which  had  been  recently  obtained  from  Constantinople,  (o)  Occupying  an 
intermediate  position  between  the  Romish  and  the  Liberal  form  of  Catho- 
licism, inclining  sometimes  toward  the  first  and  sometimes  toward  the  latter, 
according  to  the  personal  preferences,  {p)  the  position,  or  the  sincerity  of  the 
individual,  an  Ideal  school  began  to  make  its  appearance,  which  pointed  out 
the  religious  ideas  involved  in  the  Catholic  dogmas  and  usages,  and  endeav- 
ored to  reconcile  Catholicism  with  modern  science  and  improvements,  (q)  It 
proceeded  from  France  in  the  form  of  a  poetic  and  artistic  glorification  of 
the  Church  (§  444:).  German  philosophy  was,  sometimes  in  the  spirit  of 
faith,  and  sometimes  in  the  allegorical  strain,  incorporated  with  the  Catholic 
doctrines.  (;■)  G'örres  (b,  1T76),  who  possessed  powerful  original  talents,  and 
united  with  them  a  poetical  and  philosophical  temperament,  attempted,  with- 
out regard  to  historical  truth,  once  more  to  conjure  up  the  spirits  of  the  mid- 
dle ages.  "Wherever  a  thorough  theological  discipline  was  permitted,  this 
Catholicism  vindicated  itself  by  showing  what  the  Church  had  been  to  past 
ages,  and  what  it  always  may  be  to  the  human  mind.    In  Germany,  this  ten- 


h)  A.  KZ.  1S29.  N.  13.  33.  1S3.  1833.  N.  44.  65. 

i)  ETritische  Gesch.  d.  kirchl.  Unfehlbarkeit  Frkf.  1791. 

k)  (KtU€i\)  KathoHkon.  Für  alle  unter  jeder  Form  das  Eine.  S  ed.  Aarau.  153'2. 

0  An  d.  unbescheidenen  Verehrer  d.  Heiligen,  bes.  Maria.  Hanau.  ISOl.  Predigten.  Ulm.  lS12ä3 
S  vols. 

in)  Ue.  d.  Verh.  d.  Ev.  zu  d.  theol.  Scholastik.  Tüb.  18-23.  Die  kirchlichen  Zustände  d.  Gegenw. 
Tub.  1849.  3  ed.    Brl.  KZ.  1350.  X.  16. 

n)  Einl.  in  d.  Schrr.  d.  N.  T.  Stuttg.  ü.  Tüb.  (1308-21.)  1326.  2  vols. 

ö)  Gesch.  d.  Testes  d  X.  T.  Lps.  1323.    X.  T.  gr.  Lps.  1830-5.  2  Th.  4. 

p)  TzHchirner,  Briefe  ü.  Eel.  u,  Poliük.  Lps.  1S2S.  Kühler,  Beitr.  z.  d.  Versuchen,  den  Kath.  zu 
idcalisiren.  Kngsb.  1323.   A.  KZ.  13^32.  X.  155. 

q)  P.  B.  Zimmer,  phil.  EeligionsL  Landsh.  1305.  G.  Jf.  Klein,  Darst  d.  pl"''-  Ee'-  «■  Sittenl, 
Bamb.  1318.  F.  Baader,  specul.  Dogmat.  Stuttg.  lS28ss.  2  P.  F.  A.  Staudenmaier,  Encykl.  d. 
theol.  Wiss.  Montz.  13:J4.  [J.  A.  Moehler,  Symbolism,  or  Expos,  of  the  Doct  Differences  betwees 
Protestants  and  Catholics.  Lond.  8vo.] 

r)  Page  56.  &  111.    Symbolik.  Mayence.  1832.  ed.  4.  18-35.    Tub.  Qaartalsch.  133S.  H.  3, 


CHAP.  VI.    CATH.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  47S.  IDEAL  SCHOOL.  655 

dency  was  represented  by  Moeldcr  (1796-1838),  who  had  been  aroused  by 
Schleierniacher,  and  at  one  time  had  been  pervaded  by  enthusiasm  in  behaU' 
of  free  investigation,  but  gradually  he  had  been  mastered  by  the  majesty  of 
his  Church,  and  now  infused  a  confiding  spirit  once  more  into  the  department 
of  science.  In  France,  since  Lamennais  has  retired  from  the  public  scene, 
its  principal  representative  has  been  Bantam,  who  learned  to  distrust  his 
reason  in  the  school  of  Kant,  until  he  was  prepared  to  surrender  himself  to 
the  direction  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  ecclesiastical  tradition,  the  infinite 
nature  of  whose  principles  was  unfolded  and  evinced  by  their  power  in  the 
human  heart.  In  opposition  to  him,  the  Bishop  of  Strasburg  defended  simply 
scholastic  reason  (since  1834).  (.v)  Günther  wished  to  substitute  for  the  hea- 
thenish philosophy  of  the  scholastics  and  the  ecclesiastical  fathers,  a  Chris- 
tian philosophy,  whose  mystical  and  proft)und  spirit  would  play  about  its 
rational  nature  in  the  manner  of  Jacob  Boehnie,  like  an  aurora  borealis  or 
an  ignis  futuus,  and  might  be  regarded  as  the  equal  sister  of  the  system  of 
fiiith  found  in  those  established  doctrines  of  the  Church  which  always  ap- 
proach nearest  to  the  truth.  But  this  "  Romish  Court  Pliilosophy  "  of  Treves 
was  forbidden  by  an  order  from  Rome  (1852),  and  was  threatened  by  German 
denunciations  from  the  same  quarter,  {t)  The  same  disposition  and  views 
wliieh  originated  and  sustained  an  old  orthodoxy  in  the  Protestant  Church, 
were  here  also  favorable  to  the  Roman  Jesuitic  Catholicism;  and  now  when 
the  hierarchy,  with  its  extensive  possessions,  had  lost  also  its  splendid  posi- 
tion, it  received,  instead  of  the  distinguished  worldly  prelates  it  formerly  pos- 
sessed, and  who  often  opposed  the  pope,  were  very  independent,  and  were 
restrained  only  by  tlieir  political  position,  a  class  of  bishops  Avhose  personal 
characters  were  eminent,  who  were  entirely  dependent  upon  Rome,  and  who 
used  the  unbroken  power  of  the  episcopacy  to  educate  a  clergy  of  a  simihu' 
spirit.  The  literary  conflicts  of  these  three  parties  were  especially  exhibited 
in  the  German  periodicals,  («)  since  in  countries  where  every  Church  was 
protected  by  law,  the  privileges  of  the  Catholic  Church  were  snfiiciently 
upheld  by  a  censorship  of  the  press  and  deposition  from  office.  Rome  did 
not  prove  itself  the  seat  of  any  very  extraordinary  theological  learning,  and 
wlierever  it  allowed  itself  to  be  drawn  into  literary  controversy,  it  interfered 
by  means  of  rather  rough  weapons,  (j)  Still  even  the  pope  prohibited  only 
the  reading  of  certain  books,  and  exhorted  all  to  collect  their  energies  against 

a)  Bi'utain :  tie  rcnseigiiement  de  l.i  pliil.  en  Frnnce.  Strasb.  1S33.  Pliil.  ilu  Cliristianisme.  Str. 
1S:35.— Acta  hist.  ecc.  1S35.  p.  3(i5ss.  1S37.  p.  CSss.  C.  F.  Junge,  L.  I5aut  (Zoitsclir.  f.  hist  Tli  1S3T. 
vol.  VII.  p.  2.)  Brl.  KZ.  l'=42.  N.  35. 

0  A.  Günther  :  Vorscliule  z.  spec.  Tli.  Vion.  (lS2Ss.)  184?.  2  vols.  Der  letzte  Syniboliker.  Vicn. 
1S34.  and  Pahht;  Jaiuiskoi)fe.  Vieri.  1S34.  and  Veilh,  Phil.  Taschenb.  Vicn.  ISlÖs.— OJAcAnij/er,  d. 
clir.  Phil,  verticidigt.  Munich.  1SÖ3.  F.  J.  Clemens,  ü.  spec.  Th.  Günthers.  Colo:;.  1S53.  Brl.  KZ. 
IS5.\  N.  61. 

«,)  1.  Kirehenfreund  by  Benkerf,  Atbanasia,  d.  Katholik  by  Weis.  kath.  Lit.  Z.  by  Kerz,  Luzerncr 
KZ.,  Sion,  hist.  pol.  Blätter,  by  Philipps,  J.  Gi  rres,  J.  E.  J<  r?,  deut.sehe  (Kölner)  Volkshalle.  2. 
Froim.  Blatter  ii.  Tlieol.  n.  Kirclientli.,  by  Pflanz,  kan.  Wächter  by  A.  Müller,  conslit.  K.  Z.  by 
LerehenmuUer.  Stimmen  a,  d.  kath.  K.  Deiitschl.  3.  Tub.  tlicul.  Qtiartalschril't,  Zeitsch.  f.  d.  Erzb. 
Freiburg,  K.  Z.  by  Senirler,  Jalirbb.  f.  Tlieol.  u.  Phil. 

r)  linuin,  d.  Lehren  d.  Ilermes-ianismus  gutgeheissen  ii.  die  entfreL'eii.'teh.  Ansichten  verworfen 
v.  d.  Bischof  v.  Stras>b.  nebst  e.  Breve  Greg.  XVI.  Bonn.  1S35.  F.  Baiulei;  ii.  d.  Eniancip.  d. 
Katholie.  v.  d.  rim.  Plctatur.  Numb.  1S39.  , 


656  MODEKN  CHURCH  niSTOUY.    PKR.  VI.    A.  B.  1048-1853. 

those  wlio  for  selfish  ends,  but  under  the  pretence  of  reform,  had  conspired 
against  ecclesiastical  and  divine  rights,  (w)  A  few  were  wise  enough  to  bc- 
ooiuo  reconciled  in  a  proper  manner ;  others  did  not  return  until  t>'ey  were 
obliged  to  do  so  as  penitent  forlorn  children,  and  still  others  f(„  out  entirely 
with  the  Church,  (.c)  The  Great  Union  of  127  Catholics  at  Dresden  (1831) 
declared  that  the  gospel,  explained  by  the  light  of  reason  and  of  the  age, 
was  the  only  rule  of  their  faith,  and  among  their  festivals  they  reckoned  one 
for  the  Sun,  but  none  for  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  On  the  other  hand, 
Carove  insisted  upon  the  literal  acceptance  of  the  ordinary  doctrines,  drove 
Catholicism  back  to  its  principle  of  an  infallibility  by  which  alone  men  could 
be  saved,  and  then  tormented  himself  and  others  by  practical  difficulties  in 
the  way  of  it.  (?/)  The  Abbe  liehen  of  Brussels,  in  the  spirit  of  the  Cath- 
olic apostolic  Church,  exhorted  men  to  turn  from  the  Eoman  Antichi-ist  to 
Christ,  but  it  was  not  long  before  he  died,  abandoned  by  all,  and  with  no 
confidence  even  in  himself  (1842).  {z) 

§  479.     German  Catholicism. 

Eduin  Bauer,  Gescli.  d.  deutsch-kath.  K.  Meiss.  1845.  W.  A.  Lampadius,  d.  deutscb-kath.  Be- 
weg. Lp9. 1846. — Katli.  KReform,  Monatschr.  ed.  by  A.  Maut:  Midler,  Brl.  s.  1S45.  Für  freies  rel. 
Leben.  Materialien  z.  Gesch.  u.  Fortbild.  d.  ehr.  Gemeinden  insb.  d.  freien  kath.  ed.  by  T.  Ifofferich- 
ter  and  F.  Kampe,  Brsl.  s.  1848.  Literary  Gen.  View :  by  Hase  and  Schwarz :  Jen.  A.  L.  Z.  1S46.  N. 
131. 183.  221.  28S.  299ss.  1847.  N.  53ss.  1348.  N.  13Tss.  [Saml.  Laing,  Notes  on  the  Rise,  &c.  of  the 
Germ.  Cath.  Cbb.  Lend.  1645.  Gervimts,  Mission  of  the  Ger.  Catholics,  transl.  from  Germ.  Lond. 
1S46.    DubL  Univ.  Mag.  (in  Eclectic  Mag.  Jan.  1846.)  Oct  1845.  art.  on  Germ.  Cath.  Chh.] 

The  Prussian  ecclesiastical  controversy  was  finally  celebrated  in  the 
Cathedral  of  Treves  (Aug.,  Oct.,  1844),  by  the  festival  of  the  seamless  coat 
of  Christ  (§  200).  More  than  a  million  of  people  went  thither  to  adore  this 
garment  of  our  divine  Lord ;  and  when  the  grand  niece  of  the  Archbishop 
of  Cologne  had  experienced  a  partial  cure  there,  thousands  made  trial  of  its 
miraculous  power,  with  a  few  instances  of  apparent  success,  (a)  The  rejoic- 
ings occasioned  by  this  pilgrimage  (J)  were  in  some  degree  disturbed  by  a  letter 
from  Laurahütte  against  the  idolatrous  festival  at  Treves,  and  addressed  to 
the  resident  bishop  as  the  Tetzel  of  the  nineteenth  century,  (c)  The  vigorous 
and  bold  tone,  and  the  signature  of  a  Catholic  priest  which  this  letter  exhib- 
ited, made  it  a  standard  at  which  both  friends  and  enemies  directed  their 
attention.  The  writer  of  it  was  John  Ronge  (b.  1813),  a  chaplain  who  had 
been  suspended  for  disobedience,  and  excommunicated  by  the  episcopal  au- 

w)  Gegen  Otfenbnrg  v.  4.  Oct.  1883:  A.  KZ.  1834  N.  174. 

a-)  Chr.  Fuchs:  Schweiz  Republikaner,  1834.  N.  78.  (comp.  Alois  Fuchs  ü.  s.  Suspensionsgesch. 
m.  Actenstücken.  Rappersw.  1833.)  Aug.  Theiner,  Gesch.  d.  geistl.  Bildungsanstalten.  Mayence. 
1S35.  A.  KZ.  1835.  N.  23s.  C.  A.  v.  lieichlin-Meldegg  :  A.  KZ.  1832.  N.  59.  Flacker :  Brl.  KZ. 
1S41.  N.  15. 

y)  Die  grosse  Einb.  d.  127  antirüm.  Kath.  Lps.  1831.  A.  KZ.  1832.  N.  5.  J.  W.  Carove,  d. 
alleinsel.  K.  Frkf.  1826.  Die  letzten  Dinge  d.  rüm.  Kath.  Lps.  1S32.  Rom.  Kathclic.  in  d.  Papststadt. 
Lps.  1851. 

s)  Ev.  KZ.  1833.  N.  101.    Brl.  KZ.  1843.  N.  11. 

a)  J.  Marx,  d.  Ausstell,  d.  h.  Rocks.  Treves.  1845.  [John  Ronge,  or  the  Holy  Coat  of  Treves. 
New  York.  1S45.  18.]  V.  ITansen,  aetenmäss.  Darst  wunderb.  Heilungen  b.  Ausst  d,  h.  Rocks. 
Treves.  1845. 

I)  J.  V.  Görren,  d.  Wallf.  v.  Trier.  Regensb.  1845. 

c)  At  first  in  the  Säclisische  Vaterlands  Blätter,  of  Oct.  10,  1844. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CHURCH  TILL  1S53.    §  479.  GERMAN  CATHOLICISM.        657 

tliorities  at  Breslau.  After  these  proceedings  against  him,  he  had  published 
at  Breslau  some  polemical  writings  against  Romish  abominations,  and  in  favor 
of  the  establishment  of  a  German  national  Church.  His  style  was  rather 
declamatorj-,  but  his  sentiments  had  all  the  pathos  of  a  decided  convic- 
tion, (d)  In  Schneideraühl,  a  town  belonging  to  Prussian  Poland,  the  vicar 
John  Czemltl  (b.  1813)  had  been  suspended  because  he  would  not  renounce 
a  young  Polish  lady  to  whom  he  was  attached.  lie  however  now  gave 
notice  (Aug.  22,  1844)  that  he  would  hold  no  further  connection  Avith  the 
Roman  court  Church ;  and  without  renouncing  his  Catholic  priesthood,  he 
proceeded,  with  some  members  of  his  congregation  who  believed  as  he  did, 
to  establish  what  he  called  a  Christian  apostolic  Catholic  congregation,  (e) 
On  the  plan  of  this  congregation,  many  Catholics  dissatisfied  with  their 
Church  collected  around  Ronge  at  Breslau,  as  Christian  Catholic  congrega- 
tions (March  9,  1845).  (/)  Persons  of  similar  sentiments  in  nearly  twenty 
of  the  towns  of  Northern  Germany  presented  addresses  of  concurrence  to 
Ronge,  and  united  together  as  German  Catholic  congregations.  They  were 
agreed  in  their  opposition  to  the  Roman  Church,  against  which  the  Reforma- 
tion had  protested  from  the  very  first,  so  far  as  to  demand  a  free  use  of  the 
Scriptures  and  an  administration  of  the  affairs  of  the  Church  by  the  congre- 
gation. But  those  congregations  which  were  established  by  Czerski  firmly 
adhered  not  only  to  the  fundamental  principles  of  old  ecclesiastical  ortho- 
doxy, but  to  some  institutions  peculiarly  Romish  in  their  origin,  while  those 
which  proceeded  from  Breslau  were  of  a  rationalist  tendency.  To  give  unity 
to  this  Church,  without  much  previous  concert,  a  council  was  held  at  Leip- 
sic  on  Easter,  1845,  at  which  deputies  appeared  from  fifteen  congregations, 
and  provided  especially  for  the  liturgy  to  be  used,  and  the  general  order  of 
the  societies.  The  papal  hierarchy  was  unconditionally  renounced,  and  the 
Holy  Scriptures  were  recognized  as  the  foundation  of  a  faith  which  must  be 
modified  by  the  spirit  of  each  successive  age,  and  explained  and  compre- 
hended by  a  reason  pervaded  by  the  general  Christian  idea.  Nothing  was 
retained  of  the  second  article  of  the  modernized  Apostles'  Creed  except  a 
declaration  of  faith  in  Jesus  Christ  as  our  Saviour,  and  a  special  stress  was 
laid  upon  works  of  love  as  the  true  evidence  of  laith.  (f/)  Czerski  consented 
to  this  triumph  of  the  Breslau  party,  as  the  particulars  of  tlie  creed  were 
left  to  the  free  choice  of  each  congregation  ;  but  at  home  he  adopted  a  con- 
fession which  embraced  the  doctrine  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  and  the  Apos- 
tles' Creed,  and  renounced  the  companions  of  the  Leipsic  confession  as  the 
worshippers  of  reason  and  the  enemies  of  Christ.  (A)  During  two  tours 
which  Ronge  took  as  f;ir  as  the  borders  of  Switzerland,  he  founded  many 
congregations.     A  few  attacks  were  then  made  upon  him,  but  generally  ho 

d)  An  (\.  niedere  kath.  Geistliclik.  Jona.  1845.    An  d.  katli.  Lehrer.  Alteub.  1S45.    Eeelitfertl^ 
Lps.  1S15.    An  meine  Glaubensgenossen  u.  Mitbürger.  Altenb.  18-15. 

e)  Eeohtfert.  meines  Abfalles  v.  d.  riim.  Ilof  kirclio.  Bromb.  1S45.     Ollenes  Glaubensbek.  d.  chr.  ap. 
kath.  K.  zu  Schneidern.  Danz.  1S45. 

f)  Die  christkath.  Gemeinde  zu  Breslau.  Eresl.  3  ed.  1845. 

g}  Die  erste  allg.  KVersatnml.  d.  deutsch-kath.  K.  zu  Leipsic,  ed.  by  I!.  JBhtm  and  F.  IVigard. 
Lps.  1S45.     [A  d.^y  with  Ronge.  Dubl.  Univ.  Mag.  (in  Eclectic  Mag.  April.  1S4G.)  Jan.  1S4G.] 
h)  Csertski,  Sendschr.  an  alle  chr.  apost.  kath.  Gemeinden.  Landsb.  1S45. 
42 


658  MODKKN  CHUltCH  HiaTOUY.     PER.  VI.     A.  I).  IC-lS-lSöS. 

was  compllineritod  along  his  journey  with  public  dinnei-.'^,  as  if  he  were  a 
second  Lutlier.  (/)  Ozerski,  whose  believing  tendencies  found  acknowledg- 
ment only  in  a  much  more  limited  sphere,  and  even  there  came  sometime.» 
unpleasantly  in  contact  with  some  of  Eonge's  adherents,  ih-)  was  induced,  at 
a  conference  a.ssembled  at  Eawicz  (Feb.  3,  1846),  to  acknowledge  his  other 
fellow-combatants  as  brethren.  This  he  did  notwithstanding  his  undeviating 
and  cordial  adherence  to  the  standard  of  the  unabridged  apostolic  Creed,  on 
the  ground  that  it  might  tend  to  confirm  religion  to  recognize  the  common 
basis  on  which  their  faith  rested,  and  with  the  hope  that  they  might  recog- 
nize each  other  again  as  brethren.  (/)  The  congregations  which  acted  on 
these  views  at  a  synod  convened  at  Schneidemilhl  (July,  184G),  adopted  a 
simple  biblical  confession,  with  the  concession  that  the  old  Apostles'  Creed 
might  be  used  in  the  churches  and  schools,  although  they  acknowledge  that 
it  contains  some  historical  matters  of  minor  importance  for  the  Christian 
heart.  (??<)  In  England,  a  short  time  after  thi.s,  Czerski  himself  avowed  that 
his  views  on  this  point  had  been  radically  changed,  («)  but  the  only  congre- 
gation which  thoroughly  represents  his  theological  system,  is  one  which  has 
been  collected  at  Berlin  for  the  very  purpose  of  a  protest,  and  which  has  even 
gone  beyond  his  exclusive  position.  (0)  Eonge,  on  the  other  hand,  anxious 
to  ennoble  Christianity,  and  exalt  it  to  a  complete  religion  of  humanity,  has 
shown  himself  inclined  to  unite  with  the  free  Protestant  congregations 
(§  467).  (/»)  The  proposal  for  such  a  union,  however,  was  quietly  laid  aside, 
when  it  was  made  in  the  tAvo  ecclesiastical  assemblies  held  in  Berlin  at  Whit- 
suntide, 1847,  representing  a  hundred  and  fifty-one  congregations,  and 
thoroughly  adhering  to  the  Leipsic  resolutions,  {q)  German  Catholicism  has 
carried  out  its  forms  of  public  worship  and  its  constitution  in  smaller  synodal 
associations,  (r)  -the  former  with  Protestant  simplicity,  and  the  latter  with  a 
decided  stress  laid  upon  the  rights  of  particular  congregations,  not  only  with 
respect  to  their  own  pastors,  who  are  supported  by  voluntary  contributions, 
but  with  regard  to  the  powers  of  synods,  and  in  some  instances  the  women 
possessed  an  equal  right  with  others  to  vote.  A  few  clergymen  with  their 
adherents,  who  went  over  to  the  new  association,  were  excommunicated  by 
the  bishops  under  whose  jurisdiction  they  had  lived,  but  generally  the  con- 
troversy was  merely  of  a  literary,  though  sometimes  of  a  disgraceful  charac- 
ter. (*)  Eonge  has  proposed  himself  as  a  reformer  even  to  the  Protestant 
Church,  where  the  chief  point  of  his  reformation  consists  in  bringing  Christ 
down  to  the  brotherhood  of  human  poverty  and  suflfering.  {t)    A  few  licen- 

i)  Konsre's  erste  Rundreise.  Brsl.  1845.     (Schtimaiw,)  Ronge's  Fahrten.  Rudolst.  ]S4C. 

k)  J.  II.  F.  ßomherff,  d.  Spalt  d.  clirist-liath.  Vereins  zu  Bromberg.  Bromb.  IS^ö. 

I)  Czemki,  zweites  Sendschr.  an  alle  christ-kath.  Gemeinden.  Bromb.  1S46. 

m)  Brl.  KZ.  1S46.  N.  G3.  6S. 

n)  Kath.  KReform.  Nov.  1S46.  p.  141.    Ev.  KZ.  1S4T.  N.  8Ss. 

o)  Glaubensbek.  der  nach  J.  Protest,  v.  15.  Mai  zu  Berlin  sich  bildenden  christkath.  Gem. 
Brl.  1S45. 

p)  Brl.  KZ.  1S4T.  N.  8.  11.  15. 

q^  Die  zweite  christkath.  KVersamml.  zu  Berlin,  ed.  by  li.  Blum  and  F.  Wigai-d,  Lps.  1S47. 

r)  Grundzüge  d.  Glaubens!.,  d.  Gottesd.  n.  d.  Verf.  genehm,  v.  d.  Syn.  zn  Breslau.  Brsl.  1S45 
Organ.  Statut  f.  deutseh-kath.  Gem.  v.  F.  Wig.ard.  Dresd.  1S45. 

.«)  Offenes  Sendschr.  der  Witwe  Anna  Czerska  an  ihren  Sohn,  den  .suspend.  Priester.  Ratisb.  1S45 

i)  Range.  Neue  u  doch  alte  Feinde.  Bess.  ISl.'i.     D.  Wesen  d.  freien  ehr.  K.  Ilainb.  1S4T. 


CHAP.  VI.    CATir.  CIIUKCII  TILL  1853,    §479.  GERMAN  CATHOLICISM.        659 

tiates  found  an  earlier  field  of  labor  in  German  Catholic  congregations,  and 
two  Protestant  congregations  in  the  country  found  it  convenient  to  connect 
themselves  Avith  the  German  Catholics  on  account  of  diflSculties  in  their  local 
circumstances.  But  the  Protestant  population  has  almost  unanimously  offered 
the  new  Church  the  joint  use  of  their  own  churches,  a  considerable  assistance 
in  money,  and  the  power  of  their  daily  press,  with  no  wish  to  draw  away  its 
members,  and  at  first  with  great  expectations  of  national  results,  (u)  So  far 
as  their  relations  to  the  state  were  concerned,  the  German  Catholics  claimed 
all  the  privileges  which  had  been  conceded  to  the  Catholics,  without  modifi- 
cation. By  prohibitions  and  expatriations,  the  governments  of  Austria  and 
Bavaria  nearly  succeeded  in  entirely  excluding  the  sect  of  Eonge  from  their 
territories.  The  smaller  Protestant  states  allowed  the  Catholic  dissenters  to 
proceed  without  molestation.  The  governments  of  Hanover.  Saxony,  Baden, 
and  Wurtcmberg,  opposed  them ;  the  two  latter  impaired  their  rights  of  citi- 
zenship, and  in  Hesse  Cassel  they  were  oppressed  with  still  greater  severity. 
In  every  country,  however,  their  rights  were  sustained  by  the  lower  legisla- 
tive chamber,  (c)  At  first,  Prussia  declared  that  it  would  not  then  interfere 
in  their  favor,  or  in  opposition  to  them ;  afterwards,  the  displeasure  which 
it  felt  at  the  peculiar  Christianity  of  the  age  was  stronger  than  its  pleasure 
in  seeing  the  injury  to  the  hierarchy,  until  finally  the  natural  current  of 
affairs  brought  it  around  once  more  to  the  policy  of  non-interference,  (w) 
German  Catholicism  has  prevailed  almost  exclusively  among  the  middle 
classes  of  society,  but  the  learned  Ecgenlrecht^  a  professor  of  canon  law  at 
Breslau,  gave  in  his  adhesion  to  it  when  the  congregation  was  formed  in  that 
city,  and  Theinei\  at  the  frequent  solicitation  of  different  parties,  contributed 
his  established  reputation  to  tlie  new  movement,  (.r)  Both  these  men,  how- 
ever, have  since  been  estranged  and  separated  from  all  connection  with  any 
congregation,  principally  in  consequence  of  the  course  which  Eonge  has  pur- 
sued, (y)  jSTear  the  end  of  the  year  1846,  it  became  evident  that  the  leaders 
in  this  movement  were  beginning  to  sink  in  public  estimation,  and  that  their 
cause  was  deficient  in  religious  energy.  It  could  not  therefore  be  concealed 
that  the  movement  itself  had  come  to  a  dangerous  pause.  The  new  Church 
then  numbered  about  60,000  members,  nearly  half  of  whom  Avere  in  Silesia. 
Where  the  Catholic  population  was  compact  and  unbroken,  scarcely  any 
inroad  was  made  upon  it ;  but  the  remnants  and  advanced  posts  of  the  Cath- 
olic Church  in  Protestant  countries,  which  had  been  gained  or  maintained 
with  difticulty  for  centuries,  were  either  lost  or  much  endangered,  and  seri- 
ous apprehensions  were  entertained  at  Eome  that  another  Eeformation  was 
about  to  proceed  from  Germany.    March,  1848,  brought  complete  freedom  to 


«)  Gei'vinus:  d.  Mission  d.  D.  Katholiken.  Hdlb.  1S45.  \Gervi7ixin,  Mission  of  tlie  Gfinn.  Catho- 
lics. Lond.  184G.  12.]  {D.  Schenkel,  d.  prot.  Geistliclil^.  u.  d.  IX  Katholilien.  Zur.  1S46.)  D.  prot  Geist- 
lichlj.  u.  d.  DKatholiken.  Ileidelb.  1846. 

V)  Die  Sprecher  f.  d.  DKath.  in  d.  s-iclis.  Stindevers.  Lps.  1S45.  2  P.  F.  ITecker,  die  staatsrechtl. 
Verh.  d.  DKathol.  in.  bes.  Hinblick,  a.  B.aden.  Iloidelb.  2  ed.  1845.  C.  Friedi-ivh,  Die  deutschkatli. 
Frage  in  Kurhessen.  Lps.  1847. 

tc)  Cab.  Ordre  v.  30  Apr.,  Minist  Verf.  v.  17.  Mai,  Cub.  Ordre  v.  8.  Juli,  1S45.  L.  JiicMer,  d. 
Staat  u.  d.  DKatholiken.  Lps.  1S4C. 

a')  Krkl.  d.  Prcf.  Re^enbrecht  an  d.  I'istli.  Verweser  ü.  s.  Ausscheiden  a.  d.  rr.m.  K.  Brsl.  1845. 
inion  Theinet;  d.  ref.  Bestrebungen  in  d.  kath.  K.  IJrsl.  lS45,s.  2  P.         y)  Brl.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  15. 


6G0  MODERN  CnURCII  IIISTOET.     PER.  YI.     A.  T>.  1643-1353. 

the  new  Clnircli :  in  Saxony  it  was  recognized  as  a  civil  corporation  ;  (z)  the 
most  rigid  Catliolic  countries  were  thrown  open  to  it ;  in  Vienna  and  Munich 
it  was  received  with  a  curious  interest ;  in  Austria  it  was  tolerated,  and  in 
Bavaria  it  was  recognized,  though  the  Archbishop  of  Freysingen  would  not 
allow  German  Catholicism  to  be  i)roperly  either  Catholic  or  German.    It  was, 
lioAvever,  soon  found  that  the  religious  element  within  and  beyond  the  con- 
gregations became  less  and  less  prominent.     Eonge,  as  a  deputy  of  the  demo- 
cratic unions,  published  a  manifesto,  in  which  he  denounced  the  election  of 
an  irresponsible  imperial  officer  as  an  act  of  treason  to  the  people ;   and 
Dowiat  perhaps  did  injustice  to  the  excitements  of  his  youthful  fancy,  when 
he.  declared  that  he  had  looked  upon  the  religious  movement  as  only  the 
means  of  a  social  agitation,  but  that  he  now  regarded  such  a  mask  as  need- 
less.    The  authorities  of  the  Silesian  congregations  were  anxious  to  guard 
against  the  power  of  mere  brute  force,  but  they  wished  also  to  sanctify 
democracy,  and  make  socialism  a  religion,  (a)     Pi-obably  no  complete  congre- 
gations, but  some  individual  preachers  who  had  some  Hegelian  views,  hoped 
to  find  on  the  ruins  of  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches  their  new  reli- 
gion of  humanity,  a  true  theocracy  in  democracy,  and  God  himself  in  tho 
congregation,  (l)    The  German  Catholics,  and  those  attached  to  the  free  con- 
gregations, naturally  felt  a  sympathy  with  each  other,  and  had  therefore 
associated  together  to  a  considerable  extent,  (c)  before  the  proposition  for 
their  union  had  been  discussed  in  the  third  German  Catholic  council,  and  a 
free-congregational  diet  at  Leipsic-Coethen  (May,  1850).      Some  hesitation 
was  felt  by  the  German  Catholics  on  account  of  the  freedom  from  all  forms 
which  characterized   the   free   congregations ;    and   the  free  congregations 
were  not  altogether  pleased  with  the  want  of  freedom  which  prevailed  among 
the  German  Catholics,  but  they  were  finally  united  in  the  presence  of  the 
police  of  both  cities,  so  as  to  constitute  a  religious  association  of  free  congre- 
gations for  mutual  assistance  in  their  religious  eflTorts,  but  on  the  basis  of  a 
complete  independence  of  each  congregation.     These  were  to  have  an  execu- 
tive committee,  to  be  chosen  by  a  triennial  assembly  of  deputies,  but  to  have 
no  power  except  to  express  its  opinions,  and  to  make  proposals  to  the  congre- 
gations. {(T)     Most  of  the  congregations  which  had  originated  in  the  Catholic 
Church  refused  to  agree  to  a  union  of  even  this  loose  character,  (ß)    They 
could  not  therefore  escape  the  fate  of  the  free  congregations  (p.  584).    The 
peculiar  turn  which  events  took  in  Catholic  countries  was  such  as  to  render 
this  result  inevitable.     In  Austria,  after  a  long  delay,  the  government  refused 
(Jan.,  1850)  to  recognize  the  Free  Christian  congregation  at  Vienna,  on  the 
ground  that  the  negative  character  of  its  confession  gave  no  satisfactory  evi- 
dence that  it  was  called  for  merely  by  the  religious  wants  of  the  people.  (/) 
When  all  women  and  minors  had  been  excluded  from  the  German-Catholic 

z)  Law  of  Nov.  2, 1848 :  Brl.  KZ.  1S4S.  N.  96. 

«)  Of  Sept.  15,  1849:  in  Kampe,  (nt  I.)  p.  816ss. 

h)  F.  F.  Kampe,  cL  Wesen  d.  DKath.  m.  bes.  Eücts.  a.  s.  Verb.  z.  Politik.  Tub.  1S50. 

c)  A.  D.  Z.  1S4T.  N.  311. 

d)  Th.  Jlofferichter,  d.  UnioL  d.  freien  Gemeinden  d.  Katli.  ii.  Prot.  Lps.  IsSr».  Br!.  KZ.  1950 
N.  46.  4S. 

e)  Ibid.  IS50.  N.  6S.  So.  1851.  N.  16.         /)  Ibid.  1350.  N.  20.  45.  1J51.  X.  5.  103. 


CHAP.  VI.     CATir.  ClIUECn  TILL  1S53.    §450.  SAILER.  EMMEEICH.  6ÖI 

congregations  of  Bavaria,  they  were  dissolved  as  political  associations  (Xov,, 
1851).  {(/)  But  even  in  Protestant  countries,  the  dread  of  the  evils  of  reli- 
gious libertj^,  or  a  desire  to  please  the  hierarchy,  generally  led  to  their  sup- 
pression. In  Prussia,  where  the  constitution  rendered  any  measure  to  pro- 
duce their  general  abolition  impossible,  individual  congregations  were  dis- 
persed, and 'their  preachers  were  expelled  from  the  country  by  the  police, 
and  contributions  from  the  common  fund,  even  where  the}'  had  been  granted 
for  a  series  of  previous  years,  were  withheld,  because  the  government  pro- 
fessed to  have  discovered  that  they  were  political  rather  than  religious  asso- 
ciations, aiming  at  the  subversion  of  civil  and  social  order,  (fi)  In  Hamburg, 
the  concession  which  had  once  been  made  them,  was  revoked  on  account  of 
their  departure  from  the  confession  of  t\iith  adopted  at  Leipsic.  (0  Internal 
dissensions,  the  return  of  their  ministers  to  former  connections,  and  a  want 
of  worldly  means,  or  a  want  of  liberality  in  the  use  of  what  they  possessed, 
have  hastened  their  gradual  decline. 

§  480.  2/>/stics  and  Wonder-  Woi'l:6rs. 
A  circle  of  yoimg  persons  was  at  one  time  assembled  around  Bishop 
Sailer  (1751-1832),  whose  Christianity  was  confined  to  the  simple  doctrine 
of  salvation,  and  whose  religion  consisted  wholly  of  certain  fervent  exercises 
of  feeling.  They  therefore  had  no  very  high  regard  for  ecclesiastical  forms ; 
they  earnestly  commended  the  works  of  Fenelon  and  Lavater,  and  were 
much  attached  to  the  Pietists  of  Wurtemberg.  As  they  were  persecuted  by 
the  Romanist,  and  despised  by  the  Liberal  party,  some  of  them  became  dis- 
satisfied with  the  Church  itself  (I796ss.)  tV'hen  PoescM^  a  pastor  settled  near 
Linz,  Avas  compelled  to  leave  his  congregation,  every  other  minister  was 
rejected  by  the  people,  and  on  Good  Friday,  1817,  a  young  girl  was  actually 
killed,  that  she  might  thereby  follow  the  example  of  Christ,  in  dying  for  her 
brethren  and  sisters.  Sailer  humbled  himself  before  the  hierarchy,  and 
renounced  mysticism,  but  even  as  a  bishop  he  never  ceased  to  make  efforts  to 
extend  the  kingdom  of  love,  {a)  The  wonderful  prodigies  in  which  some 
believed  were  the  result  either  of  harmless  and  sickly  excitements,  or  of  a 
settled  purpose.  Emmerich  (1774-1824),  a  sister  belonging  to  the  Convent 
of  Agnetenberg,  within  which  all  her  desires  were  bounded,  gave  herself 
completely  up  to  the  contemplation  of  the  sufferings  of  Jesus,  from  whoso 
hands  she  had  selected  the  crown  of  thorns  which  she  bore  upon  her  body, 
just  as  St.  Francis  had  borne  the  five  wounds  of  our  Lord  ;  and  frequently, 
when  those  days  recurred  on  which  Christ's  passion  Avas  celebrated,  the 
wound  was  opened,  (i)  That  which  appears  to  have  been  effected  here  by 
an  active  and  phistic  imagination,  in  other  instances  was  evidently  the  result 
of  deception,  with  or  without  the  knowledge  of  the  subjects  of  them,  (c) 


g)  Brl.  KZ.  1S51.  N.  99.  h)  Ibid.  N.  14.  38.  1S52.  N.  14. 

t")  Ibid.  1S53.  N.  17. 

o)  J.  it.  Sutler,  simtl.  Werke.  Salzb.  1S30-35.  26  vols.  Suhit,  ü.  Myst.  in.  bi-t,  Aiif-cblüssen  0. 
My  ft.  in  Baiorn.  Sulzb.  1S'2'2.     Comp.  §  474.  nt.  ff. 

h)  (f.  V.  Brentano,)  Das  bittre  Lelilen  unsors  Herrn.  Nach  den  lietrr.  d.  fei.  A.  C.  Emm.  nebst 
d.  Lebensumständen  dieser  l!e?nadicrtcn.  Sulzb.  1S33.  0  ed.  1S42.  Tholiick-,  verm.  Schrr.  vol.  I.  p.  Ulss, 
vol.  ir.  p.  477s.— Volkslieiligc  iw  Kaltern  :  A.  KZ.  ISiS.  X.  1"k  I5rl.  KZ.  1S40.  X.  99. 

c)  ßrl.  KZ.  1849.  N.  73.  1S40.  N.  G2.  C7. 


oG2  MO.)KnN  CHUUCII  HISTORY.     PER.  VI.     A.  D.  ]ftl9-1353. 

Tlio  miraculous  cures  accomplislied  by  Prince  ITohenhlie  Caboiit  1820,  d 
1849),  llion  a  canon  at  Bamberg,  were,  it  is  true,  much  ext(^llod  among  tbo 
common  people,  but  they  liad  too  little  importance  and  character  to  mako 
much  way  against  the  police  and  the  prosaic  spirit  of  the  present  age.  In 
Kome,  the  conversion  of  a  wealthy  Jew  was  effected  by  an  appearance  of 
the  Virgin  Mary  (1842).  {rl) .  She  also  made  her  appearance  in  other  places. 
In  Rimini,  thousands  of  pilgrims  were  convinced,  to  their  great  edification, 
that  the  Mother  of  mercy  moved  the  eyes  of  her  image  there  np  and  down, 
and  even  some  partisans  of  Mazzini  were  converted  from  their  errors  by  the 
sight,  ie) 

§  481.  Orders. 
jSTapoleon  remarked,  that  the  holy  zeal  of  the  Sisters  of  Charity  led  them 
to  bestow  a  much  better  and  cheaper  attendance  upon  the  hospitals,  than  the 
rewards  which  he  could  offer  to  mercenaries.  lie  therefore  collected  their 
scattered  numbers  into  a  general  chapter,  over  which  the  mother  ot  the  em- 
peror presided  (1807),  provided  them  with  a  rule,  and  supplied  them  with  all 
needed  assistance.  The  predilection  which  tlie  pious  sisters  exhibited  for  the 
conversion  of  Protestant  patients,  prevented  their  introduction  in  some 
instances  into  the  German  hospitals.  ((/)  But  more  especially  in  France, 
where  a  convent  for  nuns  had  become  an  habitual  want,  they  were  renewed 
in  various  forms,  (b)  When  the  last  monk  of  St.  Maurus  died  a  member  of 
the  Institute  of  France,  a  few  friends  of  Lamennais,  under  the  protection  of 
the  Bishop  of  Mons,  purchased  the  old  abbey  of  Soleme  (1833),  that  they  might 
revive  within  its  tranquil  seclusion  the  devout  learning  of  the  congregation 
of  St.  Maurus.  (c)  A  congregation  was  established  at  Eome  for  the  purpose 
of  rescuing  the  orders  which  had  been  despoiled  of  their  property,  and  in 
some  of  the  concordats  a  number  of  convents  were  promised ;  but  the  pious 
wishes  of  the  several  governments  were  generally  thwarted,  when  an  attempt 
was  made  to  restore  the  property  which  belonged  to  them.  In  Bavaria  alone 
more  was  accomplished  than  had  been  promised  in  the  concordat.  {(T)  The 
various  orders  of  knights  had  for  a  long  time  entirely  lost  all  importance 
with  respect  to  the  Church.  The  Knights  of  St.  John  ceased  to  possess  any 
power  when  Malta  passed  from  their  hands  (1T98),  and  in  the  treaty  of  Paris 
(1814)  was  recognized  as  a  fortress  for  the  protection  of  English  com- 
merce. ((')  The  German  Masters  (Teutonic  Knights)  also  lost  all  their  politi- 
cal importance  in  consequence  of  the  loss  of  Mergentheim  at  the  peace  of 
Vienna  (1810);  and  although  their  application  for  its  re-establishment  was 
seconded  by  the  general  voice  of  all  Europe,  their  appeal  to  the  European 

fl)  Bri.  KZ.  1S42.  N.  67.  1S43.  N.  46.        «)  Bri.  KZ.  1S50.  N.  43.  51ss.  69s. 

a)  {C.  V.  Brentano,)  Die  barmli.  Schw.  Cobl.  1531.  Ehcinw.  Rep,  vol.  XVIII.  p.  236ss.  C.  £us&, 
d.  O.  d.  barrah.  Schw.  Scliaffh.  2  ed.  1S47. 

h)  Renchlin,  Christenth.  in  Frankr.  p.  226ss. 

c)  A.  KZ.  1833.  N.  145.  Acta  liist  ccc.  1S37.  p.  5.  Spicilegium  Solesmense,  cur.  J.  B.  Pitra, 
Par.  1S52.  vol.  I. 

(J)  Acta  liist  ecc,  1S37.  p.  354.  Bri.  KZ.  1S46.  N.  15. 

e)  Vic.  de  Tillenein-e-Bargemout,  Monumens  des  Grands-Maitres  de  Vordre  de  S.  Jean.  Par 
1S29.  2  vols.  [i.  de  Boisgelin,  Anc.  and  Mod.  Malta,  and  11.  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John.  Load.  1804 
3  vols.  4.] 


CHAP.  VI.    CATII.  CIIÜECH  TILL  1553.     §  431.  OKDEES.     §  452.  MISSIOXS.      663 

Coiigress  for  tlie  restoratioa  of  their  possessions  was  disregarded.  (/)  These 
orders  are  now  kept  up,  and  in  some  places  are  re-estabhshed,  especially  in 
Austria  and  Italy,  merely  for  the  decorations  and  pensions  which  the  nobility 
derive  from  them,  (f/)  Such  Knights  of  St.  John  are  to  be  found  since  1812 
in  Prussia,  but  no  longer  as  a  Catholic  institution.  They  have  been  obliged 
to  return  (1852)  to  the  care  of  the  sick,  in  accordance  with  the  original  de- 
sign of  the  order,  but  they  are  allowed  to  do  this  by  the  payment  of  money 
for  that  object,  (h)  An  order  of  Templars  attracted  some  notice  in  Paris 
since  the  commencement  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  a  secret  lodge,  but 
since  1831  it  has  publicly  claimed  to  be  the  original  Christian  Church.  (/) 
According  to  them,  an  original  revelation  was  conveyed  and  cultivated  in 
the  Greek  and  Egyptian  mysteries,  from  which  it  was  derived  by  Moses,  was 
renewed  and  re-established  by  Jesus,  and  was  transmitted  to  John  as  the  head 
of  the  Church,  and  to  his  successors,  among  whom  are  the  Grand  Masters  of 
the  Temple.  This  revelation  was  a  religion  of  reason,  and  proclaimed  that 
God  consisted  of  three  Powers,  viz.,  Existence,  Act,  and  Consciousness,  and 
that  the  world  was  distinct  from  God,  but  uncreated  and  divine.  A  gospel 
of  St.  John  accommodated  to  this  view  js  in  the  possession  of  the  order. 
Avhich  possibl}-  had  its  origin  in  the  fourteenth  centmy.  (/•)  The  order,  how- 
ever, has  nothing  in  common  with  Catholicism  but  a  hierarchy  to  Avhich  the 
most  imposing  titles  are  given.  It  knew  also  how  to  give  the  most  enlight- 
ened interpretation  of  the  vows  of  the  old  Templars,  (I)  and  announced  that 
it  would  at  some  future  period  overthrow  the  Roman  Church.  For  a  while 
the  Parisians  were  much  amused  by  the  splendid  costumes  which  the  male 
and  female  members  of  the  order  exhibited  in  their  processions. 

§  482.  Spread  of  Christianity, 
As  the  Catholic  nations  of  Europe  were  distracted  by  the  revolutions  of 
that  period,  they  lost  their  colonies,  and  were  obliged  to  curtail  but  not  en- 
tirely to  abandon  thsir  missions.  When  the  Church  began  to  recover  its 
strength,  the  desire  to  promote  missions  to  the  heathen  revived.  The  Society 
of  the  Faith  at  Lyons,  which  became  more  influential  than  even  the  Propa- 
ganda, grew  up  from  a  very  humble  origin  (after  1820)  by  means  of  trifling 
weekly  contributions  from  a  small  circle  of  persons  who  read  the  Annals  of 
the  Propagation  of  the  Faith,  until  the  annual  income  it  expended  for  mis- 
sions amounted  to  nullions.  (a)  The  first  object  of  the  missionaries  for  the 
establishment  of  the  external  Church  continued  to  be  the  baptism  of  the 
heathen.     China  was  adhered  to  with  the  utmost  tenacity,  even  when  all 

/)  A.  KZ.  1S22.  N.  CG  g)  Bri.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  13. 

/<)  Ibid.  1S53.  N.  2.  S.  D.  A.  Z.  1S53.  N.  130. 

i)  (Manuel  des  Chevaliers  do  I'ordrc  du  Temple.  M.  S.  Par.  1S2.'.  12.)  Leviticon.  Par.  1S31.  £clläe 
clirct  primitive.  Lettre  pastor.ile  de  M.  Icvequo  do  Nancy.  (VllOtc.)  Nancy.  1S32. — Curove,  d.  Mes- 
si.inismus,  d.  neuen  Templer.  Lps.  1834.    J.  P.,  Peclierclios  hist,  sur  les  Templiers.  Par.  1S35. 

k)  Munter,  Notitla  cod.  graeei  Ev.  Jo.  vniialuin  poiitinentis.  llufn.  IS'28.  Thilo,  c<k1.  apocr.  vol. 
I.  p.  SlOss. 

/)  r.rl.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  SS. 

(i)  The  receipts  for  1S45  were  3,575,775  franc?.  Annales  dc  la  propagation  de  la  fol.  lS.'>4s?.  piibl. 
»Iso  in  the  Genn.,  Engl.,  Flemish,  Ital ,  Siiaiilsh,  Povtug.,  and  Dutch  l.mgu.oges.  A.  KZ.  1S43.  N.  100. 
BerL  KZ.  1S17.  N.  52. 


ÖG4     •  MODKUN  CIIUKCII  IIISTOUV.     VKK.  VI.     A.  D.  1C4S-1SM. 

reason  for  liopo  with  respect  to  it  seemed  extinct.  Once  more  the  Church 
began  to  enlarge  ics  territories  there,  when  a  map  of  the  country,  wliich  the 
missionaries  intended  to  send  to  Rome,  was  intercepted.  Tliis  produced  a 
renewal  of  the  persecution  (180G).  Bishop  JDufrcsne  was  helieaded  (1815). 
A  martyrdom  quite  unfavorable  to  enthusiasm  was  inflicted  l)y  means  of  the 
bamboo  and  the  gangue.  The  missionaries  were  subsequently  persecuted  or 
tolerated,  accordmg  to  the  caprice  of  the  government.  The  crime  punished 
was  not  so  much  a  profession  of  Christianity,  as  a  connection  with  foreigners. 
At  last,  however,  the  victories  of  the  English  gave  protection  even  to  the 
Catholic  Church.  The  priests  are  generally  natives,  some  of  whom  are  edu- 
cated in  the  seminaries  of  the  country,  and  others  at  a  branch  of  the  Propa- 
ganda at  Naples.  About  one  in  two  thousand  of  the  population  of  Central 
China  have  been  baptized,  (h)  From  the  Bast  Indies,  where  frequently  the 
conversions  consisted  principally  of  mere  changes  back  and  forth  betAveen 
the  Catholic  and  Protestant  missionaries,  the  candid  Dulois  returned  to 
Europe  (1823)  with  the  conviction  that  life  was  uselessly  spent  in  labors  to 
convert  the  people,  and  that  there  was  no  ground  for  hope  that  the  gospel 
would  ever  overcome  the  prejudices  of  the  Hindoos,  {c)  The  King  of  Cochin 
China,  where  Christians,  under  the  French  Bishop  Adran  had  attained  con- 
siderable political  importance,  extolled  the  wasdom  of  the  Emperor  of  Japan, 
who  had  got  rid  of  the  European  doctrines,  and  accordingly,  in  particular 
instances,  he  oppressed  them  after  1831.  By  a  decree  of  Jan.  6,  1833,  a  gen- 
eral persecution,  modified  indeed  by  the  local  authorities,  raged  especially 
against  the  priests  until  1842.  The  memory  of  the  martyrs  in  this  persecu- 
tion was  celebrated  at  Rome  by  the  pope,  (d)  The  Abbe  Schoeffler,  at  the 
head  of  a  mission  to  the  interior,  died  like  Cyprian  in  1851.  Under  the  free 
toleration  enjoyed  in  iSTorth  America,  the  Catholic  Church  has  acquired  con- 
siderable strength  principally  by  immigrations  from  Europe,  but  also  by  its 
judicious  management  of  its  internal  aftaii's.  {e)  The  AJgonquins  and  Iro- 
quois made  (1831)  a  present  of  a  piece  of  wampum  and  some  moccasins  of 
their  own  Avork  to  the  holy  Father,  who  had  sent  to  his  children  of  the  wil- 
derness the  man  in  the  black  coat,  by  whom  they  had  been  instructed  and 
induced  to  acknowledge  the  unknown  God,  and  to  live  in  peace  with  one 
another.  (/)  A  French  diocese  has  been  formed  (1838)  in  Algiers,  and  an 
arm  of  St.  Augustine  was  solemnly  brought  back  to  Hippo  (1842).  {g)  Id 
the  islands  of  the  South  Sea,  a  missionary  bishop  has  attempted  to  gather 
the  harvest  where  others  had  sown  the  seed  (§  473). — The  Catholic  Chiu-ch 
numbers  about  a  hundred  and  fifty  millions  of  adherents,  organized  into 
seven  hundred  and  sixty-three  bishoprics,  (/t) 

h)  Gesch.  d.  kath.  Miss,  in  Cliina.  Vien.  lS45ss.  Elicinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXYIII.  p.  281ss.  XXX. 
ISSss.   D.  A.  Z.  1S45.  N.  224. 

c)  Dubois,  Letters  on  the  State  of  Christ,  in  India.  Lond.  lS2o.  ii.  v.  Hoffmann,  Nenst.  1S24. 
Comp.  KHist  Archiv.  1S24.  P.  3.  [Dubois  ^as  answered  by  Hough,  To-nnley,  and  others.  Set 
1>.  472,  nt.  a.] 

d)  A.  Z.  1S35.  Suppl.  X.  103.  1S43.  X.  143.  BrI.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  TS.  A.  KZ.  1S40.  X.  90.  203. 

e)  Vogt,  d.  kath.  K.  in  d.  Verein.  Staaten.  (Tub.  Quartalschr.  1S41.  V.  1.) 
/)  A.  KZ.  1S32.  N.  50. 

g)  Eheinw.  Eep.  vol.  XXIII.  p.  7Ss.    a.  KZ.  1S39.  N.  63.  1S43.  X.  2. 

/<)  Chavlesqf  St.  Alo>jx,A.Vs.t\\.K.  in  ihrer  ireirenw.  Ausbr.  a.  d.  Erde.  Eatisb.  1S45.  öffOi 
Petri,  Gcmrchia  .leli.a  s.  Cliiisa  c.itt  np(.)st.  '.lom.nna.  I.-iS  '.?ö!. 


CHAP.  VII.     0KIP:NTAL  CllUPwClf.     §  483.  MECIIITUARISTS.    NESTOPJANS.     065 


CHAP.  VII.— THE     ORIENTAL    CHURCH. 

§  483.     Catholic,  and  Protestant  Influences. 

Greek  and  Armenian  congregations  composed  of  exiles  or  of  persons  en- 
gaged in  mercantile  pursuits  in  Catholic  countries,  were  obliged  to  purchase 
public  protection  by  an  acknowledgment  of  the  papal  primacy,  and  of  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Son  as  well  as  from  the  Father.  In 
return  for  this  the  pope  conceded  to  them  the  usages  of  their  country,  to- 
gether with  the  cup  for  the  laity,  and  the  marriage  of  their  priests.  Among 
the  Armenians  the  Mcchitharists  were  confirmed  by  Clement  XI.  as  Benedic- 
tines (1712),  and  after  the  fall  of  Modon  (s.  1717),  in  imitation  of  their 
founder  Meckithar  (Comforter,  1076-1749),  they  founded  a  monastery  at  St. 
Lazarus  among  the  lagoons  of  Venice,  which  was  designed  to  be  a  medium 
of  literary  intercourse  between  their  native  country  and  Europe.  A  branch 
of  it  was  established  at  Vienna,  Avhich  lias  confined  its  pious  literary  views 
to  Germany,  (n)  In  Transylvania  tlie  Wallachians  were  induced  by  the  Jes- 
uits to  enter  the  Union  (s.  1697),  but  a  holy  monk  who  came  over  the  moun- 
tains (1744)  filled  the  people  with  horror  at  this  alliance,  (b)  As  soon  as  the 
liberty  for  which  the  Hungarian  Protestants  had  contended  (§  470),  was  con- 
ceded also  to  the  United  Greeks,  the  result  was  likely  to  threaten  their  union 
with  the  Roman  Church.  When  the  American  missionaries  opened  schools 
(since  1831)  among  the  Armenians  in  Constantinople  and  Trebizond,  and  dis- 
tributed bibles  among  the  people,  many  have  been  opposed  to  all  worship  of 
creatures,  and  to  some  other  portions  of  the  Armenian  forms  of  service,  and 
have  finally  been  excommunicated  (1846).  Separate  congregations  were 
therefore  indispensable,  and  when  formed  they  experienced  the  most  bitter 
persecutions,  in  consequence  of  an  order  from  the  patriarch  requiring  that  all 
persons  should  Avithhold  from  them  the  ordinary  intercourse  of  social  and 
commercial  life.  But,  in  consequence  of  the  intercessions  of  others  in 
their  behalf,  and  the  favor  of  the  Turks  toward  a  form  of  worship  dispensing 
with  images  and  pictures,  they  have  gradually  attained  a  tranquil  state,  (o) 
The  American  missionaries  have  likewise  succeeded  in  confirming  (since 
1833)  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Scriptures  tho.se  remnants  of  the  Nestorians 
which  still  exist  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  and  whicli  had  become  mere 
petrifactions  of  the  Church  of  tlie  fifth  century,  and  so  far  as  they  had  not 
become  subject  to  the  pope,  established  them  as  the  Protestants  of  the  East,  (a) 
In  many  other  countries  where  the  Oriental  Church  prevails,  schools  have 
been  established  and  tlie  Scriptures  have  been  distributed  by  Protestant  mis- 

a)  (Kiuver)  Vita  dell'  Abate  Mochitar.  Yen.  ISIO.  Compendiose  nothie  sii)la  congrcgazione  dei 
Mccliltaristl.  Yen.  (1S19.)  1S25.  WinrUachmann  i\.  J.  in  d.  Tub.  Quartnlsclir.  1S35.  P.  1.  Elicinw. 
Itep.  vol.  XXVIII.  p.  1G2SS.  XXX,  157ss. 

V)  Acta  liist.  ccc.  vol.  X.  p.  llOs.s. 

(•)  Brl.  KZ.  1S4C.  N  .35.  77.  1S47.  N.  3G.  42.  C5.    A.  KZ.  1S47.  N.  13i;.<. 

d)  A.  Grant,  Tlie  Nestorians,  or  The  Lo.st  Tribes,  New  York  &  LonJ.  ISll.  12mo.  (On  the  otliei 
hand:  E.  Rohinsov,  [in  Bibl.  Pep.  for  1S4I.]  Review  of  Grant's  Nestor.  New  York.  1S41.)  [O.  P 
Ji<ulfjer,  Nestorians  and  their  ritn.als,  kc.  Lnnd.  1S5I.  2  vols.  S.]  Bruns.  Rep.  1545.  vol.  I.  p.  lS5ss.  II, 
flOss.  Ill,  S4.-^s.  1S4G.  vol.  v.  [.p.  107,  UN,  2it'.>ss.  VI,  SGss. 


66G  MODKUN  CIIUUCII  mSTORV.     PKR.  VI.     A.  T).  104^1W3. 

sionaries,  until  tlio  Oriental  Christiuns  li.ave  themselves  bepuri  to  test  the  doo- 
trines  of  their  Church  hy  the  Word  of  Gf)fl,  and  complaints  have  been  inad* 
that  the  authority  of  the  Church  has  been  impaired,  (e) 

§  484.     Hmsia.     Cont.  from  §  418. 

King,  Tlio  ritos  of  tlio  Greek  Churcli  in  Russia.  Lond.  1722.  4.  Uijr.  177.3.  4.  (.Vcta  hist.  ecc.  no»- 
Iri  temp.  vol.  I.  p.  1.  lS7ss.)  llupel,  kirchl.  Statist,  v.  lluss.  (Nord.  Misc.  Riga.  17SC.  Sect.  lls.s.)  Beller- 
inann,  Abr.  d.  Kuss.  K.  Erf.  17S8.  A.  de  Stourdza,  Considerations  surla  doctrine  et  l'e.»prit  de  I'ogl. 
ortliod.  Weim.  ISIG.  ii.  by  Kotzehue,  Lps.  1817.  Pinkerton,  Russia.  Lond.  1S33.  (!•>.  KZ.  1834.  N. 
7Iss.)  Briefe  ü.  d.  Gottcsd.  d.  morg.  K.  a.  d.  Euss.  (by  MurawiefiP)  by  E.  v.  ifurdH,  Lps.  1S.33.  with 
Krlilar.  Anhang  als  Lexidlon  d.  morg.  K,  by  Ibid.  Lps.  183S.  \_A.  Nie.  Murawieff,  Hist,  of  the  Cliuroh 
of  Russia,  trans),  (from  the  Russian.  Pctorsb.  183S.)  by  Blackmore,  Oxf.  1S42.]  Die  Staatslc  Russl. 
iin  J.  1839.  by  a  priest  of  the  Oratory.  Schafi'h.  1844.  Die  Bedeut.  d.  russ.  K.  für  d.  gegenw.  (Deutsche 
Yiertelj.  Sehr.  1842.  N.  19.)  Klose,  Russl.  kirchl.  Statist.  (Reuter,  Rep.  1S.50.  II.  1.)  Ilefole,  d.  rus.5. 
K.  (Tub.  Quartalscli.  1853.  H.  3.)  A.  v.  Tlaxthausen,  Studien  ü.  d.  Innern  Zust.  Russl.  Ilan.  1347.  2 
vols.  [/>e  Custine  (Marquis),  The  Empire  of  the  Czar,  or,  Obss.  on  the  Soc.  Pol.  &  Rel.  state  and 
Prosjiects  of  E.,  from  the  French.  3  vols.  8.  Lond.  1847.  R.  W.  Blackmore,  Doct  of  the  Russ.  Church, 
transl.  from  the  Slavono-Euss.  Originals.  Aberdeen.  184.5.  8.] 

The  orthodox  emperor  was  now  the  natural  protector  of  the  orthodox 
Oriental  Church,  with  a  power  in  both  hemispheres  such  as  no  successor  of 
Constantine  ever  possessed.  After  the  death  of  the  patriarch,  Hadrian 
(1702),  Peter  the  Great  allowed  his  see  to  remain  vacant  until  the  people  had 
become  accustomed  to  see  its  duties  performed  by  a  college  of  prelates,  which, 
under  the  name  of  the  Holy  Synod,  was  declared  to  be  the  supreme  author- 
ity in  the  Church  (1721).  (a)  This  synod  is  dependent  upon  the  emperor, 
but  the  dignity  of  the  clergy  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  ecclesiastical  polity 
are  determined  by  the  national  character.  But  Catharine  first  took  posses- 
sion of  all  the  property  of  the  Church,  and  then  settled  upon  nearly  all  eccle- 
siastical offices  and  institutions  a  permanent  but  very  moderate  revenue.  On 
the  other  hand  the  convents  were  relieved  of  the  charge  of  invalids,  and  sem- 
inaries were  established  for  education.  The  clergy  are  in  the  habit  of  filling 
their  ranks  from  their  own  families  very  much  as  if  they  were  a  spiritual 
caste.  Sermons  were  at  one  time  prohibited,  so  that  no  new  doctrines  might 
be  propagated  among  the  people,  but  many  primitive  and  symbolical  usages 
have  been  tenaciously  preserved  in  the  affections  of  the  people.  The  eccle- 
siastical language  is  the  old  Sclavonic.  Many  persons  were  dissatisfied  on  ac- 
count of  the  innovations  made  in  the  liturgy  by  the  patriarch,  Nicon.,  and 
Avithdrew  from  the  Established  Church  (166G).  By  those  from  whom  they 
thus  separated  they  were  denominated  Bosl'olnili,  but  by  themselves  they 
were  called  Staroverzi.  They  conscientiously  adhere  to  aU  the  institutions 
of  their  ancestors,  abominate  the  fashions  and  articles  of  luxury  which  have 
been  introduced  in  modern  times,  and  do  not  recognize  the  Czar  as  the  con- 
secrated head  of  the  Church.  Many  new  sects  have  sprung  from  them,  and 
in  consequence  of  the  persecutions  they  have  endured,  many  of  them  have 
become  the  victims  of  a  gloomy  fanatical  spirit.  The  Duchoborzi  believe  in 
no  ecclesiastical  connection  except  that  which  exists  between  kindred  minds, 
but  they  are  friends  of  the  strictest  morality.     Others  have  adopted  a  modt 


e)  Hist  pol.  Bll.  1853.  vol.  XXX.  H.  5. 

a)  Kllist.  Archiv.  1323.  vol.  I.  sect.  4.  p.  87ss. 


CHAP.  TU.    ORIENTAL  CHURCH.    §  4S4.  RUSSIA.    ALEXANDER.  GG7 

»f  worsliip  intermediate  between  the  extremes  of  abominable  lust  on  the  one 
hand,  and  of  eunuchism  on  the  other,  (h)  While  endeavoring  to  elevate  the 
intellectual  character  of  his  people,  Alexander  did  much  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  the  National  Church.  On  all  lands  belonging  to  the  crown  village- 
schools  were  established,  the  seminaries  were  improved,  and  the  priests  were 
exempted  from  the  punishment  of  the  knout.  The  national  struggle  against 
Napoleon  subsequently  became  a  war  for  religirn.  In  mature  life  the  pecu- 
liar fortunes  and  plans  of  the  emperor  inclined  him  (since  1812)  to  a  melan- 
choly style  of  piety,  (c)  "When  the  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society  was 
formed  in  London,  at  the  emperor's  request  a  general  auxiliary  Avas  established 
at  Petersburg  (since  1813),  and  under  the  supervision  of  the  Holy  Synod  an 
edition  of  the  New  Testament  was  published  in  the  Russian  language  (1821), 
and  was  afterwards  gradually  sent  forth  in  almost  every  dialect  of  every  na- 
tion in  the  empire.  With  simple  confidence  the  Bible  was  placed  by  the 
people  among  their  sacred  pictures,  but  an  ecclesiastical  opposition  was  ex- 
cited against  it  throughout  the  nation,  which  was  strengthened  by  observing 
certain  erroneous  applications  of  passages  of  the  Scriptures  made  by  the  peo- 
ple. The  emperor  was  therefore  finally  induced  to  abolish  the  Bible  Society 
in  Paissia  (1826).  (d)  And  yet  the  imperial  government  felt  constrained  to 
do  something  for  the  conversion  of  his  heathen  and  Mohammedan  subjects  in 
three  distinct  quarters  of  the  world.  Ecclesiastical  institutions  were  estab- 
lished for  the  education  of  missionaries,  and  inducements  were  held  out  to 
those  who  might  become  converts  to  Christianity.  Under  Nicolas  a  plan  has 
been  formed  and  generally  favored  by  the  people  (since  1825),  according  to 
which  the  whole  Russian  nationality  is  to  be  civilized  by  efforts  from  within 
itself,  and  all  the  tribes  subject  to  its  government  are  to  become  one  in  lan- 
guage and  in  creed.  By  the  conquest  of  a  portion  of  the  Persian  territories 
(1828)  Russia  obtained  possession  of  a  great  part  of  Armenia,  including  the 
convent  of  Echmiadzin,  the  principal  seat  of  the  Catholicus  of  the  Armenian 
Church,  by  whom  alone  the  bishops  and  the  holy  oil  could  be  consecrated. 
Measures  were  however  taken  by  the  Armenian  Church  to  prevent  its  incor- 
poration with  the  Russian,  {e)  Peter  I.  gave  freedom  of  worship  to  both 
Catliolics  and  Protestants,  but  this  indulgence  was  confined  to  those  foreigners 
wl\o  resided  in  the  country,  and  were  needed  in  the  public  service.  "When 
Catharine  II.  acquired  possession  of  the  Polish  Russian  provinces,  a  part  of 
the  population  became  members  of  the  United  Greek  Church  (p.  482),  and 
another  part  united  with  the  Russian.  But  even  those  who  were  deeply  im- 
bued with  the  Roman  element  finally  yielded  to  the  prevalent  inclination,  and 

h)  Strahl,  Scctenw.  d.  raw.  K.  (KHist  Arcliiv.  1S24.  Sect.  4.  p.  2Gs3.  1825.  Sect.  1.  p.  425S.) 
Lenz,  de  Dncliobor/.is.  Dorp.  1S29.  P.  L  (Jen.  L.  Z.  N.  16Gs.)  Evr.  KZ.  1S2S.  N.  52ss.  1S35.  N.  lOss. 
Elieinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXII.  p.  270.S9. 

c)  Especially  P/;i^-^Wo7i ;  ILL.  E.  Notlz  ü.  Alex.  .Tcna.  182S.  [Lond.  W(!okly  Rev.  for  M-iy. 
1S29.  (in  Littell's  Rel.  Mac.  vol.  IIL  p.  502ss.  Pliil.nd.  1829.)  Schnitsler,  Seer.  U.  of  the  Court  A 
Gov.  of  Russia  under  Ale.v.  &  Nicolas.  Lond.  1S4T.  2  vols.  8.] 

d)  Esp.  rinkerion  :  A.  KZ.  1S22.  N.  70.  1840.  N.  40.  llOss. 

e)  Vittet\  Anbau,  vol.  II.  p.  llL-'s.  KHist.  Arch.  182.3.  P.  I.  Kurze  hist.  Darst.  d.  gegenw.  Zust  d. 
arm.  Volks.  IVtorsb.  1821.  Smith  &  Dwirjht,  Researches  in  Arm.  Bost.  1833.  2  vols.  Tfwliu-1%  lit 
Anz.  1S.32.  N.  17.  [.V.  Chamich,  II.  of  Armenia,  transl.  &  cont.  to  the  present  time  by  J.  Anfall, 
Calcutta.  1827.  2  vols.  8.] 


GÜ8  MÖDKRN  CHiniCII  IIISTOIJV.     PER.  VI.     A.  \).  1C-IS-1S53. 

after  much  prciianition,  tlie  higher  clerf,^y  of  Litliuania  and  White  Russia  at 
tlie  Synod  of  Polotsk  (Feh.  12,  1839)  declared  that  their  people  wore  anxious 
to  return  to  the  ancient  Tnothcr  Church.  By  order  of  the  emperor  the  Holy 
Synod  received  them,  together  with  their  congregations,  as  those  who  had 
been  separated  by  violence  and  were  now  reunited  hy  love,  (f)  Gregory 
XVr.,  after  having  condemned  the  Polish  insurrection  (1831)  and  having  suc- 
ceeded in  persuading  Gutkoroski,  Bishop  of  Podlachien,  (</)  who  had  been 
imprisoned  for  his  fidelity  to  the  Russian  Church,  to  abandon  it  (1840),  now 
beheld  the  schools  in  Poland  closed  against  all  ecclesiastical  influence,  the 
confiscated  property  of  the  Church  given  to  a  Greek  nobility,  the  real  estate 
which  had  belonged  to  the  hierarchy  taken  possession  of  by  the  state,  all  in- 
tercourse between  the  bishops  and  Rome  prohibited,  and  the  Catholic  princi- 
ple with  respect  to  mixed  marriages  turned  against  the  Catholic  Clmrcli. 
Nothing  was  now  left  him  but  to  lift  up  his  lamentations  over  the  distressed 
condition  of  the  Church,  and  the  loss  of  two  millions  of  Catholics,  and  to 
expose  to  the  world  the  means  by  which  this  had  been  accomplished,  (h) 
Macrena  Mieszlawska,  the  late  Abbess  of  the  Basilian  convent  at  Minsk,  ap- 
peared at  Rome  with  a  shocking  account  of  these  means,  but  there  were 
enough  who  knew  how  to  render  it  doubtful  whether  she  was  a  martyr  or  an 
impostor,  (i)  But  the  pope  and  the  emperor  had  occasion  to  enter  into  an 
agreement  (184:7s.),  according  to  which  a  new  diocese  of  Cherson  has  been 
formed,  whose  bishops  are  to  be  chosen  by  the  emperor,  but  canonically  insti- 
tuted by  the  pope ;  Avhose  consistorials  and  teachers  of  seminaries  are  to  be 
appointed  by  the  bishops,  but  with  a  reference  to  the  pleasure  of  the  govern- 
ment. These  bishops  had  also  the  management  of  the  spiritual  affairs  of 
their  diocese  in  canonical  dependence  upon  the  holy  see.  Other  matters  re- 
specting Avhich  they  could  not  then  agree  were  left,  in  hope  of  some  future 
arrangement.  (Ä)  A  constitution  has  been  given  (1833)  to  the  Lutheran  Church 
by  the  emperor,  which  is  well  fitted  to  preserve  order  and  exclude  all  innova- 
tion, (l)  Protestantism,  although  secured  in  the  interior  of  the  empire  by 
long  established  concessions,  and  in  the  German  provinces  on  the  Baltic  sea 
by  treaties,  must  nevertheless  lose  ground  with  each  generation  on  account 
of  the  many  laws  and  civil  proceedings  in  favor  of  the  Established  Church.  (??/) 
In  the  year  1845  when  the  Letts  and  Esthonians  were  reduced  to  extreme  dis- 
tress, a  rumor  became  current  among  them  that  those  who  would  pass  over 
to  the  orthodox  faith  should  obtain  possession  of  the  landed  property  of  their 

/)  Ue.  d.  Wiederverein,  d.  Uniaten  m.  d.  reclitgläub.  K.  (froTii  the  Nonlisclicn  Biene)  ü.  v.  A.  v. 
OUlekop.  Statt?.  1S40.    A.  Z.  1S39.  Suppl.  N.  82S?s.  1340.  N.  151. 

(7)  A.  Z.  1840.  N.  15T.  1C9.  171.  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  SO. 

7i)  Allocution  of  Nov.  22 :  A.  Z.  1839.  N.  337.  of  July  23  :  Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  65.  Esposiiiione  cor- 
rcdata  di  documenti  sulle  Incessanti  cure  della  stessa  Santitä  sua  a  rip.aro  dei  gravi  niali,  da  cui  e  af 
flitta  la  rel.  cattolica  negli  imperiali  e  rcali  doininii  di  Russia  e  di  Polonia.  Eom.  1S42.  f.  Einsied 
1842.— (.4.  Theiner)  Die  neust  Zust.  d.  katb.  K.  beider  Ritus  in  Polen  u.  Eussl.  s.  Kathar.  II.  Angsh 
1841.  2  voK  {Sausen)  Der  Czar  u.  der  Nacbfolger  d.  li.  Petrus.  Mayence.  1343.  Rruns;  Rep.  1S45 
vol.  I.  p.  179ss.  II,  2T3ss. 

i)  D.  A.  Z.  1846.  N.  S6.  Suppl.  57.  70.  113s. 

k)  Alloc,  of  July  3, 184S:  Brl.  KZ.  1843.  N.  C2.  A.  Z.  1848.  N.  203.  Suppl. 

I)  Ev.  KZ.  1831.  N.  5?s.    li.Vir,  Pr.  Bibl.  1334.  P.  4.  p.  557ss. 

m)  Comp.  A.  Z.  1S40.    Suppl.  N.  153s.  1633. 


CHAP.  VII.     ORIENTAL  CHUIICII.     §  4S5.  GREKCE.  669 

German  landlords,  and  some  fanciful  hopes  were  held  up  to  them  connected 
with  the  Grand  Duke  Michael  (accordin<?  to  Daniel  XI,  39.  XII,  1).  Fifteen 
tliou.?and  peasants  were  accordingly  confirmed,  and  churches  were  built  by 
the  government  for  these  new  converts  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  («)  Ger- 
man princesses,  when  they  became  connected  with  the  family  of  the  Czar, 
were  obliged  to  convince  themselves  that  the  Evangelical  Church  was  in 
error,  (o) 

§  485,     Greece  and  TurTccy. 

Keander,  Progr,  d.  Blbolges.  BrI.  1830.  Kist,  de  Ecc.  grafcca,  div.  providentlac  teste.  Liigd.  1S31. 
ITartle]!,  Researches  in  Greece.  Lond.  1331.  (Ev.  KZ.  1S32.  N.  129s.)  F.  Fenger,  om  det  Xygracske 
Folk  og  Sprog.  Kjöbenh.  1832.  (Ev.  KZ.  1832.  N.  37s.)  F.  Thiersch,  Essai  snr  I'etat  actnel  de  la 
Grece.  1833.  2  vols.  G.  L.  v.  Maurer,  d.  griech.  Yolk  in  iiffentl.  kirclil.  u.  privatr.  Bczieli.  Ileiillb. 
1S35.  2  vols.  J.  M'enger,  Boltr.  z.  Kenntn.  d.  gegenw.  Geistes  u.  Zust.  d.  gr.  K.  in  Gr.  u.  d.  Türkei. 
Bii.  1839.  Rlieinw.  Rep.  vol.  XV.  p.  183ss.  XVII.  185.  255ss.  XVIII.  ITTss.  XXVII.  172.  27Gs3.  (Ac- 
cording to  Brandis.  Lps.  1842.  vol.  III.)  XXXVIII.  p.  1S7.  2G9ss.  L'egl.  ortliod.  d'Orient.  Atben. 
1SÖ3.— ir.  KloKe,  d.  Christen  in  d.  Türkei  (Zeitseh.  f.  liist  Tb.  1350.  11.  2.)  [S.  G.  Howe,  Hist.  Sketch 
of  the  Gr.  Rev.  New  York.  1828.  8.     T.  Gordon,  II.  of  the  Gr.  Rev.  &c.  Lond.  1812.  2  ed.  2  vols.  8.] 

In  the  spring  of  1821,  Avhen  the  Greek  people  awoke  from  their  long  slum- 
ber, the  bishops  pronounced  their  blessings  upon  the  insurrection.  The  exe- 
cution of  the  aged  patriarch,  Gregory^  on  Easter  Sunday,  before  the  gates  of 
his  own  palace,  tore  asunder  the  last  link  which  connected  a  down-trodden 
people  with  their  tyrants.  It  is  true  that  a  policy  quite  foreign  to  all  Chris- 
tian sympathies  prevented  an  earlier  termination  of  their  sanguinary  and 
tedious  troubles,  and  allowed  Greece  to  receive  boundaries  whicli  nature 
never  intended  for  it ;  but  it  soon  entered  unavoidably  into  the  magic  circle 
of  European  improvement,  and  with  all  the  energy  of  an  independent  nation 
endowed  with  noble  capacities  were  produced  the  first  shoots  of  an  ecclesi- 
astical literature,  {a)  In  the  zeal  of  the  people  for  liberal  views,  the  civil 
and  judicial  authority  of  the  episcopal  court  was  speedily  broken  down.  Qj) 
As  it  was  impossible  that  the  Church  should  continue  dependent  upon  a  pa- 
triarch appointed  by  the  sultan,  an  assembly  of  bishops  at  Syra  (Aug.  1833) 
was  directed  by  tlie  government  to  declare,  that  the  orthodox  Church  of 
Greece  acknowledged  no  head  but  Jesus  Christ,  that  the  administration  of  the 
Church  belonged  to  the  king,  and  was  to  be  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  sacred  canons  by  a  Synod  of  Bishops  permanently  appointed,  but  an- 
nually renewed  by  him.  (<■)  By  this  measure  on  the  part  of  a  Catholic  gov- 
ernment, and  by  the  abolition  of  the  inferior  convents,  to  obtain  an  ecclesi- 
astical and  school  fund  (1834),  the  feelings  of  the  nation  in  behalf  of  its 
Church  wore  Avounded.  The  first  exhibition  of  its  displeasure  with  respect 
to  the  new  improvements  was  made  against  the  schools  and  books  of  the  Eng- 
.ish  and  American  missions.  {<!)    The  conspiracy  of  the  orthodox  Hetairia 

n)  A.  Z.  1815.  N.  218s.  Brl.  KZ.  1845.  N.  89.  100s.  1S4C.  N.  4.  1347.  N.  67.  1349.  N.  97.  99. 

o)  E.  g.  Rhcinw.  Rep.  vol.  X.XXIII.  p.  8Gss. 

a)  liizo  Neroidos,  Coiii-s  do  lituraluro  grecque  in<Mlorne.  pubL  par  J.  Humbert,  Gen.  1827.  Wie- 
deranfiinged.  thool.  Lit.  in  Griechenl.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1841.  P.  1.)  'S.uvrayfxa  twv  ädaiv  Kai  Upüiv  Ka- 
yövcov,  cd.  G.  A.  ütdlii  et  M.  liOÜis,  Athen.  1852.  2  vols.        6)  Geih,  (p.  857.)  p.  113.ss. 

c)  A.  KZ.  18:33.  N.  191. 

d)  A.  Z.  1837.  Suppl.  N.  184.  A.  KZ.  18.37.  N.  82.  D.  .V.  Z.  1345.  Suppl.  X.  802.  Tlio  chief  organ 
>(  evayyf\iKi]  aaXmy^,  edite<l  by  the  monk  Gernianos. 


570  MODEUN  CHUUCIl  IIISTOIIV,     TEU.  VI.     A.  1).  1C4S-190^. 

was  designed  to  destroy  every  thing  of  a  foreign  nature  which  had  been  forced 
«pon  the  nation,  and  to  place  the  Church  (1839)  under  tJie  jurisdiction  of  the 
patriarch  Gregory  VI.  (e)  This  prelate  published  a  challenge  against  Lu- 
ther, proliibited  the  circulation  of  translations  of  the  Scriptures,  (/)  and  for- 
bade the  nuptial  benediction  upon  mixed  marriages  in  the  Ionian  Islands.  For 
these  proceedings  he  was,  at  the  request  of  the  English  ambassador,  deposed 
(1840).  (g)  The  revolution  of  1843,  professing  to  act  in  the  name  of  national 
freedom,  threw  away  all  the  supports  of  German  education  and  improve- 
ment. The  Constitution  of  1844  recognized  the  orthodox  Oriental  Church 
as  established  by  law,  required  that  the  successor  to  the  throne  should  be  a 
member  of  that  Church,  and  while  it  gave  free  toleration  to  other  forms  of 
worship,  it  forbade  efforts  to  proselyte  in  their  favor.  The  ecclesiastical  sta- 
tute of  1845  gave  to  the  Synod  a  position  much  less  dependent  upon  the 
government.  (A)  It  was  recognized  by  the  Patriarch  of  Constantinople 
through  the  mediation  of  Russia  (1850),  on  the  condition  that  its  holy  oil 
should  always  be  obtained  from  the  mother  Church,  but  it  was  itself  to  be 
chosen  by  the  clergy,  and  the  Bishop  of  Attica  was  to  be  its  perpetual  presi- 
dent. (0  The  city  of  Athens,  then  the  principal  town,  was  dedicated  to  an- 
other Virgin,  (k)  but  there  is  a  prophecy  current  among  the  people  that  at 
some  future  day  the  cross  will  be  fixed  upon  the  Church  of  St.  Sophia.  A 
tranquil  existence  has  finally  been  secured  to  the  Christians  under  the  do- 
minion of  the  sultan,  in  consequence  of  his  enfeebled  condition,  the  European 
reforms  which  he  has  introduced,  and  the  depe"ndence  of  his  empire  upon 
Christian  powers.  By  the  Ilattisherif  of  Gfilhane  (1839)  a  promise  was  given 
that  the  life,  honor,  and  property  of  all  should  be  secure,  and  that  Moslem 
and  Rayah  should  be  equal  in  the  eye  of  the  law,  (I)  but  the  government  is 
sometimes  unable  to  prevent  individual  instances  of  abuse  from  the  corrup- 
tion of  the  inferior  authorities,  and  the  fimaticism  of  the  people,  (m)  It  is, 
however,  the  power  under  which  all  the  different  parties  of  the  Oriental 
Church,  and  the  Franks  under  their  respective  consuls,  find  a  residence,  with 
no  power  to  injure  but  only  to  hate  each  other.  The  position  of  the  porte 
even  with  respect  to  the  holy  places,  for  the  keys  of  which  Russia,  in  behalf 
of  the  newly  acquired  rights  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  France,  in  behalf  of 
the  long  established  rights  of  the  Latin  Church,  contended  with  each  other, 
is  only  that  of  a  mediator,  (h)  But  when  Russia  claimed  to  be  the  perma- 
nent protector  of  the  orthodox  Christians  who  constitute  a  large  majority  of 
the  population  of  European  Turkey,  it  has,  relying  upon  the  aid  of  Christian 
powers,  indignantly  repelled  the  demand  as  a  virtual  requirement  that  it 
should  resign  its  sovereignty,  and  the  Czar  has  therefore  proclaimed  against 
it  a  holy  war  (1853). 


«)  A.  Z.  1S40.  N.  27.  30.  /)  Acta  hist.  ecc.  1837.  p.  SSlss.  ff)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  86. 

!i)  A.  D.  Z.  1S45.  N.  198.  i)  Brl.  KZ.  1S51   N.  80.  k)  A.  KZ.  1S22.  N.  48. 

0  Beitrr.  z.  e.  Gesch.  d.  neusten  Eeformen  d.  osm.  Eeiches.   In  Verbind  m.  Kauiis  Efcndi.  ed.  bj 
Petermann.  Brl.  1S42. 

w)  (C.  Paczei;)  Die  Christen  in  Bosnien.  Vienna.  1853. 

«)  Brl.  KZ.  1850.  N.  94. 1851.  N.  32.  1852.  N.  93.  1853.  N.  44.  comp.  47. 


CnAP.  VIII.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  4SC.  CATHOLICISM  &  PROTESTANTISM.    67  1 

o:iAi'.  Yiii.— coMMo:^  details  and  mutual  kelations. 

§  486.     Catholicism  and  Protestantism. 

In  Germany  and  in  France  where  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  churches 
stand  side  by  side  in  the  enjoyment  of  equal  rights,  and  where  the  national 
character  has  no  decisive  inclination  for  either,  there  must  naturally  be  an 
intellectual  conflict  between  them,  frequent  attempts  at  accommodation,  and 
mutual  aggressions  of  a  proselyting  spirit.  In  the  polemical  writings  of  Prot- 
estants, Catholicism  is  represented  as  a  system  of  priestcraft,  or  at  best  as  an 
antiquated  form  which  could  have  had  no  existence  except  when  the  mind  of 
man  was  in  a  state  of  pupilage.  The  Catholics  call  the  Eeformation  the 
second  fall  of  man,  and  revive  the  old  but  now  especially  obnoxious  reproach 
that  the  Eeformation  must  necessarily  end  with  a  revolution.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  advocate  of  Protestantism  shows  that  whatever  is  true  in  this  as- 
sertion threatens  no  danger  to  any  legal  form  of  civil  government,  but  only 
to  Catholicism,  and  that  as  far  as  it  is  untrue  facts  show  that  the  liome  of 
revolutions  is  in  Catholic  countries,  (a)  This  subject  was  discussed  with 
more  calmness  by  literary  men  among  Protestants,  since,  instead  of  contem- 
plating it  simply  as  a  polemical  matter,  they  investigated  the  respective 
creeds,  taking  a  purely  historical  view  of  the  different  systems  of  faitli,  and 
regarding  them  as  points  of  development  for  the  Christian  spirit.  The  learn- 
ing of  a  Church  which  regards  all  beyond  itself  as  only  a  fiilsehood,  and  un- 
der condemnation,  could  never  entertain  such  a  train  of  thought  except  in 
appearance  only,  (b)  Besides,  that  was  often  attacked  which  no  one  ever 
defended,  on  the  one  side  unchangeable  Lutheranism,  and  on  the  other  an 
infaUible  papacy.  The  controversy  was  also  much  embittered  by  the  exagger- 
ated ecclesiasticism  which  prevailed  in  both  parties.  Even  a  Judas-literature 
became  connected  with  the  controversy  between  the  two  churches,  (c)  To 
such  as  had  become  dissatisfied  with  the  creeds  of  both  sides  it  seemed  easy 
to  become  reconciled.  Such  was  the  origin  (1797)  of  a  party,  Christo  sacrum, 
in  the  French  Reformed  Churcli  at  Delft,  the  object  of  which  was  to  form  a 
common  ground  on  which  all  miglit  unite,  by  setting  forth  a  few  general  doc- 
trines relating  to  the  divinity  of  the  Scriptures,  and  redemi)ti()n  by  Christ, 
without  requiring  any  to  renounce  the  Churches  in  which  thoy  had  been  re- 
spectively born.  It  went  indeed  so  far  as  to  assemble  after  its  public  recog- 
nition (1802)  a  few  members  of  different  churches  in  their  house  of  worship, 
but  it  was  universally  rejected  by  all  churches,  and  never  became  any  thing 
but  a  very  inferior  sect,  {d)  The  Freemasoiu'  Lodges  originated  among  the 
Societies  of  architects  of  the  middle  ages,  and  even  in  the  new  spiritual- 
ized form  which  their  craft  received  from  England,  where  it  was  ex- 
tensively propagated  (1717),  it  kept  aloof  from  all  the  contentions  of  the  dif- 

rt)  Tsschirner,  Prot.  u.  Kntli.  a.  d  Stnndp.  A.  Politik.  Lps.  1822  4  eil.  1S24. 

I)  Moelder,  (p.  Grö.)   .On  tl)e  otlicr  liaiul :  Biiur,  Nitzscli,  Marlicinelie. 

c)  Der  Pi-otosiantisimis  in  s.  SclbstauUösuii^'.  SfliülVli.  (lS4o.)  1S4G.  2  vols.  cmnp.  Drl.  KZ.  184Ö, 
N.  03. 

</)  Aroliic  f.  IvOi'sch.  vol.  I,  sect.  2.  p.  ITOss.  sect.  .3.  p.  155ss.  KHist.  Arcli.  1S23.  sect.  1.  p.  T2s& 
FlUdnrr  Colloc'tcnn.-i>c.  vol.  1 1,  p.  574ss. 


G72  MOl^KUN  CIIUUCII  IIISTOUV.     PER.  YI.     A.  D.  164S-1S53. 

ferent  dmrclies,  and  professed  in  a  region  far  above  them  to  cons'raot  tho 
temple  of  Humanity.  For  this  very  reason  it  was  condemned  (p.  GS4)  iii  va- 
rious papal  decrees  (1738,  1751,  1829,)  which  were,  however,  enforced  only 
in  Southern  Europe,  (e)  The  Evangelical  Church  Journal  also  condemned 
them,  and  received  an  answer  through  an  act  of  the  royal  fiimily  (Nov.  5, 
1853).  (/)  The  Kationalists  on  account  of  their  Pelagian  tendency,  and  the 
Pietists  on  account  of  their  rigid  ecclesiasticisra,  were  accused  of  an  approxi- 
mation to  Catholicism.  A  few  regarded  every  kind  of  union  as  impractica- 
ble except  by  the  absorption  of  one  party  into  the  other ;  (y)  some  believed 
in  a  higher  development  of  the  present  ecclesiastical  system,  in  which  the 
distinctions  between  the  two  parties  wei'e  to  be  forgotten ;  while  many  looked 
upon  these  distinctions  as  salutary  in  their  influence,  and  indispensable  to  the 
completeness  of  the  Christian  spirit,  (A)  Persons  were  frequently  induced  to 
pass  from  one  Church  to  the  other  by  the  prospect  of  some  personal  advan- 
tage, or  under  the  influence  of  false  views.  Such  instances  were  tolerated 
especially  in  the  Catholic  Church,  on  account  of  their  relation  to  future  gen- 
erations. Others  were  governed  by  considerations  altogether  foreign  to 
Christianity.  Such  was  Winhelmann  (d.  1768),  who  thought  that  the  great 
object  of  his  life,  which  could  be  pursued  only  at  Rome,  was  well  worth  a 
mass ;  especially  as  he,  with  all  his  recollections  of  pious  youthful  impressions, 
was  neither  a  Catholic  nor  a  Protestant,  but  a  contemporary  of  Pericles,  {i) 
But  some  were  really  anxious  to  correct  by  their  own  free  act  what  they 
honestly  believed  to  be  the  false  position  in  which  the  accident  of  birth  had 
placed  them.  The  primary  occasion  for  most  of  the  conversions  to  Catholi- 
cism was  that  exalted  state  of  artistic  or  poetic  feeling  which,  when  it  became 
depressed,  fell  into  pietism,  but  which  found  in  the  Catholic  Church  a  pleas- 
ant and  splendid  form  of  life,  or  at  least  found  deliverance  from  a  state  of 
mere  irony,  and  a  position  in  the  earnestness  of  reality.  Another  cause  was, 
a  natural  disposition  which  was  annoyed  by  the  perpetual  conflicts  and  com- 
motions which  prevailed  in  the  Protestant  Church,  and  sought  peace  in  a  sen- 
suous nearness  to  the  divine,  and  in  an  external  and  infallible  authority.  It 
was  to  this  disposition  that  the  faithful  Voss^  who  mistook  its  more  profound 
motive,  opposed  in  a  violent  manner  his  Dutch  common  sense.  (Jc)  There  was 
also  an  historical  and  political  spirit,  imposed  upon  by  the  mediaeval  splendor 
and  perfect  constitution  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  might  not  only  be 
mistaken,  but  stimulated  to  further  misapprehensions,  and  so  finally  conducted 
to  a  path  which  terminated  at  Eome  and  Vienna.  (?)  A  few  aristocrats  hoped 

e)  Kraiise,  d.  drei  ältesten  Kunst-Urk.  d.  F.  M.  Brädersch.  Drsd.  (1810.)  1819.  F.  W.  Lindner 
Mac  Benac.  Lps.  ISIS.  Sarsena,  Gesch.  d.  F.  M.  Ord.  Bamb.  1820.  5  ed.  Lps.  1S35.— M.  Bull,  Eoni. 
vol  XVIII.  p.  2123.    Ili-^t  pol.  Bl.  vol.  YIII.  p.  65ss. 

/)  D.  A.  Z.  1854.  N.  23. 

0)  {J.  A.  Slai-l;)  Theoduls  Gastmahl  o.  ü.  Vereinig,  d.  Eeligionssocietüton.  Frkf.  1S09.  7  ed.  1823. 

h)  Planck,  Worte  d.  Friedens  an  d.  kath.  K.  gegen  ihre  Vereinig,  m.  d.  prot  Gütt.  1809.  Vom 
Streite  d.  Kirchen,  an  den  christl.  Adel  deuts'jher  Nation.  Lps.  1827. 

i)  BrL  Monatschr.  vol  XII.  p.  56ss.  Goethe,  Winkelm.  u.  s.  Jahrhundert.  Krech,  Erinn.  an  W 
Brl.  1835.  4. 

A-)  Wie  ward  Fritz  Stolberg  ein  Unfreier  ?  (Sophronizon.  1819.  vol  III.)  Bestätigung  d.  Stolb 
Cmtriebe.  Stnttg.  1S20.— ^.  McoU^ciug,  Fr.  Leop.  G.  zu  Stolb.  Mayence.  1846. 

V)  F.  Ilurter,  d.  Antiites  II.  u.  sogen.  Amtsbrüder.  Schaffh.  1840.    Zehnder.  Ant  II.  u.  s.  yerun 


CHAP.  Tin.    GENERAL  AFFAIES.    §  4S6.  CONVERTS.  673 

they  could  get  rid  of  the  revolution  by  forsaking  the  Reformation.  Hack- 
neyed authors,  who  before  knew  nothing  of  religion,  found  in  the  Catholic 
ritual  that  which  interested  and  satisfied  their  excited  religious  wants,  (m) 
Sacerdotal  Puseyism,  and  even  zealous  Lutheranisra,  estranged  as  it  is  from 
the  present  Protestant  Church,  have  sometimes  conducted  their  lost  sons  back 
to  the  holy  father,  (n)  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  two  ways  by  which  a 
Catholic  might  be  conducted  to  the  Protestant  Church.  The  first  was  the 
same  feeling  which  at  one  time  moved  the  Eeformers,  a  painful  sense  of  sin 
which  found  no  relief  in  the  works  and  penances  of  the  Church,  and  finally 
betook  itself  to  a  simple  faith  in  the  Scriptures  alone.  The  other  was  a  de- 
velopment of  the  spirit  of  religious  independence,  Avhich,  when  it  could  no 
longer  find  complete  truth  in  the  doctrines  which  it  had  been  taught,  felt 
compelled  to  break  loose  from  an  infallible  Church.  The  former  path  con- 
ducted to  the  old,  and  the  latter  to  the  more  recent  form  of  Protestantism. 
The  latter  was  therefore  followed  by  individuals  of  a  speculative  turn  of 
mind,  or  such  as  thought  themselves  to  be  so,  while  the  former  was  entered 
upon  as  in  the  time  of  the  Reformation  by  whole  congregations,  pervaded  at 
once  by  the  same  feeling.  In  some  cases,  however,  where  the  feelings  of  such 
congregations  had  not  become  clearly  defined,  and  the  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties treated  them  with  mUdness,  they  could  sometimes  be  reconciled  with 
the  old  Church,  (o)  From  the  nature  of  the  feelings  thus  defined  we  should 
of  course  expect  to  meet  with  persons  of  more  distinguished  reputation 
among  the  converts  to  Catholicism,  (jj)  For  it  was  necessary  to  the  pacifica- 
tion of  those  consciences  which  were  inclined  to  Catholicism  that  the  pre- 
cise form  should  be  complied  with,  and  that  the  person  should  be  a  member 
of  the  only  Church  in  which  salvation  could  be  expected,  while  the  Protes- 
tant spirit  generally  felt  that  it  was  every  where  in  the  spiritual  Church,  it 
would  naturally  hope  to  exert  a  more  powerful  influence  in  behalf  of  truth 
in  its  original  sphere  of  life,  and  it  would  dread  the  severe  shock  occasioned 
by  a  change  of  ecclesiastical  relations.  Hence  generally  only  such  priests  as 
apprehended  some  overwhelming  act  of  oppression  from  their  ecclesiastical 
superiors,  effected  an  escape  by  connecting  themselves  Avith  the  Protestant 
Church. 

glimpftcn  Amtsbr.  Sob.  1S40. — Schenkel,  Zerwürfen  in  SchafTli.  u.  llurter"s  Uebcrtritt.  Bas.  1841. 
Harter,  Geburt  u.  Wicdergeb.  Schaffh.  (1S45.)  1S47.  2  vols. 

m)  Ida  Griifln  Ilahn-Ildhn,  von  Babylon  nach  Jerus.  Mayence.  1S51.  [From  B»bylon  to  Jern- 
ealem,  from  the  Germ,  of  Countess  Ida  v.  Ilahn-IIahn.  New  York.  1352.]  F.  v.  Florencourt,  meine 
Bekclir.  z.  clir.  Lelire  u.  K.  Paderb.  1S52. 

n)  Lütkemüller,  unsre  Zust  v.  Todo  z.  Auferst.  Lps.  1S52.  Brl.  KZ.  1S52.  N.  8C. 

o)  Geschieht!.  Darst.  d.  Bekehrung  d.  Fürsten  v.  Salm-Salin,  from  the  Fr.  (Par.  1826.)  Jen.  1826.— 
GoHsner,  Martin  Boos,  Lps.  1826.  [Life  &  Persecutions  of  M.  B.  transl.  by  Bridges.  Lond.  1828. 
Lond.  Chr.  Ob.s.  Jan.  1S2S.  (in  Littell's  EoL  Mag.  vol.  I.  p.  2S9ss.)]  I/enhqfer,  cnr.  Glaubensbek, 
ileidlb.  (1823.)  1824.  TMchirner,  Rückkclir.  kath.  Cliristen  in  Baden  z.  ev.  Christenth.  Lps.  1S23.  4. 
ed.  1824.— Bericht  u.  Karlsliuld  by  Pächtner  vor  d.  Sammhing  ev.  Predigten.  Barmen.  1837. — Helfe' 
rich,  christl.  Glaubensb.  Friedb.  1835.  On  tlio  other  side:  Urkundl.  Darst  d.  piet  Umtriebe  d.  vor- 
mal.  Pfar.  Ilelf.  Mayence.  1835.—^  J.  Mawrette,  d.  Papst  u.  d.  Ev.  from  the  Fr.  lleilbr.  1844.  3  ed. 
iS4<5.    E.  Bruitte,  m.  Abschiedswort  an  Rom.  from  tlie  Fr.  Schleiz.  1844. 

p)  F.  ^y.  P.  V.  Amnion,  Gallerie  d.  morkw.  Personen,  welche  v.  d.  ev.  z.  kath.  K.  übergetreten. 
Erl.  1833.  J.  Hoeninghuus,  chronol.  Verzeichniss  d.  denkw.  Bekehr,  v.  Protest,  z.  kath.  K.  Ascliaff. 
1837.  Ifitssch,  Ü.  d.  Ursachen  d.  sich  mehr.  Uebertritte  z.  riini.  K.  (Deutsche  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  W.  lS6l 
N.  29.) 

43 


574  MODERN  CIIUUCII  IIISTOKY.    PER.  YL    A.  D.  1048-1853. 

§  487.     The  Fine  Arts.     Cont.  from  §  378,  390. 

Art  has  generally  risen  superior  to  all  distinctions  of  creeds,  altliougli  the 
populace  of  Strasbourg  would  not  tolerate  a  bust  of  Luther  on  the  monument 
of  Guttenberg,  (a)  and  even  some  painters  have  supposed  that  they  could  do 
better  justice  to  the  saints  when  they  adored  them.  Rome  became  once  more 
the  home  of  the  arts  of  design,  when,  from  the  time  of  Clement  XIV.,  a  beau- 
tiful temple  was  opened  for  the  remnants  of  the  old  Olympic  world,  with 
such  an  enthusiasm  for  the  arts  that  it  did  not  shrink  from  even  a  sacrilege 
upon  the  sarcophagus  of  the  Scipios  and  of  St.  Helena.  Thorwaldsen  was 
directed  by  Consalvi  to  erect  a  lofty  monument  on  the  tomb  of  the  Holy  Fa- 
ther Pius  VII.  in  St.  Peter's  Church.  (Jb)  When  the  more  recent  popular  life 
had  been  developed,  the  Church  could  no  longer  give  existence  to  the  art  from 
its  own  materials,  but  it  was  obliged  to  be  a  mere  participator  in  it.  By  a 
profound  study  of  the  monuments  of  heathen  antiquity,  WinTcelmann  rescued 
the  taste  for  the  arts  from  degenerating  into  a  trifling  mannerism.  "What  he 
could  only  express  in  words  Thorwaldsen  embodied  in  brass  and  marble. 
Grecian  power  and  beauty,  it  is  true,  were  found  reproduced  in  living  fresh- 
ness in  his  studio,  but  as  an  expression  of  the  eternal  beauty  of  nature  they 
were  exalted  to  their  most  significant  form  when  employed  in  the  utterance 
of  Christian  ideas.  Gods  and  heroes  were  therefore  to  be  seen  there  by  the 
side  of  our  Lord  and  the  apostles,  (c)  At  a  still  earlier  period  Dannecl-er 
gave  a  sublime  representation  of  Christ  in  the  character  of  the  world's 
teacher ;  his  John  is  a  son  of  thunder  reflecting  upon  the  mystery  of  the 
Trinity ;  and  finally  he  is  himself  exhibited,  when  an  old  man,  contemplating 
the  smile  of  a  Christian  angel  of  death,  (d)  After  some  literary  attempts  to 
discover  the  general  basis  of  all  art  in  piety,  (c)  an  association  of  German 
painters  was  formed  at  Rome  (s.  1810)  which  endeavored  to  revive  the  art 
in  the  Christian  feelings  and  ecclesiastical  forms  of  the  middle  ages.  There 
is  a  kind  of  spectral  life  in  the  exaggerated  productions  of  this  Romantic 
School.  But  the  great  masters  of  it  have  each  in  his  own  way  revived  the 
splendors  not  only  of  the  middle  ages  but  of  antiquity.  Thus  Overbeck  has 
presented  a  delicate  pious  fervor,  and  Cornelius,  cheerfulness  and  sublimity. 
These  were  followed  by  Henry  Hess,  who  added  beauty  to  the  old  ecclesiasti- 
cal style ;  Kaulbach,  who  has  painted  the  minds  and  general  thoughts  of 
men ;  and  Lessing,  who  has  exhibited  Protestantism  in  the  persons  of  its  fore- 
runners. A  German  Union  for  religious  art  in  the  Evangelical  Church  (1851) 
evinces  an  inclination  to  pay  a  long  standing  debt  of  Protestantism.  (/)  In 
connection  with  this  interest  in  the  middle  ages  the  art  of  painting  on  glass 
has  been  once  more  discovered.  The  Cathedral  at  Milan  was  completed  by 
Kapoleon.    Louis  of  Bavaria  restored  the  old  splendor  of  the  cathedrals  of 

«)  A.  KZ.  1S40.  N.  128.  1842.  N.  204s. 

fc)  Noticed  indeed  in  A.  KZ.  of  1830.  N.  27,  but  not  erected  until  1831. 
c)   Iniele,  Thorwaldscn's  Leben  u.  Werke.  Lps.  lS32s.  2  vols.  f. 

(0  J.  J.  Ileus,  Ü.  Danneckers  Cliristus.  Zur.  1820.     C.  Grüneisen  u.  Th.  Wagner,  Dann.  Wcrka. 
Elamb.  (1842.)  4. 

e)  II.  //  ]\\icl-enroder,  Herzensergiesiungen  e.  kunstliebenden  Klosterbr.  ed.  trTieck.  BrL1797. 
/)  Drl.  KZ.  1852.  N.  20.  24.  32. 


CHAP.  Till.    GEXEEi\X  AFFAIRS.    §  4SS.  CHUKCII  AECIIITECTURE  &  MUSIC.  675 

his  kingdom,  and  had  all  the  different  forms  of  the  ecclesiastical  styles  of 
former  times  represented  in  the  churches  of  his  capital.  Frederic  "William  III. 
had  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne  once  more  repaired  (since  1824),  and  Frederic 
William  IV.  laid  the  foundation  stone  for  its  completion  (Sept.  4th,  1842), 
that  it  might  he  a  work  of  brotherly  love  for  all  Germans,  {g)  Isaac's 
Church  of  Petersburg  raised  its  cupolas  and  granite  pillars  more  proudly  than 
any  other  church  of  Greco-Roman  architecture.  The  three  great  masters  of 
instrumental  music  at  Vienna  have  contributed  none  of  their  peculiarities  nor 
their  highest  efibrts  to  the  Church.  HaydrCs  Creation,  great  as  it  is,  is  never- 
theless only  a  great  opera,  in  which  the  Lord  God  with  his  angels  are  repre- 
sented. (Ä)  Mozart  did  not  compose  his  Requiem  until  he  was  dying,  {i)  and 
Beethoven^  in  his  own  exalted  sphere,  felt  that  he  was  a  priest  of  God,  but  not 
In  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  and  his  Christ  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  and  his  Sec- 
ond Mass  were  indeed  a  Creation,  but  they  never  reached  their  seventh  day. 
Felix  ITendelssoJm,  who  had  been  educated  in  the  rigid  school  of  Sebastian 
Bach,  and  amid  the  glories  of  Handel's  art,  has  given  a  harmonious  expres- 
sion to  the  direct  Word  of  God,  combining  profound  devotion.al  earnestness 
with  cheerful  artistic  beauty,  especially  in  the  lyrical  strains  of  his  Psalms, 
and  in  the  more  dramatic  works  Paul  and  Elijah.  Like  Raphael,  however, 
he  was  taken  away  from  earth  (1847)  before  he  had  realized  in  his  language 
the  complete  ideal  of  his  Christ.  While  the  friends  of  art  in  Protestant  Ger- 
many, though  generally  without  reference  to  the  Church,  labored  to  promote 
an  understanding  and  love  of  the  old  ecclesiastical  muse,  (Jc)  the  Italian 
churches  resounded  with  the  most  frivolous  opera  melodies.  The  papal 
chapel  alone  preserved  the  old  serious  style,  though  much  of  tlie  skilful  per- 
formance of  former  days  was  lost.  When  the  mode  of  singing  hymns  in 
quartettes,  which,  in  some  Reformed  churches,  and  particularly  in  Switzer- 
land, was  an  inheritance  from  their  ancestors,  was  first  introduced  by  an  as- 
sociation in  Stuttgard,  and  recommended  by  the  Synod  of  Wurtemberg  (1823), 
many  voices  were  raised  against  it  on  the  ground  that  such  a  style  of  singing 
was  too  artistic  for  a  congregation.  (?)  Liturgical  forms  of  divine  service 
were  brought  into  use  first  at  Berlin,  and  afterwards  in  other  places,  in  which 
the  old  Catholic  as  well  as  Protestant  masters  of  Church  music  were  re- 
vived, (m) 

§  488.    Emancipation  and  Conversion  of  the  Jews. 

Riemer,  der  Jude.  Alton.  lS32ss.    O.  W.  Böhmer,  Gleichstellung  der  Juden.  Gütt  1S33.    Jost, 
neuere  Gesch.  d.  Israel.  1815-45.  Brl.  1846.  2  vols. 

Since  Moses  Mendelssohn  (d.  178G)  and  Lessing  gave  to  each  other  tha 
hand  of  fellowship  the  Jews  have  participated  with  much  eagerness  and  Sue- 


s') Brl.  KZ.  1842.  N.  T3.  1843.  N.  CO.  1849.  K.  80. 
[/<)  L.  A.  C.  Bombet,  Life  of  Haydn,  in  Letters.  Prov.  1820. 12. 
»■)  E.  ITolmex,  Life  &  Corr.  of  Mozart.  New  York.  1845.  12.] 
Ä-)  {Thihaut,)  Ueber  Keinhcit  in  d.  Tonkunst.  Ilcidlb.  (1825.1826.)  1851. 

Ö  Kocher,  d.  Tonk.  in  d.  K.  Stuttg.  1823.  X.  KZ.  182-3.  N.  7.  105.  1S25.  N.  45.— 132i  N.  122. 18231 
K.  28.  60.  1826.  N.  S2. 

m)  Ev.  KZ.  1844.  N.  51s.  1845.  N.  15.  105.  1851.  N.  48. 


676  MODERN  CHURCH  HISTORY.    PER.  VI.    A.  D.  161S-1853. 

cess  in  the  improvements  of  modern  times.  («)  A  rational  tendency  has  ffcua 
been  formed  which  exhibits  a  piirely  biblical  literature,  and  withdraws  tho 
mind  entirely  from  the  Talmudic  institutes.  In  its  struggles  against  the  old 
Rabbinism  it  has  founded  a  new  Temple  with  a  simple  form  of  public  wor- 
ship  in  the  language  of  the  people.  Some  attempts  to  accomplish  a  stiL 
more  extensive  reform  were  made,  and  it  was  found  that  in  doing  so  either 
the  Mosaic  system  without  circumcision  (to  which,  however,  Christian  gov- 
ernments compelled  the  Jews  to  adhere)  might  be  made  consistent  with  an 
unlimited  progress  in  improvements  (Frankfort,  1840),  or  their  national  dis- 
tinctions might  be  abandoned,  and  they  could  still  adhere  to  the  religious 
character  peculiar  to  Judaism  (Berlin,  1846).  (I)  The  educated  Jews  on  the 
west  of  the  Vistula  have  generally  given  up  their  religious  national  peculiari- 
ties, and  are  not  prevented  by  their  adherence  to  Moses  from  believing  also 
in  Christ.  They  stand  therefore,  with  respect  to  Christianity,  precisely 
where  Moses  Mendelssohn  stood.  It  was  natural  that  persons  in  this  condi- 
tion should  begin  to  demand  a  complete  equality  of  civil  rights.  The  watch- 
word— civil  and  religious  freedom  for  all  the  world !  gained  a  powerful  party 
in  favor  of  such  an  emancipation.  Napoleon  called  a  meeting  of  the  great 
Sanhedrim  (1806),  (c)  and  completed  the  work  of  Jewish  emancipation.  His 
enactments  on  this  subject  have  continued  in  force  until  the  present  time  in 
Holland  and  Belgium.  In  North  America  their  complete  equality  follows 
from  the  essential  nature  of  the  Constitution.  Even  in  German  countries  the 
civil  condition  of  the  Jews  has  been  much  improved  in  various  ways  since 
the  time  of  Joseph  II. .^  but  their  complete  equality  with  other  citizens  has 
never  been  conceded  except  for  a  brief  period  while  the  French  were  masters 
of  the  country.  Against  such  an  equality  it  has  been  urged  by  a  party  which 
on  other  subjects  has  shown  a  liberal  spirit,  that  the  Jews  are  still  in  every 
sense  foreigners,  and  therefore  entitled  to  hospitality  but  not  to  the  rights  of 
citizens,  and  that  the  governments  of  the  country  were  founded  upon  Chris- 
tian principles,  which,  if  not  endangered  would  at  least  be  denied  by  the  pro- 
posed concession.  {S)  The  assemblies  of  deputies,  as  far  as  they  were  not  in- 
fluenced by  the  fear  of  the  Jewish  spirit  of  speculation,  were  inclined  to 
concede  to  them  their  full  rights  of  citizenship.  The  Prussian  law  of  1847, 
although  it  commenced  with  the  principle  of  equal  duties  and  equal  rights, 
made  many  exceptions  in  consistency  with  what  were  supposed  to  be  the  de- 
mands of  a  Christian  state,  and  concluded  with  a  special  provision  for  the 
separate  existence  of  a  foreign  nation  in  exclusive  Jewish  communities,  (e) 

a)  J.  Heinemann,  M.  Mendelss.  Lps.  1S31.  Sieinheim,  M.  M.  u.  s.  Schule.  Hamb.  1S40.  B.  Auer- 
bach,  d.  Judenth.  u.  d.  neueste  Lit.  Stuttg.  lS-56.  [M.  Samuels,  Mem.  of  M.  M.  &  Corresp.  with  La- 
vater.  Lond.  182T.  2  ed.  8.] 

b)  IT.  A.  Francolm,  d.  rationale  Judenth.  Brsl.  1S40.  Nethiboth  Olara.  Vergleich  zw.  d.  modernen 
Judonth.  u.  d.  Rel.  Mosis  u.  d.  Proph.  (from  the  Engl.)  Frk£  1839.—^.  Fränkel,  d.  mod.  Judenth. ;  d. 
Frankf.  Ref.  u.  d.  neue  Zeit  Eeutl.  1844.— D.  A.  Z.  184C.  N.  41. 

c)  Precis  verbal  des  seances  de  Tassemblee  des  deputes  franc,  professant  la  rel.  juive.  Par.  ISOS. 
Revue  des  deux  mondes.  1852.  Sept  15. 

d)  Paulus,  die  jüd.  Nationalabsondrung.  Heidlb.  1881.  On  the  other  side:  Kruff,  Henoticon. 
Entw.  e.  Eeligionsgesetzes  f.  christL  Staaten,  i^ps.  1S36. 

e)  D.  A.  Z.  184T.  N.  161.  219.  Jf.  Veii,  d.  Entwürfe.  Verordn.  f.  d.  Verb.  d.  Juden  in  Preusseu, 
Lps.  184T.    StaU,  d.  christl.  Staat  u.  sein  Verb.  z.  Deismus  u.  Judenth.  Brl.  1847. 


CHAP.  VIIL  GENEEAL  AFFAIRS.    §  4SS.  JEWS.    §  489.  SLAVEItT.  677 

The  National  Assembly  in  St.  Paul's  Churcli,  over  which  on  one  occasion  a 
Jew  presided,  granted  by  an  almost  unanimous  vote  full  rights  of  citizenship 
to  the  Jews ;  (/)  but  the  execution  of  this  enactment  has  been  almost  uni- 
versally prevented  in  the  German  States  by  Christians  belonging  to  the  edu- 
cated and  the  ignorant  classes,  (g)  In  England,  Parliament  has  removed  the 
civil  disabilities  of  the  Jews  (since  1829),  but  the  oath  of  adherence  to  the 
Christian  faith  required  of  all  members  of  Parliament  has  prevented  their  ad- 
mission there.  And  yet  the  city  of  London  has  repeatedly  chosen  a  Roths- 
child for  its  representative  (since  1847).  The  Lower  House  has  more  than 
once  adopted  Russell's  proposal  to  change  the  form  of  this  oath,  but  the 
Lords  have  hitherto  rejected  it,  on  the  ground  that  the  admission  of  a  Jew 
would  be  an  insult  to  the  Son  of  God,  and  the  commencement  of  an  atheistic 
government.  (A)  While  the  rationalist  party  took  no  special  interest  in  the 
work  of  converting  rationalist  Jews,  (i)  the  pietists  entered  upon  it  with  pe- 
culiar zeal.  Societies  of  the  Friends  of  Israel  were  formed  for  this  purpose 
in  England  (1808),  in  America,  and  in  some  of  the  German  cities,  {h)  The 
result  of  these  efforts  proves  that  aside  from  those  Jews  who  live  in  countries 
not  professedly  Christian,  and  those  who  are  already  seeking  salvation,  and 
therefore  need  instruction  or  protection,  more  may  be  expected  from  the 
power  of  Christian  improvements  in  Europe,  under  the  influence  of  which 
the  Jews  reside,  than  from  any  direct  attempts  at  conversion,  against  which 
they  have  such  prejudices.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Ghetto  in  Rome  were 
compelled  once  more  in  1823  to  listen  every  Sabbath  to  a  sermon  for  their 
conversion,  (l)  In  the  East  the  legend  of  the  middle  ages  with  respect  to 
the  fanatical  use  of  Christian  blood  was  now  revived,  and  used  to  justify 
every  kind  of  cruelty  and  horrible  outrage  against  the  Jews  (1840).  {ni) 

§  489.     Abolition  of  Slavery, 

E.  Biot,  de  I'abolition  de  I'esclavage  ancien  ea  Occident.  Par.  ISiX  Tii.  F.  Buxton,  d.  afrik  Scla 
venhandel  u.  s.  Abhülfe  from  the  Engl,  by  Julius.  Lps.  1S41.  [The  African  Slave  Trade  and  its  abe» 
tors.  Lond.  1S41.  S.] 

The  Church  has  always  endeavored  to  mitigate  the  evils  of  slavery  (p.  138), 
and  as  soon  as  it  possessed  the  power,  to  restrain  them  by  legal  enactments. 
But  it  was  not  until  some  time  in  the  middle  ages  that  the  last  remnants  of 
European  slavery  were  abolished  by  law.  After  Europe  had  for  three  centu- 
ries gathered  up  the  riches  of  America  by  means  of  the  newly  introduced 
slavery  of  the  African  (p.  338),  the  great  principles  of  universal  liberty  com- 
bined with  those  of  the  gospel  in  demanding  the  emancipation  of  the  negro. 
'*  A  party  of  the  Saints,"  as  they  were  called  in  derision,  which  had  sprung 

/)  Stenograph.  Bericht.  1848.  vol.  III.  p.  1754ss. 

g)  A.  KZ.  1S51.  N.  119.  BrI.  KZ.  1S5I.  N.  S.3. 

h)  A.  Z.  1534.  N.  184.  lS:i6.  N.  331.  (.Jewisli  Disabilities  Bill.)  D.  A.  Z.  1S4T.  N.  362.  1S49.  N.  167. 

{)  {Friedländer)  Scndschr.  an  Tellern  von  einigen  UausvUtern  jüd.  Rel.  BrL  1799.  comp.  TUo- 
luck,  verm.  Schrr.  vol.  II.  p.  126. 

k)  Rbeinw.  Rep.  vol.  XXHI.  p.  84,  1S6<?.  vol.  XXV.  p.  82,  274ss.  vol.  XXVIII.  p.  273ss.  Die 
Freunde  Isr.  Naelirichten  v.  d.  Ausbr.  d.  Reiches  G.  Bas.  1841.  3  P.  Guussen,  d.  Verkünd  d.  Ev 
unter  d.  Juden,  from  the  French.  Ilanib.  1844. 

I)  A.  KZ.  1S23.  N.  41.        m)  A.  Z.  1S40.  N.  140s.  &  others. 


678  MODERN  CIIURCn  IIISTOET.     PEE.  VI.    A.  D.  1648-1S53. 

from  the  Mothodistic  movement,  contended  for  a  long  time  almost  hoijele.sslj 
in  Parliament  against  the  existence  and  the  necessity  of  slavery  in  the  colo- 
nies. Their  speeches  awakened  hopes  among  the  slave.'',  Avhich,  in  some  in- 
stances led  to  insurrections.  During  one  of  these,  among  the  negroes  of  De- 
marara,  the  passions  of  the  people  became  so  inflamed  that  a  missionary 
whose  name  was  Smith  was  condemned,  and  died  in  confinement  (1824) 
before  the  king's  pardon  arrived  from  England.  When  the  tumults  among 
the  slaves  of  Jamaica  had  been  quelled,  the  chapels  of  the  Baptists  and  Meth- 
odists on  the  island  were  demolished,  and  the  lives  of  their  preachers  were 
in  peril  because  they  had  preached  that  all  the  children  of  God  were  free,  (a) 
The  abolition  of  the  African  slave  trade  by  political  treaties  (1830)  was  found 
to  be  entirely  inadequate  to  effect  the  object  at  which  it  aimed,  as  long  as 
slavery  itself  enjoyed  the  protection  of  the  laws,  (b)  After  years  of  prepara- 
tion in  various  ways,  the  English  nation  made  an  offering  of  a  hundred  and 
twenty  millions  of  dollars  to  indemnify  the  masters,  that  after  a  certain  time 
of  preparation  by  instruction  the  slaves  might  be  introduced  to  the  privileges 
of  citizens,  and  that  all  of  them  might  be  declared  free  in  the  colonies  of 
England  after  the  1st  of  August,  1834:.  As  the  slaves  had  become  Christian» 
ized  by  such  means  and  by  previous  efforts,  their  emancipation  was  found  to 
be  practicable  and  safe,  (c)  An  Order  was  established  by  the  Abbess  Javohey 
for  the  purchase  of  negroes  in  the  French  colonies  with  a  view  to  educate 
them,  and  thus  prepare  them  for  civil  freedom,  and  its  efforts  have  been  at- 
tended (s.  1838)  with  some  degree  of  success,  (d)  A  society  for  the  extinc- 
tion of  slavery  was  formed  at  Paris  (1835).  The  constitution  of  the  Eepub- 
lic  of  1848  abolished  all  slavery  on  French  territory,  and  the  National  Assem- 
bly of  1849  decreed  that  all  losses  of  the  owners  of  slaves  in  consequence  of 
emancipation  should  be  compensated  from  the  public  treasury,  Denmark  de- 
clared that  all  children  of  slaves  born  after  the  passage  of  the  act  of  manu- 
mission should  be  free,  and  fixed  upon  a  certain  year  (1847)  as  the  definite 
limit  beyond  which  all  slavery  was  to  cease  throughout  its  colonies,  (e)  In 
the  Southern  portion  of  the  United  States  the  material  interests  which  would 
be  seriously  injured  by  the  abolition  of  slavery,  came  into  violent  collision 
with  the  enthusiasm  which  demanded  that  all  who  had  been  redeemed  by 
the  blood  of  Christ  should,  at  all  hazards,  be  set  at  liberty.  The  sovereign 
people  began  (1835)  to  hang  those  clergymen  who  preached  against  slavery, 
and  the  negroes  who  listened  to  them,  in  accordance  with  their  own  forms 
of  justice  (Lynch's  law.)  (/)  Gregory  XVI.  having  reviewed  the  decrees  of 
his  predecessors,  condemned  the  trade  in  negroes  as  utterly  inconsistent  with 
Christianity  (1839; ;  (g)  but  instead  of  being  diminished,  its  horrors  becam« 
more  dreadful. 


a)  A.  KZ.  1824.  N.  93.  Ev.  KZ.  1882.  N.  93.        &)  A.  Z.  1835.  N.  142. 

c)  Abschaffung  d.  Sklav.  in  d.  Colonien.  (Ausland.  1834.  N.  855ss.) 

d)  A.  Z.  1S35.  Suppl.  N.  140s.       e)  D.  A.  Z.  1S4T.  N.  252. 
/)  A.  Z.  1S35.  N.  244.  g)  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  19. 


CHAP.  Till.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  490.  ST.  SIMON.    SOCIALISM.  679 

§  490.     St.  Simonism  and  Socialism. 

As  civil  liberty  triumphantly  advanced,  and  taught  men  that  they  had  an 
equal  right  to  the  natural  productions  of  the  soil,  and  as  at  the  same  timt 
industry  became  freed  from  its  trammels,  and,  by  the  progress  which  it 
caused  in  the  natural  sciences,  produced  reciprocal  advantages,  the  wealth  of 
the  world  accumulated  in  the  possession  of  the  few,  and  threw  the  masses  of 
society,  on  the  other  hand,  into  a  state  of  the  most  hopeless  want,  (a)  Under 
these  circumstances,  the  idea  arose  with  great  power,  especially  m  the  minds 
of  many  in  France  and  England,  either  by  a  social  revolution  to  introduce 
a  community  and  a  just  distribution  of  goods  (Communism),  or  by  an  organi- 
zation of  labor  into  free  associations  for  trade  and  subsistence,  to  assist  those 
portions  of  society  which  have  been  oppressed,  in  obtaining  a  proper  share 
of  the  enjoyments  and  improvements  which  are  now  exclusively  in  the  pos- 
session of  a  few  (Socialism),  (l)  Christianity  was  found  compatible  with 
such  efforts,  and  even  countenanced  them  to  some  extent,  by  the  aid  of  such 
facts  in  its  primitive  period  as  the  compassion  of  Jesus  for  the  poor,  his  indig- 
nation against  the  wealthy,  one  attempt  at  a  community  of  goods,  and  in  the 
history  of  its  orders  and  sects  having  much  to  say  of  a  voluntary  surrender 
of  wealth,  and  a  community  of  goods  in  a  variety  of  forms,  (c)  But  as 
Christianity  Avas  interwoven  with  all  the  existing  relations  of  society,  and 
Pantheism  had  now  made  the  idea  of  renouncing  the  pleasures  of  this  life 
intolerable,  by  destroying  all  hope  of  another  world,  Communism  has,  in  the 
person  of  its  first  leaders,  who  fell  under  the  guillotine  of  a  merely  political 
revolution  in  France,  (d)  for  the  most  part  renounced  all  connection  with 
Christianity,  (e)  But  as  the  unavoidable  necessity  of  some  kind  of  religion 
was  perceived,  the  idea  was  adopted  of  making  it  the  basis  of  the  new  order 
of  things.  Accordingly,  in  France,  Count  St.  Simon  gave  to  his  plan  for 
improving  the  condition  of  laborers  by  elevating  industry  to  the  highest  pos- 
sible privileges,  the  name  of  a  religion — a  new  Christianity.  (/)  When  he 
died,  in  consequence  of  an  attempt  at  suicide  (May  19,  1825),  a  sinffle  disciple, 
Olinde  Rodrigues,  stood  by  his  death-bed.  The  new  worldly  gospel  which 
had  been  introduced  in  the  midst  of  the  liberty  and  the  excitements  imme- 
diately following  the  revolution  of  July,  was  proclaimed  by  sermons,  mis- 
sions, and  polemical  treatises  sent  forth  from  Paris.  It  declared  that  Catho- 
licism was  in  its  dotage,  that  Protestantism  was  a  mere  negation,  that  Christ 

a)  Tbe  Claims  of  Labor.  Lend.  IS  15.     Engels,  d.  Lage  d.  arbcit  classo  in  Encrl.  Lps.  1S4,5. 
h)  L.  Siei7i,  d.  Social  ii.  Commun.  d.  lieutlgen  Frankr.  Lps.  1843.     {Bluntnc?iU,)  Die  Communis- 
ten  in  d.  Schweiz  nach  d.  b.  Weitung  vorgefund.  Papieren.  Comniissionsboricht  Zur.  1S4:?. 

c)  C.  B.  Huivleiihafjen,  d.  Commun.  n.  d.  nseetische  Socialreform  im  Laufe  d.  cliristl.  Jalirlih. 
(Stud.  u.  Krit.  1&4.5.  II.  3s.)  J.  P.  liomang,  d.  Uedeut  d.  Coinm.  a.  d.  Gcsiohtsp.  d.  Christenth.  u.  d. 
sittl.  Cultur.  Zur.  \'i-i~.— Proud  hon,  d.  Sonntagsfcier.  a.  d.  Fr.  Katisb.  1850. 

d)  F.  N.  Bcthoeiif,  le  tribun  du  peuple.  Par.  (1795.)  F.  Buonarotti,  la  conspiration  de  Baboeuf. 
Brux.  182S. 

e)  (P.  554s,)  Comp.  Gencralbericht  an  d.  Staatsr.  v.  Neuclmtcl  ft.  d.  gob.  deutsche  Propaganda, 
Zur.  1S4G.   Ev.  KZ.  1S4C.  N.  93. 

/)  Introd.  au.\  travaux  scientlflqucs  du  19.  S.  Par.  1807.  2  vols.  4.  Reorcranisation  do  la  societ« 
Kurop.  Par.  1814.  CatOchismo  des  industriels.  Par.  1S24.  Le  nouveau  ehristianlsme.  Par.  1825 
'.Oeuvres  p.  0.  Rodrigues.  Par.  1832,  2  vols.    Extracts  in  Buohholz  neuer  Monatschr.  vol.  2ls.  84s,) 


680  MODKRN  CHURCH  HISTORY.     PER.  VI.    A.  D.  1C45-1S53. 

hail  provided  only  for  the  spiritual  portion  of  our  nature,  and  that  St.  Simon 
was  about  to  reinvest  the  flesh  in  its  rights.  Simonism  became,  on  the  one 
hand,  a  deification  of  the  world,  and  on  the  other,  a  consecration  of  industry 
as  a  series  of  operations  upon  the  divinity  itself.  Its  general  law  was,  that 
after  the  law  of  inheritance  had  been  abolished,  every  individual  should 
receive  from  the  common  stock  in  proportion  to  his  capacity,  and  every 
capacity  according  to  its  works.  Tliis  principle  was  to  be  carried  out  under 
the  direction  of  a  hierarchy,  whose  arbitrary  power  was  concealed  under 
tirades  about  love  and  self-sacrifice,  (ij)  Even  noble  minds  were  sometimes 
captivated,  by  the  unsparing  manner  in  which  the  evils  of  the  present  state 
of  society  were  laid  bare,  by  the  substitution  of  merit  for  the  accident  of 
birth,  and  the  reinvestiture  of  the  disinherited  son  of  European  society  in 
the  rights  of  a  man.  The  boldest  language  which  this  spirit  of  the  age  ven- 
tured to  use,  was  that  in  which  an  exclusive  attention  to  material  interests 
was  dignified  with  the  name  of  religion.  But  when  Fnfcmtin,  one  of  the 
leaders  of  this  party,  a  stately  and  energetic  but  narrow-minded  man,  in  his 
character  of  the  highest  revelation  of  the  Deity,  bestowed  his  j)rincipal  atten- 
tions upon  women,  and,  as  their  Messiah,  made  woman  free  by  destroying 
the  restraints  of  marriage,  and  aiming  to  attain  privileges  like  those  of  Mo- 
hammed, a  schism  was  produced  (Nov.,  1831),  and  Kodrigues  proclaimed  that 
Simonism  had  apostatized  from  St.  Simon.  The  saloon  of  the  Simonists  was 
closed  by  order  of  the  government,  and  they  were  themselves  arraigned  be- 
fore the  legal  tribunals  for  propagating  principles  dangerous  to  morality. 
Their  condemnation  (Aug.,  1832)  was  a  convenient  kind  of  martyrdom,  and 
the  supreme  Father  Enfantin  still  continued  the  object  of  a  confiding  venera- 
tion to  all  true  believers,  (h)  But  the  public  prominence  which  their  hier- 
archy and  morality  had  attained,  destroyed,  all  public  confidence,  and  their 
monastic  seclusion,  their  costume,  and  their  phraseology  became  a  matter  of 
general  ridicule.  (/)  liobcrt  Owen  (b.  1772),  a  benevolent  manufacturer  of 
England,  became  convinced,  by  observing  the  poverty  and  unhappiness  of 
those  around  him,  that  man  had  been  conducted  by  the  present  system  of 
civilization  to  the  very  verge  of  an  abyss.  After  vainly  attempting  to  regen- 
erate human  society  on  his  own  possessions  in  England  (since  1800)  and  ii: 
North  America  (1828),  he  turned  his  attention,  by  means  of  lectures,  tracts, 
and  missionaries,  to  the  neglected  portion  of  the  English  nation.  He  con- 
tended, that  instead  of  standing  in  the  way  of  one  another,  men  should  co- 
operate and  enjoy  the  fruit  of  their  common  toil ;  that  instead  of  the  present 
system  of  unnatural  marriages,  there  should  be  a  free  choice  of  kindred 
spirits ;  and  that  instead  of  families,  there  should  be  congregations.  So  fai 
as  our  knowledge  at  present  extends,  we  have  no  certainty  that  the  existence 


g)  Doctrine  de  St.  Sim.  Par.  182S.  ed.  3.  ISSl.  vol.  I.  Communion  generale  de  la  famille  de  St.  S 
Par.  1S31.  J.  Le  Chevalier,  rel.  St.  Simonienne.  Enseignement  central.  Par.  1S81.  (Zeitschr.  £  hist 
Th.  vol.  I.  Part  2.)  Association  Universelle.  Par.  1831. 

/()  Le  Chevalier,  sur  la  division.  Par.  1S32.     Proces  des  St.  S.  Par.  1832. 

*)  Cari»\i,  A.  St  Sim.  u.  d.  neuere  franz.  Pliil.  Lps.  1S31.  Bretschneider,  d.  St  9.  u.  d.  Chris. 
tenth.  Lps.  18.32.  M.  Veit,  St  Simon  u.  d.  St  Simonisten.  Lps.  1834.  Matter,  iu  d.  Stud.  u.  KriU 
1832.  P,  1.     Kupff,  in  d.  Tub.  Zeitscli.  1S32.  P.  2. 


CHAP.  VIII.    GENERAL  AFFAIRS.    §  491.  HOLY  ALLIANCE.  681 

of  man  is  protracted  beyond  the  present  life,  and  hence  every  religion  "which 
leads  the  mind  beyond  this  world  is  a  delusion.  Men  are  responsible  to  no 
superior  being;  but  should  they  be  placed  from  childhood  in  right  cir- 
cumstances, without  the  perverting  influence  of  poverty  and  ignorance,  they 
would  be  animated  by  a  spirit  of  kindness  toward  every  living  thing,  which 
would  render  any  division  of  property  entirely  unnecessary.  (A,)  This  scheme 
of  Socialism  found  great  favor  (since  1836)  among  those  who  were  engaged 
in  manufactures.  Siraonism  had  been  utterly  ruined  by  the  laughter  of  the 
French  people,  and  it  was  perfectly  safe  for  the  government  to  confide  the 
rectification  of  Owen's  theories  to  the  sound  sense  of  the  English  people. 
But  the  dangerous  spirit  of  Communism  is  still  undermining  the  foundations 
of  European  civilization,  and  has  not  yet  been  allayed  by  the  higher  authority 
of  the  State,  nor  by  the  benevolent  power  of  Christianity.  (I) 

§  491.     The  Holy  Alliance. 

Krug,  la  saintc  All.  o.  Denkmal  d.  h.  Bumles.  Lps.  ISIG.  (Gesamm.  Schrr.  vol.  III.)  Archiv  d.  h. 
Bundes.  Munich.  1S18.  Notiz  ü.  Alex.  Jena.  1S28.  p.  29ss.  Eylert,  Friedr.  Wilh.  III.  voL  H.  Abtli. 
2.  p.  2-4SSS.— if.  F.  Fleck,  d.  Krieg  u.  d.  Ewige  Friede.  Lps.  1849. 

Under  the  influence  of  the  Emperor  Alexander,  then  consoling  himself 
for  his  lost  ideals,  and  seeking  religious  instruction  in  the  society  of  Madame 
de  Krudener  (p.  595),  {(i)  the  princes  of  Europe,  with  the  exception  of  the 
King  of  England,  the  Pope,  and  the  Sultan,  organized  a  Holy  Alliance  (1815), 
that  the  members  of  it  might  become  a  great  Christian  family,  in  which, 
regardless  of  the  various  ecclesiastical  divisions,  the  law  of  Christian  love 
might  be  made  the  supreme  law  of  nations.  The  statesmen  of  Europe  smiled 
at  the  strange  language;  the  Holy  Alliance  in  its  actual  operation,  soon 
turned  out  to  be  very  much  like  other  holy  leagues  of  former  times,  and  it 
finally  dwindled  imperceptibly  away  (since  1830).  Monarchs  belonging  to 
the  three  Churches  of  Christendom  in  1840,  even  conquered  the  Holy  Land 
for  the  Turks.  And  yet  this  ideal  thus  involuntarily  recognized,  or  in  the 
commotions  of  an  extraordinary  period  rapidly  vanishing,  is  an  everlasting 
truth,  and  a  prophecy  of  a  future  reality.  For  the  ticcomplishment  of  what 
Henry  IV.  and  Elizabeth  once  had  in  view,  {li)  and  respecting  which  many 
philosophers  have  dreamed,  an  annual  Cougrcss  of  the  friends  of  peace  has 
been  formed  (since  1843),  under  the  influence  of  an  American  association  of 
Quakers  (since  1815).  TJic  advocates  of  this  movement  declare,  that  the 
welfare  of  Europe  is  sacrificed  to  sustain  the  expense  of  an  armed  peace 
establishment ;  that  the  principles  of  Christianity  utterly  forbid  war ;  and 
that  all  the  disputes  which  arise  between  different  governments,  may  be 

k)  Ev.  KZ.  1889.  N.  43.  A.  KZ.  1840.  N.  31.  50.  Brl.  KZ.  1840.  N.  22.  Ehclnw.  Rep.  1841.  vol. 
XXXII.  p.  179ss.  242ss.  {li.  D.  Owen,  Book  of  tlio  New  Mor.  World.  N.  York.  1844.  New  View 
of  Sociely.  N.  York.  1825.  12.     Debate  with  Campbell.  Cine.  1S30.] 

T)  P.  591.  Jürscher  (p.  C54.)  A.  Vinet,  d.  Social  in  s.  Princip.  from  the  Fr.  by  Hofmeister,  with 
Vorw.  by  A.  Nettndet;  Brl.  1849.  //.  Mera,  Ariiiuth  u.  Christenth.  Stuttg.  1849.  //.  Arnim-Blum- 
berg,  d.  höhern  Stände  wie  sie  sein  sollten  lu  wie  sie  sind.  Brl.  1851. 

fl)  C.  U.  Eynard,  Vie  de  Me.  de  Krudener.  Par.  1849.  2  vols. 

I)  G.  G.  GervinuB,  Einl.  in  d.  Gesch.  d.  19.  Jahrh.  Lps.  1853.  p.  194s.  [Introd.  to  the  Hist,  of  th« 
19th  Cent.,  from  the  Qtrm.  of  Qervinus.  Lond.  1853.  12.  p.  75.] 


682  MODICKX  CIIUIICII  IIISTOliY.     I'EIl.  VI.     A.  D.  1C4S-1S.'A 

brought  to  an  amicable  termination  by  the  decisions  of  arbitrators,  (c)  Tlie 
declamations  of  tliis  Congress,  and  Elihu's  pipe  of  peace,  have  been  made  the 
subject  of  general  derision,  for  even  Christ  has  brought  a  sword  into  our 
world ;  but  the  gospel,  attended  by  an  advancing  civilization,  holds  up  this 
Peace  of  God,  this  holy  alliance  of  the  nations,  as  the  great  ideal  which  it 
perpetually  strives  to  attain. 

c)  A.  KZ.  1850.  N.  121.  [K  Burritt,  Thoughts  and  Things  at  Home  and  Abroad,  with  Life,  by 
Mary  Ilowitt.  Boston.  1S53  12.  T.  C.  Up/uan,  Manual  of  Peace.  N.  York.  1S36.  8.  C.  Sumner,  The 
Grandeur  of  Nations.  Boston.  1847.  (Orat.  and  Addresses.  Bost.  1950. 12.)  J.  Dijmond,  Accordanc« 
of  War  with  Chr.  Phllad.  1836. 12.] 


^  ./'.'.   .     ^  .    ,    .  '^■ 


>f^ 


APPENDIX, 


[Some  of  the  first  pages  of  this  translation  were  stereotj-ped  before  the  seventh 
Gtmian  edition  was  announced  in  this  country.  The  folio-wing  is  nearly  all  the 
additional  matter  in  the  course  of  those  pages,  and  all  which  seemed  of  importance.] 

P.  7,  the  author  says  of  Matthias  Flacius  and  Caesar  Baronius,  that  they 
"  were  agreed  in  acknowledging  the  authority  of  the  primitive  Church  and 
its  dogmas,  and  in  regarding  the  history  of  the  Church  as  a  conflict  between 
Christ  and  Satan ;  but  according  to  Baronius,  Christ,  though  sometimes  slum- 
bering in  his  little  vessel,  has  conducted  it  safely  through  every  storm; 
while,  according  to  Flacius,  Antichrist  has  set  up  his  seat  of  power  in  the 
midst  of  the  Church  itself." 

Add  to  the  last  sentence  of  §  11 :  "  The  necessities  of  modern  times  have 
been  provided  for  especially  by  the  graceful  work  of  BerauU  Berncastel,  (a) 
by  the  compilation  of  Ilenrion,  (b)  and  by  HohrlacJici',  (c)  whose  labors  dis- 
play a  considerable  sympathy  with  the  researches  of  German  scholars." 

Near  the  middle  of  p.  10,  Neander  is  said  to  have  given  to  the  pietistic 
school  before  represented  by  Milner,  "  a  scientific  character,  by  uniformly 
referring  to  the  original  authorities,  by  entering  heartily  into  the  peculiarities 
and  earnestly  developing  the  doctrines  of  past  times,  and  by  giving  promi- 
nence to  long-neglected  representations  of  the  Christian  life,  as  they  were 
variously  exhibited  in  particular  individuals  of  uncommon  talents.  lie  dis- 
plays a  confidence  in  Christianity  as  a  divine  leaven,  which  must  gradually 
pervade  all  human  affairs ;  and  though  affectionately  attached  to  the  Church 
as  the  fellowship  of  the  saints,  ho  is  tolerant  toward  all  who  oppose  it  on 
merely  doctrinal  grounds,  and  he  clothes  his  descriptions  with  an  ample  and 
devotional,  but  unassuming,  simple,  and  natural  oriental  drapery,  (d)  In  the 
same  spirit,  Jacohi  has  commenced  a  Text-Book,  in  which  genend  principles 

a)  nist.  do  Tcglise.  Par.  1778-91.  24  vols.  "With  Contln.  by  Pelier  de  Lacroiof,  liobiano,  etc 

V)  New  ed.  Hist.  eccl.  depuis  la  creation  jusqu'au  pontiticat  do  Pio  IX.,  publice  par  Jligne,  Par. 
1S52.  vol.  I.  (To  be  completed  In  25  vols.) 

c)  Hist.  Universelle  do  Tegl.  Par.  1812-48.  29  vols. 

(I)  The  Gth  vol.  of  Ncander's  Hist  of  llie  C'lir.  Pel.  until  1517,  was  left  in  a  ft-ftfjmentary  state,  and 
has  been  ed.  by  A'.  F.  T.  Schneider,  2  ed.  1-4  vol.  1S42-47.  [and  has  been  transl.  by  Torreij,  N.  T. 
\S:>i.]'-Ifagenhach,  Ncand.  Vcrdiensto  uni  d.  KQosch.  (Stud.  u.  Krit.  1S51.  H.  3.)  Jacobi,  z.  Erino. 
an  Neand.  (Deutsche  Zoitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1S41.  N.  20ss.) 


684  APPENDIX.    INTRODUCTION.    LITEEATDEE. 

aro  presented  in  an  abstract  classification  of  events,  and  in  isolated  charac- 
ters, and  Schaff  a  more  extended  work,  in  which  he  endeavors  to  give  the 
German  Church  in  America  the  results  of  German  theology."  (a) 

P.  10,  "the  later  editions"  of  GuericTce's  Church  History  are  said  to  have 
"  gradually  become  a  careful  collection  of  interesting  characteristic  traits  of 
the  piety  of  our  forefathers.  The  revival  of  the  spirit  of  the  various  con- 
flicting creeds  of  former  times,  has  necessarily  had  some  influence  upon  eccle- 
siastical history.  Lindner  has  attempted  to  show  that  the  position  of  the 
Lutheran  Church  is  correct,  by  showing  that  the  law  of  spiritual  life  is  not 
progress,  which  he  regards  as  a  purely  mechanical  and  an  unscientific  idea, 
but  development,  and  has  collected  an  abundant  store  of  materials,  with  not 
much  criticism  or  exactness,  but  with  considerable  moral  judgment  and  pious 
benevolence.  Kurtz's  School-Book  has  finally  become  a  learned  manual,  in 
which  the  language  and  the  descriptions  are  vigorous,  and  almost  popular ; 
the  Lutheran  is  set  forth,  with  as  much  criticism  as  the  circumstances  allowed, 
as  the  only  true  ecclesiastical  system  of  doctrines ;  and  the  co-operation  or 
resistance  of  men  is  exhibited  in  a  scheme  of  salvation  founded  on  the  merits 
of  the  incarnate  Redeemer  on  the  cross,  and  under  the  fostering  care  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  advancing  to  universal  dominion.  Notwithstanding  the  exclusive 
ecclesiasticism  of  the  two  last-named  writers,  both  founded  their  division 
into  periods  on  the  national  elements  of  the  Graeco-Roman  and  the  Germanic 
civilization,  and  Kurtz  went  so  far  as  to  sepai*ate  many  things  which  for  the 
time  at  least  belonged  together.  (J)  Niedner,  on  the  other  hand,  investigat- 
ing and  philosophizing  with  perfect  freedom,  though  with  obvious  inequality 
in  his  execution,  and  in  a  style  which  is  rather  dry  and  scholastic,  but  with  a 
strictly  logical  connection,  has  collected  a  great  abundance  of  particular 
views.  He  was  followed  by  FricJce,  with  great  designs  and  much  labor 
attempting  to  compose  a  Text-Book,  in  which  Church  History  was  to  be 
delivered  from  those  petty  details  which  are  so  painful  and  even  fatal  to 
many  minds,  and  addressing  himself  to  his  work  with  youthful  ardor,  but  in 
a  peculiar  and  frequently  distorted  style,  and  in  an  unnatural  order  of  logical 
development."  (c) 

At  the  close  of  §  12,  Gf rarer  is  said  to  have  "  pointed  out  the  immense 
importance  of  the  mediaeval  Church  for  the  German  states." 

Add  to  the  close  of  §  22 :  "  And  yet  the  necessity  of  supernatural  aid, 
and  with  this  a  confidence  in  its  reality,  had  been  vividly  felt  even  in  more 
fortunate  times.  The  unconscious  longings  of  the  Roman  people  were  ex- 
pressed by  their  poets  in  hopes  full  of  anxious  forebodings,  and  by  their  his- 
torians in  gloomy  presentiments,  (d)    Among  the  oriental  nations,  a  hope 

a)  J.  L.  Jacoli,  LB.  d.  KGesch.  BrL  1S50.  1  vol.  till  590.  PhU.  Schaf,  Gesch.  d.  ehr.  K.  Von 
ihrer  Grund,  b.  a.  d.  Gegenw.  Mercersb.  1S51.  1  vol  Apost  Zeit  (Intended  to  be  in  9  vols.)  [Hist. 
of  the  Apost  Church,  from  the  Germ,  of  P.  SchaflE;  by  K  D.  Yeomans,  N.  York.  1S53.] 

h)  Bruno  Lindner,  LB.  d.  chr.  KGesch.  m.  bes.  Berücks.  d.  dogm.  Entw.  Lps.  184S-52.  2  Abth. 
&  3  Abth.  1.  H.  (till  1648.)  J.  IT.  Kurtz,  (LB  d.  KGesch.  Mietau.  1S49. 1850.)  HB.  d.  allg.  KGeecU. 
(as  3.  ed.)  Miet  1S53.  1  vol.  (Intended  to  be  in  2  vols,  in  4  Abth.) 

c)  0.  W.  Medner,  Gesch.  d.  chr.  K.  LB.  Lps.  1846.  P.  G.  A.  Friche,  LB.  d.  KGesch.  Lps.  1550. 
I  vol.  (till  7CS.) 

d)  Virgil,  Eclog.  IV,  4-10.— Z).  TP:  BotUcher,  proph.  Stimmen  a.  Rom.  o.  das  ChristL  in  Tacitiu 
Hamb.  1S40.  2  vols. 


PHILO.    STEPHEN.    PAUL     JOHN.  ^B 

then  extensively  prevailed  that  salvation  would  come  from  the  East,  and 
proceed  in  every  direction  from  Judea,  where  the  fulfilment  was  already 
approaching.  This  expectation,  though  known  to  the  Roman  court,  was 
regarded  as  trivial,  and  of  no  political  importance."  (a) 

Add  after  Philo,  p.  21,  line  5th  from  the  bottom :  "a  weak  thinker,  but 
with  an  exalted  moral  and  a  profound  religious  spirit." 

Near  the  middle  of  p,  25,  Stephen  is  said  to  have  been  "  probably  a  Hel- 
lenist, whose  ardor  had  rendered  him  prominent  in  the  controversy.  Such  a 
controversy,  however,  shows  that  he  had  broken  through  the  ordinary  bar- 
riers of  the  Christianity  of  that  period,  and  portended  the  doom  which  then 
threatened  the  unbelieving  Jews.  But  the  angelic  aspect  he  exhibited  in 
view  of  death  could  not  save  him,"  &c. 

The  first  sentence  of  §  31  continues  :  "  and  from  the  synoptic  gospels  we 
have  reason  to  conclude  that  there  were  some  churches  on  the  shores  of  the 
sea  of  Galilee." 

In  the  sentence  closing  with  "  (64)  "  p.  29  :  "  Paul  did  not  survive  the  per- 
secution under  Nero." 

After  "  sinfulness,"  on  line  10th,  p.  30 :  "  Paul  had  been  brought  involun- 
tarily and  with  violence  to  Christ ;  and  in  the  profound  consciousness  of  the 
utter  nothingness  of  all  creatures  before  God,  he  believed  that  man's  destiny 
was  arranged  by  an  immutable  decree,  and  it  was  in  this  way  that  he  solved 
the  mystery  of  a  temporary  rejection  of  God's  people,  until  the  Gentiles  shall 
have  entered  the  divine  kingdom." 

Before  "  Paul,"  near  the  close  of  §  33  :  "  Yet  the  new  man  is  necessarily 
produced  by  faith,  through  which  the  behever  dies  and  rises  again  with 
Christ." 

P.  31,  on  line  4th,  instead  of  "  Eome,"  read :  "  the  Roman  Church,  which, 
according  to  the  epistle  to  the  Romans,  was  founded  neither  by  Peter  nor 
by  Paul." 

On  the  first  line  of  p.  33  :  Paul  "held  up  to  those  in  Corinth  (1  Cor.  15), 
who  protested  against  the  resurrection,  not  on  the  ground  of  the  old  He- 
brew and  Sadducean,  in  opposition  to  the  Pharisaic  arguments,  but  on  that 
of  inferences  from  Grecian  literature  (Acts  17,  32),  the  simple  fact  that  Christ 
had  actually  risen  from  the  dead ;  and  he  showed  from  his  Pharisaic  position, 
that  an  opposite  opinion  would,  if  consistently  carried  out,  lead  to  the  sensual 
life  of  an  Epicurean."  After  the  close  of  the  section,  it  is  said  that  the  sim- 
ple gospel  "  naturally  developed  itself  in  his  mind,  until  in  contrast  with 
those  various  orders  of  spirits,  he  placed  the  Redeemer  as  the  Son  of  God, 
who  had  not  only  lived  before,  but  had  actually  created  the  world."  (b) 

On  p.  34,  line  8th,  the  conflict  beyond  which  John  appears  in  his  later 
writings  to  have  lived,  is  defined  to  be  that  between  Christianity  and  "  Juda- 
ism, and  which  seemed  to  him  as  the  great  crisis  of  the  conflict  between 
light  and  darkness  in  the  world,  already  in  the  past." 

a)  Tacit.  Hist.  V,  13.    Suet.  Yesp.  c  4.    According  to  JosepM  Bell.  Jud.  "VI,  6.  4. 

h)  Col.  1,  lä-17.  is  only  the  most  pointed  expression  of  the  development  proceeding  by  means  of 
the  epistles  to  the  Colossians,  Epliesians,  and  Phi!i[ipi:ins.  For  their  Pauline  origin :  Jieims,  Gesch. 
L  H.  Schriften,  vol.  I.  p.  lOlss.  119s3.     Against  it:  Banr,  Paul.  p.  41Tss. 


C86  APPENDIX.     APOSTOLIC  CIIUUCIL 

§  39  is  rewritten  :  "  The  -writings  wliich  have  come  down  to  us  from  the 
apostolic  Ciiurch,  originated  not  in  a  love  of  authorship,  but  from  the  reli- 
gious exigencies  of  the  times.  They  were  circulars  in  which  Paul  continued 
after  death  to  communicate  Avith  tlie  congregations  he  had  establislied,  recol- 
lections of  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus,  and  proplietic  glimpses  of  the  end  of  the 
world,  for  the  consolation  of  those  Avho  were  to  live  in  the  approaching 
troubles  of  the  Church.  An  inclination  toward  the  popular  language  of  the 
Greeks  naturally  followed  when  Christianity  passed  beyond  the  limits  of  the 
Judaism  of  Palestine,  though  an  oriental  coloring  and  a  profounder  religious 
meaning  was  necessarily  imparted  to  many  of  its  words  and  phrases.  Among 
the  epistles  by  an  unknown  hand,  is  that  which  was  addressed  to  the  Hebrews, 
Its  style  of  thought  is  that  which  prevailed  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  and 
■was  adapted  to  Jewish  Christians ;  the  allegorical  mode  of  explaining  the 
Scriptures  is  used  to  show  that  the  whole  temple  service  which  then  existed 
in  its  glory,  was  an  unsatisfactory,  shadowy  form,  whose  rites  needed  to  be 
continually  repeated,  and  had  now  attained  their  true  reality  in  Christ,  the 
everlasting  High  Priest,  and  the  perpetual  sacrifice  for  sin  ;  and  saving  faith 
is  shown  to  be  a  confidence  in  things  unseen,  and  a  development  of  the  divine 
trust  exhibited  in  the  Old  Testament,  (a)  A  sudden  rupture  from  the  living 
spirit  of  former  writings  is  immediately  perceptible  when  we  enter  upon  the 
productions  of  the  apostolic  Epigonoi,  who  lived  until  near  the  middle  of  the 
second  century,  and  were  honored  by  the  Church  as  Apostolic  Fathers.  A 
doctrinal  treatise,  ascribed  to  Barnabas  by  the  Alexandrian  doctors  of  the 
third  century,  has  a  considerable  resemblance  to  the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
though  its  historical  views  appear  to  have  had  no  dependence  upon  the 
canonical  gospels  (Life  of  Jesus,  §  122,  nt.  f).  "When  referring,  however,  to 
the  ruins  of  the  temple,  the  author  seems  to  have  regarded  Judaism  not  only 
as  then  rejected  by  God,  but  as  already  broken  when  Moses,  in  anger  at  the 
idolatrous  people,  dashed  in  pieces  the  tables  of  the  law.  He  appears  also  to 
have  looked  upon  the  whole  popular  practice  of  the  ceremonial  law  as  found- 
ed upon  a  misunderstanding  of  the  divine  intention,  according  to  which  it 
was  merely  a  prophetic  image,  whose  particular  parts  are  referred  with  a 
playful  fancy  to  Chi-ist  as  a  new  lawgiver,  and  whose  true  interpretation  con- 
stituted a  complete  gnosis,  (b)  The  epistle  of  Clement  was  written  in  the 
name  of  the  church  of  Rome  to  the  church  of  Corinth  (80-90),  for  the  pur- 
pose of  effecting,  through  the  influence  of  former  friendship,  a  reconciliation 
between  the  several  parties  which  had  broken  out  in  the  latter,  and  we  find 
that  it  was  read  as  a  sacred  book  in  the  Corinthian  Church  in  the  second 
century,  (c)  It  contains  no  reference  to  the  Jewish  law,  introduces  many 
notions  then  current  among  the  Greeks,  and  enforces  the  doctrine  of  salva- 
tion through  faith  and  good  works,  (d)     The  She^yJio-d  also  had  its  origin  in 

a)  After  the  Introdd.  to  the  Commentaries  (osp.  of  D.  Schulz,  Bleek,  Tholuck) :  T.  A.  Se'/farih, 
de  Ep.  ad  H.  indole  peculiari.  Lps.  1S21.  Ilase,  ü.  d.  Empfanger  d.  Br.  an  d.  H.  (Winer's  n.  Engelh. 
Journ.  1S23.  vol.  II.  II.  8.)  Baumgarten-Crusius  de  orig.  Ep.  ad  H.  Jen.  1S29.  TT.  J.  Hiia;  in  d. 
Stud.  u.  Krit.  18.S9.  n.  4. 

b)  Comp,  ne/ele  in  d.  Tub.  Quartalsch.  1S.39.  H.  1. 

c)  Dionys.  of  Corinth,  in  £us.  H  ecc.  IV,  23.  6.  Ire».  Ill,  8, 

d)  RitwfU,  p.  252ss.  against  Schicejler,  vol.  II.  p.  125ss.  Comp.  C.  E.  Francice,  ii.  Lehre  d.  Clem. 


CLEMENT.    HEEMA3.    ECCLES.  ANGELS.  687 

the  Roman  Church,  (a)  After  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  it  was 
regarded  in  many  congregations  as  a  sacred  writing,  and  from  its  many 
primitive  but  offensive  oeferences,  we  conclude  that  it  may  belong  to  the 
close  of  the  first  century,  though  Rermas,  the  brother  of  Pius  I.,  Bishop  of 
Rome  (142-157),  was  the  first  who  collected  these  inspired  dreams,  visions 
of  angels,  and  parables  together,  and  gave  them  his  primitive  name  (Rom. 
16,  14).  (b)  It  consists  principally  of  admonitions  to  a  strictly  moral  life, 
and  recognizes  on  this  very  account  the  rights  of  those  who  had  fallen  away, 
but  had  penitently  returned  after  baptism.  In  the  allegorical  form  in  which 
the  Church  is  there  presented,  Christianity  appears  almost  exclusively  as  a 
foith  in  one  God,  and  a  renunciation  of  the  world,  and  Christian  Judaism  as 
a  trust  in  the  meritoriousness  of  works,  and  as  a  mere  theological  form." 

After  the  first  sentence  on  p.  39  :  "  But  the  seven  stars  of  the  angels  of 
the  churches  of  Asia  Minor,  do  not  designate  the  overseers  of  those  con- 
gregations, but  in  the  style  of  the  inspired  prophets,  the  genii  by  whom 
the  distinct  character  of  each  church  is  supposed  to  be  represented,  like  the 
national  spirits  mentioned  in  Daniel  (ch.  10),  and  hence  they  are  sometimes 
addressed  as  personal  beings,  and  sometimes  as  identical  with  their  respective 
churches."  (<■) 

The  second  sentence  on  the  same  page  is  continued  thus :  "  and  were 
ordained  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  either  of  the  whole  congregation,  or 
of  the  distinguished  teachers  belonging  to  it."  (d) 

After  the  second  sentence  on  p.  40  :  "All  were  full  of  tlie  expectation 
of  something  supernatural,  and  they  therefore  put  confidence  in  what  claimed 
to  be  manifestations  of  divine  power,  although  no  one  felt  that  he  could  ad- 
vance any  claims  upon  it  for  personal  aid.  Every  natural  talent  according  to 
its  peculiar  nature,"  &c. 

Before  "  Fastings,"  middle  of  p.  40  :  "  even  the  women  took  occasion  to 
lay  aside  those  marks  of  propriety  which  Avere  then  generally  observed."  (e) 

Before  "  All  hope,"  near  the  close  of  §  43,  the  previous  sentence  con- 
tinues :  "  the  gospel  had  already  shown  bow  it  could  quietly  exalt  societj' 
above  the  utmost  limits  of  the  ancient  world.  (/)  And  yet  some  admoni- 
tions to  bo  obedient  for  conscience'  sake  to  those  who  were  actually  in  au- 
thority, were  not  altogether  superfluous  for  the  new  royal  priesthood,  (g) 
which  had  no  conception  of  the  labor  and  patience  needful  before  its  true 
historical  development  would  be  attained.     It  is  true  that,"  itc. 


IZeitseh.  f.  lutli.  Tli.  1841.  II.  3.)    An  epistle  claimin?  to  be  llie  2(1  of  Clement  wjw  found  with  the  1st 
in  tlie  Codex  Alex.,  but  is  a  doubtful  fragment  of  a  generally  devotional  cliaraeter. 

a)  Iren.  IV,  3.  Schicegler,  vol.  I[.  p.  ,32Sss.  lUUdd,  p.  29Tss.  Lücke,  Kinl.  in  d.  Off.  d.  Job.  p. 
387ss.  (as  belonging  to  tbe  first  balf  of  the  2d  cent.) 

h)  Fragm.  de  canone  in  Murat,  Antiqq.  Ital.  vol.  III.  p  S5.3.  It  may  after  all  have  been  intended 
only  lor  a  Montanistic  object.  (TVriH^.  do  pud.  c.  2  :  illo  apocryphus  Taster  nioeclioruin.)  Comp. 
Thiersch,  d.  K.  im  Ap.  Zeita.  p.  251.ss. 

t)  Rev.  1,  20.  2,  1.  S.  12.  18.  3,  1.  T.  Xeithor  «itli  Guhler.  (1.  c.  p.  14ss.)  Agents  and  at  the  same 
time  personifications  of  tlio  Churches,  nor  with  liothe  (p.  42.3s.),  ordin.iry  bi.-hops,  but  which  ex- 
isted originally  in  the  plan  of  the  apostles,  nor  with  Thiersch  (K.  in  Ap.  Zeita.  p.  2;Ss3.),  superior 
pastors,  a  kind  of  bisliops.    Comp.  De  Wette,  Offenb.  Jo.  p.  413.        d)  Act}  6,  6.  18,  3. 

e)  1  Cor.  11,  1-15. 

/)  Ep.  ad  Philrmon.   Gal.  3,  2S.  g)  liom.  13,  1-7.     1  Pet.  2,  18-lG. 


686  APPENDIX.    CONFLICTS  OF  CIIEISTIAIIITr. 

In  the  first  sentence  of  §  44 :  "  The  devotional  exercises  of  the  Christian 
assemblies,  like  those  of  the  Jewish  synagogues,  consisted,  in  addition  to  an 
attendance  in  tlie  church  at  Jerusalem  upon  the  temple  service,  generally  of 
prayers,  singing  of  psalms  and  even  of  the  first  strains  of  the  Christian 
hymns,  (a)  the  reading  of  the  proper  sections  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
discourses  founded  upon  these."  It  is  also  said,  that  "  Apostolic  epistles 
■were  sometimes  exchanged  between  different  congregations  (Col.  4,  15s.),'' 
and  that  "in  Greek  congregations,  baptism  was  sometimes  administered  to 
those  who  stood  as  proxies  for  the  dead.  (J)" 

On  p.  45,  after  what  is  said  of  Sept.  Severus :  "  but  the  process  of  trial 
by  torture,  to  induce  the  accused  to  deny  their  faith,  which  had  been  author- 
ized by  Trajan,  and  after  the  time  of  Marcus  Aurelius  had  been  practised 
with  increased  severity,  was  strictly  enforced  by  the  courts,  at  least  in 
Africa,  (c)"  After  what  is  said  of  Alex.  Severus  :  "  and  yet,  in  the  code  of 
laws  which  Ulpian  collected  for  the  use  of  the  proconsuls,  were  included  the 
penal  enactments  against  the  Christians.  («Z)" 

On  p.  56,  after  the  first  word  at  the  top  :  "  Thus  the  story  of  the  massa- 
cre of  the  Theban  Legion  in  a  narrow  pass  of  the  Vallais  (287),  was,  accord- 
ing to  its  earliest  traditional  form,  merely  that  of  the  martyrdom  of  Mauri' 
tius,  with  seventy  soldiers,  in  the  East ;  and  the  more  extended  form  of  it 
which  has  since  been  propagated  in  the  "West,  was  made  known  near  the 
middle  of  the  fifth  century,  at  the  same  time  with  the  coming  to  St.  Maurice 
of  the  sanctuary  of  this  martyr-legion,  with  which  the  local  services  of  the 
different  places  became  connected  in  the  cities  of  the  Lower  Rhine,  (e)" 

On  p.  57,  respecting  the  Ap.  Constitutions :  "  The  7th  and  8th  books 
Avere  independent  collections,  entii'ely  revised  with  respect  to  their  language 
in  the  fourth  century,  and  supplied  with  some  later  ecclesiastical  usages,  but 
not  in  a  sense  specially  favorable  to  the  Arians.  As  a  complete  collection, 
they  have  never  attained  the  authority  of  law,  and  they  have  been  put 
together  variously  in  the  different  national  churches  of  the  Roman  empire. 
In  its  primitive  form,  it  was  especially  the  compilation  of  the  church  of 
Alexandria.  (/)" 

On  p.  58,  "  Choir-leaders  (x/raXrai)  (ö^)"  are  mentioned  among  the  semi- 
clergy,  and  it  is  added :  "  Widows  and  deaconesses  were  also  appointed  for 
the  service  of  the  church  ;  the  latter  as  virgins,  but  yet  distinguished  from 
the  former,  (a.)" 

a)  Col.  3, 16.  EpJi.  5, 19.    Comp.  Plinii  Ep.  X,  90. 

b)  1  Cor.  15,  29. 

c)  Teritd.  Apol.  c.  2. 

d)  Domitlus  Ulp.  de  officio  proconsulis,  libro  VII.    According  to  Lactant.  Instt.  Y,  11. 

e)  Theodoret.  (about  427.)  Graecar.  affectt,  curat,  disp.  8.  (0pp.  vol.  IV.  p.  923.)— Vita  S.  Eomani 
after  460,  &c.  For  a  solution  of  tlie  story :  Eettberg,  KGescli.  Deuischl.  vol.  L  p.  94s8.  Ä.  J.  Sin- 
terim,  Kalendarium  Ecc.  Coloniensis  S.  IX.  ad  illustr.  Hist.  Ursulae  et  sociarum  virgg.  Col.  1S24.  4 
O.  ffagen's  Reira-chronik  der  Stadt  Cülln,  ed.  by  Groote,  Col.  1S34.  Comp.  Eheinwald's  Eep. 
1885.  voL  IX.  p.  201SS.  Reitberg  in  Ibid.  p.  lllss.  Respecting  Massa  Candida:  Prudent.  Hymn.  13. 
TiUemont,  vol.  IV.  p.  l'öss. 

/)  Note  a.  p.  57.  Stinaen,  Hippolytus,  p.  418-527. 
g)  Eits.  H.  ecc  VI,  43. 

Ä)  Coric.  Carth.  in  Statuto  Ecc.  Afrlc.  c.  11.  Ccmst.  app.  VI,  17.  comp.  Tertul.  de  poenlU  «i  IS> 
de  virgg.  vel.  c  9.    Burisen^  Hippol  p.  4S6. 


CALLI9TU9  I.    MAEEIAGE.    CUILIASM.  689 

On  p.  59,  after  the  first  sentence  in  §  59 :  "  The  congregation  were 
directed  to  obey  the  bishop  as  Christ,  and  the  presbytery  as  the  apostles.  («)" 

After  "interchangeably,"  middle  of  p.  59,  insert:  "traces  of  the  resist- 
ance of  the  presbyteries  to  the  new  anthority  are  discoverable  in  both  centu- 
ries ;  and  this,"  &c. 

On  p.  61,  after  the  words,  "  her  subsequent  empire,"  insert :  "  Even  a 
swindler  and  a  fugitive  s.ave  snatched  from  suicide,  was  able,  after  seeking  by 
violent  means  a  martyr's  death,  to  obtain  complete  control  over  Zephyrinus, 
a  Bishop  of  Rome,  but  unacquainted  with  ecclesiastical  laws,  and  to  become 
his  successor,  CalUstus  I.  (219 — about  224).  lie  was  disposed  to  grant  par- 
dons for  all  kinds  of  sins,  and  gave  ofience  to  his  opponents  in  the  presbytery, 
by  asserting  that  a  bishop  could  never  be  deposed  by  a  presbytery,  nor  be 
compelled  to  resign  his  office,  though  guilty  of  a  deadly  sin.  (by 

On  p.  63,  after  "  Luke " ;  "  but  the  laws  of  the  Church  were  not  yet 
agreed  with  regard  to  the  exclusion  of  women  at  certain  seasons  from  public 
worship,  in  accordance  with  the  requirements  of  the  Old  Testament,  (c)" — 
After  "  severest  penances"  :  "Adultery  was  the  only  ground  on  which  mar- 
riage could  become  void ;  death  alone  could  sunder  the  nuptial  bond,  and  a 
second  marriage  was  called  a  decent  adultery.  ((?)" 

The  following  is  added  at  the  close  of  §  63 :  "  But  the  sacrifice  of  all 
earthly  joys,  which  th-e  whole  Church  looked  upon  as  indispensable  to  its 
true  ideal  of  religion,  found  ample  compensation  in  the  belief  in  a  millennial 
kingdom,  founded  upon  a  perverted  notion  of  the  Messiah  revealed  by  tradi- 
tion, and  the  Revelations  of  John,  (e)  This  kingdom,  which  the  returning 
Christ  would  establish  after  the  subversion  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  the 
brief  dominion  of  the  Antichrist  whom  they  regarded  as  the  returning  matri- 
cide, was  to  be  earthly,  according  to  its  essential  nature,  but  its  images  of 
sensuous  pleasure  were  also  symbols  of  religious  bliss.  The  fjiithful  who 
died  before  the  fulfilment  of  these  hopes,  were  consoled  with  the  prospect 
that  they  should  be  raised  again  to  participate  in  the  glories  of  this  kingdom. 
Such  was  the  faith  of  the  whole  Church,  (/)  until  the  common  ecclesiastical 
doctrine  became  suspicious  on  account  of  the  extravagances  of  a  party  (§  67), 
and  it  was  opposed  by  the  school  which  contended  that  none  but  spiritual 
blessings  were  of  any  importance  (§  85).  And  yet  this  old  and  popular  faith 
of  the  Church  was  never  surrendered  to  individual  enthusiasts,  until,  instead 
of  the  vainly  expected  and  sudden  overthrow  of  heathenism  by  a  miraculous 
advent  of  Christ,  the  Church  experienced  for  a  long  period  the  historical 
power  of  Christianity,  and  the  clergy  at  least  beheld  the  dawn  of  the  earthly 
kingdom.  (;/)" 


a)  Tgnat  ad  Trail,  c.  13.  ad  Sm3rrn.  c.  8. 

I)  (Orig.)  Pliilosophumcna  s.  llaeres.  Rcftit  cd.  Miller,  I.  IX.  p.  2Slss. 

c)  In  favor  of  tlic.in :   Dioni/s.  Alex.  Ep.  canon.  (TJou^A,  Etdiq.  sacr.  vol.  II.  p.  892.)    Against 
them:  Conntit.  app.  VI,  27s. 

d)  Atheiuig.  Deprecat.  c.  28.    On  the  other  side  still,  ITermae  Pastor  II,  mand.  4,  4. 

e)  Ret.  20.    Iren.  V,  33.  3. 

/)  Papias:  Euh.  H.  ecc.  Ill,  39.    JiiJitin.  c.  Tryph.  c.  SO.    Iren.  V,  32s. 

(7)  (Corrndi)  KriL  Gesch.  d.  Chiliasm.  (Frkf.  ii.  Lpz.  ITSlss.)  Zur.  1794.  4  vols.    Sfüntcher,  hist 
Entwurf,  d.  L.  V.  tiusendj.  Kcich  in  d.  3  ersten  Jhh.  Hlenke's  Mag.  vol.  VI.  Tt  2.) 

44 


690  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CnURCH. 

Beginning  of  §  GO :  "  Candidates  for  admission  to  the  Clnircli  xaTrjxov 
ufvot),  from  the  number  of  wliom  all  persons  connected  witli  any  employment 
in  the  heatlien  temples  or  tlie  theatres  were  excluded,  (ay — After  "  pro- 
tracted to  the  end  of  life,"  insert :  "  Near  the  end  of  the  third  century,  fixed 
forms  of  penance  were  devised,  as  steps  by  "which  offenders  might  return  to 
the  full  communion  of  the  Church." 

Before  the  last  sentence  in  §  GO,  insert :  "  though  many  rigid  persons 
established  the  conviction  in  some  congregations,  tliat  the  Church  could 
admit  of  no  penance  or  pardon  for  particular  sins,  or  at  least  for  their  repe- 
tition.    Among  these  were  included  those  sins  which  were  called  mortal,  (b)" 

On  p.  67,  the  title  of  §  68  is  altered  so  as  to  read :  "  The  Novatian  and 
Meletian  Schisms  "  ;  and  before  the  last  sentence  in  the  section  :  "  About  the 
same  time  a  schism  was  created  in  Egypt  in  consequence  of  the  ambition  of 
Mdetlus,  Bishop  of  Lycopolis.  This  man  had  been  a  confessor  in  the  time 
of  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  and  now  raised  the  watchword  that  the  pen- 
ances to  be  imposed  upon  those  who  had  fallen  ought  not  to  be  determined 
until  a  period  of  tranquillity.  He  interfered  with  the  hitherto  undefined  pre- 
rogatives »f  the  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria,  by  consecrating,  in  the  place  of 
many  living  priests,  a  large  number  of  others  whose  salaries  could  not  be  ob- 
tained witliout  the  establishment  of  an  opposition  Church.  The  bishops  of 
this  new  Church  were  recognized  at  Nicaca  as  the  future  successors  of  those 
of  the  legitimate  party ;  but  as  they  took  part,  to  a  considerable  extent,  with 
the  defeated  party  in  the  council,  they  shared  also  in  its  subversion.  Sorao 
remnants  of  them,  however,  were  found  as  late  as  the  fifth  century." 

Eeferences  for  §  69  : 

''Neander,  ü.  Veranlass,  u.  Bescbaffenh.  d.  iilt  Passalistreitigkeiten.  (Kllist  Arch.  1S23.  Pt.  2.) 
lieUberg,  die  Paschastreit.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist.  Tb.  1832.  vol.  II.  Pt  2.)  Gieseler,  in  d.  Stud.  u.  Krit 
1S33.  H.  i.—ScIiwegler,  Montan,  p.  191ss.  £uu>;  kan.  Evv.  p.  SS-lss. — Ä'.  L.  H'eitzel,  die  Passahfeier 
A.  ersten  Jhh.  Pforzli.  1S48.  (On  the  other  side:  Baur,  in  d.  Th.  Jahrbb.  1S4S.  H.  2.  UUgenfeld, 
[bid.  1S49.  U.  2.)    Hid.  z.  Passahfeier  d.  alt  K.  (Stud.  u.  Krit  1S4S.  II.  4.)" 

The  sentences  (p.  68,  line  6)  on  the  Paschal  Controversy  are  altered  thus: 
"  In  Asia  Minor,  the  saving  Passover  {n.  a-cnTTjpioi',  a-Tavpöio-ifJiop)  was  kept  with 
a  love-feast,  as  a  festival  of  rejoicing  for  the*  accomplishment  of  the  work  of  re- 
demption, at  the  close  of  the  great  fast  on  the  evening  of  the  fourteenth  of  Xisan. 
*  In  other  parts  of  the  Church,  the  Resurrection  of  our  Lord  (tt.  dvaa-racniiov) 
was  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  in  the  spring,  and  the  pre- 
ceding week  of  the  fast  was  observed  as  a  representation  of  the  Passion- week. 
When  Poll/car])  visited  Rome  (about  160),  this  difference  in  reckoning  was 
discussed,  though  without  injury  to  Christian  unity.  But  the  Roman  bishop. 
Victor,  attempted  to  excommunicate  the  Asiatic  congregations  as  heretics 
(196),  for  their  course  in  this  matter.  Public  opinion  was  in  favor  of  the 
Roman  usage  with  respect  to  this  festival,  but  it  could  not  sustain  the  violent 
measures  of  the  Roman  bishop  against  those  who  differed  from  him  only 
upon  a  ritual  observance.  Polycratcs^  in  behalf  of  the  Asiatic  bishops,  ap- 
pealed, as  Polycarp  had  done,  to  the  example  of  John,  who  had  observed  the 

a)  Consult,  app.  VIII,  32.     Comp.  Bansf.n,  llippolyt  vol.  I.  p.  492. 

h)  Herrn.  Pastor  I[.  iiianj.  4,  1.     Tertul.  de  pudio.  c.  12.     Cone.  lUiberit.  c.  Is.  T.  etc. 


PASCHAL  CONTEOVEEST.    WORSÜIP.    BAPTISM.  691 

Passover  in  their  way  among  them  and  their  ancestors,  (a)  But  in  Laodicea 
and  the  country  around  it,  the  churches  continued  to  eat  the  paschal  lamb  in 
the  Jewish  manner,  as  a  type  of  Christ's  sacrifice.  A  remonstrance  against 
this  was  presented  (about  170)  from  Alexandria,  from  Home,  and  even  from 
Asia  Minor,  on  the  ground  that  it  was  inconsistent  with  the  whole  represen- 
tation of  John  in  his  gospel,  in  which  Christ  was  never  said  to  have  par 
taken  of  the  paschal  supper  according  to  the  law,  because  he  was  himself  the 
true  Lamb  of  God.  (b)  The  Roman  usage  finally  prevailed  in  the  third  cen- 
tury, and  even  then  those  who  contended,  though  in  ignorance,  that  this 
festival  should  be  kept  according  to  the  Jewish  law,  were  spoken  of  in  Rome 
among  the  heretics,  (c)  But  there  were  still  some  deviations,  in  different 
parts  of  the  Church,  from  the  general  usage  of  reckoning  the  Easter  Sunday 
from  the  course  of  the  moon.  (J)     The  fifty  days,"  &c. 

Near  the  close  of  §  70,  instead  of  the  "  cock  and  anchor :"  '•  and  tlie  palm ; 
symbols  taken  principally  from  the  Old  Testament,  but  of  typical  import. 
From  the  use  of  these  in  their  houses,  Christians  were  led  to  use  them  ir. 
ornamenting  their  tombs ;  and  as  Avorks  of  art  in  fresco  or  mosaic,  they 
were  gradually  introduced  from  the  catacombs  into  the  churches.  But 
even,''  &c. 

Instead  of  the  first  sentence  of  §  71 :  "  On  the  basis  of  the  apostolic  wor- 
ship, and  under  the  influence  of  obscure  recollections  of  the  services  of  the 
temple  on  Zion,  a  solemn  form  of  worsliip  was  gradually  intro«luced,  though 
some  peculiarities  prevailed  in  the  different  metropolitan  districts  whicli  pre- 
vented entire  uniformity  in  its  details,  (f)  Prophetic  and  apostolic  writings, 
in  the  most  extensive  sense  of  these  words,  and  the  acts  of  the  martyrs,  dif- 
ferent according  to  local  usage  and  interest,  were  read  in  the  public  assem- 
blies. The  homilies  which  followed  were  delivered  principally  by  the  bishop 
alone ;  they  were  in  the  East  constructed  and  uttered  in  a  rhetorical  style, 
and  they  were  therefore,  even  in  the  third  century,  extemporized  by  those 
whose  peculiar  talents  fitted  them  for  such  an  exercise.  The  songs  in  honor 
of  Christ  as  a  God,  in  which  the  oldest  hymns  that  have  reached  us  were 
used,  had  a  resemblance  to  the  Pindaric  odes,  and  show  an  Alexandrian 
spirit.  (/)" 

In  the  same  section,  the  bread  and  wine  presented  by  believers  are  called 
'•'•  oblation  es ;''''  "the  consecrated  bread  taken  home  by  tljem,  or  sent  to  the 
absent,  was  eaten  every  morning  before  any  thing  else ;  "  (y)  "  baptism  was  ad- 
ministered usually  by  immersion  tlircc  times,  to  the  sick  by  sprinkling  (B. 
clinicorura),  with  reference  to  the  death  of  our  Lord,  and  in  the  name  of  the 
Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ; "  "  anointing  (xpiafxa)^  as  well  as  irapo- 

a)  Eux.  n.  ecc.  V,  23-25.     JerUd.  <le  praoscr.  (Append.)  &  53.    Socrtit.  II.  ecc.  V,  21. 

I)  Eus.  II.  ecc.  IV,  2C.  Chronicoii  punch,  cd.  Diiidorf,  vol.  I  p.  12s8.  (.Melito,  Bp.  of  Sardo,'* 
Clemens  Alex.,  Apolllnnris,  Bp.  of  Ilierapolis,  lliiipolytiis.) 

c)  {Orig.)  llaercs.  Refut  p.  2T4ss. 

cl)  F.  Piper,  Gesch.  d.  Osterfestes.  BrI.  1S4.5. 

e)  Conytiti.  (ipp.  VIII.  Comp,  tlio  Alexandrinn  view  according  to  Tattam's  representation  in 
Bansen,  Ilippol.  p.  494s.s. 

/)  C'eni.  I'acd.  Ill,  12.  {Clem.  Hymn,  in  Sidv.  ed.  Plpei;Oi,it  liS.";.)  Ucbers.  b.  JfUnter, 
Blnnb.  ii.  Ktinstvorst.  p.  IGs. 

ff)  Tertid.  ad  u.\or.  II,  5.  comp.  Tiunsfn,  lllppil.  p.  504. 


692  APPENDIX    ANCIENT  CHUECH. 

ßition  of  hands,  was  the  consummation  of  baptism ;  and  corifirmation  (coD- 
signntio)  became  finally  a  distinct  rite." 

P.  71,  instead  of  the  sentence  commencing  with  "Justin":  "The 
memorabilia  of  the  apostles,  quoted  by  Justin^  correspond  essentially  with 
the  history  given  in  the  synoptic  gospels.  But  some  deviations  from  it  can- 
not be  fully  explained  by  allowing  that  they  were  written  from  an  indepen. 
dent  recollection.  They  rather  imply  that  he  could  not  have  made  use  ol 
these  synoptic  gospels,  but  that  he  must  have  had  besides  them,  or  instead 
of  them,  such  a  revision  as  was  in  use  among  the  Jewish  Christians,  like  the 
Gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  or  the  Gospel  of  Peter.  (/?)" 

After  the  ninth  line  on  p.  73  :  "  In  these  respects  they  entirely  correspond 
with  the  Martyr- Acts  of  Ignatius,  (b)  The  feelings  of  humility  and  of  self- 
respect,  as  well  as  the  desire  to  die,  shown  in  them,  were  very  possible  in  a 
character  highly  esteemed  in  the  age  in  which  the  martyr  lived,  and  the 
abuse  of  the  soldiers,  and  his  free  intercourse  with  his  fi'iends,  were  consistent 
with  the  Roman  laws  on  imprisonment.  But  not  only  have  we  indubitable 
evidence  that  the  more  extensive  text  has  been  revised,  {c)  and  that  other 
epistles  have  been  added  to  the  original  seven,  but  even  the  shorter  text  dis- 
covered again  in  the  seventeenth  century,  has  not  proved  to  be  perfectly 
genuine,  {d)  The  newly-discovered  Syriac  translation  of  three  epistles,  in  the 
briefest  and  the  rather  less  hierarchic  text,  produces  the  impression  that  it 
can  be  only  'an  extract,  {e)  But  if  even  the  germ  of  these  epistles  should 
prove  to  be  spurious,  and  not  essentially  the  same  with  the  fundamental  ideas 
in  the  more  extended  work  we  now  have,  they  would  still  be  an  important 
document  of  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  (/)  The  Epistle  of  Polycarj, 
to  the  Philippians  is  a  modest  admonition  to  morality,  was  written  with 
reference  to  the  actual  circumstances  of  their  Church,  makes  several  allusions 
to  Paul,  and  is  pervaded  by  the  same  spirit  as  the  first  epistle  of  John,  and 
the  pastoral  epistles.  The  obvious  reference  to  Ignatius  is  probably  of  a 
later  origin,  {g)     Papias^'^  &c. 

The  title  of  §  74  is  changed  into  "Apocryphal  Literature."    References  are : 

a)  Note  &.  p.  71.  Semisch,  d.  app.  Denkw.  d.  Just.  Goth.  1S43.  Uilgenfelcl,  krit  TJiiters.  ü.  d. 
Ew.  Just,  d.  Clem.  Homilien.  u.  Marcion's.  Hal.  1S50. 

h)  (After  the  editt.  of  the  Patres  app.)  Corpus  Ignatlanum  by  Will.  Cureton,  Lend.  1S49.  Iguatii 
quae  feruntur  Epp.  cum  ejusd.  martyrio,  coll.  editt  graecis,  versionibusq.  syriaca,  armen.,  lat  reo.  J. 
n.  Pelerinann,  Lps.  1S49.    M.  J.  Wocher,  d.  Brr.  d.  h.  Iga.  übers,  u.  erklärt  Tub.  1S29. 

<•)  On  the  other  hand  only  paradoxically  :  JT.  Meier,  d.  dopp.  Eec.  d.  Brr.  d.  Ign.  (Stud.  n.  Krit 
13;K.  H.  S.) 

d)  Against  the  genuineness:  J. Dnllaeus,  Bartr,  J.  E.  C.  Schmidt,  (abridged  in  his  KGesch.)  and 
Ketz,  (as  referred  to  In  Note  a.  p.  78.)  &;ÄtCf^ter,  nachap.  Zeita.  vol.  II.  p.  159ss.  (respecting  a 
Pauline  as  a  counterpoise  to  the  Petrine  Clementines  in  Rome  after  the  middle  of  the  2d  cent) 
For  the  genuineness:  Pearson,  Toss,  lioihe,  Iluther,snd  Düsterdieck,  {as  referred  to  in  Note  a. 
p.  73.) 

«)  Note  b.  p.  73.  C.  E.  J.  Bunsen,  Ign.  u.  s.  Zeit  7  Sondsch.  an  Neander.  Die  3  ächten  n.  4 
unachten  Brr.  d.  Ign.  Ilmb.  1S47.  4.  On  the  other  side:  Biiur,  Die  Ign.  Brr.  u.  ihr  neuester  Kri- 
tiker. Tub.  1S4S.— Ä  Benzinger,  ü.  d.  Aechth.  d.  bish.  Testes  d.  Ign.  Brr.  Würzb.  1S49.  G. 
Uldhorn,  d.  Terh.  d.  syr.  Rec.  d.  Ign.  Brr.  z.  d.  kürtzern  griech.  (Zeitsch.  f.  hist  Th.  ISöl.  H.  1.) 

/)  (Polycarpi,  Ep.  c.  13.)  Iren.  V,  2S.  Orig.  in  Luc  Hom.  6.  (vol.  III.  p.  93S.)  Eus.  H.  ccc 
m,  86. 

g)  Note  c.  p.  73.  For  the  genuineness,  with  the  exception  of  interpolations  (but  more  yigorouf 
than  Dallaeus  and  Bunsen) :  RitscM,  altkath.  K.  p.  604äs. 


G^:osTICISM.  saturninüs.  ophites.  693 

"  J/bs/ieiHi,  de  causls  suppositt.  libror.  inter  Christt.  (Dss.  ad  II.  ecc.  vol.  I.  p.  21Tss.)    Lücke, 
Einl.  in  d.  OUenb.  Job.  ed.  2.  1S48.  p.  C6ss.    Reim,  Gesch.  d.  II.  Schriften  N.  T.  ed.  2.  Abth.  L 

p.  23.'is5." 

Add  to  §  74 :  "  Commencing  -with  the  "written  controversy  Avith  heathen- 
ism (§  52),  tliis  kind  of  ecclesia.«tical  literature  was  now  developed  in  a  con- 
troversy with  the  heretics,  and  penetrated  deeply  not  only  the  sense  of  the 
Scri[)tures,  but  the  spirit  of  the  Chnrch  itself.  It  is  divided  into  three 
schools,  according  to  local  traditions,  but  in  con.sequence  of  the  intercourse 
which  then  prevailed  in  the  Church,  these  traditions  were  very  extensively 
diffused." 

Kef.  §  75  :  Scliliemann  is  to  be  corrected  with  respect  to  Ebionism,  by, 

"  RiUchl,  altkath.  K.  p.  1028s." 

After  "  apostate"  (line  17),  p.  75  :  "According  to  Roman  accounts,  they 
trusted  to  the  law  for  justification,  as  they  believed  that  Christ  was  justified, 
and  became  the  Messiah  by  completely  fulfilling  it.  {a) 

On  Gnosticism  (p,  76),  after  the  reference  to  Kitter : 

n.  Rossel,  Gesch.  d.  Untersuch,  ü.  d,  Gnost.  (Th.  Schrr.  eingcf.  v.  Neander.  Bil.  1W7.  vol.  1. 
p.  ITGss.") 

In  the  first  sentence  of  §  76  (p.  76),  after  "  infinite  "  :  "  and  indeed  re- 
specting the  origin  and  development  of  the  divine  existence";  and  at  the 
clo.se  of  the  same  sentence :  "  which  combined  all  the  speculations  and  fan- 
cies of  earlier  and  contemporaneous  philosophies,  and  endeavored  to  pene- 
trate all  the  mysteries  of  the  divine,  as  well  as  of  human  history." 

P.  77,  Saturnimis  is  said  to  have  had  "a  special  relation  to  Menander," 
and  to  have  held,  that  "  Satan  was  the  original  ruler  over  matter  (rX»?)" ; 
that  the  seven  planetary  spirits,  "  with  the  view  of  founding  a  kingdom  for 
themselves,  wrested  from  Satan's  kingdom  the  materials  of  the  present  uni- 
verse," and  that  "  the  God  of  the  Jews  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  plan- 
etary spirits,  and  to  assist  them,  raised  up  a  series  of  prophets.  But  as  their 
God  could  not  prevail  against  the  demoniac  powers,  one  of  the  highest 
Aeons  (voCy),  as  Christ  in  the  semblance  of  a  body,  came  to  redeem  the  supe- 
rior human  race  from  tlie  power  of  Satan,  as  well  as  of  the  planetary  spirits. 
To  effect  this,  he  gave  them  the  Gnosis  and  the  Law,  which  directed  them  to 
abstain  from  every  thing  by  which  men  became  subject  to  matter.  The  fol- 
lowers," &c. 

§  78,  on  the  Hellenistic  Gnostics,  commences  thus:  "1)  The  Ophites 
{'Smmarjvo'i)  Constituted  the  transition  from  the  Oriental  to  the  Hellenistic 
Gnostics.  They  originated  probabl\'  in  Plirygia  before  the  time  of  Christ, 
and  called  themselves  simply  Gnostics  ;  but  in  Egypt  they  adopted  Christian 
notions,  though  they  always  remained  openly  hostile  to  Judaism.  They  pro- 
fessed to  believe  that  the  Son  of  Man  emanated  from  the  Original  Source 
(/^uSoi),  in  which  the  male  and  female  powers  were  combined,  and  that  the 
Mother  of  Life  {rrvtvßa  ayiov)  sprung  from  him  and  his  parent.  From  her 
connection  with  the  former  original  types  of  humanity,  Christ  was  born,  and 
from  the  excess  of  light  then  sent  forth,  was  produced  Sophia^  i.  c.,  the  prin- 

a)  {Orig.)  Haeros.  Kefut  p.  ill. 


tJ'J4  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CUUKCn. 

ciplo  of  redemption  and  of  creation.  AVhen  Sophia,  the  imperfect  and 
adventitious  offspring  of  this  connection,  aspired  to  be  like  God,  slie  phinged 
into  chaos,  and  gave  birth  to  Jaldahaoth^  i.  e.,  the  son  of  chaos.  This  being, 
that  he  might  create  a  special  kingdom  for  himself,  brought  forth  the  seven 
planetary  spirits ;  and  when  those  also  aimed  at  independence,  in  great  rage 
he  threw  himself  into  the  slime  from  which  the  universe  was  formed,  and 
the  outward  image  of  his  wrath  became  quickened  into  the  serpent-spirit 
{o(})i6fxop(f)os).  To  supply  the  planetary  spirits  with  employment,  be,  with 
their  assistance,  formed  man  in  his  own  image  ;  and  after  Sophia  had  given 
inspiration  to  this  work  of  his  hands,  he  animated  it  with  his  own  spirit  to 
have  dominion  over  divine  things.  But  in  this  process  he  had  parted  with 
his  highest  powers,  and  now  saw  with  terror  that  his  creature  was  superior 
to  himself.  To  prevent  man  from  becoming  conscious  of  these  exalted  pow- 
ers, he  commanded  him  not  to  eat  of  the  tree  of  knowledge.  Sophia,  having 
been  brought  by  the  apostasy  of  her  offspring  to  repentance  for  her  fault, 
and  to  a  consciousness  of  her  divine  nature,  now  endeavors  to  attract  to  her- 
self and  to  purify  the  spiritual  light-poAver  in  the  world  created  by  Jalda- 
baoth.  Availing  herself  of  the  enmity  of  the  serpent-spirit  against  its 
parent,  she  induces  man  to  transgress  the  prohibition  respecting  the  tree  of 
knowledge.  Hence,  what  is  called  a  Fall  in  the  books  of  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  was  in  fact  a  transition  to  a  higher  mental  state.  In  gi-eat  wrath  the 
Creator  of  the  world  now  throws  men  down  to  the  lowest  material  world, 
and  harasses  them  with  all  the  pains  and  temptations  incident  to  matter,  but 
reserves  a  chosen  people  for  his  own  special  possession.  Individual  persons, 
endowed  with  high  intellectual  powers,  are  raised  up  by  Sophia,  but  she 
vainly  strives  to  free  them  from  their  bonds,  until  the  Aeon  Christ  unites 
himself  with  the  Messiah  sent  by  the  Creator  of  the  world,  and  brings  to 
men  the  saving  knowledge  of  the  true  God.  Jaldabaoth  had  his  own  Mes- 
siah crucified,  that  he  might  thus  destroy  the  superior  being  connected  with 
him,  but  who  had  previously  departed.  In  the  end,  Sophia,  with  her  pneu- 
matic followers  among  men,  will  be  led  back  to  the  blissful  fellowship  of 
God;  and  the  God  of  the  Jews,  deprived  of  the  light  of  all  the  pneu- 
matic powers,  will  gradually  sink  into  the  abyss  of  annihilation.  The  ser 
pent,"  &c. 

"  2)  Basilides  of  Alexandria  (120-130)  completed,  and  at  the  same  time 
transcended  the  Gnosticism  which  professed  to  be  an  esoteric  doctrine  pre- 
served by  Matthias.  The  Ineffixble  (to  appTjrov),  the  Deity  who  exists  not 
merely  for  time  (6  ovk  av  3edj),  has  the  germ  of  every  thing  in  himself,  and 
gives  existence  to  every  thing  not  by  emanation  (npoßoKrj),  but  as  Jehovah 
does  to  the  light.  In  this  germ  of  the  universe  {navcriTfppia  roC  KÖanov)  ex- 
isted a  threefold  sonship  {viörqs  Tpi/iepr;s),  which  the  Original  Being  produces 
by  the  attractive  power  of  his  beauty.  The  first  mounts  directly  up  to  him- 
self, and  constitutes  the  happy  world  of  spirit  (irX^pwpa) ;  the  second  forms 
the  confines  of  this  heaven,  and  is  represented  by  the  Holy  Ghost  (to  ^eSopjo». 
nvfipa) ;  and  the  third  remains  in  the  original  germ  of  the  universe,  and 
needs  purification.  From  this  last  sprung  the  first  and  the  second  ruler  of  the 
world  ((ip;^a>i'),  each  of  whom,  in  accordance  with  the  decree  of  the  Origina. 


GNOSTICISM.    BASILIDES.    VALENTINUS.  695 

Being,  gave  birth  to  a  superior  son.  The  first  of  these  created  for  himself 
the  upper,  and  the  last  the  lower  planetary  heaven.  From  the  germs  of  these 
vras  developed  the  lowest  world  with  the  race  of  man.  Until  the  time  of 
Moses,  this  was  tlie  kingdom  of  tlio  lower  Archon.  But  Moses  made  known 
to  it  the  higher  Archon,  by  whom  the  prophets  were  commissioned.  The 
great  Archon  supposed  himself  to  be  God ;  but  Avhen  through  his  Son  ho 
received  the  gospel  from  the  Holy  Ghost,  he  reverently  submitted  himself  to 
its  revelations.  Hence,  in  due  time,  the  son  of  Mary  in  this  lower  world  was 
enlightened  by  the  gospel,  and  his  nature  was  jjuritied  from  all  worldly  ele- 
ments by  the  necessary  process  of  his  sufferings.  Accordingly,  these  elements 
were  left  on  earth  ;  his  physical  part  remained  at  his  ascension  in  tha  plan- 
etary heaven,  and  his  pneumatic  part  ascended  to  the  pleroma  as  the  type  of 
all  the  redeemed.  In  the  end,  when  all  who  are  susceptible  shall  have 
attained  their  destiny,  this  lower  world  will  be  again  covered  with  ignorance, 
and  all  things  will  be  confirmed  in  the  permanent  state  of  existence  for 
which  they  are  naturally  fitted.  This  Roman  account,  (k)  founded  upon  the 
writings  of  Basilides  and  his  son  Isidore,  and  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  they 
used  the  term  faith  to  designate  the  reception  of  salvation,  and  yet  maintained 
the  necessity  of  the  redemption  ofthat  which  is  divine  from  a  nature  originahy 
alienated  from  God,  seems  to  imply  that  the  materials  of  the  universe  are 
independent.  The  revelation  of  the  Original  Being  in  365  kingdoms  of 
spirits,  according  to  astronomical  relations  indicated  by  tlie  mystic  watcli- 
word  Ahruxas  (or  ußpaad^),  may  find  a  sufficient  place  in  tlie  doctrine  of  the 
threefold  sonship,  but  in  other  accounts  was  looked  upon  as  an  emanation 
from  the  Original  Being,  or  a  gradual  deterioration  of  his  essence,  until  the 
seven  angels  of  the  lowest  spiritual  world,  with  the  Archon,  the  God  of  the 
Jews,  at  their  head,  created  the  world  from  the  materials  which  they  found, 
and  furnished  their  men  with  all  kinds  of  worldly  powers,  and  with  such 
spiritual  powers  as  they  themselves  possessed.  To  elfect  the  deliverance  of 
this  spiritual  power  from  its  connection  witli  matter,  tlie  first-born  celestial 
power  (roüy)  united  himself  with  Jesus  at  his  baptism.  Though  this  Jesus 
was  a  perfect  man,  ho  needed  an  atonement  for  himself,  and  it  was  he  alone 
who  sufiered  and  died.  In  this  manner,  it  is  possible  that  even  the  B(ui- 
lldeans  adopted  the  peculiarities  of  Gnosticism,  and,  especially  in  the  West, 
caiTied  the  idea  of  freedom  from  tlie  law  so  f:ir  that  it  amounted  to  moral 
indirterence,  ascribed  to  the  Eedeemer  only  the  semblance  of  a  body,  and 
hence  may  have  regarded  a  denial  of  him  as  of  no  importance.  In  this  state 
of  elevation  above  all  positive  religious  forms,  tliey  maintained  an  existence 
until  late  in  tlie  fourth  century." 

"  3)  Valentiniis,"  &c.  The  scheme  of  Valentine  is  said  to  be  (p.  78)  "  a 
lofty  religion  of  the  spirit,  founded  on  the  religion  of  nature  professed  among 
the  heatlien." 

After  the  word  "  events "  (line  5,  p.  79) :  "  in  an  ascending  scale  of 
forms,  possessing  a  material,  ])sychical,  and  pneumatic  nature,  in  accordance 
witli  tins  mingling  of  inllucncos,  and  tlie  variable  moods  of  the  Sophia." 

a)  llaer.  Kofiit  p.  225-244.— Basil,  philosoplil  gnostlcl  sententlae  ex  IIIppol.  libro  lllustr.  ed.  J. 
L.  Jacohi,  Ko^^ioin.  1SJ2. 


696  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUECII. 

After  tlio  word  "  century,"  tenth  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  79,  continue  the 
Bciiteiicc  :  "  divided  into  au  Oriental  and  an  Italian  school.  Tlie  former  held 
that  tlie  body  of  the  Saviour  was  pneumatic,  because  the  Holy  Ghost  over- 
t^hadowed  Mary  ;  the  latter  contended  that  it  must  have  been  psychical,  since 
tlic  higher  principle  did  not  come  upon  him  until  his  baptism.  According  to 
the  Iloman  account,  («)  Heracleon  and  Ptolemaeus  belonged  to  the  latter 
school,  and  ascribed  to  external  works  no  other  importance  than  that  of 
sensibly  expressing  our  spiritual  unity  with  Christ.  The  gospel  of  John  has 
been  very  seriously  and  piously  explained  by  Heracleon,  who  fully  believed 
that  it  corresponded  with  his  views,  and  sometimes  his  interpretation  is  sim- 
pler than  that  of  Origcn.  (h)  Ptolemaeus  is  &&.d  to  have  regarded  the  Aeons 
which  Valentino,"  &c. 

P.  80,  after  the  first  line :  "  Finally,  Marcus,  who  boasted  that  he  had 
given  a  proper  direction  to  this  school,  has  indeed  enlarged  the  number  of 
Aeons  by  poetical  allegories  and  a  literal  application  of  Pythagorean  num- 
bers, and  has  described  the  universe  as  an  utterance  of  the  Ineffable,  or  a 
gradual  decadence  of  the  divine  essence ;  but  the  gorgeous  system  of  the 
Marcosian  worship,  with  its  twofold  baptism,  its  change  of  wine  into  blood, 
and  its  attractions  for  women  of  eminent  talents,  gave  occasion  to  scandal 
about  philters,  magic,  and  juggling,  (c)" 

4)  "  Carpocrates,^''  &c.  After,  "The  same  was  true  of,"  (line  5,  p.  SlJ : 
insert :  "  the  son  of  Joseph,  who  carried  with  him  in  a  pure  state  through  all 
earthly  things,  the  recollections  of  what  he  had  witnessed  in  a  superior 
state,  and  overthrew  the  law  of  the  mundane  spirits." 

Additional  references  to  §  79 : 

"4)  Tertul.  adv.  Hermogenem.  Haeres.  Eefut  p.  2T3s.  Theodofet,  Ilaer.  fabb.  I,  19.  comp.  Euh. 
II  ecc.  IV,  24.— (?.  Boehmer,  Herrn.  Africanus.  Sund.  18-32." 

The  sentence  (p.  81,  last  line)  ending  with  "concealed,"  continues:  "  in  a 
])ody  net  formed  of  earthly  materials,  but  fitted  for  activity  and  suffering 
among  men.  (t?)" 

Note  (Z,  p.  79,  reads : 

"  They  are  the  principal  topic  of  Iren.  (I,  Iss.  II,  1.  Haer.  Eefut  177-91)  and  of  Tertul.  (adv.  Tiü- 
cntinianos),  but  the  reiiresentation  ■which  tbey  give  was  even  then  that  of  Ptolemaeus.  Some  par- 
ticulars in  Clement.  Orig.  in  Jo.  toin.  13.  Epiph.  llaer.  "Is.  Munter,  Odae  gnosticae,  thebaicj  et 
lat  Hafn.  1S12.  The  Coptic  MS.  Sophi.a,  preserved  in  the  Brit  Museum  as  a  trans,  of  the  lost  prin- 
cipal treatise  of  Valentine  (lat  fee.  M.  G.  Schicnrse,  ed.  Petermann,  Ber.  1S51.)  is  an  unimportant 
Kter  production  of  the  Marcosian  i)arty.— Ä  Hassel,  d.  System  Val.  (Th.  Schrr.  p.  250ss.)" 

At  the  close  of  §  79,  add  :  "  4)  Hermogenes  of  Carthage  (about  200)  came 
upon  Gnostic  ground,  only  when  he  taught  that  the  Deity  in  creation  acted 
upon  the  wild  chaotic  mass  from  which  the  world  was  made,  and  which  was 
like  himself,  eternal,  as  it  were  Avith  the  power  of  beauty,  and  thus  formed 
from  it  the  natural  world  and  mankind  ;  and  that  even  deformed  and  wicked 

a)  Eefut.  llaer.  p.  105.        h}  Extracts  in  Orig.  torn,  in  Ev.  Jo.  comp.  Epiph.  haer.  36. 

c)  Cren.  I,  1.3-21.  Ilacr.  Eofut  p.  200.  (Scarcely  any  thing  but  Extracts  from  Iren.)  Epiph 
haer.  34. 

d)  The  Eonian  account  (llaer.  Eefut  p.  2.53s.)  is  confused,  since  the  doctrine  of  a  later  Marcionite 
named  Pre/nin.  according  tn  which  the  Eedeeiner  himself,  as  tlie  Mediator  between  the  good  am' 
evil  principle,  was  only  rcbteous,  is  made  to  imply  a  cliange  of  views  in  ^larcion  himself  Comp 
<4ie  correct  derivation  from  Cerdon.  (Ibid  p.  'J.i;!.) 


HERMOGENES.    EBI0NITE8.    IRENAEUS.  697 

things  now  enter  into  the  universal  sj-steni  as  a  resisting  remnant  {iiKoa^ov)^ 
but  will,  after  the  development  of  all  -which  is  capable  of  improvement,  sink 
back  into  chaotic  nothingness.  Tertullian  vented  his  wrath  against  Hermo- 
genes  by  an  attack  upon  the  imitative  arts,  and  aU  liberal  culture  in  the 
Church." 

§  80  is  entitled  "  Gnostic  Ebionites,"  &c. 

About  the  middle  of  p.  8-1,  the  sentence  beginning,  "  The  Homilies,"  may 
read:  "  The  Homilies  were  never  the  creed  of  the  Roman  Church,  but  were 
composed  or  revised  in  Rome  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  to 
reconcile  the  Jewish  Christianity,  which  was  not  yet  denounced,  but  was  de- 
clining there,  with"  &c.  (a) 

P.  85,  8th  line,  after  "baptism,"  read:  "and  in  addition  to  this,  highly 
commended  circumcision  to  Jews  by  birth." 

At  the  close  of  §  80,  add :  "  At  the  commencement  of  the  third  century, 
a  book  of  this  sect  was  brought  from  Syria  to  Rome,  which  claimed  to  have 
come  from  the  hand  of  a  gigantic  angel.  It  required  circumcision,  but  of- 
fered pardon  for  even  the  most  unnatural  sins  on  a  second  baptism,  and  was 
rejected  by  the  Roman  Presbytery.  (Ji)  Origen  knew  of  this  party  even  in  his 
day,  and  speaks  of  their  selection  from  the  law  and  the  gospel,  their  book 
which  feU  from  heaven,  and  of  their  new  forgiveness  of  sins,  (c)" 

P.  85,  last  line,  after  "  appreciated,"  read :  "  but  the  fantastic  nature  of 
their  dogmas,  their  partial  adoption  of  pagan  notions,  their  high-wrought, 
or,  sometimes  on  the  contrary,  variable  system  of  morals,  and  the  position 
which  they  endeavored  to  maintain  in  the  Church,  {d)  or  at  least  their  ordi- 
nary connection  Avith  Catholic  Christianity,  render  a  judgment  respecting 
them  at  the  present  day  on  various  accounts,  a  matter  of  difficulty,  (e)" 

§  83  is  entitled — "  I.  The  Asiatic-Roman  School,"  and  reads  :  "  A  Chris- 
tian theology  was  produced  especially  in  the  controversy  witli  the  Gnostics, 
in  which  an  attempt  was  made  to  adhere  to  the  historical  basis  of  Christian- 
ity as  the  common  property  of  all,  and  to  appreheud  its  practical  relations  in 
a  scientific  manner.  While  therefore  philosophy  was  recognized,  true  Chris- 
tianity was  looked  upon  as  consisting  in  the  writings  and  traditions  which 
had  been  preserved  from  the  apostolic  times,  and  those  things  which  were 
intelligible  to  the  connnon  people.  Ircnaeus  v/as  the  principal  agent  in  intro- 
ducing this  scliool  to  the  West.  lie  was  a  disciple  of  Polycarj),  and  in  conse- 
quence of  the  intercourse  between  Asia  and  the  congregations  recently  estab- 
lished upon  the  Rhone  he  became  a  presbyter  in  Lyons.  During  his  absence 
on  a  mission  to  the  Roman  bishop,  Eleutherus,  to  eftect  an  accommodation 
with  the  Montanists  (177),  he  escaped  the  mjissacre  under  Marcus  Aurelius.  (/) 
The  same  year,  however,  ho  became  the  successor  of  Potliinus,  the  martyr- 

«)  According  to  tho  genuine  epistle  of  Clement,  the  Pastor  of  Hennas,  and  tlie  writing  of  Jus- 
tin in  opposition  on  tlio  one  hand,  to  SdiicegUr,  nacliap.  Zeita.  vol.  I.  p.  -liiiss.  nuJ  on  the  other  to 
Dorner,  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  vol.  I.  p.  Vi6.  Comp.  Ititachl,  altkath.  K,  p.  253s4  Jlilgenfekl,  Evv. 
Justins,  p.  2'20. 

b)  Haer.  Refut.  p.  292ss. 

c)  In  F.tis.  II.  ecc.  VI,  3S. 

d)  Comp.  §  (9.     Tertul.  c.  Valent  c.  4. 

e)  E.  g.   Voplsciis,  Vita  Saturnini  o.  •.'.  .lu^t.  Apol.  I.  c.  26.        /)  Ens.  II.  ecc.  V,  4. 


698  Ari'KNDlX.     AXCIKNT  CIIUUCIT. 

Mshop  of  ninety  years  of  ago,  and  soon  restored  tlio  agitated  congregation  tc 
its  former  prosperit}^  The  only  proof  of  liis  own  martyrdom  (about  202; 
consists  in  some  remembrances  or  wislies  which  existed  at  a  much  later  period 
in  the  Frankish  Church,  (a)  The  recollections  of  his  youth  went  back  nearly 
if  not  quite,  to  apostolic  times,  (h)  and  he  was  therefore  strenuously  opposed 
to  Gnostic  si)oculations  and  all  "attempts  to.  explore  the  abyss  of  Deity,  (r) 
His  confidence  in  the  writings  of  John  was  no  less  than  his  Aimiliarity  Avith 
them,  .ind  we  therefore  find  him  using  the  most  glowing  imagery  of  Asiatic 
tradition,  and  maintaining  that  the  Holy  Spirit  was  still  poured  out  upon  the 
Clmrch,  (d)  and  that  the  millennial  kingdom  was  near  at  hand,  (e)  He  was 
practically  inclined  to  nothing  in  Montanism  but  the  moral  earnestness  which 
he  found  in  it,  and  though  he  rebuked  the  assumptions  of  the  Roman  bishop. 
he  was  accustomed  in  the  spirit  of  peace,  and  in  opposition  to  tliose  who 
would  rend  the  glorious  body  of  Christ  on  account  of  a  mere  difference  in 
the  mode  of  apprehending  Christian  truth,  (/)  to  point  the  whole  West  to 
the  Eoman  see  (§  62,  nt.  e,  §  69,  nt.  5).  His  writings  were  to  his  people  as  if 
composed  in  a  foreign  land,  and  consequently  were  but  little  known  among 
them ;  with  respect  to  their  peculiar  meaning  they  soon  became  to  a  consider- 
able extent  foreign  to  the  whole  Church,  and  the  principal  part  of  them  were 
therefore  at  an  early  period  lost,  ((/)  The  Roman  presbyter,  Caius,  in  an  elo- 
quent dialogue  with  Proclus,  the  principal  advocate  of  Montanism  at  Rome, 
presents  us  with  a  good  representation  of  that  system,  and  the  arguments 
urged  against  it  (202-18).  (A)  "With  the  moderate  feelings  of  a  Roman  con- 
versant with  the  trophies  of  apostolic  martyrdoms,  this  distinguished  presby- 
ter presumes  to  reject  not  only  the  Phrygian  prophecies  but  the  notion  of  au 
earthly  millennial  kingdom,  the  authorship  of  which  he  transfers  from  an 
apostle  to  a  heretic,  (i)  Hijrpolytus^  who  calls  himself  a  disciple  of  Jrenaeus, 
has  left  some  allegorical  explanations  principally  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
some  works  against  heretics,  which  were  regarded  as  very  valuable.  (]c)  The 
nature  and  style  of  these  writings,  as  far  as  the  titles  and  fragments  we  have, 
atFord  us  the  means  of  judgment,  (?)  the  general  acquaintance  with  them 
which  the  Syrian  Church  possessed,  (?«)  and  the  veneration  as  a  martyr 
which  was  given  him  at  Antioch,  indicate  that  he  resided  in  Asia,  but  his 
statue  found  near  Rome  in  the  old  Tiburtine  street  (1551)  with  a  catalogue 
of  his  writings  and  the  Easter-cycle  engraved  upon  his  cathedra,  {n)  and  a 

a)  Greg.  Turon.  II.  ecc.  Franc.  I,  29. 

h)  Ep.  ad  Florinum :  Etcs.  H.  ecc  V,  20.        c)  Iren.  II,  28.  6. 

il)  Ibid.  Ill,  11.  9.        e)  Ibid.  Y,  25-86.       /)  Ibid.  IV,  3-3.  6. 

(7)  Note  b,  p.  8S.  L.  Duncker,  d.  h.  Iren.  Cbristol  iin  Zusammenli.  m.  dessen  tlieol.  u.  anthrop. 
Grundl.  Gott.  1843. 

h)  Eus.  n.  ecc.  II,  25.  YI,  20. 

i)  This  sense  of  Eus.  II.  ecc.  II,  23  can  no  longer  be  disputed,  since  tlic  account  of  Dionrsios 
Alex,  has  been  compared  with  it 

A)  Phot  cod.  121.  Eusebius  (II.  ecc.  YI,  22  comp.  23.)  thought  that  the  period  of  his  literary  ac- 
tivity was  only  just  before  that  of  Origen,  and  from  this  Jerome  (Catal.  c  CI.)  has  inferred  that  h« 
exerted  a  direct  influence  upon  the  latter. 

0  S.  Hipp.  0pp.  cd.  J.  A.  Fabricius,  Hamb.  lTlG-18.  2  vols.  f.     Gallandii  Bibl.  vol.  IL 

m)  Ebedjem  in  Ansemani  Bibl.  or.  voL  III  P.  1. 

ri)  Note  g,  p.  96.  A  horrible  engraving  of  it  is  given  in  Fabric,  vol.  I.  p.  36,  but  a  better  lifho 
graph  Is  before  Bunsen's,  [Hippolytus  and  his  age,  new  ed.  Lond.  1S54.  2  vols.  W.  E.  Taylor,  111» 
pol.  &  the  Chr.  Church  of  the  Sd  cent  Lond.  1SÖ3.  1?.] 


A8IATIC-E0MAN  SCHOOL.    HIPPOLTTUS.  699 

Roman  festival  in  which  a  great  annual  feast  was  observed  by  the  people  to 
his  honor  in  the  fourth  century,  imply  that  he  must  have  resided  in  a  Roman 
territory.  Not  only  does  the  most  ancient  testimony  favor  this  Western  resi- 
dence, but  it  would  seem  tliat  the  Portus  Romanus  mentioned  as  his  see  can 
be  no  other  than  the  Roman  harbor  opposite  Ostia,  (a)  As  he  was  one  of 
the  most  distinguished  astionomers  of  liis  day  he  made  the  first  calculation 
of  Easter  for  the  West,  (h)  As  was  naturally  to  be  expected,  the  tradition 
from  Irenaeus  through  the  Roman  clergy,  if  not  a  moral  sympathy  with  the 
Montanistic  tendency,  produced  in  such  a  man  a  strong  partiality  for  the 
Revelation  by  John,  and  for  a  kingdom  of  Christ  at  the  second  advent,  though 
the  time  for  it  was  placed  far  in  the  future,  (c)  The  work  against  all  here- 
sies found  in  1842  on  Mount  Athos  ('7),  lias  been  partially  and  arbitrarily 
abridged,  and  many  passages  in  it  have  been  in  various  ways  corrupted.  As 
the  first  book  had  long  been  known  under  the  name  of  the  Pholosophumena 
of  Origen,  the  whole  work  was  published  under  the  same  name,  (e)  but  it 
bears  unquestionable  evidence  of  having  been  composed  by  some  distinguished 
member  of  the  Roman  Presbytery  under  Zephyrinus  and  his  successors.  (/) 
The  representation  of  the  32  heresies  is  to  some  extent  literally  borrowed 
from  Irenaeus,  with  the  omission  merely  of  declamatory  expressions,  but  it  is 
also  enlarged  by  accounts  from  original  documents.  The  heresies  themselves 
are  traced  to  the  philosophy  of  the  Greeks,  to  the  systems  of  magic,  and  to 
the  ancient  mysteries ;  they  are  assigned  to  these  philosophical  schools  in  a 
rather  violent  manner,  and  these  schools  are  described  so  as  to  favor  such  a 
division.  The  whole  is  pervaded  by  moral  seriousness  in  contrast  with  an 
easy  submission  to  Oallistus,  the  Roman  bishop,  who  is  described  as  the 
l)atron  of  all  heretics  (§  62).  The  authorship  of  it  must  be  referred  to  either 
Caius  or  Hippolytus,  and  as  it  contains  nothing  which  reminds  us  of  the  po» 
lemics  of  the  first ;  as  the  writer  acknowledges  himself  the  author  of  a 
work  on  the  Universe,  (g)  which  on  the  cathedra  is  ascribed  to  Ilippolytus, 
and  as  no  witnesses  speak  of  a  treatise  against  all  heresies  except  by  him,  (A) 

a)  Peter,  the  Metropolitan  of  Alexandria  about  30G,  in  the  Prooemium  of  the  Chron.  paschnle  p.  12 : 
^wiffKOiros  riopToi»  ■K\-t)T'i.ov  TTJs  'PüJ/u7)y.  E.  J.  A'immel,  do  Hipp,  vita  et  seriptis.  Jen.  1S39.  P.  I. 
L.  F.  ^V.  Seinecke,  Leben  u.  Schrr.  d.  U.  (Zeltsch  f.  hl»t.  Th.  18-12.  IL  3.)  On  the  other  hand  :  since 
Le  Moyna  lias  written  imich  in  favor  of  Portus  Koin.  in  Arabia,  now  Aden  ;  C.  F.  ITaenell  (de 
Hipp.  Gott  1834.  4.)  is  in  favor  of  Hostra,  in  consequence  of  a  misunderstanding  of  iicravTuis 
In  A'lis.  II.  ecc.  VI,  20.    Comp.  Dornet;  Lcliro  v.  d.  Person  Clir.  L  p.  604s8. 

h)  Canon  paj^chalis,  a  cycle  of  IG  years  seven  times  repeated  from  tlio  year  222,  in  the  treatise 
'A7rd56i|is  Xf"^""^"  '''Ol'  nairxu. 

c)  On  the  Cathedra:  "Xi^fp  rov  Kara  'IwävvT)!'  euayyfXiov  Kut  airoKa\v\pfui.  Perhapsalso: 
riepl  xa.pKTfj.artiiv  awocrr.  irapaSoffts,  belongs  here.  Tltpl  'AvTixp^cfTov  Is  preserved  in:  FahHc. 
vol.  I.  p.  4ss.    In  Ehedjesu  ;  Kt(pa\äia  trpus  rdioy. 

d)  In  the  context  rejrularly :   6  Kara  iraaOiv  alpfafuv  i\iyxof. 

e)  Origenis  Philosophumena  s.  omnium  Haoresiuin  Kefutatio.  K.  cod.  Parlsino  ed.  i'mrnonwe; 
Miller,  Oxon.  1S51.  The  1st  Book  is  from  the  works  of  Orig,  the  2d  A  3d  are  wanting,  and  the  lOtb 
&  without  tlio  conclusion. 

/)  Prooom.  p.  3.  1.  IX.  p.  2T9.  235.  289. 

g)  p.  .334:  l\fp\  TTJs  rov  iraj'Tbj  oualas.  Photius  alono  mentions  Calus  as  the  writer,  on  the 
authority  of  a  gloss  uncertain  to  himself. 

/()  Etis.  II.  ecc.  VI, 22.  X\po%  anäaa.%  xav  ai'pf'iTfis,  in  like  manner  Jerome;  on  the  calliedra  it 
was  perhaps  intentionally  omitted. 


TOO  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

the  question  must  be  decided  in  his  favor.  («)  Tljo  earlier  or  even  contem- 
poraneous see  of  a  neighboring  bishop  within  the  bounds  of  the  Roman  i)reä' 
bytery  is  consistent  with,  and  explains  the  more  recent  ecclesiastical  order 
As  Ilippolytus  on  the  one  hand  refers  the  Roman  oi)ponent3  of  the  essential 
divinity  of  Christ  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
replies  to  their  objection  that  this  doctrine  was  an  innovation,  by  appealing 
to  well-established  Roman  traditions ;  (h)  so,  on  the  other  hand,  he  announced 
the  mysteries  of  Christ's  human  Godhead  in  lofty  parables,  in  opposition  to 
those  who  exalted  this  divine  nature  until  the  pre-existent  personality  of 
Christ  was  destroyed,  (c)  Prudentius  has  sung  (d)  the  martyrdom  of  an  Hip- 
polytus,  whom  he  calls  a  much  esteemed  Novatian  presbyter,  and  who,  in 
prospect  of  death,  returned  to  the  Catholic  Church,  and  says  that  after  his 
execution  near  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber,  his  remains  were  conveyed  to  the 
Roman  catacombs,  and  that  afterwards  a  stately  chapel  Avas  erected  to  him 
on  the  spot  where  his  statue  had  been  found.  Ilippolytus  could  hardly  have 
lived  to  witness  the  Novatian  schism,  and  the  last  historical  notice  of  him 
mentions  his  transportation  with  the  Roman  bishop  to  Sardinia,  where  con- 
demned persons  were  doomed  to  die  (236)  ;  (e)  but  it  is  very  possible  that 
this  member  of  the  Roman  clergy  who  was  so  learned  in  the  Scriptures,  and 
who  was  so  unsparing  in  his  treatment  of  a  Roman  bishop,  asserted  princi- 
ples which  were  afterwards  called  Novatian,  and  was  therefore  regarded  as 
belonging  to  that  schism,  and  yet  that  his  reputation  in  the  congregation  at 
Rome  as  an  author  and  a  martyr  was  justified  by  the  legend  of  his  return  to 
the  Church.  Julius  Africanus  also  appears  to  have  had  an  Asiatic  educa- 
tion, to  have  resided  and  been  highly  esteemed  in  the  ancient  Emmaus  (Nico- 
polis),  and  to  have  been  a  friend  of  Origen,  though  more  advanced  in  age  (d. 
about  232),  He  attempted  to  harmonize  the  history  of  the  world  as  given  in 
the  Scriptures,  especially  in  its  chronology,  Avith  the  researches  of  Greek 
writers,  and  from  his  epistles  he  appears  to  have  been  a  liberal  critic  of  the 
sacred  history,  and  yet  to  have  defended  its  essential  facts  against  the  attacks 
of  still  bolder  assailants.  (/)  In  this  tendency  we  perceive  the  germs  of  a 
new  school  of  Scriptural  learning." 

The  next  section  is  entitled — "  II.  The  Roman  African  School,"  and  com- 
mences thus  :  "  The  only  literature  which  the  Latin  Church  possessed,"  &c. 

a)  J.  L.  Jacobi  in  the  Deutsch.  Zeitsch.  f.  chr.  Wiss.  1851.  N.  25ss.  £.  C.  J.  Bumen,  Hipp.  n.  s. 
Zeit  Lps.  1S52.  vol.  I.  On  the  other  hand  iu  favor  of  Caius :  Feasler  in  the  Tub.  th.  Qaartalsch.  1S52. 
p.  299SS.    Baur  in  the  th.  Jahrbb.  1S53.  H.  1. 

b)  In  the  fiiKphi  Aaßvpiväo-;  {Kara  rris  'ApTfuwvos  alpeffeuT  Aoyot)  which  the  ■writer  of 
the  treatise  on  the  Universe  (nt.  ff,  last  p.)  quotes  as  his  own  work,  and  from  which  the  passages  in 
.£■««.  H.  ecc  V,  2S.  are  probably  taken.  Comp.  Theod.  Ilaer.  fabb.  II,  5.  Kiceph.  H.  ecc.  IV,  21.  On 
the  other  hand :  Plwi.  cod.  4S.  as  the  work  of  Caius. 

f)  ripbs  NofiToi/.     (Fabric,  vol.  II.  p.  5ss.)        d)  Peristeph.  hym.  11. 

e)  In  the  Catalogns  Liberianus  of  321,  and  in  the  Liber  pontiflcalis;  see  Its  newly  discovered  text 
In  Bunson,  p.  156s.  The  fact  that  some  one  of  the  name  of  Ilippolytus  bore  a  message  or  epistle* 
from  Dionysius  of  Alex,  is  the  only  reason  for  supposing  that  his  life  was  protracted  longer. 

.0  XP'^^oypa^iSiv  irivTe  (TTrouSoffyuaTo  (preserved  only  in  Eusebius'  chronicle).  'ETrttrT.  irtfi 
TTjs  Kara  Sourroi'vai'  tfrropiar,  with  an  apologetical  answer  in  Origen.  'En-tiTT.  irphs  'ApicrTfiSr]i' 
Harmony  of  the  Genealogies  of  Jesus.  Eits.  H.  ecc.  I,  7.  VI,  31.  ITl6>:  Cat.  c.  63.  Roiith,  ßellq 
!aer.  vol.  II. 


ROMAN-AFRICAN  SCHOOL.    TERTULLIAN.    CYPRIAN.  701 

After  "  Rome,"  4th  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  88  :  "  was  amply  educated  in 
Greek  general  learning," — and  it  is  said :  "his  wit  was  sometimes  very  natu- 
ral but  sometimes  far-fetched," — and  "  he  supplied  the  African  Church  with 
the  watch-word  that  Christ  calls  himself  the  truth,  not  usage."  (a) 

The  11th  line  on  p.  89  continues  thus  :  "  The  Montanistic  spirit  is  percep- 
tible in  them  all,  but  in  the  earliest  of  them  it  holds  up  the  simple  noble  na- 
ture of  Christian  morality  in  opposition  merely  to  an  effeminate  form  of  civi- 
lization, gradually  it  proceeds  to  still  severer  demands,  and  shows  an  increas- 
ing consciousness  of  its  pneumatic  nature  in  opposition  to  those  who  were 
merely  psychical  Christians,  (I)  and  finally  it  was  especially  hostile  to  the 
Eomish  Church,  in  proportion  as  the  latter  ceased  to  favor  Montanism.  For 
it  was  not  so  much  Tertullian  as  the  Roman  bishop  who  changed  his  views  (c) 
with  reference  to  that  sj'stem,  and  wo  need  not  be  surprised  that  a  liberality 
like  that  which  sprung  up  under  Zephyrinus,  and  an  act  of  pardon  like  that 
which  Callistus  proclaimed  for  all  who  had  been  expelled  for  licentious  con- 
duct, should  have  made  this  church  in  the  eyes  of  the  stern  disciplinarian 
worse  than  a  den  of  robbers,  (d)  And  yet  the  West  continued  so  tolerant 
toward  Montanism  that  a  number  of  female  martyrs  adhering  to  that  system 
have  been  canonized  in  the  African  Church,  (c)  and  Tertullian,  to  wliom  the 
Paraclete  was  rather  a  restorer  of  apostolical  order  than  an  innovator,  and 
religious  ecstasy  was  rather  a  theory  than  a  principle,  became  so  prominent, 
that  he  was  looked  upon  as  the  model  for  the  Latin  theology.  This  theology 
was  then  disinclined  to  any  philosophical  theories  respecting  divine  things ; 
it  spoke  of  Athens  and  the  Academy  as  irreconcilable  with  Jerusalem  and 
the  Church,  and  turned  its  whole  attention  to  questions  respecting  the  con- 
dition of  the  Church,  and  things  essential  to  salvation.  A  congregation  'of 
Tertullianists  in  Carthage  could  have  had  nothing  but  a  local  importance,  and 
reunited  with  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  time  of  Augustine.  (/)  Thascius 
Caecilius  Cyprianus  may  be  regarded  as  the  personal  representative  of  the 
Catholic  Church  in  his  day.  (g)     Having  enjoyed,"  &c. 

After  "  assistance,"  p.  90,  8th  lino  from  the  bottom  :  "  and  to  encourage 
others  to  a  similar  course  he  extolled  such  acts  as  an  expiation  for  all  the  sins 
of  believers."  (A) 

Instead  of  the  sentence  beginning  "  Cyprian  had  now  become,"  p.  91,  line 
7th,  read  :  "  Cyprian  was  now  pledged  to  die  a  martyr's  death,"  (z) — and  at 
the  close  of  §  84,  p.  91,  add:  ''Both  leaders  in  the  African  Church  died  in 
the  assurance  that  they  would  soon  bo  raised  again  from  the  dead  by  the 


a)  De  vlrgg.  vel.  c.  1. 

h)  De  poenit.  c.  Tss.  comp.  Ue  pudic  c.  1.  comp.  16.  Ad  u.tor.  I,  8.  comp,  de  fug»  In  persecut — D« 
virgg.  vel.  c.  Is. 

c)  Note  c,  p.  69. 

(/)  The  cdictiim  peremtorlutn  Tert  do  pud.  c.  1.  has  now  its  complete  explanation  :  (Orig.)  Haer 
Rcfiit  1.  IX.  p.  2yos. 

e)  Note/  p.  89.       /)  Ang.  haer.  IC. 

g)  Vita  Cypr.  per  Pontiiim,  ejus  Diaconum  (Cypr.  0pp.)  Among  the  Actis  Martyrii  arc  tlic  two 
elder  beginning:  Cum  Cypr.  and  Imp.  Valeriano.— ,/.  Pearson,  Annales  Cyprianlci,  before  Fell's  cdi 
tlon.  F.  W.  Rettberg,  Cypr.  nach  s.  Leben  u.  Wirken.  Gott.  1S31.  Rudelbach,  ehr.  Biographie.  Lps 
1850.  vol.  I.  1. 

h)  De  Opore  et  Eleeinosynis  (251.)         »)  De  cxliurtat.  nnrtyril  ('252). 


702  APPENDIX.     ANCIKNT  CHUPvCn. 

voice  of  their  returning  Savior,  but  Tertnllian's  views  were  more  ardent  and 
fanciful,  since  his  eye  was  fixed  upon  a  kingdom  of  intellectual  and  spiritual 
blessing-*  indeed,  but  a  kingdom  where  every  thing  which  believers  lost  or  de- 
spised in  the  i)rescnt  life  would  be  recompensed  by  terrestrial  enjoy 
ments."  ('/) 

The  next  section  is  entitled  "  III.  The  School  of  Alexandria,"  and  in- 
cludes the  two  following  sections. 

After  the  third  sentence  of  the  section  read:  '•'■  Athenngoras  the  Apolo- 
gist (p.  51),  who  ventured  to  invoke  philosophy  to  the  defence  of  the  doc- 
trine of  the  resurrection,  (5)  is  regarded  as  the  founder  of  this  school." 

The  sentence  near  the  middle  of  p.  92,  commencing  "  His  superior,"  «S:c., 
is  altered  thus : — "  The  works  of  Clement  were  alone  capable  of  assisting  his 
higher  development,  nothing  but  his  position  as  a  teacher  took  him  to  the 
school  of  Aramonius  Saccas,  and  he  never  was  concerned  m  transmitting  the 
New-platonic  traditions  with  a  rank  equal  to  that  of  Plotinus  himself."  (c) 

The  sentence  ending  with  the  word  "  traditions,"  p.  93,  4th  line  from  bot- 
tom, continues  thus  :  "  and  is  conditioned  by  an  exaltation  above  aU  mutable 
interests." 

To  the  section  closing  on  p.  95,  add  : — "  Ilis  zeal  in  this  respect  was  ex- 
ceeded by  Ilicracas^  whose  contemporaries  had  not  yet  learned  to  regard 
such  views  as  heretical.  This  founder  of  an  ascetic  association  near  Leonto- 
polis,  was  the  means  of  exciting  a  high  degree  of  literary  activity,  the  re- 
sults of  which  have  been  entirely  lost.  He  wrote  in  the  Coptic  popular  lan- 
guage, and  taught  that  the  Fall  of  the  soul  was  the  direct  result  of  its  efforts 
to  free  itself  from  corporeality.  He  thought  that  the  only  distinction  be- 
tween the  old  and  the  new  law  consisted  in  the  prohibition  of  marriage  by 
tlie  latter.  To  his  allegorical  explanations  of  the  Scriptures  belongs  his  incar- 
nation of  the  Holy  Ghost  in  Melchizedek.  There  was  nothing  repugnant  or 
hopeless  to  the  Alexandrian  doctrine  of  freedom  in  his  denial  of  salvation  to 
children  even  when  baptized."  {<!) 

After  the  word  "  churches,"  line  10,  p.  97 :  "  1)  Gospels  of  the  Child- 
hood, the  Passion,  and  the  Resurrection  of  Jesus,  (e)  2)  Acts  of  the  Apos- 
tles^ especially  of  Peter,  and  an  account  of  the  unknown  fortunes  of  the 
twelve,  filled  with  fanciful  stories  of  their  miracles.  (/)  3)  The  Clementine 
IlomiUcs  contain  the  controversial  discourses  of  Peter,  especially  with  Simon 
Magus,  which,  in  opposition  to  the  many  internal  and  external  parties  col- 

a)  Tertul.  do  orat.  c.  5.  Adv.  Marc.  Ill,  24.  (De  spe  fiilelium  is  lost)  Cypr.  de  e.xhort  mart,  c 
1.  De  mortalit.  c.  2.  Do  unit  Ecc.  c.  16. 

h)  rifpi  avaffriaiois  twv  viKpwv,  ed.  Rechenherg,  Lps.  1GS5. 

c)  Only  the  former  assertion  follows  from  Origen's  Epistle  in  Eits.  H.  ecc.  VI,  19.  and  the  othei 
must  rest  upon  the  authority  of  Porphyry,  (Vita  Plotini  c.  2ss.)  who  certainly  knew  this  father  in  his 
youth,  and  upon  that  of  Longinus,  who  may  be  styled  another  Origen  among  the  heathen.  Note  c, 
p.  92.  R.  T.  Schmidt,  Orig.  des  Neu-Platonikers  Schrift  uri  ixhvoi  noirjTris  b  BatriXeus.  (Stud.  u. 
Krit.  1S42.  II.  1.) 

d)  Kpi/th.  haer.  67. 

c)  K.  I/ase,  Leben  Jesu.  §  11.     Also,  Evv.  apocrypha  ed.  C  Tischendorf,  Lps.  1S53. 

/)  Note  c,  p.  97.  Fragmm.  Actuum  S.  Jo.,  ed.  Thilo,  Hal.  1847.  Acta  App.  apocr.  ex  XXX.  cdd. 
graec.  ed.  Tischendorf,  Lps.  1S51.— Kripuy^ua,  npa^fis,  'ATroKa\i;>(/is  Tiirpov.  Eus.  IL  ecc.  III,  a 
Credner,  Beitrr.  vol.  I.  p.  85lss. 


APOCRYPHAL  LITEPvATURE.  703 

lected  at  Eome  about  the  -middle  of  the  second  century,  endeavored  to  recon- 
cile the  various  tendencies  in  the  Church  on  the  basis  of  a  peculiarly  colored 
Jewish  Christianity,  and  -were  mingled  with  the  romance  of  Clement.  («) 
Tlie  continued  embellishment  of  this  story,  but  with  a  still  further  removal 
of  the  doctrine  into  the  background,  and  with  a  greater  approximation  to 
the  popular  faith  of  the  Catholics,  is  found  in  the  liecognitions  {uvayvaxreii)^ 
translated  by  Rufinus.  (h)  In  the  first  half  of  this  work,  reference  is  made 
to  another  composition  from  Palestine,  probably  The  Preaching  of  Peter 
{KYjpvyfxa),  of  which  Peter  was  the  hero.  Of  the  two  epistles  to  James  pre- 
fixed to  the  Homilies,  the  first  was  written  in  the  name  of  Peter,  and  the 
other  in  the  name  of  Clement,  but  in  coinjiliance  witli  Peter's  last  directions 
It  is  not  yet  quite  clear  whether  the  Catholic  Church  attempted  to  make  use 
of  the  historical  portions  of  the  fictitious  Homilies  by  means  of  the  Eecog- 
nitions,  (c)  or  whether  the  llomilies  were  formed  from  the  Recognitions  for 
party  purposes,  or  whether  both  were  not  independently  formed  out  of  a 
still  older  work,  {d)  In  their  confused  references  to  the  consular  and  first 
bishop  of  Rome,  both  evidentl}'  claim  to  be  the  comjjosition  of  Clement,  who 
sprung  from  the  imperial  family,  and  after  many  unsuccessful  philosophical 
inquiries  after  truth,  found  not  only  peace,  but  the  lost  members  of  his  family 
in  Peter's  church.  4)  Jewish  imitations  of  earlier  prophetic  visions  were 
sometimes  used  by  Christians  with  their  own  interpretation,  and  sometimes 
were  imitated  by  them,  in  many  cases  Avith  a  meaning  hardly  reconcilable 
with  Christianity,  and  in  others  to  complete  the  Messianic  prophecies  by  facts 
from  the  life  of  Jesus,  {c)  Thus  the  Ascension  of  Isaiah  mingles  together 
Jewish- Christian  and  heretical  elements  in  its  two  principal  parts ;  the  Be- 
loved one  descends  from  the  seventh  heaven  to  accomplish  in  human  form  his 
work  on  earth,  and  the  prophet  ascends  that  he  may  behold  the  future  course 
of  the  Messiah's  kingdom,  until  the  final  judgment  and  the  glories  of  the 
divine  Father,  and  dies  under  the  saw,  for  and  according  to  his  own 
prophecy.  {/)  The  l\stamcn(s  of  the  Twelve  Patricnrfis  contain  the  moral 
exhortations  of  the  sons  of  Jacob  on  their  dying  beds  to  the  Jewish  nation. 
The  work  professes  to  have  come  from  a  period  before  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
to  contain  prophecies  of  a  Christ  from  the  tribes  of  Levi  and  Judah,  the 
High  Priest  and  the  King  of  an  everlasting  kingdom.  ({/)  Its  fundamental 
principles  indicate  that  it  was  written  by  a  native  Jew  of  the  second  century, 


(i)  Ta  KAT}U€«/Tia,  KAi7/ue»'T0j,  tÜu  Ufrpov  twihifxtwv  KripuynaTuv  ivirofxri.  After  tUo 
editt.  by  Cottlirius  (Patres  ajip.)  aiul  Gallaiiiii:  Clem.  Itomaiii  quae  feriintur  Iloiniliao,  rccogn.  A. 
Sc/iweyler,  Stiitl;:.  1S47. 

h)  After  the  editt  by  Cotelcrliis  ami  Gallamli:  S.  Ck'iii.  Horn.  P.ocogiiitioncs  Kufmo  iiitcriirt'te, 
cur.  £.  G.  Oerndor/,  Lps.  iSSS. 

c)  J).  V.  Colin.  Cleiiiciitina  in  d.  IIoII.  Eiicykl.  vo).  XVIII.  p.  8Gs.s.  A.  SMUmanti,  d.  Cleincn- 
Uiicn  nebst  den  verwandten  Sclirr.  u.  d.  Ebionitisin.  llanib.  1S44.  nt  c,  p.  84. 

d)  A.  lliliievfebl,  d.  Clem.  Rec»!.'.  u.  Iloniilleii,  nacli  Urspr.  u.  Inhalt  Jena.  1S4S.  liitsM,  alt- 
kath.  K.  p.  153>.s.  (making  the  Kery^'ina  nsainst  Uasilides  about  120,  the  Recoijnilions  ngain.st  Valon- 
tiiio  about  140.  and  the  llomilies  iijrainst  Marciim  about  160.)  Comp.  Uihjenf.  d.  Kvv.  Just  p.  307s8, 
(who  makes  the  i;eco;:n.  oriirinal  only  in  .^ubstaiice.) 

e)  Note  (/.  p.  97.         /)  Ibid,  last  part 

(?)  Ibid.  Fahr.  Cod.  ii?oU(I.  vol.  I.  p.  400ss.— .<.  Kiii/ser,  d.  Te.-t.  d.  IJ  Putr.  (Slrassb.  Deitrr.  Jena. 
1361.  U.  3.) 


704  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHUKCH. 

but  by  ono  wbo  liuiiibly  submitted  to  the  counsel  of  Jehovah,  and  recognized 
in  tbo  last  npostlo  of  tbe  tribe  of  Benjamin  a  chosen  instrument  of  Provi- 
dence, (ii)  5)  The  lost  prophecies  ascribed  to  Ilystaspes,  an  ancient  Persian 
eeer,  gave  the  Asiatic  Christians  a  native  prophet  of  the  Messiah,  (h)  6)  "When 
the  Hellenistic  Jews  appropriated  to  their  own  use  the  prophetic  voice  of 
nature,  mythically  personified  among  the  heathen  in  the  Sibyls,  many  Chris- 
tian Sibyllists  arose  to  express  in  this  poetic  form  the  confidence  they  felt  in 
the  ultimate  victory  of  their  cause,  and  their  wrath  toward  evil  men ;  and 
the  Christian  apologists  appealed  to  these  divinely  inspired  voices  of  pagan- 
ism as  witnesses  among  the  heathen  themselves  of  equal  rank  with  the  Scrip- 
tural prophecies.  The  eight  books  of  the  Sibylline  Oracles,  gradually  collected 
after  the  second  century,  contain  a  heterogeneous  mixture  of  heathen,  Jew- 
ish, and  Christian  poems,  the  Christian  commencing  soon  after  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius  (79),  and  throwing  out  fresh  shoots  until  some  time  in  the  fifth 
century,  (c)" 

§  90  is  entitled  "  The  Son  of  God,"  and  additional  references  for  it  are  : 

"Ji  A.  Dorner,  Entwicklngsgesch.  d.  L.  v.  d.  Person  Chr.  vol.  I.  Is  on  the  first  4  centt  Stuttg" 
(1889).  1845.    {irase)  Chr.  Dogm.  p.  201ss.  513ss." 

In  the  sentence  beginning  "  According  to,"  the  little  regard  for  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  qualified  by  the  clause  "  except  among  the  Montanists." 

The  sentence  near  the  middle  of  p,  99,  closing  with  the  word  "  Tertul- 
lian,"  continues  :  "  who  reproached  him  with  having  performed  two  of  the 
devil's  works  in  Rome,  viz.,  driving  away  the  Paraclete,  and  crucifying  the 
Father.  But  Theodotus  the  Tanner,  who  came  about  the  same  time  from  By- 
zantium to  Rome,  excused  his  denial  of  Christ  by  saying  that  he  only  denied 
a  man,  and  he  was  driven  from  the  Church  by  Victor.  Theodotus,  the 
money-broker,  honored  Melchizedek,  a  heavenly  Redeemer,  more  than  the 
earthly.  Koetus  of  Smyrna,  and  probably  a  presbyter  of  Ephesus,  was  ex- 
cluded from  his  church  (about  200)  as  a  Patripassian,  notwithstanding  his 
denial  of  the  charge,  and  the  charge  itself  is  to  be  explained  only  on  the 
ground  that  he  held  to  the  second  kind  of  Monarchianism,  But  as  Praxeas 
was  favored  by  Victor,  {d)  the  doctrine  of  Noetus,  which  was  propagated  in 
Rome  by  Cleomenes,  was  favored  by  the  bishop  Zephyrinus  under  the  in- 
fluence of  Callistus,  who  regarded  the  Son  as  only  a  human  manifestation  of 
the  Father  by  the  divine  Spirit  in  Christ,  so  that  the  Father  as  such  did  not 
sutfer,  except  in  connection  with  the  Son.  Callistus  called  those  presbyters 
who  resisted  him  Ditheists  (Si'Seot),  and  they  retorted  against  their  bishop 
that  the  heresy  of  the  Callistines  originated  with  the  principle  of  Ileraclitus, 
according  to  which  every  thing  may  be  its  opposite,  {e)  The  party  of  the 
first  Theodotus  was  distinguished  for  secular  learning,  treated  the  Scriptures 
as  merely  human  producticms,  and  was  powerful  enough  to  elevate  a  confes- 
sor to  the  episcopal  see.     It  was  not  long,  however,  before  their  bishop  was 


o)  Test  Benjamin  c.  11.  b)  Note  f,  p.  97. 

c)  Note/,  p.  97.    C.  Alexander,  Par.  1841.  2  vols.    Friedlieb,  Lps,  1852.— /tie?,  de  edd.  SlbylL 
inss.  in  usum  nondum  adhibitis.  Vrat  1847. 

d)  Terlul.  adv.  Pras.  c  .5,3.       e)  {Origen.  nacres.  P.efutat  p.  279s9.) 


8ÜB0ED1NATI0NISTS.    ECCLES.  LITERATURE.  70c 

attacked  in  the  night  by  divine  or  episcopal  emissaries,  and  compelled  to  ab- 
dicate at  the  feet  of  Zephyrinus,  and  Artemony  who  maintained  that  the  doc- 
trine which  tlie  ai)0stle3  had  preached,  and  which  had  always  prevailed  in 
Rome,  was  that  the  Son  of  the  Virgin  was  superior  to  all  other  men,  merely 
on  account  of  his  righteousness,  and  that  this  had  been  corrupted  first  under 
Zephyrinus,  was  exconmiunicated.  («)  Tlius  these  three  contradictory  opin- 
ions were  then  (218-23)  openly  maintained  at  Rome,  but  the  merely  human 
view  had  been  already  condenmed,  and  its  opposite  extreme  was  represented 
by  a  bishop  Avhose  reputation  had  been  tarnished.  In  Arabia  the  bishops 
took  decided  ground  against  their  colleague  Beryllus  of  Bostra,  who  de- 
nied," «&c. 

The  sixth  sentence  of  §  92  reads :  "  All  these  wrote  on  the  same  stand- 
point as  Eusebius,  in  the  spirit  of  the  dominant  Church."  It  is  said  that 
^'•Philostorgius  found  and  honored  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  vanquished 
party," — that  "  Evagrim  was  mild  in  his  general  judgments,  but  in  his  par- 
ticular application  passionate  for  orthodoxy," — and  that  "  of  the  5  last  books 
of  Niceiih.  CallUt.  nothing  now  remains  but  the  table  of  contents." 

To  the  references  for  Chap.  I.  p.  103,  add : 

"  E.  Chastel,  Hist  de  la  destruction  du  paganisme  dans  remiiire  d'orient.  Par.  1S50." 

For  §  93 : 

"  J.  Burckfuirdt,  d.  Zeit  Const  d.  Gr.  Basel.  1853." 

Near  the  middle  of  p.  103 :  "  the  consulting  of  oracles  as  well  as  the  of- 
fering of  sacrifices  was  prohibited,  but  ineftectually," — and  "  the  emperor 
stamped  upon  his  coins  not  only  the  emblems  of  Christ  but  of  Apollo." 

For  §  94  an  additional  reference  is  made  to 

"  F.  Strauss,  dor  Romantiker  a.  d.  Tlirone  o.  Julian  d.  Abtr.  Manli.  1347." 

And  for  §  98  to 

"  Ifefele  d.  Akten  d.  ersten  allg.  Syn.  zu  Nie.  (Tli.  Quartalscli.  ISjI.  II.  1.)    Ibid.  Entstell,  u.  Cha- 
rakterist  d.  Arian.  (Ibid.  H.  2.)  " 

To  the  second  sentence  of  §  102  it  is  added,  that  Arius  thought  the  Son 
of  God  "  miglit  also  be  adored  as  God." 

Substitute  for  the  word  "question,"  after  tlie  middle  of  p.  112:  "matter 
which  threatened  to  tliwart  his  two  great  aims,  the  uuity  of  the  Church,  and 
of  the  empire." 

It  is  said  (p.  114)  that  Aetius  and  Eunomins  "denied  that  Christ  pos- 
sessed any  tinderived  divine  nature," — in  §  104,  that  Marcellus  "  declared  that 
the  Logos  was  the  eternal  wisdom  of  God,  and  manifested  itself  as  the  power 
which  created  the  world,  but  did  not  become  the  only  begotten  Son  of  God 
until  the  Incarnation,"  &c. — and  that  his  deposition  was  "  at  Constantinople." 

In  the  first  sentence  of  paragraph  3d,  p.  115,  instead  of  "  a  sensuous  na- 
ture," read  :  "  the  mere  incarnation  of  the  Logos." 

The  sentences  at  the  top  of  p.  117  are  changed,  and  read  :  "  The  whole 
theological  literature  was  under  the  direction  of  two  schools  ;  that  of  Alex- 

o)  JCus.  II.  occ.  V,  23. 
46 


70b  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CnUECIf. 

andria,  witli  tlic  new  tendency  which  it  received  during  tlie  ecclesiasticaj 
controversies,  and  that  which  had  recently  8[)rung  up  at  Antioch.  In  tha 
former  i)reviiiled  an  earnest  etlbrt  to  comprehend  in  one  the  finite  and  the 
infinite,  an  allegorical  mode  of  interpretation,  the  general  spirit  of  Origen, 
though  "  &c.  From  the  Alexandrian  school  proceeded  "  none  but  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  theology  which  had  then  become  ascendant  in  the  Church." 
Athanasius  (middle  of  p.  117)  "was  full  of  wrath  against  all  who  wished 
to  rend  the  indivisible  coat  of  Christ." — Basil  the  Great  was  "  the  admirer 
of  Libanius  as  weU  as  of  St.  Anthony." — Synesius  (2d  sentence  in  §  107) 
"  was  powerfully  impressed  by  the  principles  of  Christianity,  but  remained  a 
faithful  disciple  of  Ilypatia." 

For  the  first  word  of  §  108,  read  "  Many." 

Add  to  the  references  for  "  III.  The  Pelagian  Controversy." 

"  Jb.  Geffcken,  Hist,  semipelagianistni  antiquiss.  (till  434.)  Gott.  1S26.  4.  J.  G.  Voigt.  De  tbeoria 
Augustiniana,  Semipel.  et  Synergist.  Goett.  1S29.  LenUen,  de  Pelagianor.  doctr.  principiis.  Colon. 
1S33.    J.  L.  Jaaobi,  d.  L.  d.  Pel.  Lps.  1S42." 

To  those  for  §  110  : 

'^  Foujöuhit,  Hist,  de  S.  Aug.  Uebers.  v.  Ilurter.  Scbaffh.  lS45ss.  2  vols." 

§§•111  and  112  are  arranged  in  one  section,  and  entitled  :  "  Augustinism 
and  Semipelagianism." 

Nestorius  (p.  126,  after  "  orthodoxy  ")  "  attacked  the  honor  paid  to  a 
mother  of  God  as  a  new  paganism." 

After  "  epistle  "  (4th  line,  p.  128)  :  "  Christ  is  o?ie  person,  in  his  divinity 
eternally  from  the  Father,  in  his  humanity  from  the  virgin  mother  of  God, 
with  ttco  natures,  inseparable  but  without  confusion,"  «Sec. 

§§  121  and  122  are  united  and  entitled  :  "  The  Eoman  Empire." 

Before  the  last  sentence  of  §  122  :  "  For  although  in  the  East  the  emperor 
himself  was  looked  upon  as  invested  with  a  kind  of  sacerdotal  character,  the 
people  regarded  it  "  &c. 

After  the  first  sentence  of  §  123  :  "  It  took  from  slavery  its  confidence  in 
its  own  equity,  and  every  act  of  manumission  was  encouraged  by  the  Church 
as  a  work  of  piety :  but,  on  the  other  hand,  those  Avho  refused  to  acknowl- 
edge the  owners  of  slaves  as  Christians  were  rejected,  slaves  were  admonished 
to  render  obedience  for  God's  sake,  and  masters  to  regard  their  slaves  as 
brethren  redeemed  by  the  same  price  as  themselves."  (a) 

After  "  protection  "  (line  8,  p.  138) :  "  Laws  were  enacted  to  sustain  the 
sacredness  of  marriage,  but  the  old  Roman  penal  laws  against  coelibacy  were 
abolished  even  in  the  time  of  Constantine." 

The  sentences  at  the  foot  of  p.  139  should  read  :  "  Institutions  of  benevo- 
lence of  every  kind  to  mitigate  the  miseries  of  a  gradually  decaying  social 
condition  originated  in  the  Church.  (&)     Its  wealth  contributed  to  its  power 


«)  Greff.  M.  Ep.  Xl.  12.  Chrysost.  ad  Philem.  (vol.  II.  p.  773.)  Hier,  ad  Marcel.  Ep.  10.— Cone 
Gangr.  cau.  Z.—Xeander,  Denkw.  vol.  II.  p.  153ss.  [Memorials  of  Chr.  Life,  transl.  by  liylanJ, 
Lond.  1S52.  p.  3o5.]  Moehler,  Aufbeb.  d.  Sklav.  durch  d.  Christenth.  in  d.  ersten  15  Jbb.  (Tub.  Quar- 
talscb  1S34.  II.  1.) 

h)  E.  Cha^t'.:,  Ktulos  hist,  siir  rinSuenco  de  l.i  cbaric;  durunt  les  premiers  siec'.es  cli rot.  Par.  IS.'iS 


SARDICA.    CHARITIES.    HERMITS.  707 

and  freedom.  The  management  of  its  funds  was  under  the  superintendence 
of  the  bishop  through  a  steward  (oIkovoiios),  the  distribution — "  &c. 

The  application  of  the  2d  sentence  in  §  126,  should  be  limited  to  "  the 
East." 

The  sentence  beginning  in  the  6th  line  from  the  foot  of  p.  140  should  com- 
mence :  "  In  the  fourth  century  female  presbyters  disappear,  (a)  and  the  ordi- 
nation of  deaconesses,"  &c. 

The  sentence  before  the  last  on  p.  142  should  read  :  "  On  account  of  these 
divisions  the  council  of  Sardica  (347)  committed  to  Julius,  Bishop  of  Rome, 
a  judicial  cognizance  of  tbe  reception  of  appeals  in  the  case  of  bishops.  But 
when  this  decree  was  presented  to  the  African  Church  as  a  regulation  coming 
from  the  Nicaean  Synod,  it  refused  obedience,  and  threatened  every  one  who 
should  appeal  to  any  ecclesiastical  authority  beyond  the  sea."  (b) 

Before  "  Synods  "  in  line  2d,  p.  143,  insert  "  first."    , 

In  the  last  sentence  on  p.  145,  Gregory  is  said  to  have  improved  Church 
music  "  by  simplifying  its  style,  and  by  his  school." 

After  "  charms  "  in  the  last  line  of  p.  147 :  "  the  Church  contended  con- 
tinually against  superstitions  derived  from  paganism,  but  unconscious  of  their 
origin."  (c) 

Before  "  The  Church,"  line  10th,  p.  148  :  "  The  Christian  duty  of  bene- 
ficence which  was  even  then  performed  with  a  munificent  generosity,  was 
enforced  by  preachers  on  communistic  principles,  appealing  to  the  avarice  of 
men."  (tJ)  After  "  Spirit,"  a  few  sentences  beyond  :  "  and  even  the  old  idea  of 
the  millennial  kingdom  had  to  yield  to  the  interpretation,  that  it  meant  ouly 
the  spiritual  influence  of  the  gospel."  (e) 

The  2d  sentence  of  §  134  reads :  "  The  necessity  of  some  fellowship 
brought  the  hermits  together  in  a  community  of  neighboring  huts  (XaCpa).'''' 
Instead  of  "  Amun  in  the  desert  of  Nitra  "  in  the  next  sentence,  insert : 
"  Macarius  in  the  Sketic  desert."  (/) 

The  date  near  the  foot  of  p.  150  should  be  "  422." 

"  Add  to  the  sentence  ending  on  line  7,  p.  152 :  "  and  in  the  African 
Church  offerings  for  the  dead  were  laid  upon  their  graves,"  (g) — and  to  the 
last  sentence  of  the  same  section:  "  seeking  edification  from  the  vestiges  of 
past  ages."  (h) 

Add  to  the  references  for  §  139  : 

"  A.  Z.  Zentennann.  die  antiken  u.  chr.  Basiliken.  Lps.  1S47.  J.  Kreuaei;  d.  clir.  KBaii,  s.  GcscK. 
Symbolik,  BiMnerei.  Bonn.  1S51.  2  vols.—/'.  Kurier,  IIB.  d.  Gesch.  d.  Malerei  s.  Coiistintin.  2  cd. 
Brl.  1S47.  vol.  I.  p.  1-107." 

a)  Conv.  Laodic.  can.  11. 

b)  Cone.  Afric.  Ep.  ad.  Bonlf.  {Comtant,  p.  1013s.)  Cone.  Jfilevit,  can.  22.  {Codex  cann.  Eec. 
Afrio.  0.  23. 

c)  Syn.  Trull,  c.  CI.  62.  C5.    Comp.  Ohaatel^  Destnict.  du  Pagan,  p.  309ss. 

d)  Chryoost.  IIoiii.  in  Act,  XL  2-t    (0pp.  vol.  IX.  p.  93.) 

e)  Aug.  De  civ.  Del  XX,  4s9. 

/)  Jfacarii  Aepyptii  Epp.,  Ilomill.irnin  loci,  preccs,  cd.  /T.  J.  Floss,  Col.  1S50.  Comp.  Tischen- 
dorf, Reise  In  d.  Or.  vol.  I,  p.  119s. 

ff)  Aug.  Confess.  VI,  2. 

/i)  Already  £i<s.  VI,  11.— Itinernriiun  Ilierosolyniit.innm,  a.  533.— t/!  If.  Heidegger,  de  peregrlna- 
ännib,  rol.  Tiir.  1070.     liuhimon,  Palestine,  vol.  II.  p.  20Sss. 


708  APPENDIX.    ANCIENT  CHURCH. 

Tho  last  clause  of  the  2cl  senfence  in  this  section  is  limited  to  "  the  "West* 
ern  Church." 

Before  the  last  clause  of  the  3(1  sentence,  insert :  "  the  central  portion 
elevated  about  the  height  of  the  windows  above  the  side  aisles,"  «fee. 

Before  the  last  clause  of  the  5th  sentence  insert :  "  where  monuments 
Avere  usually  erected,"  &c. 

A  few  sentences  after,  "  the  Roman  temple-form,"  should  read  :  "  built  in 
the  form  of  the  Rotunda  for  temples  and  baths." 

After  "  Salvator^''  line  2,  p.  156 :  "surrounded  with  emblems  of  the  sal- 
vation of  man,  and  in  the  midst  of  the  apostles,  whose  countenances  were 
serious  and  dignified,  and  whose  persons  were  in  the  ancient  Roman  costume. 
In  the  seventh  century,  however,  this  style  ceased  to  be  popular,  for  then  a 
general  decline  took  place  in  all  the  arts,  and  the  Byzantine  style  which  origi- 
nated in  Constantinople,  and  showed  a  sympathy  with  this  corruption,  pre- 
vailed with  its  inherited  skilfulness,  but  its  complete  want  of  nature." 

After  "  chosen  "  in  line  7th,  p.  156,  the  sentence  continues  :  "  and  Chris- 
tian and  pagan  symbols  were  mingled  together,  especially  in  the  reliefs  of  the 
sarcophagi."  {a) 

After  the  1st  sentence  of  §  142  :  "  At  its  foundation  lay  also  the  question 
which  had  then  become  so  prominent,  whether  the  whole  influence  of  the 
priesthood  was  derived  from  the  personal  character  of  its  members,  or  from 
the  general  grace  communicated  through  their  order." 

The  first  sentence  of  §  143  :  "  Audius  (Udo)  broke  oflT  from  the  Church 
in  Mesopotamia  because  it  would  not  listen  to  the  exhortations  to  repentance 
which  the  zealous  layman  gave  it,"  &c. 

After  the  last  sentence  in  §  143 :  "  A  class  of  persons  who  arrogantly 
called  themselves  Apostolical»  (also  'ATrorawtKoi'),  from  their  little  corner  in 
Asia  Minor  claimed  to  be  the  only  true  Church,  and  held  out  no  hope  to 
those  who  possessed  property  or  lived  in  marriage.  They  agreed  substantially 
with  the  tendency  which  proceeded  from  EustatTiins^  the  honored  Bishop  of 
Sebaste,  according  to  which  there  was  no  special  merit  in  martyrdom,  which 
proudly  or  restlessly  separated  from  the  great  Church,  and  were  finally  cut 
ofl:  from  it  at  the  Synod  of  Gangra  (between  362  and  370)." 

An  additional  reference  for  §  144  : 

"  ^i/>^.  haer.  52.    August. 'hh^r.ZV 

After  the  1st  sentence  of  §  144:  "Their  worship  reminds  one  of  the 
Adamites,  who  were  followers  of  a  pupil  of  Carpocrates,  and  were  first  men« 
tioned  during  the  last  part  of  the  fourth  century,  under  the  imputation,  by 
common  report,  of  wishing  in  their  grotto  churches  to  bring  back  a  state  of 
paradisiac  innocence,  by  means  of  a  paradisiac  style  of  dress.  They  there 
fore  rejected  all  relations  founded  upon  distinctions  of  sex.  The  condemna 
tion  of  the  Priscillianists  was  obtained  at  the  synod."  &c. 

After  "  letters  "  in  2d  line  of  §  147  :  "  and  in  the  modern  legislation." 
In  the  middle  of  p.  164 :  "  Thor  is  the  god  of  thunder  who  overcomes 


a)  Piper,  Gesch.  d.  Osterfestes.  (Berl.  lSi5.)  vol.  I.  p.  S8.  7:s3. 


THOR.    THE  GERMANS.    SPANISH  CHRISTIANS.  709 

winter  and  all  the  powers  of  nature  hostile  io  man,  and  is  the  hero  who  is 
especially  the  friend  of  the  people." 

After  "  unmolested,"  line  4th,  p.  166  :  "  The  conquerors  revered  a  saint 
lilxC  Severimts  (d.  about  481)  of  unlinown  origin,  who,  without  oflScial  dig- 
nity, but  claiming  to  act  by  the  divine  command,  with  an  extensive  spirit- 
ual influence,  ameliorated  the  miseries  of  the  national  migrations  in  the 
countries  along  tlie  Danube.    The  German — "  &c. 

After  "  sect,"  in  the  last  sentence  of  §  153 :  "  some  sought  martyrdom 
by  reviling  Mohammed,  others  despaired  of  Christ,"  &c. 


INDEX. 


Aargau,  Convents  in,  646. 

Abel  Ministry,  5T3, 653. 

Abelard,  241,  333. 

Abderrhaman,  16S. 

Abgarus,  35. 

Abraham  a  St.  Clara,  5203. 

Abraxas,  78,  695. 

Absalon  of  Eoesbilde,  249. 

Abubekr,  110. 

Abyssinia,  103. 

Acacius,  114,  12S. 

Academy,  Platonic,  17,  323. 

Acbamoth,  79. 

Acta  Apostolorum,  97. 

Adelbert   of  Bremen,   214;    of 

Mentz,  185,  199;    of  Prague, 

250. 
Adamites,  70S. 
Adiaphoristic  Controv.,  397,  405, 

409. 
Adoptionists,  ISO. 
Advent,  154 ;  Second,  40,  94. 
Advocatia,  216. 
Aegidius  of  Viterbo,  234. 
Aelia  Capitolina,  42. 
Aelianus,  47.  , 

Aeneas  Sylvius,  2S0s. 
Aeons,  76ss. 
Aerius,  159. 
Aetius,  114,  705. 
Aft're,  Archbishop,  628. 
African  Churches,  62,  610. 
Agabus,  33. 
Agapae,  41, 153. 
Agatho,  132. 
Agenda  Controv.,  5G7s. 
Agnes,  St,  152. 
Agobard  of  Lyons,  233. 
Agonistici,  Circumcellix)nes,  153. 
Asricola,  397,  403. 
Agrippa,  25. 
'AKfcpaKoi,  128. 
Albanians,  .356. 
Albericus,  183. 
Albert    of    Bmndenbursr,    375 ; 

of  Mentz,  363,  372,   392;     of 

Itiga,  251 ;  of  Strasbourg,  264. 
Albert  Diirer,  306,  445. 
Albertinus  Mussatus,  264. 
Albertus  Magnus,  320. 
Albigwisian  War,  255s. 
Albornoz,  274. 
Alcuin,  179,  130. 
Aloander,  371. 


Alexander  Severns,  46. 

Alexander  of  Alexandria,  112; 
of  Hales,  320;  of  Eussia,  667, 
681. 

Alexander  IL.  192;  III.,  202s., 
214,  216;  v.,  276;  VI.,  232, 
853;  YIL,  512,  517;  VilL, 
513. 

Alexandria,  Bishopric,  61,  141. 

Alexandrian  Theology,  91ss. 

Alexandrian  and  Antiochian 
schools,  117, 126,  706. 

Alexiani,  318. 

Alexias  Coranenus,  262. 

Alfadur,  165. 

Alfred  the  Great,  234. 

Algiers,  664. 

Allegri  Gregorio,  465. 

Allemand  of  Aries,  280. 

Alliance  Evang.,  592 ;  German, 
605;  German  Diet,  574;  Ho- 
ly, 681s. 

All  Saints,  154. 

All  Souls,  224 

Alogi,  99. 

Alombrados,  519s. 

Altar,  69. 

Altenburg,  865,  563. 

Altenstein,  Minister,  566. 

Altorf.  Socinians,  4-S5. 

A 1  varus  Pelagius,  34.3. 

Alzog,  12. 

Amalrich  of  Bena,  840. 

Ambrosius,  118,  133,  153,  159. 

America,  338,  475 ;  North,  601ss. 
664. 

Ammianus  Marccllinus,  102. 

Ammonius  Saccas,  43. 

Ampulla  Sacra,  166,  625. 

Amsdorf,  380,  392,  406s. 

Amyrald,  490. 

Anabaptism,  70,  90. 

Anabaptists,  431s.  610. 

Ananus,  26. 

Anastasius,  128, 132. 

Anathematisnis,  12Ö. 

Anderson,  418. 

Andraea  Jac,  409 ;  J.  VaL,  449. 

Andronicus,  354. 

Angel  Brethren,  50S. 

Angela  of  Brescia,  463. 

xVngelica  of  Port  Royal,  5173. 

Angelico  of  Fiesole,  305. 

Angels,  "Worship  of,  152. 

Angelus  Silesius,  52'.). 


Anglican  Church,  421a.,  442, 497a_ 
5933. 

Anglo-Saxons,  167.  172. 

Anhalt,  413. 

Anna  Lee,  576. 

Annegarn,  12. 

Anomians,  114. 

Ansegisus,  209. 

Anselm  Cantab.,  195,  239;  of 
Laon,  Glosses,  243. 

Ansgar,  245. 

An.spach,  Gen.  Synod,  574. 

Anthimus,  129. 

Anthropomorphites,  121, 153. 

Antidicomarianites,  152. 

Antinomian  Controv.,  402s. 

Antioch,  Bishopric,  61. 

Antiochian  School,  117,  120. 

Antitrinitarians,  432. 

Antonelli,  623,  634. 

Antoninus  Pius,  45 ;  of  Flor- 
ence, 264. 

Antonius,  Hermit,  64;  of  Pailua, 
298;  Hospitallers  of  St.,22S. 

Antony  Ulrich,  493. 

Aphthartodoeetae,  129. 

Apocrypha,  71,  96,  614,  702ss. 

' AiroKa.T(iaTa(ris,  79,  94. 

Apollinaris,  115,  116. 

Apollonius,  45;  of  Tyana,  47. 

Apollos,  32. 

Apologists,  50ss.,  335.  500. 

Apology,  Augsburg  Conf.,  333. 

Apostles,  25,  38. 

Apostolicals,  341s.  703. 

Apostolic  Brethren,  S41s. ;  Can- 
ons, 57s. ;  Church,  24.S. ;  Con- 
gregation, 617  ;  Constitutions, 
573. ;  Fathers,  36s.,723. ;  Vicars, 

Appeals  to  Gen.  Councils,  291. 

Appenzel,  Reform,  886. 

Appropriation,  Principle,  6.50. 

Apuleius,  47. 

Aquarii,  64. 

Arabians,  108s..  168.  235. 

Aranda  of  Spain,  527. 

Arcesilaus,  17. 

Archbishops,  2443.,   see   Metro 

politans. 
Archdeacons,  141,  215. 
Architecture,  Eccles.,  155ss.,  803 

675s. 
Arcli  presbyters,  141. 
Arelate  Synod,  114. 


INDEX. 


711 


Arianism,  Ills?.,  Ißö. 

Aritntnuin  Synod,  114. 

Aristides,  Apologist,  50. 

Aristotle,  16s..  230,  320. 

Arins,  11-J,  119. 

Ariiicnians,  G2. 108, 131.  260, 065. 

Arminiaiis.  415ss.,  491,  010. 

.\rn:mUl,  517. 

AiiKlf.  44j. 

Arnoblus,  52. 

Arnold,  S;    of  Drescia,  200;    if 

C'iteaux'.  25i;. 
Arnnlf,  Eniperor,  IS";  of  llheims, 

1^9. 
Arseniu.<i,  3.54s. 
Artenion,  99,  705. 
Arts  in  MidiUe  Ages,  302. 
Asa,  Doctrine  of  tlie,  1C4. 
Ascensio  Jesaiae,  703. 
Ascetics.  63. 

Ascliatlenburg  Concordat,  2S1. 
Asiatic- Koman  School,  SS,  697ss. 
A.sses,  Festival  of,  221. 
Asylum,  13S. 
Atlianarich,  ltx5. 
Atlianasius,  113s.,  11.5,  117. 
Atlienagoras,  51,  95,  702. 
Athens,  110. 
Atho.s,  .354. 
Attila,  144. 
.\udiiis,  15S,  70S. 
Augsburg  Confession,  3S3 ;  Diet, 

363. 
Augusti,  10. 

Augustine  Eremites,  316. 
Augustinism,  122ss,  330,  509. 
Augustinu.s,  100,  122ss.,  138,  1.55, 

176;  of  Canterbury,  167. 
Augustus  of  Saxony,  408. 
AurcManus,  40. 
Auricular  Confession,  14S,    170, 

Aiis'tii.1,  Catholic,  03.5,  640  ;  Prot- 
estant, 417s.,  493.SS.,  .54S,  606. 

Avignon,  273,  274,  275,  525,  520, 
531. 

B 

Daanes,  100. 

IJabylunian  Exile,  272,  363. 

IJacli,  J.  Sebastian,  43.5. 

Bacon,  Uoger,  320;  of  Verulam, 
439. 

Baden  Conference,  040  ;  Contro- 
versy, 044 ;  Disputation,  387  ; 
Synod,  572. 

Balirdt,  537. 

ISajns,  467. 

Haldnr,  105. 

Baldwin,  Elandr.,  197,  207. 

Balsainon,  Theodore,  l;j5. 

Ban.  176,311. 

üaptisMi,  41,  70.  2.52,  691. 

Jia|iti.iteriuni,  155;  of  Florence, 
304. 

Baptists,  43Is.,  00.3,  610. 

Barartai,  Jacob,  131. 

Bar  Cochbft,  42. 

Bardas,  25S,  26it. 

J5ardesanes,  SJ. 

Barla.ani,  3.54. 

Barlctta,  Gabriel,  300. 

Barnabas,  23,  30. 

Itaroniu-s  7. 

Bartholomew's  Night,  420s. 

Bartolomeo  Fra,  305. 

Basedow,  51.5. 

Basilica,  l.%5,  303. 

Basilides,  73,  094s.,  C94ä. 

Basiliscus,  123. 

Bixsillns,  2.58;  Magnus,  117,149, 
706. 

cJasle.  Council.  279,291,  350;  He- 
furmation,  337 ;  Society  at,  539. 


Basnage.  10,  .361. 

Bassi,  Matteo  de,  462s. 

Bauer.  Bruno,  553. 

Baur.  24.  594s. 

Bautain,  6.5.5. 

Bavaria,  375,  392.  527,  538,  572, 
005s.,  6.35,  612,  653. 

Bavie,  361,  4903. 

JJeätification,  .307. 

Beatoun,  Card.,  424. 

Beaumont,  519. 

Becket.  Thomas  h.  20.3. 

Bede  Venerabilis,  161,  179. 

I5eethoven,  67.5. 

Bugharils,  Beghines,  31S. 

Belgium,  633. 

]?elTannine,  453,  46Ss. 

Bells,  153. 

Bena,  Amalricli  of,  340. 

Benedict,  Levita,  135.  209:  of 
Nursia.  151  :  III.  130;  VIII., 
190;  IX.,  190;  X..  192;  XI., 
272;  XII.,  274;  XIII.,  276, 
513;  XIV.,  514,  519. 

Bengel,  491. 

Bequests  to  the  Church,  139. 

Berault-Bcrncastel,  633. 

Berengarius,  237s.;  II.,  1S9. 

Bernard  of  Clairvau.x,  139,  200, 
229,  240,  242. 

Berne,  Deception  at,  801;  Ke- 
formation,  337. 

Bernini,  464. 

Berno  of  Clugni,  226. 

Berti  lier,  532. 

Berthold  of  Calabria,  23CI;  of 
Katisbon,  800. 

Berulle,  Petrus  de,  462. 

Bervllus,  lOo,  7u5. 

Bes'^ari 3.50. 

BethiiiaiiM-llollweg,  590. 

Beza.  402,  417. 

Bezieres,  256. 

Bible  Hours.  445;  Prohibition, 
243,  .332,  670;  Societies,  012ss., 
667;  Versions,  3318.,  373. 

Biblia  Pauperuni,  332. 

Bickell,  562s. 

Biel,  322. 

Bilderdvk,  .596. 

Birgitte,  309,  317. 

Bishop  of  Bishop.s  01. 

Bishops,  83,  59,  214,293a.;  Suf- 
fragan, 293;  Protestant,  4433., 
507.S. ;  Three  Great,  61s. 

Blandrata,  434. 

Blau,  6.54. 

Blood  Baptism,  70,  31.3. 

Boccaccio,  327. 

Boekelsen,  431. 

Bodin,  522. 

Boehme,  Jacob,  443. 

Boehmer,  J.  II.,  492. 

Boethius,  133. 

Bogomiles,  262. 

Bohemians,  243s.,  347s,'>.,  477. 

Bohemian  Bretlircn,  350s. 

Boii'shms,  249. 

Bollu-broke,  .500. 

Bologna  Univer-ify,  230. 

Bonaventura,  297, '325. 

Bonifacius  (Winfre.i),  168,  173, 
176,  179;  Vlll..  271.230,  301. 

Borgi.i,  Caesar,  232».,  234 ;  Bod- 
erigo,  232. 

Borromeo,  Charles.  461. 

Bossuet,  8,  .300,  51.5,  .520. 

Bourbon.'»,  426ss.,  0073. 

Bourdaloue,  510. 

Bourignon,  519.s. 

Bouthillier  de  la  Hance,  521. 

Bradwardiiia,  3:'.:}. 

Brahuiinism,  471s. 


Bramantes,  304. 

Brazil,  033. 

Bremen.  245,  41.3.  504. 

Brentz,  3S9s.,  391.  403. 

Breslau    Union,  509;     German 

Catholics  at,  657. 
Bridaine.  516 
Briuin,  53,  167  173. 
Brown,  423. 
Brethren,  Bohemian,  Moravian, 

3.50 ;  of  Christian  Schools,  .521 ; 

of  the  Free  Spirit,  340;  of  tha 

('oinmon  Life,  313. 
Bru-'Ier  Sect,  509. 
Brunellesco,  3o4. 
Bruno,  Carthusian,  227;  Jord., 

443. 
Bucer,  .390. 
Buddeus,  491. 
Buddhism,  473s. 
Bulfon,  .523. 
Bugenhagen,  3S0,  419. 
Bulirarians,  256. 
Bullinger,  361. 
Buonaparte,  5-32. 
Burclianl  of  Worms,  210. 
Bursundians,  165». 
Burial,  69. 
Buttler,  510. 
Byzantines,  258,  260s. 


Caecilianu.s,  157. 

Cainite-,  80. 

Cajetanus,  271 ;  and  Luther,  364 

Caius,  Presbyter,  099. 

C.ilas,  John,  543. 

Calasanza,  463. 

Calcutta,  Bishopric,  615. 

Calderon,  464. 

Caliphs,  110. 

Calixtines,  850. 

Calixtus  of  llehnstadt,  S,  4S6s. 
IL,  199;  III.,  231. 

Callenberg.  511. 

Callistus,  039,  704. 

Calovius,  43.5,  430. 

Calvin,  401s.s.  447. 

Calvinism,  412ss.  5D5s. ;  Saxon 
407. 

Camaldoli,  227. 

Cambray,  League  of,  234. 

Caineel,  Sultan,  266. 

Camisards,  495. 

Campaiius,  4'<3. 
i  Campeglus,  376. 
1  Camus,  529. 

Canon  of  tlie  N.  T.,  71s.,  447. 

Canones  Apostolici,  57. 

Canonici,  177,  213s.,  292s. 
I  Canoni>sae  Saeculares,  317s. 

Canonization,  213,  307. 

Canossa,  195. 
I  Canute  the  Great,  246. 

Capaecini,  632. 

Capellus,  490. 

Capito,  399. 

Capuchins.  463. 

Caracalla,  4,5. 

Caracci,  404. 

Carbea.s,  Paulician,  202. 

Cardinals,  213s.,  290. 

Carlos  Don,  G29s. 

Carlstadt,  365s.,  872,  .380,  33d 

Carmelites,  229s.,  316. 

("ariioades,  17. 

CariH.oratians,  sOs.,  696. 

Carle.-iu.s  4^9. 

Carthusians,  227s. 

Carthage,  Synod.  124. 

Casas,  Barth,  de  la,  333. 

Cas.sander,  463. 

Cassianus,  125. 


712 


INDEX. 


Cnssloflorus.  138  151. 

Castellio,  447. 

Casuistry,  S^'S».,  454s. 

Catacombs,  69. 

Cataphrj'gos,  ()6. 

Catccliisiii  of  France,  534 ;  of 
I  leidilbcr^',  413;  Lutncr's,  3S2 ; 
liornaniis,  400. 

Catecl)uine?is,  05. 

Catharine  do  Born,  SSO;  rle  Me- 
dici, 4-27;  of  Russia,  606;  of 
Siena,  .Sds's. 

C.-itliarists,  'i.^.lss.,  34'2. 

Ciitliedrals,  141,  304,  074. 

Catliolic  Ciiurch,  62,  146. 

Catholicism,  63,  147,  151,  460, 
052 ;  and  Protestantism,  40Ss., 
4S0ss.  • 

Catliolicus,  62,  607. 

Cellitae,  31S. 

Celsus,  49. 

Censorship  of  Books,  2S3,  4005. 

Centuriae  Magdeb.,  7. 

< 'onion,  81. 

(A-rinthus,  34. 

Ceveimes,  495. 

Chalcedon,  127. 

Clialdean  Christians,  127. 

Chalmers.  597. 

Cliantal  Francisca,  463. 

Cliapters,  214,292;  Controv.  on 
Tliree,  130. 

Charles  Albert,  622. 

diaries  Alex,  of  Wurtemb.,  493; 
the  Great,  169,  173,174,  179; 
Augustus,  540 ;  the  Gross,  187  ; 
tlie  Bald,  187;  of  Anjou,  268, 
270;  Martel,  168,  172';  Stuart 
I.,  425;  II.,  497s.;  IV.  of  Spain, 
274 ;  v.,  370s.,  414s.,  429 ;  VIII. 
■  if  France,  282,  352;  IX.,  428; 
X.,  625s.;  IX.  of  Sweden, 
418s. 

Charter,  German,  573  ;  Imperial, 
418. 

Chateaubriand,  534. 

Cliazars,  256s. 

Chemnitz,  Martinus,  393s.,  409, 
410. 

Clierbury,  409. 

Cliieresrati,  374. 

Children,  Baptism  of,  70,  224, 
431. 

Chiliasm,  40.  94,  293s.,  707. 

Chilperic,  173. 

China,  108,  333,  4743.,  521s.,  016, 
663s. 

Choral,  446. 

Cliorepiscopi,  60,  214,  293. 

Chosroes,  107. 

Christian  I.  of  Saxony,  410s. ;  of 
Mayence,  221. 

Christians,  26. 

Christiern  11.,  419;  III.,  419. 

Christina  of  Spain,  630s.  ;  of 
Sweden,  512. 

Christma.s,  154. 

Cliristopher,  152. 

Christo  Sacrum,  671. 

Olirist  Party  at  Corinth,  32. 

Chrodegang  of  Mentz,  170. 

Chrysoehei-es,  Paulician,  202. 

Chrvsostom,  120s. 

Cliubb,  500. 

Church,  1 ;  Ideal  of,  437s. :  El- 
ders of,  571  ;  Architecture, 
155s.;  Alliance  Evang.,  590; 
Conference,  587 ;  Singins,  153, 
30ÜS.,  445s.,  675s.;  History, 
Idea  of,  1 ;  Province.  2 ;  Value 
-if.  8:  Property,  210;  Music, 
465.  485,  67.J.    " 

Cimabue,  305. 


CIrcumcelliones,  168. 

Cistercians,  228. 

Civil  Marringc,  624. 

Clara  of  Assisi,  290. 

Clarendon,  Diet  of;  203. 

Claudius,  Emperor,  37;  of  Tu- 
rin, 233 ;  of  Wandsbeck,  542. 

Clausen.  561. 

Clausenburg,  Diet  of,  417. 

Clemangis,  325,  344. 

Clement  of  Alexandria,  9l8. ;  of 
Pvome,  36.  57 ;  Droste,  C39s. ; 
Flavins, 37:  11,190;  III.,  196; 
IV.,  268,  270;  V.,  272s.,  311; 
VI.,  274;  VII.,  275,  376,  890, 
421,  450;  VIII.,  456,  466,  467  ; 
IX.,  512,  518;  X.,  512;  XI., 
513,  51S;  XII.,  514;  XIII., 
524;  XIV.,  525. 

Clement,  Dominican,  428. 

Clementinae,  S3s.,  286,  702s„  697. 

Clergy,  57,  140,  176,  193s.,  201s., 
314. 

Clermont,  Synod,  196,  197. 

Clovis,  166. 

Clugni,  Congregation,  220. 

Cocceius,  490. 

Cochin  China,  064 

Cochlaeus.  360. 

Cock,  De,  596. 

Codex  Dionys.,  Theod.,  and  Jus- 
tin, 1.35s. 

Coelestine  III.,  205 ;  V.,  270. 

Coelestius,  122,  124. 

Coelibaev,  63,  148,  176  193.  222, 
314,  653,  706. 

Coelicolae,  107. 

Cola  di  Rienzo,  274s. 

Coligny,  428. 

Collegialism.  492,  572. 

Collegiants,  432. 

Collins.  499. 

Collyridiani,  1,52. 

Colombino,  317. 

Colonna  Sciarra.  272. 

Columba,  167,  177. 

Columbanus,  168. 

Columbus,  838. 

Commines,  264. 

Cominodus,  45. 

Comreni,  201,  262,  3.55 

Communism,  679,  707. 

Conception,  Immaculate,  224, 
801. 

Concord,  Book  of,  410;  Form  of, 
409. 

Concordat,  Aschaffenburg,  281 ; 
New  German,  035 ;  French, 
285.  533s.,  025;  Tuscan,  623; 
of  "\Vorm.s,  199. 

Concordium  of  Wittenberg,  899. 

Condillac,  523. 

Confessio  Augustana.  883;  Hel- 
vetica, 416;  Tetrapoiitana, 
390. 

Confessions,  Augustine's,  124s. 

Confessors,  56,  90. 

Confederation,  590;  Swi.ss,  3SSä. 

Confirmation.  70,  692. 

Confucius,  474. 

Confutatio  Conf.  Augsb.,  3S3. 

Congregatio  de  Auxiliis,  467. 

Congregation  Apost.,  617. 

Congregations,  445. 

Congretrationalists,  603. 

Conradlll.,  201 ;  of  Hochstede, 
303 ;  of  Marburg,  294,  308. 

Conradino,  268. 

Consalvi,  533,  674. 

Conscientiarians,  501. 

Consistories,  441 ;   Prussian,  586. 

Consistory,  Suproine,  Frencli, 
60S;  Pfiissif.n,  578. 


Constance,  Council.   277s.,  291 

848s. :  Bisiiopric,  646. 
Constatis  II.,  132 
Const antia  of  Sicily,  20,3, 200,  270 
C(instantin(jple,  Synod  of,  11.5.'i. 

130,  132,  150,  2.59,355;  Storm 

ing  of,  207,  856. 
Con.'-tantinus    Magnus,  .5.5,   103 

113,   152,   1,57;     Donation    of. 

184;    Copronymus,  156;    Pi>> 

gonatus.  132;  Sylvanus,  159. 
Constantius,  114;  Chlorus,  55. 
Constitution     Unigenitus,    518 ; 

Civil,  of  French  Clcrg}',  581. 
Constitutiones  Apostolicae,  57. 
Contarini,  393. 
Convent  Life,  149s.,  225s.,  81Cs. 

402s.,  6628. 
Convertites,  470,672s. 
Convocations,  442. 
("onvulsionaires,  519. 
Copernicus,  489. 
Copts,  181. 
Coquerel,  609. 
Coran,  109,  110. 
Corday,  Charlotte.  531. 
Cordicolatras,  521. 
Corinth,  Parties  in,  82. 
Cornelius,  674;  Rom.  Bishop,  67 
Corpus  Christi  Festival,  301. 
Corpus  Evangelicorum.  492. 
Corpus  Juris  Canonici,  286 
Correggio,  464. 
Coscia,  Cardinal,  513s. 
Cöthen,  Assembly  at,  579. 
Covenant,  Scottish,  424 
Cramer,  9. 
Cranmer,  422. 
Crell,  Kic,  411. 
Crescens,  51. 
Crescentius,  1S9. 
Cresconius,  136. 
Cromwell,  426. 
Cross,  Elevation  of  the,  154. 
Crucifixes,  150. 
Crusades,  190,  220  ;  End  of  tha 

269. 
Crypto-Calvinism,  407. 
Culdees,  167. 

Cumberland  Presbyterians,  604. 
Cu  p.  Withholding  of  the,  224s. 

350. 
Curialists,  289,  47S. 
Cyprian  us,  4:3,  89ss.,  T01. 
Cyran,  Abbot  of  St.,  517. 
Cyrilhis  of  Alexandria,  120, 133 

(Constantinus),  24S;    of  J  er» 

salem,  US;  Lucaris,  480. 
Cvrus,  131. 
Czechen,  606. 
Czerski,  057. 

D 

Dalbers.  536. 

Damiani,  192,  221,  224,  312. 

Damietta,  268. 

Dancers,  313s.,  446,  605. 

Dandolo,  207. 

Danneeker,  674. 

Dannenmayr,  11. 

Dante,  320s. 

Danz,  10. 

Darby,  Oil. 

Darnistadt,  644. 

David  of  Dinanto,  ,340. 

Deaconesses,  39,  140,  707. 

Deacons,  33.  58. 

Death,  for  Heresy,  158,  430. 

Decius,  46. 

Decretals,  False,  184 ;  Gregorian 

286. 
Deists,  49SS.S. 
Demetrius  of  Alexandria,  92. 


INDEX. 


713 


DemocrltUB  (Dippel),  601. 
Denmark,  245,  246,  4l9s.,  5Gls., 

678. 
Denuntiatio  Evangclica,  215s. 
Des  Cartes,  4S9. 
Desiderius,  l!t6. 
Deventer,  .318,  330,  519. 
Devil.  221,  440. 
De  Wette,  549. 
Aiaairopä,  21,  108,  505. 
Diderot,  523. 
Didyinus,  US. 
Dimitrij,  4SI. 
Dio,  Jo.  (li,  463. 
Diocletianus,  54 
Diodorus,  llSs. 
Diognetus,  51. 
Dionysiiis  Alex.,  9.5,  100;    Are- 

op.agita,    132,    177  ;    E.xi^'uiis, 

135 ;  lionianus,  100. 
Dioscurus,  127,  144. 
Diospolis,  Synod  of,  124. 
Dippel,  501. 
DJsciplina  Arcana,  70. 
Dissenters,  497s.,  59Sss. 
Dissidents,  420,  434,  494. 
Divorces,  71. 
Dooetae,  35. 
Dodwell,  500. 
Dolcino,  342. 
Dollinger,  12. 
Dome,  303,  304,  674. 
Dom  Gerle,  529. 
Dominicus  Dominicans,  29Css. 
Domitianus,  37. 
Domililla,  37. 
Donatello,  .304. 
Donation  of  Constantino,  183s. ; 

of  Otho,  190;  of  l'ipin,  173. 
Donatists,  157s. 
Donauwörth,  476. 
Dort,  Synod  of,  4153.,  442,  596. 
Dositlieus,  27. 
Droste,  637s. 
Druids,  53. 
Dubois,  Cardinal,  51S;  Mission- 

arv,  664. 
Duclioborzi,  666. 
Duels,  231. 
Dufresne.  664. 
Dulon,  564. 
Dnnin  of  Posen,  639. 
Duns  Scotus,  321. 
Dunstan,  221. 
Dutch  lit'formed  Church,  604. 

]•: 

Easter  Clironicle,  102;  Contro- 
versy, 6S,  154 :  Laughter,  300. 

East  Indies,  lOS,  47Uss.,  510,  522, 
Ol.i,  664. 

Ebcl  of  Koenissberc.  560. 

Eljionitos,  74,  s:is.,  69->. 

Eckard,  Doiiiiiiioan,  .322. 

EcolesiiLsiicid  I>aw,  Docc.  on,  56, 
170s.,  .210,  2S03.,  34.3,  440,s., 
893s.,  492,  571ss. ;  DioL«,  59iis. ; 
Assemblies,  60, 146,  29ils. ;  Dis- 
cipline, 65,  1478.,  175s.,  222s., 
311s.,  4:»;  Propertv,  139s., 
171s.,  216s.,  443s.;  Architec- 
ture, 155s. 

Eck,  865s.,  370,  .387. 

Edda,  163,  164. 

Edelmann,  501. 

Edessa,  53;  School  at,  127. 

Edward  I.  of  England,  271 :  III,, 
346;  VI.,  422. 

E?ede,  Hans,  51Ü.S. 

E::inhard,  161. 

Eichhorn,  Minister,  5S0;  Pastor, 


E/fSf  o-tr.  131. 

Elders,  38,  58,  572s. 

Eleutherus,  699. 

Klias  of  Cortona,  29S. 

Eliot,  510. 

Klipandus,  180. 

Elizabetli  of  Rngland,  422;    of 

Brunswick,  493 ;  Saint,  308. 
Elkesaites,  85,  698. 
EUer,  Elias,  509. 
Elvenich,  63S,  640. 
Elzevir  Press,  465. 
Emancipation   of  Jews,   675ss. ; 

of  (Jatholics  in  Irtdand,  649s. ; 

of  Slave-s  677s. 
Emblems,  Sacred,  69,  691. 
Eiiiniericli  Nun,  661. 
Empire,  136,  174,  210,  5-33;  Ko- 

maii,  136;  Uom.  German,  174, 

210:  Latin,  207. 
Ems,  Punctation  at,  523. 
Encratites,  64,  83. 
ICncyclojiscdia,  52S. 
Enfautin,  68ti. 
EnKclhardt,  9. 
England,  167s.,  203s.,  208,  421s&, 

497s.,  649ss. 
Enlightcnmeut,  Age  of,  537s.'5. 
Eon,  253s. 

Eperies,  Massacre  at,  494. 
Ephesus,  Synod,  127, 12S. 
Ephraem,  IIS. 
Epictetus,  47. 
Epicurus,  17. 
Epiphanes,  80s. 

Epiphanias  of  Constantia,  IIS. 
Epiphany,  68. 
Episcopacy,  598. ;  Constantino's, 

137 ;  of  Prot.  Princes,  441. 
Episcopal     System,    59s.,    289 ; 

Protestant,  441. 
Episcoi>alians  in  U.  S.,  602. 
Episcopi  in  Partibus  Intideliura, 

293. 
Episcopius,  416. 
Episcopus  Universalis,  141. 
Erasmu.s,  330.s.,  331,  345,  3793. 
Erastians,  425. 
Erdmansdorf,  606. 
Eric,  St.,  250. 
Erigena,  231,  2U. 
Ernest  the  Pious,  484. 
Ernesti,  .538. 

Erwin  of  Steinbacli,  803. 
Es|)artero,  630. 
Kssenes,  22 ;  Christian,  26. 
Este,  457;  Duchess  of,  429. 
Estlionlans,  251,  66S. 
Ethelbertof  Kent,  167. 
Ethics,  147,  333. 
Eucharistie  C<introv,,  234s.,  237, 

3V.I,  ;«)'j.s..  401  s. 
Euchile-i,  15-<,  262. 
Eudo  lie  Stella  (Eon),  253s. 
Eudo.xiiv,  121s. 

Eugeiiiuslll,  200;  IV.,  279. 
Eunomians,  114,  705. 
Eusebians,  113. 
Eu.<ebius  of  Caesarea,  14,  0.5.  102, 

111,  117;   of  Emlsa,   Us;    of 

Nicomedia,  113. 
Eustathius,  159,  703. 
Eutyches,  127. 
Eutliyinlus  Zigabenus,  261. 
Evagrius,  102,  705. 
Evangilia  Apoiiyph.i,  692.S. 
Ev»ii;.vlic:il  A  IliarR-c,  592;  Church 

Alli;iiite,  5;io ;  Conl'eretice,  5S7 ; 

S.iciftv,  .59.5,   60S;   KZeitung, 

5.55,  562,  579. 
Ev«n:.'elists,  38,  60S. 
E.xcDimnunication,  65,  176,  311, 

5S4. 


E.xorcism,  70,  411. 
Extravagantes,  2S6. 
Eyck,  Van,  3U6. 


Faber,  Stapulensis,  882  ;  of  Con 
stance,  386. 

Fabricius,  496. 

Fncultiites  Quinquennalcs,  460, 
613. 

Faith,  Rule  of,  72. 

Falckenberg,  834. 

Farel,  4(10. 

Fasts,  07s.,  1.54. 

Fathers  of  the  Faith,  625. 

Faust,  810. 

Faustus,  125. 

Febrouius,  528.     - 

Felicissimus,  90. 

FeH.\-  of  Urgel,  180;  of  Valois, 
230;  IL,  128;  V.,  280. 

Foticlon,  515,  520. 

Fenlinand  I.,  392,417,468;  IL, 
477;  VII.,  629;  the  Catholic, 
287. 

Feretti,  620. 

Feudal  Law,  171 ;  Mon.irchy,  192. 

Feiierbach,  554. 

Fichte,  54;J,  552. 

Filioque,  116,  253. 

Finns,  250. 

Kirtiiian  of  Salzburg,  49-3. 

Firmilian  of  Caesarea,  91. 

Fisher,  421. 

Flacius,  lllyricus,  7,  406,  447ss., 
469. 

Flagellants,  812. 

Flavianus,  127. 

Flechier,  516. 

Fletcher,  506. 

Fleury,  A.  H.,  518;  Claude,  8. 

Florence,  Synod  of,  2S0,  355. 

Fontainebleau  Concordat,  535. 

Fontevraud,  Order  of,  228. 

Fools,  Festival  of,  218. 

Formosus,  1S7. 

Forlunatus,  90. 

Fox,  C.  J.,  599  ;  George,  502. 

France,  Protestant,  426ss..  494s., 
6'i7s ,  comp.  627. 

Francia,  Dr.,  632 ;  Francesco, 
306. 

Francis  L  of  France,  285,  870 ; 
of  Pari.s,  51Ss. ;  of  Sales,  461. 

Franciscans,  296s. 

Franciscus  of  Assisi,  295s. ;  De 
Pauli^  317. 

Francke,  A.  IL,  487.«. 

Frank,  Seb.astian,  4S6. 

I'rankfort,  Svnml  of,  178,  ISO. 

Franks,  166,'l72. 

1-  rans<ini.  624. 

Fratres  de  Cominunitate,  298; 
iMinores,  296;  i'raedicatores, 
296. 

Fratricelli.  299. 

Frederic  L,  2o2,  204;  IL.  205ss.. 
2ii6,  265SS.,  340;  IIL,  2S0;  the 
Great,  .501, 53S,  547 ;  the  Wise, 
864s.,  371.  375;  I.  of  Deiim.irk, 
419;  III.  of  the  Palatinate, 
412;  v.,  477;  of  Austria,  273 ; 
Augustus  ofSaxony,  492;  Wil- 
liam I..  ofSaxony,  411;  IL, 
540  ;  III.,  .540s,  .566,  6.36,  675 
IV.,  576,  5S0,  5S2s.,  639,  675. 

Freemasons,  303,  6:U,  671. 

Friars,  .Meiidicaat,  295. 

Friends,  6o,5. 
Fritigurn,  16.5. 

Froissart,  264. 
Fron  to,  49. 
Frumectius,  lOS. 


714 


Fry.  li:iiziibcth,  60S. 

Fryth,  421. 

]''ulco  of  Nciiilli,  2o7. 

Fulda,  WX 

F'lilk'eiitius  Forrandiis,  13C. 

Funk,  G.,  404. 

«iailor  of  Kaiscrsber^',  300. 

Galerius,  54. 

Galileans,  25. 

GaliU-i,  460. 

Galilean    Clinrch,   53,   173,  26S, 

2S7,  514SS.,  425,  624. 
Oallienus  46. 
Gall  us,  46,  16S. 
(Jamallel,  22,  2S. 
Ganganelli,  525s. 
Gangra  Synod,  708. 
Gasparin,  608. 
Gassner,  527. 
Gaston,  228. 

Gebliard  of  Cologne,  476. 
Geissel,  Coadjutor,  639. 
Gelasius  IL,  190. 
Geliert,  541. 
General  Synods,  146.  290 ;  Gen. 

Germ.  Library,  539. 
Geneva.  400,  595,  610. 
Gennadius,  356. 
Gentile  Christianity,  31. 
Gentilis,  433. 

George  of  Saxony,  875s.,  391. 
Gerbert,  189,  236. 
Gerhard,  412,  469;  Groot,  318; 

Segarelli,  341. 
Genn.  Catholicism,  656;  Church, 
lOOss.,  635s. ;  Order  of  Knights, 
232,  330s.,  662;  Theology, '322 ; 
Reformed  Church,  604. 
Germanic  Church,  160ss.,  635. 
Gerson,  276,  277,  325s.,  344. 
Gessius,  Florus,  37. 
Geysa  of  Hungary,  250. 
Gfriirer,  11. 

Ghibellines,  206 ;  Heretical,  340, 
Ghiberti,  304. 
Gichtel,  rm. 
Gie^^eler,  10. 
Gifts  of  Grace,  40,  63. 
Gioberti,  622,  624. 
Giotto,  305. 

Glass,  Painting  on,  303,  674. 
Glosses,  287. 
Gnosis,  76,  93s. 
Gnosticism,  76a.,  095ss.,  697. 
Gobat,  576. 
Gobet,  435. 
Goch,  .John  of,  351. 
God,  Friends  of,  344;  Judgment 

of,  218. 
Godfathers  and  Godmothers,  70. 
Godfrey    of   Bouillon,   197 ;    of 
Lorraine,  192  ;   of  Strasbourg, 
244. 
Goerres,  638,  654. 
Goethe,  542. 
Goinarus,  415. 
Gorham,  600. 
Gospel,  Everlasting,  299. 
Gotinc  Architecture,  302s. 
Goths,  165. 
Gottschalk,  235;    Prince  of  the 

AVends,  249. 
Gratnmont,  Order  of,  227. 
Granvella,  893. 
Gratianus,  Emperor,  105s.,  158; 

Decretals  of.  2(l9s. 
Gravamina  of  the  Germ.  Nation, 

372,  374. 
Gray  League,  387,  475,  479. 
Gr"t  Britain,  Ueformation,  421ss., 

598SS. 
Greece,  Ancient,  15.ss. ;  Modern, 
669s. 


INDEX. 

Greek  Church,  Schism,  259s. ; 
Union,  355,  005,  667. 

Greenland,  247,  510s. 

(iregoire,  529s.,  626. 

Gregorius  Ilium.,  62 ;  Nazienzcn, 
115,  117;  Hysxti,  117;  Turo- 
nensis,  161;  Thaumaturgus, 
95;  Festival  of,  224. 

Gresory  the  Great,  142,  14.5s., 
1 67;  1  v.,  184 ;  V„  189 ;  V  L,  190 ; 
VIL,  18.3, 191s.,  193SS.,  221, 238, 
243;  Vin.,199.  204;  IX.,  266; 
X.,  269;  XL,  275,  346;  XIL, 
276;  XIII.,  428,  451s.;  XV., 
457s.;  XVI.,  619s.,  630,  638, 
668;  V.  of  Constantinople,  669 ; 
VI.,  670. 

Gribaldo,  433s. 

Griesbach,  592. 

Groot,  Gerhard,  31S 

Grandtvig,  561. 

Gualbert,  227. 

Guelphs,  196,  206. 

Guericke,  10,  569,  570,  579. 

Günther,  05.'). 

Gützlaff,  616. 

Guicciardini,  265. 

Guido  of  Spoleto,  1S7. 

Guinefortis,  Sainted  Dog,  220. 

Guise,  Dukes  of,  427. 

Guizot,  672. 

Gunpowder  Plot,  425. 

Gustavus  Adolphus,  478 ;  Socie- 
ties, 588 ;  Vasa,  418. 

Guyon,  520. 


II 

Ilaco  the  Good,  240. 

Hadrian,  Emp,  45.  .50:   I.,  174, 

178;  II.,  Iö7s.  ;  IV.,  2Ul,  202, 

873s.;  VI.,  3733.,  451 1. 
Hague,  Societies  at,  539 ;  Synod, 

597. 
Hageii,  361. 
Hagenbach,  801. 
Hahn,  562.  570. 
Hall,  Siiabian,  -340. 
Halle,  454,  483,  502. 
llaller.  Berthold,  386. 
Hamann,  542. 

Hamburg,  245,  563s.,  610s.,  636. 
Hamel,  467. 

Hamilton,  Piitrick,  424. 
Handel,  485. 
Hanno  of  Cologne,  192. 
Hanover,  473,  496. 
Hans  Sachs,  374. 

Harald  Haarfager,  240 ;  of  Jut- 
land, 245. 
Harmonists,  553. 
Harms,  561. 
Hauge,  547. 
Havdn,  67.5. 
Haymo,  2*3. 

Heart  of  Jesus,  521. 
Heathenism,  Germ.,  162s.,  169s., 
175,  247;    Greek  Eoman,  13 
46. 

Heber,  Eeginald.  615. 

Hebrews,  Sect  of,  5u9. 

Heerbann,  171. 

Hegel,  551,  579. 

Hegesippus,  14. 

Heimburg,  345. 

Heine,  554. 

Helena,  St.,  1.52,  674. 

Heliogabalus,  45. 

Hellenism.  21. 

Helmstadt,  486. 

Heloise,  '242s. 

Hclsen,  056. 
I  Helvetu  Kefurm.,  384,  399. 


lle.votlus,  523. 
Hemmins,  837. 
llenimerlin,  .344. 
Flengstenberg,  555«.,  570 
llenke,  9. 

Henkel  in  Hesse,  463. 
Henoticon,  115. 
llcnrion,  CS3. 

Henry  I.  of  Germany.  ISS  ;  III, 
190;   IV.,  192,  19:{,   19%;    V., 
198;   VI.,  205:   VIL,  237;  I. 
of    England,    198;    IL,    203; 
VIL,    287;    VIII,   877,  421; 
III.  of  France,  428 ;    IV.,  428, 
401 ;  of  Brunswick,  392:  Lion. 
249  ;   Monk,  253 :   of  Walpot. 
232. 
HeracleoD,  096. 
Heraclius,  1U7,  131. 
Herder,  541. 
Heresy,  74,  342. 
Hermann  of  Cologne,  392,  896. 
Hermas,  36. 
Hermesians,  637s.,  640. 
Hermias,  51. 
Hermits,  150. 
Hermogenes,  696s. 
Herod  Agrippa,  25. 
Herrad  of  Landsperg,  248. 
Herrnhutters,  424. 
Hess,  674. 

Hesse,  3Sls.,  440s..  562s. 
Hesshusius,  408,  411. 
Hesychasts,  85.5. 
Heterodo.xy,  539. 
Hetzer,  433. 
Hicks,  Elias.  503,  603. 
Hieracas,  702. 
Hierarchy,  20,   57s,   137s..   132, 

617s. 
IHerocles,  50. 

Hieronymus.     See  Jerome,  317. 
Hieronymites,  317. 
Hilarion,  149. 
Hilarius,   113,   144;   of  Arelate. 

144. 
Hildebr.and,  191ss.,  233. 
Hincmar    of     Laon,    137 ;     o' 

Ptheims,  137,  233,  235. 
Hippolytus,  95s.,  693ss. 
Hippo  Kegius,  123,  604. 
Hirsau,  227. 
Hirscher,  654. 
Hobbes,  499. 

Hochsteden,  Conrad  of,  303. 
Hochstraten,  329. 
Hoenigern,  509. 
Hoffmann,  486. 
Hohenlohe,  548 ;  Alex..  602. 
Hohenstaufen,  202,  267s. ;  Over- 
throw, 267. 
Holbach,  523. 
Hollan.l,  596,  634. 
Holstein,  561. 

Holy  Alliance,    234,    .391.    631; 
Land,  152, 196,  07ü;  Scriptures. 
71,  111,  3;31s.,  373,  446s..  465s., 
592s.;    Spirit,    115;    Le.igae, 
428. 
Homberg,  382. 
'Onoovaios,  100, 102s. 
'Ojuoiouffioy,  113. 
HonoriusL,  131;  IL,  192,  III 

265,  296. 
Hontheim,  528. 
Hormisdas,  134. 
Hortig,  12. 

Hosiusof  Cordova,  112. 
Hospitallers,  228.  comp  232. 
Hottinger,  7,  361. 
Huet,  515. 
Hug,  654. 


INDEX. 


715 


Huso  Capet,  1S9  ;  de  Payens, 
23-2;  Grotius.  415;  of  Prov- 
ence, ISS;  of  St  Victor,  240. 

Iliisuonots,  427,  494s. 

Jluinaiiisin,  554. 

Humanists,  32T,  323,  41T. 

Kiiine.  500. 

Humiliate?,  231. 

Hungary,  250,  417,  479,  493,  548, 
6il6. 

Iliirter,  205,  4.34. 

lluss,  347ss. 

Hussites,  349s. 

Hütten,  Ulrich  von,  329,  367. 

Hutter,  413. 

Hyp;^ti!^  106. 

Hv[isistarians,  107. 

Hysiaspes,  97,  693. 

I 
Ibas,  127. 129, 130. 
Iceland,  247,  420. 
Iconoclasm,  1563.,  ITS. 
Iglau,  350. 

Ignatius,  45,  59,  72,  692;  Patri- 
arch, 25S;  de  Loyola,  4523, 
Isnorantius,  52). 
llanz,  Disp.  of,  3S7. 
Illuminates,  527,  530. 
Illvria,  142,  14:B. 
Images,  156, 178;  Tumult  about, 

156s.,  17S. 
Imitative  Arts  of  the  M.  A.,  302 ; 
Protestant,  444». ;  Later  Cath., 
4649.  ;  most  recent,  6743. 
Impostors,  Three,  267. 
In  Coena  Domini  Bull,  311,  453, 

023. 
Incorruptibility  of  Christ's  Body, 

12'.»,  130. 
Indop.'ndents,  423s.,  4253.,  Oil. 
IndiK  Prohibitorum,  461. 
Indulgences,  222s.,  301,  312,  351, 

303. 
Infallibility  of  the  Church,  147, 

344;  of  the  Pope,  212,  2SS. 
Infant  Baptism,  70,  152,  224,  431. 
Ingeburge,  207. 

Inuocentius  I.,  121,124,143;  II., 
200;  III.,20.5ss.,  2-30,  231,255; 
IV.,  207;  VI.,274;  Vin..232, 
310;  X..  511;  XI.,  512s.,  »IS; 
XII.,  513;  XIII.,  513. 
Inquisition,  2933S.,  414,  429,  400, 

629. 
Interdict,  223,  311. 
Interim,  396s.,  405;  Leipsic,  397. 
Investiture  Coitrov.,  193,  199. 
Ireland,  167,  422,  049. 
Irenaeus,  83,236,  699s. 
Irene,  157. 
Irinin^ul,  16-3. 
Iriurius,  216. 
Iroijuois,  004. 
Irving,  55 >s. 
Isabella  of  Spain,  6:51. 
Isenbiehl,  527. 

I.^idorus  of  Pelnsium,  1.32;  Ilis- 
lialls,  134,  136,  173;    Pscudo, 
l54;  Gnostic,  095. 
Islam,  110,  163,  835. 
Itncius,  153. 
ltal.1.  111. 

Italy,  1733.,  211s.,  2S7,  53.'5,  017i, 
6203. ;  Protestantism  in,  429.-=., 
009. 
Ivan  Basilowitz,  4SI. 
Ivo  of  Chartres,  210. 

J 

Jacob  Baradai,  131 
Jacobi.  543,  0S3s. 
Jacobins,  296. 
Jacobites,  131s.,  261. 


Jaenicke,  013. 

Jagello,  .337. 

•Jamblichus,  48. 

James  the  Just,  25.  173;  of  Ba- 
den, 470;  I.  of  Ensland,  425; 
II.,  498;  »le  Voragine,  307. 

Jansenism,  516. 

Janssen.  509. 

Japan,  473. 

Javohey,  Abbess,  073. 

Jean  Petit,  3:i4. 

Jen:^  4o5,  540,  54-3. 

Jeremias  II.,  Patriarch,  430. 

Jerome,  120, 124, 159 ;  of  Prague, 
343s. 

Jerusalem,  Bistiopric,  576 ;  Con- 
quest i)i,  37,  197  ;  Patriarch  of, 
141. 

Jesuates,  317. 

Jesuits,  452ss.,  5243.,  617s.,  C25, 
040s. 

Jesus  Christ,  24. 

Jewish  Christians,  26,  81,  74. 

Jews,  20s.,  363.  423.,  335s. 

Joachim  of  Flores,29Ss.;  of  Bran- 
denburg, 392. 

Joanna  Pupissa,  136 ;  of  Naples, 
27.5. 

Joasaph  II.,  Patri.irch.  430. 

Johannic  Christians,  77. 

Jolm  of  Antioch,  126;  Apostle, 
33.  34;  Baptist,  154;  Festival 
of,  154;  the  Constant,  375; 
F.a.ster,  1-35,  142 ;  of  England, 
203;  Damascenus,  134;  of  Je- 
rusalem, 124 ;  Prester,  3.37 ;  of 
Laski,  407  ;  Matha,  230 ;  of  Ne- 
pomuk,  477;  of  Salisbury, 
241 ;  of  Vicenza,  300 ;  of  Philo- 
ponus,  1.33;  Scholasticus,  56, 
135;  Zonaras,  260;  Sigismund 
of  Bran<lenburg,  413 ;  Frederic 
the  Magnanimous,  891,  397  ; 
VL,4S4;  III.  of  Sweden,  413; 
Knights  of  St.,  232,  319,  662s. ; 
VIII.,  Pope,  136.  259;  X., 
133;  XL,  13S;  XIL.  13Ss.; 
XXI.,  186;  XXII.,  273,  299; 
XXIII.,  278.  339. 

Jonas  of  Orleans,  233. 

Joris,  434. 

Jornandes,  161. 

J()se[.h  II.,  527,  513,  070. 

Jovinianus,  159. 

Jubilee  Indulgences,  023;  Tear, 
301s.,  019. 

Julia  Mammaca,  40. 

Julianists,  129. 

Julianus  Apo.stata,  104s.;  Cardi- 
nal, 279,  345;  of  Eclanum, 
124;  Minorite,  019. 

Julius  II,,  2■^;!s.,  :;o4,  885;  III., 
451,  'i-')')-,  Africanus,  95,  700; 
Severus,  42. 

Jumpers.  .'>4ii. 

.(un^'Stillintr,  .542. 

Jurisdiction  Eccle?.,  13Ss.,  215, 
467. 

Jus  Spollae,  Eegallae.  Stolae,  210. 

.Iu.slitioation,  3;i2,  46T. 

Juslinianus  I ,  lnii.  129,  139. 

Justiuus  I.,  12S;  II.,  130;  Mar- 
tyr, 4-3,  .50s.,  71,  692. 

Justus  Jonas,  330. 

K 
Kant,  543. 
Katerkamp.  12. 
Kaulbaeh,  074. 
Keller  in  Lucerne,  046;  Bishop, 

040. 
Kellner,  570. 
Kepler,  411. 


Kerz,  12. 

Kettler,  Conrad,  420. 
Kiew,  257,  431. 

Kni'.'lits,   Orders  of.   281s.,  SIS, 
481 ;  of  St  John,  232,  318,  4SI. 
Knox,  424. 
K nutzen,  501. 
Koeniff,  435. 
K.Mlde^,  432. 
Köhler,  509. 
Koorlanil.  420. 
Ki>ran,  109,  110. 
Kornthal,  Cong,  of,  557s. 
Krudeuer,  Mad.  de,  595,  631. 
Krummacher  of  Bremen,  504. 
Kuhlmann,  5oS. 
Kurtz,  .594,  084. 
Kutteuberg,  Diet  of,  350. 


Labadie,  ,503. 

Labarum,  lo.3. 

Lachmarm,  .592. 

Lacordaire,  626. 

Lactantiu3,  96. 

Laden  berg,  533. 

Lady  Days,  154. 

Laesarc,  .^47. 

Lainez,  45.3. 

Laity,  57.  1403.,  4408. 

Lalande.  523. 

Lama,  33L 

Lamartine,  024s. 

Lambert  of  AschafTenbnrg,  1S2; 

of  Avignon,  882 ;   of  Spcleto, 

137. 
Lamennais,  625,  626. 
Lanfranck,  237. 
Lange,  10. 
Langlon,  203. 
La[)lace,  490. 
Lapland,  337.  510. 
Laiisi,  Cos.,  07,  90. 
Las  Casas,  833. 
Lateran  Synod,  132. 193,199;  II., 

200,  2oS,  238,  234-285. 
Latitudinarians,  491. 
Laud,  420. 

Laurentius,  01 ;  Talla,  327,  331. 
Lau.sanne  Disp.,  400. 
La  Valette,  525. 
Lavater.  542. 
Law  and  Gospel,  403,  409. 
Lay  Brethren,  2253. 
Lazarists,  46:}. 
League,  Holy,  428. 
Lee,  Anna,  .546. 
Legacies,  140. 
Legate,  Nuncio,  213.  528. 
Le:.'end,  Golden,  3o7. 
Legends,  4. 

Legio  Fulminatrix,  45. 
Leiinano,  Battle  of,  20.3. 
Lelitdn,  Hermann,  670. 
Leibnitz,  4y.l3.,  490. 
Lei-htouu.  498. 
Leipsio    Apost,    Svmbol,  505s. 

Disp.,  805,  Ö62 ;  Synod,  653. 
Lent,  154. 
Leo  I.,  Emperor.  128;  Isauricus 

150;    Juda,  880;    the  Great 

123.  143;    IIL,  174;  IV.,  130 

VIIL,    189  ;    IX.,    191  ;     X. 

23.J3.,  312,  364,  809,  450;  XII, 

019. 
Leopold  of  Tuscany,  523s. 
Less,  467. 
Lessins,  541,  074. 
Libanius.  loO. 
Libellatiei.  ,'i6. 
Liberal  Catholics,  602,  6.'»3. 
Liberi  us,  14-3. 
Libertines,  40l. 


716 


INDEX. 


Licir.'.us,  fiS,  103. 

LiKht,  Friends  of,  579,  5S1. 

Llsuori,  521. 

Lindbcrg,  502. 

Linilner,  CS4. 

Lindsey,  611. 

Lippc,  560. 

Literature,  Revival  of,  82Cs. 

Lithii.inia,  S'-Ms. 

Liturgy,  224. 

Livonia,  250,  420,  66S. 

Locherer,  12. 

Locke,  4S9. 

Logos,  22,  34,  94,  9S,  112. 

Loke,  164s. 

Lollards,  318. 

Lombardus,  Peter,  289. 

Longiibards,  166,  173. 

Lord's  Supper,  70,  153,  224s.; 
Bull  of,  311,  458.  623. 

Loretto,  Holy  House,  5Ü9s. 

Lorsch,  Annals  of,  161. 

Lothaire  II.,  187, 2U0. 

Louis  the  Bavarian,  273  ;  of  Ba- 
varia, 653,  674;  the  German, 
187;  the  Pious,  184;  Saint, 
26Ss. ;  of  Anjou,  275;  VII., 
201;  XII.,  284;  XIV.,  494, 
512.513,  514,518;  XV.,  518; 
XVI.,  435;  XVIII.,  624;  Phi- 
lippe, 626 ;  Napoleon,  608,  629. 

Louvain,  633. 

Love-Feast,  41,  TO,  153. 

Lucerne,  334,  647. 

Lücke,  593. 

Luitprand,  182. 

Lullus,  169,  3:34. 

Luneville.  Peace  of,  533,  536. 

Luther,  361s.,  37Ts.,  394s.,  399s., 
440,  446. 

Lutherans,  361  ss.,  390s ,  569,  604. 

Lutheranism,  402ss.,  569ss. 

Lvndhurst,  Lord,  650. 

Lyons.  Soc.  of  Faith  at,  663; 
Svnod  at,  125,  267,  355. 

Lyra,  Nie.  de,  331. 

Mabillon,  5\n. 
Macarius,  707. 
Machiavelll,  328. 
Macedonians,  115. 
Macrena  Mieslawski,  6GS. 
Madagascar,  616s. 
Madiai,  6o9. 
Macdeburg,  565. 
Magic,  48,  309. 
Magna  Charta.  208. 
Maimbourg,  360. 
Maimonides,  335. 
Mainottes,  107,  256s.,  356s. 
Major,  405s. 
Majorinus,  157. 
Maistre,  De,  625. 
Malachias,  290. 
Mandeville,  499. 
Manfred  of  Sicily,  267s. 
Manichaeism,  S6"ss.,  123 ;  of  Mid- 
dle Ages,  252s. 
Manuel,  386. 
Marburg    Colloquy,    390;    Free 

Congg.,  581. 
Marca,  Petrus  de,  515. 
Marcellinus,  61. 

Marcellus,114.705;  II.,  451, 465. 
Marcianus,  127. 
Marcion,  71,  81s. 
Marcus,  696:  Aurelius,  45. 
Marirarotta  Peter,  559. 
Marheineke,  10,  360. 
Marv,  Worship  of,  152,  215,  221, 
224,   807,  521  ;    the  Catholic, 
422 ;  Stuart,  424. 


Maria  of  Portugal,  C31 ;   The- 
resa, 526. 
Marriage,  63.  70s.,  139,  176,  225, 
706 ;    Double,  4S9s.  ;   Mixed, 
636s. 
Mariana,  4.58. 
Marienburg,  8.37. 
Maronites,  132,  260,  482. 
Marozia,  188. 
Marquesas  Islands,  615. 
Marsilius  Ficinus,  3.35. 
Martin  of  Tours,  151.  177;    L, 

132 ;  IV.,  270 ;  V.,  27Ss. 
Martyrs,  55s.,  69,  154. 
Ma.sora,  3S1. 
Mass,  146,  300. 
Massalians,  107, 158. 
Massillon,  516. 
Master  Song,  315,  446. 
Matilda,  Countess,  194,  196,  198. 
Matteo  de  Ba.=si,  462s. 
Matthew,  Father,  650. 
Matthew  Paris,  264. 
Matthias,  Emperor,  418,  477. 
Matthiesen,  *J1. 
Maulbroun,  Disp.  at,  413. 
Maur.  Monks  of  St.,  462,  4SI. 
Maurice  of  Hesse,  413  ;  of  Sax- 
ony,  893,   895s.,  396,   397;   of 
Orange,  415s. 
Mauritius,  6SS. 
Maury,  530,  585. 
Mauvillon,  537. 
Maximilian  I.,  870;  II.,  417;  of 

Bavaria,  477. 
Maximinus,  55;    the  Thracian, 

46. 
Maxim  us,  155. 
Mayence,  169,  280. 
Mayer,  Chancellor,  345. 
Maynooth,  651. 
Mazzini,  622. 
Mechatharists,  665. 
Mecklenburg  Catholic  643. 
Mediolanum,  Synod  of,  114. 
Meinhard,  250. 
Melancthon,  366s.,  873,  378,  38-3, 

391,  393,  404s.,  439s.,  446s. 
Melchizedekians,  99,  702. 
Melchites,  131. 
Meletius,  690. 
Melito,  51,  71. 
Men  ander,  27. 
Mendaeans,  77 

Mendelssohn,  Felix.  Moses,  675. 
Mendicant  Orders,  295s. 
Mennas,  130. 
Mennonites,  432,  610. 
Menzel,  360  (.Errata). 
Mercy,  Brethren  and  Sisters  of, 

463,  662. 
Merle  d'Aubigne,  361. 
Merlin,  310. 

Messias,  Klopstock's,  541. 
Methodists,  505,  595,  604. 
Methodius,  95,  248,  256. 
Metropolitans,  60s. 
Michael,   177;    Cerularius,   259; 
Palaeologus,  269,  854,  355 ;  of 
Cesena,  299  ;  Angelo,  304, 305. 
Michaelis,  538. 
Michelet,  628. 
Miguel,  Dom,  631. 
Milner,  10. 

Miltitz  and  Luther,  365 
Milton,  498. 
Minimi,  317. 
Ministerium,  58. 
Minnesingers,  244. 
Minorites;  297ss.,  318. 
Minucius,  Felix,  49,  51. 
Mirabeau,  531. 
Miserere,  465. 


Missa,  188,  146;  Marcelll.  465. 
Missions,  Inner,  .091 ;    Catholic 
663s. ;  Priests  of  the,  40.3,  025 
Missionary  Societies,  612ss. 
Moehler,  14,  655. 
Mogila-s,  481. 

Mohammed,  108ss. ;  II.,  356 
Molay,  319. 
Molina,  467. 
Molinos,  520. 
Momiers,  595. 
Monarcbia  Siciliae,  196. 
Monarchians,  9ss.,  196,  704. 
Monasticism,  149,  1.50,  22."). 
Monastic    Life,    149,    150,    316, 

462s..  481. 
Mongols,  .S37s. 
Moi)od,   Fred.,    608;    Adolphe, 

609. 
Monophvsites,  123, 130s. 
Monothelites,  131. 

Montalembert,  625. 
Montanism,  66s.,  89s.,  701. 

Monte  Cassino,  151. 

Montesquieu,  52.3. 

Montesquiou,  530. 

Montlosier,  626. 

Moral  Science,  147s.,  83.3. 

Moralities,  802. 

Moravia,  248. 

Moravian  Brethren,  350,  005. 

Morgan,  500. 

Mormons,  612. 

Morrison,  616. 

Mosheim,  9. 

Mozarabes,  168. 

Mozart,  675. 

Muckers,  559s. 

Muhlberg,  Battle  of,  896. 

Müller,  Daniel,  508;  Henry.  449. 

Münster,  Anabaptists  of,  431s. 

Müuzer,  Thomas,  878. 

Muri.  647. 

Murillo.  404. 

Musa,  168. 

Music  Eccles.,  153,  465,  675. 

Mvconius,  360. 

Mysticism.  239s.,  822ss.,  344,5'«>, 
555s.,  661. 

N 
Nabe,  10. 

Nantes,  Edict  of,  428,  494. 
Naples,  529. 

Napoleon.  532,  533,  548,  676. 
Nassau,  413. 
Natal  is,  Alexander,  8. 
Natalia,  68. 
Naturalism,  49Sss. 
Nationiil  Cliurehes,  292. 
Naumburg  Bishopric,  592  ;  Prin- 
ces' Diet  at,  404. 
Nazareans,  25,  74. 
Nazoraeans.  74. 

Neander,  History,  10,  6So ;  Bish- 
op, 508. 

Neri,  Philip,  462. 

Nero,  37. 

Nerva,  85. 

Nestori.ans,  126s.,  .335.  665. 

Nestorius,  124.  335,  706. 

Netherlands,  Reform,  414;    Lu- 
cent State  of,  596s. 

Neuberg,  Count  Palatine,  476. 

New  Israelites,  547. 

New  Jerusalem,  506ss.,  605. 

Newman,  599s. 

New  Platonism,  47ss. 

New  Testament,  71,  592. 

New  Year's  Day,  154. 

Niebelungen,  Lay  of,  243. 

Nicaea,  Synod  of,  L    1126S.;  IL 
157, 178. 


I 


INDEX. 


717 


Nicephoras  Callist.,  705. 
Is'icephoras,  lo2. 
Nicetas  Choniates.  201. 
Nicolas  of  Claiiicn^is,  325,  844 ; 

of  Cusa,  345 ;  of  the  Flue,  803 ; 

of  Lyrn,  331 ;  Methone,  261 ; 

of  Eussia,  667s. ;    I.,  1S5,  1S6, 

26S;  IL.  192;  V.,  231. 
Nicolai.  539.    . 
Nicolaitan?,  35. 
Nicon,  Patriarch,  6C6. 
Niedner,  11. 
Nielson  Hauge,  547. 
Nihiis,  469. 
N'ismes,  42S,  607. 
Kitzjch,  5S6. 
Noaillcs,  Cardinal,  51S. 
Nobili,  Jesuit,  472. 
Nobility  of  the  üernian  Nation, 

367. 
Noetus,  100,  704. 
Nogaret.  272. 
Nosent,  242. 
Nollbrethren,  31 S. 
Nominalism,  239,  321i5. 
Nomocanon,  135,  260. 
Nonconfurmists,  423.<. 
Nonintrusionists,  597s. 
Norbert,  Praemonstrant,  229s. 
Nonlhausen,  581. 
Normal  year.  479. 
Normans,  246s. 
North  America,  417,  510,  601ss., 

617,  664. 
Norwegians.  246,  420. 
Notarii,  Paulicians,  160. 
Notker  Labeo,  236. 
Novalis,  555. 
Novatians,  67. 
Nuremberg,  Diet  of,  373)).,  876; 

liel.  Peace,  3S4. 
Nuncios,  213,  459. 

O 

Oak,  Svnod  of  the,  121. 

Oberlin,  546. 

Obscure  Men,  Letters  of,  329. 

Occam,  821. 

Occhino,  4(>% 

O'Connell,  649,  650. 

Oilense,  iJict  of,  419. 

Odin,  164. 

Odilo,  226. 

Odo,  226. 

CEcolampadiua,  8S6,  8S9. 

Oicuinenius,  261. 

ffioumenical  Councils,  146 ;  Pa- 
triarchs, 142s. 

Octinner,  .507,  539. 

Otlicials,  Episcopal,  292. 

Offlciutri  of  the  Virgin,  224. 

Olat  St,  or  Olau»,  St,  247  ; 
Schooskönig,  246;  Trygv&sen, 
247. 

Olavides,  527. 

Oldenbarneveldt,  41.5. 

tdileiibur^'.  Church  Got.,  ?75. 

».Hd  Testament,  71. 

Olevianus.  4\i. 

OUveüms  317. 

Olga,  257. 

Olsliausen,  570. 

Oncken,  Missionary,  610». 

O[)hitos,  80,  693s. 

Orange,  Svnwi  of,  125. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the,  462,  465. 

Orders,  22.\  295,  462s8.,  662. 

Organs,  153.        '  ■' 

Oriiren,  52,  71,  92,.130,  703. 

Original  Sin,  122.' 

Orleans  llcgcnt,  513;  Dynasty, 
626s3. 

Oroslus,  106, 12L 


Oslander,  403. 

Osseni,  85. 

Otho  of  Bamberg,  249 ;  of  Frey- 
singen, 1S3;  I.,  1*9,  249;  111., 
189;  IV..  206,  216. 

Overbcck,  674. 

Owen,  680. 


Pachotr.ius,  149. 

Pack,  Otho  von,  381. 

Pasanism,  104. 

Pa-i.  8. 

Painting,  69,  304s.,  445.  464,  674. 

Pajon,  490. 

Pa'lamas.  35,5. 

Palatinate,  392 ;  of  Bavaria,  492, 
52S. 

Palestrina,  465. 

Palavicini,  360. 

Pallium,  15.3. 173,  212. 

Pamphilus,  95. 

Panoplia,  261. 

Pantaenus,  91. 

Pantheism,  .^51s.,  554. 

Pantheon,  152,  464. 

Papacy,  61s.,  142s.,  lS3s.,  195, 
26.188.,  2SSs.,  450s.,  511ss.,  524s3., 
617SS. 

Paphnutlus,  148. 

Papias,  73. 

I'aracelsus,  448. 

Parasuar,  475.  524,  632. 

Paris  Univ.,  236.  276, 320 ;  Synod 
of,  178,  340,  535. 

Parma,  525. 

Parson's  Letter,  288. 

Pasagii,  252s. 

Pascal,  517. 

Paschal  Controv.,  68,  154,  691. 

Paschalis  II..  197ss. 

Pascliasius  lladbertus,  224,  234. 

Passau,  Treaty  of,  898. 

Pastors,  293. 

Paterini,  252. 

Patriarchs,  141 ;  of  Constantino- 
ple, 356s. 

Patricius,  167,190. 

Patripa.«sians,  98. 

Patronage,  214. 

Paulus,  Apostle,  27s.,  31s.,  40 :  of 
Bernried,  193;  Gerard,  4S4s. ; 
of  Samosata,  100 ;  of  Thebes, 
64s.;  the  Simple,  150;  II., 
2Sl3.;  III.,  890,  395,  450,  4.V>, 
454;  IV.,  451,  462;  V.,  457. 
467;  "Warnefrid,  161,  179;  of 
Heidelberg,  54t 

Paulicians,  159s.,  261. 

Peace,  Kvcrlasting,  681s, ;  of 
God,  21)8,  217 ;  of  Linz.  479 ; 
of  Westphalia,  479  ;  of  Vien- 
na, 417s. ;  of  St.  Oerui.iin,  427. 

Peasant's  War,  877s. 

Pedro,  Dom,  631. 

Peel,  6lX). 

Pclairlan  Controv.,  122.  3.38,  467. 

Pclflgius,  122  ;  Kom.  Bishop,  130. 

Pella,  37,  74. 

Penances,  65.  17.5s..  222. 

Penitential  Convulsion»,  487s. 

PenitentiaK  292s. 

I'enn,  William,  502. 

Pentecost,  24,  68. 

Pepiiziani,  66. 

Peripatctic^  329. 

Persians,  107. 

Perugino,  306. 

Pestalozzi.  .'►45. 

Petavius,  51.5. 

Peter  D'Ailly,  277,  344;  of 
Amiens  197;  of  Aragon,  207, 
270 ;  of  Bruys,  253 ;  of  Castel- 


rau,  256  ;  de  Murrhone,  270 
de  Spinels.  266,  and  Paul,  Fes- 
tival of,  154 ;  the  Great,  666. 

Peters  Church,  3W. 

Peterson,  418. 

Petrarca,  827. 

Petrus  Alexandrinu.%  65;  Apos- 
tle, 26,  80,  31, 154 ;  Fullo,  128 ; 
Lombardus,  224.  239;  Mogilas, 
4SI  ;  Venerabilis,  229,  242 ; 
Waldus,  254. 

Peucer.  40S. 

Pfaff  of  Tubingen,  492. 

PfeflVrkorn,  329. 

Pfelhnger,  406. 

Plhig,  Julius  von,  892,  893. 

Phanaroea,  160. 

Pharisees,  22. 

Philalethes,  553,  581. 

Philip  L  of  France,  194,  196, 
19s;  Augustus,  2(14,  207 ;  tho 
Fair,  271,  819s. ;  of  lle.'^e,  875, 
3S2,  390,  891,  396,  398;  of  »la- 
bia, 206;  II.  of  Spain,  414,  429, 
461. 

Philippisfs,  404. 

Philippopolis,  262 ;  Synod  ofi 
114. 

Philippus  the  Arabian,  46. 

Philo,  21. 

Pliilofionus,  133. 

I'hilustorgius,  102,  705. 

l'liilostratu.s,  47. 

Phocas,  142. 

Photinus  of  Sirmium.  114. 

Photius,  258. 2611 ;  Heathen,  1069, 

Phthartolalrians,  129. 

Piarists.  463. 

Picards,  341. 

Picts,  167. 

Pietism,  487,  491 ;  Orthodox, 
555. 

Pilisirin  of  Passan,  2.50. 

Pilgrimages,  152,  213. 

Pipin,  172,  173. 

Pisa,  Synod  of,  276s.,  284,  291. 

Pistoia,  Synod  of,  528s. 

Pius  II.,  281 ;  IV.,  451,  455;  V. 
451,  467;  VI.,  526.  »31,  R32j 
VII.,  533,  617.  6;32,  646;  VI H. 
619,  635,  637;  IX.,  620s3.,  633; 
Unions.  641. 

Planck,  860. 

Plastic  Arts,  304. 

Plato,  16. 

Platonism,  47,  93,  823. 

Plays,  Sacred,  302. 

Pleroma,  73,  694. 

Plelho,  3.55. 

Plinius,  44. 

Plotinus,  48. 

Plutarch,  47. 

Plymouth  Brethren,  611. 

Poeschl,  661. 

Poissy  Conference.  427. 

Poland,  249,  420,  494,  663. 

Polentz,  George,  375. 

Polotik,  Synod  of,  663. 

Polycarp,  45.  73,  690,  69«. 

Polycratcs,  6903. 

Pomaro  II.,  614. 

Pombal,  524,  631. 

Ponierania,  249. 

Pomponazzo,  828. 

Pontifex  Maximus,  108. 

Pontius,  Abbot,  229. 

Pornocracy,  188,  333. 

Porpliyrians,  118. 

Porphyrins,  48,  50. 

Portiuncula  Indulgences,  29S, 

Port  Koyal.  510. 

Portugal,  524.  527,  629. 

Possevino,  4SI. 


7iS 


INDEX. 


Podiinns,  cm,  «09. 
I'i)us,sin,  4ii4. 

I'riigiic  liishoprlc,  2-19;  Univer- 
sity. 820.  31  s. 
Priisiniitic    tjaiiction,    2CS,    281, 

'2 SI,  'jsr). 

rra.\i-jis,  09.  704. 

]'ii:ioliiiif;  J'liar.s,  290. 

]'ivilc>tiiian;iiis,  125,  235. 

I'lv.lcMinati.in,  122,225,370,401. 

I'rciiKiiistraiits,  229. 

I'lVsliyttTcssos,  89,  707. 

I'lopliytork's  in  Bavaria,  572s. 

I'resliytcrians,  423.  49S,  597,  004. 

I'le.-byters,  39.  58,  140. 

I'rcscntia  Passiva,  037. 

Tröster  Jolin,  337. 

Pri.rias,  303. 

Priesthood,  .07, 130, 137, 13S,  443s. 

Priestley,  Oil. 

Priinasius  of  Adrymetum,  133. 

Priscilliamis,  15S. 

Probabilisni,  334,  454,  517. 

Proclus,  4S. 

Procopiiis,  13.3,  161,  350 ;  Ga- 
zaeus.  183. 

Professio  Kidei  Tridentina,  4ÖG. 

Proli,  558. 

Propaganda,  470. 

Propliecy,  Messianic,  20s. 

Prophets,  38;  Little,  495. 

Proselvtes,  23,  072. 

Proselytisin,  470,  072. 

Protestant  Friends,  578. 

Protestation  of  Speyer,  3S1. 

Protestantism,  437s. ;  Develop- 
ment of,  54SSS. ;  and  Catho- 
licism, 4ÖSSS.,  671ss. 

Protesting  Parties,  159,  251ss., 
839s. 

Provincial  Synods,  00,  290s.,  531. 

Pnidentius,  110,  700. 

Prussia,  330,  375,  öOOss.,  57Gss., 
e35s.,  030s.,  642. 

Pseudo-Isidorus,  184. 

Ptolemais,  269. 

Ptolemaeus,  096;  of  Lucca,  265. 

Public  Worship,  153s.,  177s., 
223ss.,  SOOss.,  444ss. 

Pulcheria,  127. 

Purgatory,  146. 

Puritans,  362,  364,  422,  601. 

Puseyism,  599s. 

Q 
Quadragesima,  68. 
Quadratus,  Apologist,  50. 
Quakers,  502,  Oo5. 
Quartodecimani,  154. 
Quelen,  626. 
Quenstedt,  485. 
Quesnel,  518. 
Quietism.  519s. 
Quinet,  628. 
Quinisexti,  134. 

E 

Pabanus  Maurus,  233,  234. 

liabbi  Akiba,  42. 

Paliliinism.  4'.;s. 

lia.lbod.  KiiiL'  of  Frisons  1C3. 

lladicalisni,  563,  647.=. 

Painmohun  Koy,  615s 

llaiike.  860s. 

Raphael,  3ua 

l:api..  558. 

Kathorius,  236. 

iiaiionalism,     500s.,    5ü7s.,    544, 

5508. 
Ratisbon,  Alli.'ince  of,  376 ;  Diet, 

393,  412,  477. 
Ratramnus,  234,  2.35. 
Uaunicr,  583. 


Pavaillac,  423. 

Kawicz,  058. 

IJayinond  of  Reziercs,  250 ;   de 

Pennaforte.  286;  de  Sabunde, 

825;   du  Puy,  232;   of  Thou- 

lou.^e,  256. 
Raynal,  523. 
liavnaldns,  8. 
Headers,  547. 
Realists,  239,  821s. 
Recognitions  of  Clement,  692,703. 
Redetnptorists,  521. 
Redeemer,  Order  of  tlie,  317. 
Reformation   in    Catli.   Churcli, 

276s.,   338,  843;    Forerunners 

of  the,  351;    Protestant,  36U; 

Introduction  of,  336. 
Reformed   Church,   384s.,  899s., 

595s. ;    Presbyterian   Churcli, 

604. 
Regalia,  216,  2s7. 
Regenbrecht,  659. 
Regino  of  Pruem,  210. 
Rehm,  10. 

Reichlin-Meldegg,  12. 
Reimaru.s,  537. 
Reinhard,  545. 
Reynard  us,  24Ss.,  815. 
Religion,  Prussian  Edict  of,  540. 
Religious    Peace    of   Augsburg, 

39Ss. ;  of  Nuremberg,  384. 
Relisiosi,  225. 
Reliques,  151s.,  220. 
Remigius,  106,  23.5. 
Remonstrants.  415. 
Repeal  Meetings.  650s. 
Reservatum  Ecclesiaslicum,  899. 
Reservation,  288. 
Restitution,  Edict  o^  479. 
Retractations,  123?. 
Reuchlin,  329. 
Reversales,  607. 
Revivals  in  America,  601. 
Revolution,  EnsL,  497s. ;  French, 

I.,  529SS.;  ll.>25ss. 
Reynard  the  Fox,  315. 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  568,  572s. 
Rhenius,  613. 
Rhense,   Electoral    Alliance    of, 

274,  287. 
Ricci.  Jesuit,  474s. 
Richard   Coeur  de   Lion,  204s. ; 

Simon,  515 ;  of  St  Victor,  240. 
Rielielien,  428. 
Richer,  460. 
Rienzo,  Cola  de,  274s. 
Riga,  251,  420. 
Robber  Svnod.  12S,  144. 
Robert  Guiscard,   192,   195;    of 

Arbrissel,    228 ;    of    Citeaux, 

228;  Stephens,  405. 
Robespierre,  531. 
Robinson,  423. 
Rodrigues,  Olinde,  670. 
R  ihr,  545,  501. 
Rönnow  of  Riskilde,  410. 
Roger  of  Sicily,  196,  200. 
Rohrbacher,  6S8. 
Roman  Catholics  in  the  U.   S., 

602. 
Rome,  Pagan,  17ss.,  48s. ;  Bish- 
opric of,'  61,  142s. ;   Republic, 
622SS. 
Romantic  School,  555,  674 
Romualdo,  227. 
Roncalian  Plains,  Battle,  202. 
Ronge,  656s. 
Ronsdorf,  509. 
Roothaan,  618. 
Rosary,  3ti0. 
Roscellinus,  2.39. 
Rosenkranz,  553. 
Ilosicrusians,  449. 


Uoskolnici,  006. 

Rossi,  Count.  622. 

Roswiiiia,  Ü3.')s. 

RotliM'hiM,  677. 

Rousseau,  .V23. 

Rovaard,  11. 

Royko,  n. 

Ruben.s,  464. 

Ruchat,  361. 

Rudolph  of  Ilapsbiirg,  209s.;  a 

Suubia,  195;  II.,  417. 
Rügen.  249. 
ItuHo,  Cardinal,  5-35. 
Rutinus,  9.3.  120. 
Ru|pert  of  Deutz,  24-3. 
lUipp.  580,  5s4.  589. 
Russell,  Lord,  6oo.  ChO. 
Russian  Church,  257,  481s.,  CC6. 
Russia,  Protestantism  in,  579.S., 

668. 
Ruttenstdck.  12. 
Ruvsbroek.  y-J3. 
Rvswick,  Peace  of,  493. 


Saiib.atarian.s  447,  610. 

Sabel Ileus,  265. 

S.'ibellius,  100. 

Sacerdotium,  58. 

Sacharelli,  8. 

Sacraments,  224.S.,  369,  389. 

Sacramentarian   Controv.,  2348., 

237.  8S9s.,  399s.,  401. 
Sacrificati.  56. 
Sacrilege,  Law  on,  625. 
Sadducees,  22. 
Sailer,  661. 
Saints,    Worship  of,   151s.,   223, 

3o7s.,  620. 
St.  Germain,  Peace  of,  427. 
St.  John,  Knights  of,  232,  319s.; 

Disciples  of,  77. 
St.  Martin,  534. 
St.  Maurus,  462,  481. 
St  Simon,  679. 
Saladin,  204. 
Sales,  Francis  of,  461. 
Salisbury,  John  i.f,  241. 
Salle,  Baptist  de  la,  521. 
Salvianus,  149. 

Salzburg,  Evangelicals  of^  493. 
Samaritans,  23,  26s. 
Samosateniani.  100. 
Sampsaean.%  85. 
Samson,  385. 
Sancho  I.,  2o7s. 
Sandwich  Islands,  614s. 
San  Graal,  244. 
Sardica,   Synod    of,    113s.,    142 

707. 
Sarpi,  360,  457. 
Saturninus.  77,  69-3. 
Saumur  Academy,  490. 
Savonarola,  352s. 
Saxony,  169,  635. 
Saxon  Reformation,  3C3s.,  492s. 

562,  57Ss. 
Scaiiderbeg.  356. 
Scapular  oV  the  Virgin,  230. 
Schalf,  084. 
Scheibel.  509?. 
Schelling,  550s.,  552. 
Schiller,  542. 
Schism,  275. 
Schleieruiacher,  11,  550. 
Schmidt  J.  E.  Ch.,  9. 
Sclineidemühl,  658. 
Schoeffler,  Abbe,  064. 
SchoenheiT,  500. 
Scholasticism,  28Ss.,  8208. 
Scholz,  054. 
Schroeck.  9. 
Schulz,  Court  Preacher,  540 


INDEX. 


719 


Scriptures,  see  Ho]y  Scriptures. 

Scliuileroff,  ÖT1. 

Scliiirf,  3S1. 

Schurinann,  508. 

Schwenckfeld,  4:55. 

Schwerin,  C'tunt,  5S2. 

Silesia,  Lutlieran,  öO'Js. 

Scotland,  ICT,  4-24.  497s.,  5978. 

Scottists  821s.,  3;32s ,  467. 

Sootus,  Dun-s  821 ;  Krigcna,  233s. 

Seckeiidorf,  360. 

Sesarelli,  341. 

Selneckcr,  4ti9. 

Scmiarians,  113s. 

Semipelagians,  1248. 

Semler,  9,  538. 

Seiulomir,  Agreement  at,  420. 

Seniores,  58 

■Separatist»  ofWurteniberg,  557s.; 

(if  Pnissiii,  569s. 
Peptiiiiius  Severus,  45. 
Serapeion,  106. 
Sersius     I  IL,    1S8;    ratriarcl), 

1.31 ;  Tychicus,  261. 
Serm<)ns,"3ii(l,  445.  515s. 
Servetus,  430,  433. 
Servites,  317. 
Sethites.  SD. 
Seven  Slei-pcrs,  46. 
Severians,  129,  l3l. 
Severirius,  7(i9. 
Sevenis  .Alexander,  46. 
Severus,  (j no-tic,  S3. 

SfXtus  Uccretalitini  Liber,  2SG. 

Shaltesl'iiry,  4!t'.),  610. 

Shakers,  446,  605. 

Sibour,  629. 

Sibylline  l>c.ok?,  97,  093, 704. 

.Siecarili,  623s. 

Sicilian  Monarchy,  266,  514 ; 
Vopers,  270. 

Sickinwn,  329,  307. 

Sierra  Leone,  016. 

Si  eyes,  530. 

Siirhert  of  OemWonrs,  lS2s. 

Siaisinnnil,  Emperor,  277,  348 ; 
III.,  of  Sweden,  41S,  420. 

Simeon  Metaphrastes,  260s. ;  Sty- 
litos,  15ns. 

Simon  Magus,  27,  84:  do  Mont- 
tort.  256 ;  Stock,  230 ;  of  Tour- 
nay,  267. 

Simonists,  679s. 

Simony,  191,  221 ;  comp.  2SSs. 

Sinteni.s,  5i''5. 

Siricius,  149.  1.59. 

Sirndnu),  Synod  of,  114. 

SiMus  1  v.,  2S2, 311;  v.,  45G,  406. 

Slavery,  Abolition  of,  677s. 

Slaves,  257,  706. 

Slavonic  natinn.s,  24Ss.,  257. 

Sleidaniis,  360. 

Smalcaldic  Articles,  890s. ; 
League,  3S3s. ;  War,  .395s. 

Smith,  .\lis-ionary,  678;  Mor- 
mon, 612. 

Socialism,  679. 

.Socinians.  431s. 

Socrates,  16;  ScholiV^ticns,  102. 

Soissons,  Synod  ■•f,  239,  242. 

SoMicitudo  omnium,  Bull  of, 
617s. 

Sonderbund.  648. 

Sophronius,  UU.  131. 

Sorbonne,  426,  45S. 

Soter,  79. 

South  Afric.%  616. 

South  -Vmorici.  47.'),  522,  G32. 

Soutlicote,  Joanna,  546s. 

South  Sea  Islands,  614. 

Sozomenus.  I(i2. 

Spain.  .^4.  16S  172.  2s7.  294,  429, 
527,  53.'>,  i;29-s. 


Spalatinus,  360,  871s. 

Sjialdin^,  .'44. 

Spee,  Fred.,  454. 

Spener.  4^7. 

Speyer,  Diet  of,  3S1. 

Spinola,  496. 

S[)inoza,  4j9. 

Spirituals,  29Ss. 

Spittkr,  9 

Sponsor.«,  70. 

Stäudlin,  10. 

Stahl,  590. 

Staroverzi,  666. 

Staupitz,  362.  380. 

Stedingers,  339s. 

Stcinbuhler,  .')27. 

Stephanus,  25;  of  Tigerno,  227. 

Stephen   L,  91;   IL,  173;  VIL, 

1«7;  IX.,  192;  Botzkai,  417s. ; 

of  Hungary,  250;  of  Dresden, 

560. 
Stockholm,  Society  in,  539. 
Stolberg,  11,  672. 
Strasbourg,  Svnod,60S;  F.ieulty, 

61  »9. 
Strauss.  553. 

Sirigilius  Victorinns,  40o. 
Suarez.  458. 

Subordiiiationists,  98s.,  704s. 
Snlpirius  Sfvcrus,  102. 
Sun. lay,  41,  iW.  154. 
Superintendents,  444;   General, 

568. 
Superior   Consistories,    French, 

6118;     I'rus-ian,  578;    Eccles. 

Council  of  I'russia,  583. 
Supernaturalism.  544. 
Surplice  Fees,  216. 
Suso,  Henry,  823s. 
Sutri,  Synod  of.  190, 
Sweden,  21.5.  240. 
Swedenbor-,  r)li7. 
Sweilenbur^'ians,  507s..  605. 
Switzerland,  354ss. 
Sword,  Urethren  of  the,  251. 
Sylvaiuis  Constantinus,  Ib'Ji. 
Sylvester  L,  143,  184;   II.,  190, 

197;  III.,  190. 
Syndiolik,  671. 
Symbols,  Chrisiian,  69,  691. 
Synibolum    Apostolium,    72; 

Athanasianum,  116. 
Symeon,  45. 
Symmachus,  105. 
Syncretism,  486. 
"S.uffKruKTot,  03. 
SvvfK^riuot,  160. 
Synergistic  Controv ,  405s. 
Synesiiis,  119.  13S,  700. 
Synodal  Constitution,  60s.,440ss., 

"572  ;  Courts,  17.'),  222,  293. 
Synod,  Holy,  066,  670. 
Syrian  Gnostics,  77ss. 


Taborites,  350. 

Tafel.  507. 

Tagliacozzo,  Baftlo  of.  2GS 

Tahiti,  614. 

Talloyranil.  529. 

Talniuil.  i'-i. 

Tanchclin,  253. 

Tiuicred,  205. 

Tiusao,  Torijuato,  461. 

Tiilianu.s,  51,  8:5. 

Taulor,  .322. 

Taxation    of  the   Cliurcli,    140, 

216,  .530. 
Temperance  Societies,  601. 
Templars.  232,  SISss..  663. 
'I'erritorial  System,  492,  572. 
Tcrliaric.s,  296. 


Tertullianus,    52,   C2,  8Ss.    6ÖT. 

701.  702s. 
Teet  Act,  498.  .599. 
Tetzel,  303,  305. 
Thaddens,  35. 
Thanierus,  436. 
Theatines.  462. 
Tbeiner,  653,  6.Ö9. 
Thek.a,  St.,  97. 
Theocracy,  20. 
Theodora,    Empress,    129,    157, 

261;  Roman,  188. 
Theodoretus,  102,  127,  130,  132. 
Tbeodorns  Ascidas,  130;  Balsa- 
mon,    125;    Lector,    102:    of 
Mopsuestia,  118,  130;  of  Tar- 
sus, 179. 
Theodosius  L,  105,  115s.,   138; 

iL,  126. 
Theodotus,  99,  704. 
Tlieodulph  of  Orleans,  179. 
Theopascbites,  12-^s. 
Theophanes,  Confessor,  102. 
■  Tbeophilanthropist-s,  .532,  627. 
Tlieophilns  of  Ale.x.,  121 ;  of  An 
tioch,  51. 

Tiieopliylactus.  261. 

Theosophy,  447ss. 

QeoTuKos,  126, 152. 

Tlierapcuiae,  22. 

Theresia,  St.,  461. 

Thesaurus  Supererog.,  311 

Theses  Lntberi,  363. 

Thibet,  522. 

Thiers,  628. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  476s. 

Thomas.  85;  Atjuinivs.  321,  831 
333, 3:35 ;  ä  IJecket,  203 ;  Chris- 
tians, 127;  II  Keuipis,  324 
More,  421. 

Thoma-sius.  4S7s ,  491. 

Thonusts,  321s.,  332,  467. 

Thorn,  Insurrection,  494;  I'fcs 
cussion  at,  42U. 

Thorwaldsen.  674. 

Three  Chapters'  Controv.,  130. 

Thuisto,  162. 

Tn'iriicali,  56. 

Tiberius.  37. 

Tilleinont,  8. 

Tindal,  421,  499. 

Tirkler,  334. 

Tiscbendorf,  592. 

Tithes,  1.39,  ni.s.,  -,.30,  600,  630. 

Titian ,  464. 

Tiius.  Emperor,  87. 

'I'..land,  49;t. 

Tulbiacum,  Rattle  of,  166. 

Toledo,  Synod  of.  116. 

Tolenlino,  Peace  of,  .532. 

Toleration  Eccles.,  496s. ;  .Edict, 
54S,  5sl. 

Tolomei,  817. 

Tongues,  Speaking  with,  24s.,ö5S. 

Tonsure,  153,  177. 

Torgiiu,  Leauue  of,  376s. 

Torcpiemada,  294. 

Ton  may,  267.  324. 

Tournon,  522. 

Tours.  Synod  of.  23*. 

Tradition,  72.  Ill,  467. 

Tra<litores,  56. 

Trajan.  4t. 

Tranquebar  Missii'n.  510. 

Translntio  priscn,  1.35. 

Transubstaiititttion,  153,  224s., 
23S. 

Transylvania,  417,  494,  665. 

Trappists.  521. 

Trent,  Council  of,  394.  454s. 

Treves.  Uishop  of.  643;  Coat 
pil:.'rima;:e  of.  6.->6. 

Trinit4irians,  230s. 


720 


INDEX. 


Trinity,  OS,  llfi. 
Tritteiilictin,  2<ir). 
Troubadours,  244. 
Truce  of  Ood,  '2iH,  2IT. 
Trullnn  Synod,  i:«,  U^,  150. 
Tubingen",      t'nivirsity,      322  ; 
Soliool,  Older,  t>li> ;  New,  MSa. 
Turkey.  r>70. 
Tunis,  20Ss. 
TwTof,  182. 

Tyrannicide,  3.%t,  442s.,  45Ss. 
Tyrol,  549,  606. 
Tzschirner,  9,  549,  67Is. 

U 
I'hlich,  57S3.,  5S2. 
Ulphilas,  165. 
Ulrich  of  Augsb.,  213;  of  Wiir- 

temb.,  891. 
Ultramontanists,  C52s. 
Uniforinity,  Act  of,  423. 
Unigenitu's,  Bull  of.  549. 
U nion,  46Ss.,  526s. ;  Evang ,  6n?s.; 

of  the  Ev.  Church,  5fi6s..,  57S; 

of  the  Cath.  and  Greek  Church- 
es, 4S4,  605. 
unitarians,  9Ss.,  433s.,  603,  611. 
Universalia,  239. 
Universalists,  605. 
universities,  236s.  326. 
Upper  Khentsh  Prov.,  473,  643. 
Urban  II.,  196,  197;    IV.,  301; 

v.,  275 ;  VI.,  275,  302 ;   VIII., 

45S,  459,  516. 
Urisperger,  539. 
Ursinus,  413. 
Ursula,  56. 
Ursulines,  46-3. 
Utraquists,  350s.,  477s. 
Utrecht  Jansenists,  519;  Union 

of,  415. 


Vairasse,  523. 

^'alais,  647. 

Valens,  114. 

ValentinianusII.,  116;  III.,  189, 

144. 
Valentinus,  Gnostic,  7Ss ,  695. 
Valerianus,  46. 
Valhalla.  164. 
Valla,  327,  331. 
Vallombrosa,  Order  of,  227. 
Valteline,  478. 
Vandals.  165s. 
Vasa,  418 
Vasari,  303. 
Vassals,  171. 

Vaud,  Canton  of,  400,  598,  611 
Venema,  11. 
Vergerius,  469. 
Verschooren,  509. 


Vespasianns,  3T. 

Veto  Act,  597. 

Victor  I..  68,  99,  704  ;  II.,  191  ; 
III.,  196,  202. 

Vienna  Concordat,  281 ;  Con- 
press,  60.'5,  017  ;  I'oice  of,  417 ; 
Thcol.  Faculty  at,  600. 

Vigilantius,  159. 

Vigilius,  1293. 

Vidls.  67. 

Villani,  264. 

Vilmergen,  Battle  of.  495. 

Vincent  de  Paula.  463. 

Vinccntius  Ferren,  313;  ofBcau- 
vais,  264;  of  Lirinum,  111. 

Vinet,  598. 

Vi  ret,  400. 

Virgilius,  Magician,  310. 

Vischer,  553s. ;  Peter,  304. 

Visitants,  Female,  40.3. 

Visitation,  Articles  of,  411 ;  Book 
of,  382. 

Vitus',  St,  Dance,  813. 

Vladimir,  257. 

Vladislaus  IV.  of  Poland,  420. 

Voices,  Calling,  in  Sweden,  559. 

Voltaire.  523,  548. 

Voss,  J.  IL,  672. 

Vulgate,  111,  466. 

"W 
Walafrid  Strabo,  243. 
Waldenses,  254s.,  3423.,  610. 
Wallachians,  665. 
Walter,  Hans,  446 ;  of  the  Vogel- 

weide,  244:  of  St.  Victor,  241. 
Wartburg,  Luther  at,  372s. 
Wesscheider,  544,  562. 
Weigel,  448. 
Weimar  Disput.,  406  ;    Eccles. 

Order,  574. 
Weishaupt,  527. 
Wellington,  649. 
Wenceslaus,  248s.  34äs. 
Wends,  249. 
Werkmeister,  054. 
Wertheim  Bible,  490. 
AVesel,  John  of,  351s. 
Wesley,  5053. 
Wessel,  351. 
Wessenberg,  636,  646. 
Wessobrunner  Prayer,  223. 
Westeras,  Diet  of,  41 S. 
West  Indies,  475,  510. 
Westphal,  407. 
Westphalia,  Peace  of,  479. 
Wettstein,  491. 
Whitefleld,  505s, 
Wichern,  591. 
Wieland,  542. 
Wigand,  408,  411. 
Wilberforce,  506. 


Wildenspuoh  crucifixion,  K9. 

Wilhulinina,  Bohemian,  .342. 

William  of  Cliarrif.eaux,  240;  of 
St  Amour,  297;  of  Ilirsau, 
227  ;  of  Occam,  321 ;  of  Orange, 
498 ;  the  Conqueror,  194. 

Wilson,  Bisliop,  615. 

Winer,  ."593. 

Winfrod,  108. 

Winkelmann,  672,  674. 

Wiseman,  05 Is. 

Wislicenus,  579,  .580. 

Witches,  175 ;  Trials  of,  SIO».,  491. 

AVitgenstein,  509s. 

Witiza,  172. 

Wittenberg  Univ.,  326;  Theses, 
303  ;  Fire  signal,  369 ;  Icono- 
clasm,  3729. ;  Surrender  of, 
396;  Concordinm,  399;  Phi*.- 
ippists  of,  404s. ;  Lutheranism 
488. 

Wizel,  468. 

Wladimir,  257. 

Wladislaus  of  Bohemia,  850. 

Woollner,  540. 

Wolf,  4S9s. ;  Peter,  11. 

Wolfenbüttel  Fragg.,  537. 

Wolfram  of  Escbenbach.  244. 

Woltmann,  3Go. 

Women,  39,  140,  fSO. 

Woolston,  499. 

Works,  Necessity  of,  405s.,  409. 

Worms,  Concordat,  199 ;  Diet  at, 
371s. ;  Synod  at  195. 

Worship,  see  Public  Worship. 

Wiirtemberg,  391. 557, 57:te.,  640. 

Wupperthal  In  Africa,  610. 

Wyclifte,  34Gs. 

X 

Xavler,  452,  472. 
Ximenes,  294,  331. 


Young  Germany,  554. 


Zabians,  77. 

Zacharias,  Pope,  173. 

Zelator<?s,  298. 

^eno  Isaurlcus,  128;  Stoic,  17 

Zephyrinus,  701,  704,  705. 

ZilIert^»l,  006. 

Zinzendorf,  603s. 

Ziska,  350. 

Zittel,  572. 

Zonaras,  261. 

Zoslmus,  103,  124 

Zulpich,  Battle  of;  166. 

Zurich,  386,  553. 

Zwickau  Pronhets,  STihs.  43;L 

Zwingle,  8S4ss.  3SSs. 


THE    END. 


V 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


PSD  2343    9/77 


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piA   001  264  o^y    I 


